Lighting Engineering

Lecture 2. Photometry

TDMU
Lecture overview
• Radiometric quantities
• Photometric quantities
• Measurement techniques

2
Light is electromagnetic radiation

Visible radiation ( λ = 380-760 nm) is a very small part of

the electromagnetic spectrum (λ = 10-15 …>106 m)

Wavelength [nm]

3
Physical measurement of light
Radiometry deals with the measurement of quantities
associated with EM radiation including light
Radiant power

Wavelength
4
Physical measurement of light

Four main radiometric quantities are:

• radiant flux,
• radiant intensity,
• irradiance,
• radiance.

5
Radiant energy and power (flux)

• The total energy delivered

by a source is called radiant
energy (J).
• When observed per unit
time, it is called radiant
power.

e watt (W)
6
Radiant intensity

• The radiant flux emitted in

a given direction is called
radiant intensity.
• The direction is represented
by a solid angle:

Ie - watt per steradian (W/sr)

7
Solid Angle
• In measurements, the light source is treated as a
point
• Let’s imagine that point source emitting light to all
directions
• The light to each direction is
emitted from the point source
in a virtual cone
• This cone is called “solid angle”
• Light from point sources is emitted in solid angles
8
Point Source
“A light source can be regarded as a point source if the
observation distance is more than five times the
greatest dimension of the light source.”

An Incandescent
lamp is a point
source even at short
distances.

A light source with large

dimensions can be divided
into parts.
9
Solid Angle

• Light from the -point- source is emitted in solid

angles
• Solid angle is the 3-dimensional equivalent of a 2-
dimensional angle

10
Solid angles
Given a sphere of radius r, a cone that subtends an
area A, encloses a solid angle Ω

Unit: Steradian
Abbreviation: sr

Since the area of a sphere is R2, the solid angle of

the whole sphere is steradians [sr]

11
Solid Angle

Plane angle Solid angle

 

The solid angle Ω is produced

by rotating the plane angle γ

12
Irradiance

Irradiance is radiant flux per

unit area received by a real or
imaginary surface

Ee - watt per square meter

(W/m2)

13
Radiance

Radiance is the radiant flux per

unit projected area leaving a
surface in a given direction
(defined by solid angle)

=
⋅ ⋅ cos

Le - watt per steradian per

square meter (W/sr m2)
14
Human eye – the visual organ

Radiometry deals with all

wavelengths in the same way
but the human eye does not.
It is sensitive only
to some wavelengths
(visible light).

15
Spectral sensitivity of the eye
V()-function describes the
relative sensitivity of the eye
for different wavelengths in
bright lighting conditions
(photopic vision).
Peak value m = 555 nm.

V´() expresses the spectral

sensitivity of the eye at low
light levels (scotopic vision). Wavelength [nm]
Peak value ´m = 510 nm
16
Not all “watts” are the same

Perception of a “watt” at
555 nm is different
(brighter) as perception of
a “watt” at another
wavelength. So, if we need
to measure the perception
of light radiometry is not
the right scale. Wavelength [nm]

17
Not all “watts” are the same

If we consider the eye's response to light as a

function of wavelength we get “lumens” from
“watts”
1W at 400 nm is equal to 0.270 lm
1W at 500 nm is equal to 220.609 lm
1W at 600 nm is equal to 430.973 lm
1W at 700 nm is equal to 2.802 lm
1W at 800 nm is equal to 0.000 lm
Wavelength [nm]
1W at 555 nm is equal to 683.000 lm
18
Not all “watts” are the same

The amount of visible light depends on:

• the power P(λ) of the
radiation
• the spectral sensitivity
V(λ) of the eye

( )⋅ ( )⋅
Wavelength [nm]

19
Photometry

When light needs to be measured “through the

human eye” e.g., in lighting engineering,
photometry should be used
instead of radiometry.
Photometry – measurement of
quantities referring to radiation
as evaluated according to a given
spectral luminous efficiency
function
20
Photometric quantities

From four main radiometric quantities we get four main

photometric quantities:
• radiant flux luminous flux
• radiant intensity luminous
intensity
• irradiance illuminance
• radiance Wavelength [nm]
luminance

21
Luminous flux

• Expresses the radiant power

of the source of light
evaluated with the spectral
sensitivity function of the eye.
• Unit lumen [lm]
• It is only a part of its radiant
power (flux) or its consumed
power

22
Luminous flux
Radiation P(λ) Eye sensitivity V(λ)

Luminous flux
Luminous flux

Luminous flux can be calculated

from radiant flux with help of:
780 nm

Φ  Km  Vλ Φ
380 nm
e, λ dλ

Where Km equals 683,002 lm/W

and represents luminous flux (lm) at radiant flux of 1W at
555 nm
• 1 W at 555 nm at photopic vision equals 683 lm
• 1W at 507 nm at scotopic vision equals 1700 lm
24
Luminous flux calculation

• The spectrum is divided into

bands with width D
• Radiant power of each band
is e,. D
• Total radiant power is the sum
of the power of these bands
• e  e,. De,1. D+ e,2. D+ .............

25
Luminous flux calculation λ [nm]
380
V (λ)
0.0000
λ [nm]
600
V (λ)
0.631

390 0.0001 610 0.503

400 0.0004 620 0.381

Sensitivity of eye depends on 410

420
0.0012

0.0040
630

640
0.265

0.175

wavelength. This is expressed 430

440
0.0116

0.023
650

660
0.107

0.061

with the V (function. 450 0.038 670 0.032

460 0.060 680 0.017

470 0.091 690 0.0082

480 0.139 700 0.0041

490 0.208 710 0.0021

500 0.323 720 0.00105

510 0.503 730 0.00052

520 0.710 740 0.00025

530 0.862 750 0.00012

540 0.954 760 0.00006

550 0.995 770 0.00003

560 0.995 780 0.000015

570 0.952

580 0.870

590 0.757
Wavelength [nm]
26
Luminous flux calculation

Radiant power of each band e,

e,

is weighted with the 

 = KmV()e,

corresponding spectral
sensitivity of the eye.
The results are added up and a b
finally the sum is multiplied
with the constant Km = 683 lm/W D

 Km V (. e,. DKm[V (1. e,1 + V (2.

e,2+...... ]D

27
Luminous flux – some typical values

Incandescent lamp 100W

1300 lm
Fluorescent lamp 58 W
5200 lm
High pressure sodium lamp 100W
10,000 lm
Low pressure sodium lamp 90W
13,500 lm
 lumen (lm)
28
 Luminous flux calculation Luminous flux?
60

50

40
Φe,λ in W/nm

30

20

10

0
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
560
570
580
590
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
670
680
690
700
710
720
730
740
750
760
770
780
λ in nm
λ in nm 380 390 400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 510 520 530 540 550 560 570

V (λ) 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.14 0.21 0.33 0.51 0.7 0.86 0.95 0.99 0.99 0.95

λ in nm 580 590 600 610 620 630 640 650 660 670 680 690 700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780

V (λ) 0.87 0.76 0.63 0.5 0.38 0.27 0.18 0.11 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

29
Luminous efficacy of radiation

The ratio between luminous flux and radiant

flux of a light source is called the luminous
efficacy of radiation.

Φ
=
Φ

Unit: lm/W
Not to be confused with luminous efficacy

30
Luminous efficacy

The luminous efficacy is a measure of how much

luminous flux is generated by an electrical light
source in relation to the electrical power drawn.

h=

Unit: lm/W
Luminous Efficacy is used to describe the efficiency
of a light source
31
Radiant efficiency (%)

The radiant efficiency of a light source is the ratio

of the radiant flux of the emitted radiation to the
power consumed by the source.
¥

 P(l )dl
0
e
Pin
Also known as wall-plug efficiency

32
Luminous Intensity

• A basic quantity in Photometry

• Unit candela [cd] has originally
meant the luminous intensity of a
candle.
• Expresses the power the source of
light radiates (weighted to human
vision response) into a small solid
angle, i.e., the intensity of light.

33
Luminous Intensity

“The luminous intensity of a

light source to a certain
direction is 1 candela, when
the source is radiating
monochromatic radiation at
frequency 540 x 1012 Hz and
the radiant intensity to this
direction is 1/683 W/sr.“

34
Luminous intensity

Luminous intensity is a
measure of the luminous
flux emitted by a light
source in a particular
direction per unit solid
angle.
Φ
=
Ω I candela (cd)
35
Luminous intensity and luminous flux

When the luminous

intensity of a light source
is 1 cd to every direction,
its luminous flux is 4 lm

  I

36
Luminous intensity distribution

The distribution of the

luminous intensity of a
luminaire is usually given
in C system. 100
60º 60º
The unit is cd/klm, which 200
means the luminous
intensity per thousand 300

lumens of the light 400

source in the luminaire. 30º 30º

500

37
Luminous intensity distribution
C=180º
C=270º

I C=90º
C
C=0º

38
Luminous intensity – some typical
values
Candle
1.0 cd
Incandescent lamp 100W
110 cd
High pressure sodium lamp 70W
500 cd
Sun (outside the atmosphere)
3x1027 cd I candela (cd)
39
Luminous intensity vs. luminous flux

40
Quantity of Light (Q)

The quantity of light is the time

integral of luminous flux. Its unit
is lumen second [lms] or lumen
hour [lmh].

If the luminous flux is constant,

the quantity of light is the
luminous flux multiplied by time.

41
Illuminance

• The density of the

luminous flux falling on a
surface.
• Unit: lumen per square
meter [lm/m2] = lux [lx]

Φ
=

42
Illuminance

• Illuminance is a
photometrical quantity
which is most frequently
used, specially in light
planning.
• Standards for indoor
lighting list minimum
values of needed
illuminance for different
kinds of working places.

43
Illuminance

EuropeanStandardΕΝ12464-1

44
Isolux diagrams

45
Illuminance – some typical values
Outside in direct sunlight at midday
100 000 lx
Outside in overcast sky
10 000 lx
Working place in office
500 lx
Street lighting
10 lx
outside in a moonlight
0.05 – 0.2 lx

46
Illuminance – square law
The illuminance produced by a point
source can be calculated according to
the square law. d

dA 2 1
d  2  sr  dA  r d  
r sr

r
d I
I  d  Id 
d d
d 1
E  Id  2 sr
dA r d
I E
d
E  2  sr A
r
47
Illuminance – square law

Double the distance, four times smaller the

illuminance.

48
Illuminance – square law

49
Illuminance – cosine law
When there is an angle of incidence the cosine law
must be used to calculate illuminance.
d
dA  dA cos  r 2d  1 
d   2  sr  2  sr  dA  
r r cos  sr
d I
I   d  I d
d
d
d I  d cos 
E  sr 
dA 2
r d dA
´
I cos  E  dA
E 2
 sr
r
50
Illuminance – point method
The illuminance produced by a
luminaire to an individual point can
be calculated with this method.
Since we usually know the height
of the luminaire from the surface, 
I
the cosine law is useful in the h
following form:
I 3 
Eh  2 cos  Eh E
h P

51
Illuminance – lumen method

A simple method to calculate the average uniform

horizontal illuminance in a room.
Both the direct light and the light reflected from
the room surfaces are considered in the lumen
method.
The average illuminance is determined as the
total lumens reaching the workplane divided by
the area of the workplane.

52
Illuminance – lumen method

E .A
N=
n . F . MF . UF

N – number of luminaires F – lamp lumen output (lm)

required
E – required illuminance (lx)
A – area to be lit
N – number of lamps per
luminaire
MF – maintenance factor ( to
account for the reduction in
light output over time)
UF – utilization factor, a
function of luminaire properties
and room geometry

53
Luminance

• The density of the luminous

flux leaving a surface to the
observation direction.
• One of the most important
quantity in lighting as human
perception depends on
luminance and differences
in luminance
L – cd/m2
• Unit: candela/m2 (cd/m2)
54
Luminance

The luminous intensity in a

specific direction of a light
source or of a surface that
reflects light, divided by the
projected area as viewed from
that direction.
I
L
A cos 

55
Illuminance vs. luminance
Illuminance only reveals the amount of light reaching
the surface, while...

... luminance reveals the amount of light leaving the

surface
56
Luminance – some typical values
Sun
1,600,000 kcd/m2
Incandescent lamp (filament)
15,000 kcd/m2
Bright sky
8000 cd/m2
Indoor wall illuminated with
electric lighting 40 cd/m2
Iluminated surface of a street 
2 cd/m2
57
Luminance of reflecting surface

A light source produces A

illuminance E on a diffuse  L
surface with reflectance . E
The luminance of the surface

Lambertian Surface
is then:
E
L
  sr

58
Luminance of diffuse surface


The luminous intensity of a L

Lambertian surface according to
Lambert’s cosine law:
I   Imax cos  I max
I 
L  A I
A cos 
I max
L  constant
A
The luminance of a diffuse surface is
independent of the observation direction
59
Luminance of reflecting surface

A light source with luminance Lv is specularly

reflected by a surface with reflectance . The
luminance of
the surface is: 
Lv

L  Lv
surface
Specular
L=Lv

60
 Relations between the photometric
quantities
d
A I
E  2 cos  lx ]
 A d

I  cd ]


 
770
  683  380
 e,  V  d  lm ] 

P I E  cd 
 lm 
h L A cos 

 m 2 
P W 

61
Measurement basics

• If we want to measure a quantity, we first need

a unit and its definition:
candela (cd) is a SI unit ...
• The unit needs to be realized so that we get
the representation of the unit (e.g.,
experimental setup) and standards.
• Afterwards unit can be disseminated to the
users (e.g., through the calibrations).

62
Photometrical standards for candela

First unit for luminous intensity was

based on candles of specific size and
constituents and also named candle.
One of the first definitions: One
candlepower is a light produced by a
pure spermaceti candle weighing one
sixth of a pound and burning at a rate
of 120 grains per hour.

63
Photometrical standards for candela

As candles were not

very uniform, units
based on fuel burning
lamps were started.
E.g., Germans used
Hefner lamp ( burning
fuel: Amyl acetate)

64
Photometrical standards for candela

In 1937 a new definition was

adopted based on the luminance
of a black body radiator at the
temperature of freezing platinum
(2041,4 K) and the unit was called
“new candle”.
The definition was internationally
ratified in 1948 and the name was
changed to candela.
The definition was changed again
in 1967.
65
Photometrical standards for candela

Today's definition of candela was adopted in

1977 and slightly changed in 1979 and 2019:
1 candela (cd) is the luminous intensity, in a
given direction, of a (light) source that emits
monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 ×
1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in
that direc on of 1⁄683 wa per steradian.

66
Photometrical standards for candela

Unfortunately, the definition

is not suitable for realization.
Today the candela is realized
with a help of a cryogenic
radiometer which is a
measuring device. With help
of lasers, it is transferred
further to standard
illuminance photometers.

67
Photometrical standards for candela

The candela can be further

transferred to standard
incandescent lamps and
maintained with a set of lamps
and illuminance photometers.
With the help of illuminance
meters, it can also be
disseminated to other
standards.
68
Photometrical standards for lumen

Photometrical standards
for lumen are also
realized in form of
standard incandescent
lamps.

69
Photometrical standards for lux

The unit for illuminance – lux – is maintained with

help of measuring devices – illuminance
photometers (lux meters), which are calibrated
against
standard
lamps.

70
Photometrical standards - cd/m2

Photometrical standard for

unit of luminance (candela
per square meter) is made
with help of an integrating
sphere and stabilized lamp.
Part of the sphere is
replaced by a “window”
with uniform luminance.

71
Measuring light

Luminous intensity of an unknown source can be

measured with help of a known source, optical
bench and photometer.

72
Using eye as a photometric
instrument

73
Visual photometer

Visually compare the brightness of an object illuminated

by a standard source and a test
source with the photometric
instrument – human eye

74
Visual photometer – Luminous
intensity measurement

The point on an optical bench

needs to be found where both
surfaces have the same
luminance. With known
distances to the standard and
the test lamps and with known
luminous intensity of a standard
lamp the luminous intensity of
the test lamp can be calculated:

= ⋅
75
Visual photometer - Problems

• Every eye is slightly

different
• Eyes can quickly adapt
to lighting
• Hard to compare
brightness of
saturated colors

76
Physical photometer – using
photodetectors

Instead of visual photometers,

today photometers based on
photodetectors (photovoltaic
cells) are used.
If short-circuit or connected to
the low resistance ampere-
meter, the electrical current is
proportional to the
illuminance of the cell.

77
Physical photometer – using
photodetectors

There are two (main) problems

connected with the use of (silicon)
photodetectors:
• they are not sensitive to different
wavelengths, the human eye is
(luminous efficiency function);
• their relative efficiency does not
depend on angle of incidence of
light according to cosine law.

78
Photodetector
– spectral sensitivity correction

The spectral sensitivity can be corrected with the use

of full (b) or pass (a) filters or spectral stencil (c).

79
Photodetector
– cosine law correction

The relative efficiency dependence on angle of incidence

of light can be corrected with the help of “stencils” that
resembles the cosine law.
diffuser (opal glass)
black tubus

Hartig design

photodetector Keitz design

diffuser (opal glass)black tubus

photo-
Reeb design detector

80
Photodetector
– temperature dependence

The photo-current of photodetectors changes with

temperature:
• cadmium sulfide: 5%/K,
• selenium: 0.5%/K,
• silicon: 0.1%/K.
To overcome this problem, the
constant temperature of 25 C is
used in photometric laboratories or
thermo-stabilized photodetectors
are used.
81
Photodetector

A Photodetector, according to its principle of work,

measures illuminance.
It can also be used for measuring:
• luminous intensity (if the distance is known),
• luminous flux (if the area is known) or
• luminance (if the solid angle is known).

82
Measurement of illuminance

Digital handheld (pocket)

lux-meter with
detachable photometric
head (photodetector)
- most widely used
photometric device.

83
Measurement of illuminance

Display
cord
Measurement
range selection

Display lock

Sensor
84
Measurement of illuminance

Precision (standard) laboratory lux-meter with

thermo-stabilized photometric head

85
Grid for illuminance measurements
in indoor workplaces

Maximum grid size:

Where, p is maximum grid cell size  10 m

d = longer dimension of area
A band of 0.5 m from the wall is excluded from the
measurement area
86
Grid for illuminance measurements
in indoor workplaces
Typical values of grid point spacing
Length of the area Maximum distance Minimum number
(m) between grid of grid points
points (m)
0.40 0.15 3
1 0.20 5
2 0.30 6
5 0.60 8
10 1 10
25 2 12

Grid point spacing should not coincide with luminaire

spacing
87
Measurement of luminous intensity

Luminous intensity can be measured on a

photometrical bench. If we measure the illuminance
(E) and distance (r), the luminous intensity can be
calculated using:

= ∗

88
Measurement of angular distribution
of luminous intensity

The same principle can be

used for measurement of
angular distribution of
luminous intensity. Just the
photodetector needs to
rotate around measured
source (or vice-versa). The
device is called
goniophotometer.

89
Goniophotometer types: Far field vs.
Near field
Far field:
• Luminaire is considered to be a
point source
• Intensity distribution is
calculated from measured
illuminances
• Size of luminaire has effect on
measuring distance

90
Goniophotometer types : Far field vs.
Near field
Near field:
• Luminous intensity calculations
based on luminance
• Luminance meter/camera
located at short distance from
source
• Not recommended for
measurement of absolute
photometric values

91
Goniophotometer types

In general, for luminaire measurements, three

different types of far field goniometers are used
based on their measuring planes: A, B, or C.
CIE 70:1987 defines these as type 1, 2 and 3
goniometers.
They differ on the geometry of measurement, the
collection of photometric data and application
type.

92
Goniophotometer types

Type 1 Goniophotometer
• Fixed horizontal axis and
movable axis perpendicular to
fixed horizontal axis
• Turns light source around
horizontal axis
• Generally used to measure Type 1 (A) Goniometer
Source: Instrument Systems

narrow beam sources –

automotive light, traffic signals
etc.
93
Goniophotometer types

Type 2 Goniophotometer
• Fixed vertical axis, movable
horizontal axis
• Rotates the light source
around the vertical axis
• Generally used to measure
floodlights, displays Type 2 (B) Goniometer
Source: Instrument Systems

94
Goniophotometer types

Type 3 Goniophotometer
• Fixed vertical axis, movable
horizontal axis
• Measurement made in C-
planes or conical surfaces
• Commonly used to measure
indoor and outdoor light Type 3 (C) Goniometer
Source: Instrument Systems

sources

95
Goniophotometer types

Light source Baffle

Optical
axis Photometer head
Main axis

Rotating
baffle

Goniophotometer with mirror arrangement

96
Measurement of Luminous intensity
distribution in Goniophotometer

97
Luminous intensity distribution
measurement results

98
Measurement of luminance

Luminance can also be

measured with a
photodetector if we limit
the solid angle from which
the light comes.
That can be done with the
help of optics: lenses and
apertures.

99
Measurement of luminance
1..lens
2..aperture
3..measuring field lens
4..measuring field aperture
5..wheel with changeable
apertures
6..V() filter
7..photodetector
8..mirror system
9..internal display
10..eyepiece

100
Measurement of luminance

Luminance measurement is taken

either from a defined spot or as an
image
Typical uses
• To measure display brightness
• Measuring light reflected from a
surface (lighting quality)
• To calibrate various luminance
sources
101
Point luminance meters

Measure luminance values of individual confined

areas of a surface

102
Luminance camera
Capable of measuring the luminance
distribution in large areas
• Calibrated digital camera with software
• High luminance range using HDR
photography
• Luminance is measured from
thousands of pixels at a time
• Can be used to evaluate and analyze
luminance distribution or differences

103
Road luminance measurement grid
(CIE 140, EN13201)

Selection of N
S ≤ 30 m  N = 10;
S > 30 m  N the smallest
integer giving D ≤ 3 m.

d/2          
WL d =WL/3           W

d/2          

D/2 D=S/N D/2

60 m S

104
Road luminance measurements using
a luminance camera

105
Measurement of luminous flux

Luminous flux can be measured

(calculated) with integration of
measured illuminance (E) over
the area. For light sources an
area of an (imaginary) sphere
with radius (r) around a source
is used:
Φ= , ⋅d

d = sin ⋅ d ⋅ d
106
Measurement of luminous flux

Integration can also be done

with the help of an integrating
sphere. Due to its high
reflectance the inner wall is
illuminated with uniform
illuminance, which can be
measured only at one location.
Afterwards the measurement
only needs to be multiplied with
the surface of the sphere.

107
Measurement of luminous flux in
Integrating Sphere
Diffusive coating inside is highly
reflective
Every point of the sphere
surface reflects the light it Auxiliary
lamp
receives to every other point of
the surface
Measured
Baffle Detector
lamp
Illuminance created by inter- port

reflections is directly
proportional to luminous flux of
the source
108
Integrating Spheres

Measured
lamp

Auxiliary Auxiliary
lamp lamp

Baffle
Baffle Detector Detector
Measured port port
lamp

4 geometry 2 geometry

109
Integrating Spheres – Use of auxiliary
lamps
x Luminous flux of test lamp
E 2 E4
x    0
0 Luminous flux of reference E3 E1
lamp
E1 Reference lamp on, auxiliary
lamp off
E2 Reference lamp off, auxiliary
lamp on
E3 Test lamp off, auxiliary lamp on
E4 Test lamp on, auxiliary lamp off

110
Measurement of luminous flux in
Integrating Sphere

111
Few examples of measurement
applications
Illuminance Luminance Luminous Luminous Flux
Intensity
Illuminance of Luminance of Luminous intensity Luminous flux of
interior spaces roads and streets of light sources light sources
Illuminance of Luminance of Intensity Luminous flux of
exterior spaces signs, displays, distribution of light luminaires
indicators sources
Illuminance of Luminance/ Intensity
roads and streets luminance distribution of
distribution of luminaires
interior spaces

11
2
Questions?