CELL DIVISION 2.

Metaphase (Middle)
- the development of new cells (daughter - chromosomes are aligned at the equatorial
cells) from pre-existing cells (parent cells) plane of the cell

CELL DIVISION STAGES: 3. Anaphase (Away)

Interphase (First Stage)
- the cell prepares itself for mitosis
- longer duration
- nuclear membrane and molecules are very
distinct
- chromosomes appear like threads or
filaments (chromatids)
- divides into three phases, G1 (First Gap),
S (Synthetic), G2 (Second Gap)
- chromosomes break down into single
chromatids
- chromosomes starts to separate
4. Telophase (Two)
- chromosomes reach the end of the pole
- nucleus membrane starts to reform
- formation of two daughter cells
5. Cytokinesis (Separation)

G1 (Gap 1) Humans have 46 chromosomes

- cell grows by producing proteins and
cytoplasmic organelles Mendelian Genetics
- replication but DNA is not excluded
S (Synthetic) Genetics
- replication of the chromosomes - Scientific study of heredity
- replication includes DNA and centrosome
G2 (Gap 2) Gregor Johann Mendel (Father of
- cell continue to grow and further protein Genetics)
synthesis occur - Austrian monk
-cell grows more on size - Studied the inheritance of traits in
G0 pea plants
- resting stage - Developed the laws of inheritance
- resource availability - His work was not recognized until
the turn of the 20th century
MITOSIS - Cultivated and tested some 28,000
- actual phase (dividing phase) pea plants. (Between 1856 and
- the process of cell division 1863)
- produce body cells
- make identical cells Particulate Inheritance
- Mendel stated that physical traits are
Mitosis Stages: inherited as “Particles”.
- He did not know that the particles
1. Prophase (Before) were actually chromosomes and
- nuclear membrane starts to break down DNA
- nucleolus starts to disappear
Designer “GENES” P1 Monohybrid Cross
Genotype: BB, Bb (Homodom, hetero)
1. Alleles - Two forms of a gene Phenotype: Black
(dominant and recessive) G. Ratio: 4:4
2. Dominant - Stronger of 2 genes ® P. Ratio: 4:4
3. Recessive - Gene that shows up
less often in a cross (r) Dihybrid Cross
4. Genotype - Gene combination for a
trait (RR, Rr. rr) MENDEL'S LAW
5. Phenotype - The physical feature
resulting from a genotype (red, A. Law of Dominance
white) - what is dominating
Heterozygous- Rr
Homozygous Recessive - rr B. Law of Segregation
Homozygous Dominant - RR - only one, separation of genes

Punnett Square C. Law of Independent Assortment

- Prediction to acquire that trait from - alleles for different traits
parents\ - dihybrid cross
- Used to help solve genetics
problems BIOMOLECULES
- biological molecules
P1 Monohybrid Cross - substances produced by the cells and
Genotype: Rr, Heterozygous living organisms
Phenotype: Round - covalently bounded (non-metal)
G. Ratio: 4:4
P. Ratio: 4:4 ORGANIC
100% to have a round shaped seed COMPOUNDS/MACROMOLECULES
- carbon containing molecules
F1 Monohybrid Cross
Genotype: RR, Rr, rr (Homo dom and rec,
hetero) CARBOHYDRATES
Phenotype: Round - major source of energy for the body
G. Ratio: 1:2:1 - 60% of our food should come from
P. Ratio:3:1 carbohydrates
75% round, 25% wrinkled - produced by photosynthesis
- structural components
F2 Monohybrid Cross - most abundant
Genotype: RR, Rr (homo dom, hetero)
Phenotype: Round STRUCTURE OF CARBOHYDRATES
G. Ratio: 2:2 - carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
P. Ratio: 4:4 - CnH2On -> general formula
100% round shape
KINDS OF CARBOHYDRATES

1. Monosaccharide (Galactose, Fructose,
Glucose)
- "mono" means one
- simple sugar
- most fundamental type
• Galactose - simple sugar belonging to
simple carbohydrates which occurs in
D-Form in Lactose
• Fructose - very sweet, naturally occurring
sweetener
• Glucose - mild sweet flavor knows as
blood sugar
2. Disaccharide (Sucrose, Maltose,
Lactose)
- "di" means two
- formation of two monosaccharide units
- combination of two simple sugar
• Maltose - malt sugar, composed of
Glucose + Glucose
• Lactose - milk sugar (Galactose +
Glucose)
• Sucrose - table sugar
3. Polysaccharide (Starch, Glycogen,
Cellulose)
- "poly" means many
- carbohydrates with large number of simple
sugar
- contains several thousand
monosaccharide
- storage in plants and animals
• Starch - found in rice, storage for plants,
consists of many glucose units.
• Glycogen - animal starch, found in liver
and stomach, highly branched Glucose
units.
• Cellulose - found in cell wall of plants,
important structure component.
CARBOHYDRATES FORM IN PLANTS
1. Sunlight energy are captured.
2. It has an organelle chloroplast traps this
essential component.
3. This component will converted into
glucose and oxygen molecules.
4. This glucose is stored in all parts of plant.
Oxygen ejected into the atmosphere.
5. Glucose is the basic sugar molecule from
each carbohydrates are made.
PROTEIN
- large, complex molecules
- do most of the work in cells and are
required for the structure
- made up of the basic building blocks called
Amino Acid
FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN
1. Antibody - bind to specific foreign
particles such as viruses and bacteria to
help protect the body.
2. Enzyme - carry at almost all of the
thousand of chemical reactions that take
place in the cell. They also assist in the
formation of new molecule by reading the
genetic information in DNA.
3. Messenger - transmits signal to
coordinate biological processes between
difficult cells, tissue and organs.
4. Structural Components - provide
structure and support for cells. They also
allow the body to move.
5. Transport or Storage - bind and carry
atoms and small molecules within cells and
throughout the body.
LIPIDS
- an organic compounds that are organic
substances that includes fat and fat like
substances.
- large and diverse group of naturally
occurring organic compounds
- extracted from plants and animals
LIPID STRUCTURE: Fats, Oils and Waxes
TWO TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS
1. Saturated Fatty Acids - are solid at room
temperature.
2. Unsaturated Fatty Acid - occurs in liquid
state at room temperature
EXAMPLES OF LIPIDS
• Phospholipid - important component of cell
membrane
• Waxes - important component for many
organism such as cuticle covering the
surface of leaves and stems of plants.
- protective covering on the skin and fur of
some animals
• Steroids - lipids with a carbon skeleton of
four fused rings.
• Triglycerides - blood fats, circulate in the
bloodstream along with cholesterol.
• Sphingolipids - serve as surfactants that
helps reduce tension.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
- molecules that allow organisms to transfer
genetic information from one generation to
other
- makes protein synthesis possible
- composed of nucleotide monomers
NUCLEOTIDE: 3 PARTS
1. Nitrogenous Bases - include purine
material and pyrimidine molecules.
2. Phosphodiester Linkages - form the
sugar, phosphate backbone if both DNA and
RNA.
3. Sugar named deoxyribose
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
- cellular molecules that contains
instructions for the performance of a cell
functions.
- DNA is passed from one cell to another .
- Organized into chromosomes and found
within the nucleus.
- Exists as a double stranded molecule with
a twisted double helix shape.
- composed of phosphate-deoxyribose,
sugar backbone and four nitrogen bases.
- Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C),
Thymine (T)
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
- essential for synthesis of proteins
- genetic code passed from DNA to RNA to
the resulting proteins
TYPES OF RNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
- RNA transcript
- RNA copy of the DNA message produced
during DNA transcription.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
- 3 dimensional shape and necessary for
the translation of mRNA in protein
synthesis.
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- component of ribosomes and involved in
protein synthesis
4. MicroRNAs (miRNA)- small RNAsthat
help to regulate gene expressions
RNA
- Exists as a single stranded molecule
- A-C and A-U
NUCLEIC ACID
- Class of biomolecules
- Storage and genetic information
- Protein synthesis
- Made up of monomers called
nucleotides
 - Store information in cellular growth
and reproduction
FRIEDRICH MIESCHER (1968)
- Nuclein
- Nuclein was shown to have acidic
properties hence it is called nucleic
acid
TWO TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACID
1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid
a. Found in the nucleus with
small amount in mitochondria
and chloroplast
b. Consists of two
polynucleotide chains to form
a double helix
2. Ribonucleic Acid
a. found throughout the cell
b. consist of a single
polynucleotide chain
STRUCTURE OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
- monomers of nucleic acids in the
nucleotide
- may be single stranded or double stranded
NUCLEOTIDE INCLUDE
1. Phosphate Group
2. Pentose Sugar (5-Carbon)
3. Nitrogen Bases
a. Adenine (A)
b. Guanine (G)
c. Uracil (U) -RNA only
d. Thymine (T) - DNA only
e. Cytosine (C)
PROTEINS
- eggs, fish, meat and cheese
- made up of C,H,O,N and some S
- insulin: C254 H377 N65 O76 S6
- 2nd most common molecule
- amino acid is the monomer of proteins
- made up about 10 to 20 percent of the
mass of a cell
AMINO ACIDS
- 20 amino acids. 11 can be synthesized by
the body, 9 essential amino acids
- building blocks of protein
- contain nitrogen
PRIMARY STRUCTURE
- peptide (phosphodiester) bonds
- a sequence of chaun of amino acids
SECONDARY STRUCTURE
- occurs when the sequence of amino acid
are linked by hydrogen bonds
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
- when a certain attractions are presents
between alpha helices between pleated
sheets
QUARTERNARY STRUCTURE
- protein consisting of more than one amino
acid chain
SPECIAL FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN
1. Enzyme Catalyst - specific for 1 reaction
2. Defense - antibody
3. Transport - Hgh, Mgb, transferrins
4. Support - keratin, fibrin, collagen
5. Motion - actin/myosin, cytoskeletal fibers
6. Regulation - cell receptors, regulatory
proteins on DNA
7. Storage - Ca and Fe attached to storage
proteins