HEAT TRANSFER

CHE2040S – FLUID FLOW AND HEAT TRANSFER

Lecture Notes for 2014

 CONDUCTION
Fourier rate equation or Fourier's first law of heat calculation (WWW+R pg. 202 Eqn. 15-2)

Rate of heat
transfer (W)
WWW+R (pg. 648 – 656)
𝑞
= −𝑘𝛻𝑇
𝐴 Thermal conductivity W/(m.K)
Area normal to
Negative i.e heat flows in
direction of heat
direction of negative T gradient.
flow (m2)
(from high T to low T)

Thermal conductivity (k) is usually independent of P (except in cases of gases at high P)

but varies with T. Can often assume content or use k at average temperature.

For typical values, see WWW+R, pg 205, Fig 15.2 and appendix H. (For more extensive
tables/figures see Perry.

To obtain q, must solve differential equation.

Example ( WWW+R, pg. 206, Eg.1)

Steel pipe Find :

ID = 1.88 cm
Wall thickness = 0.391 cm a) Heat flow rate per metre of pipe length
𝑞
Ti = 367 K b) Heat flux based on (i) inside surface area of pipe
𝐴
To = 344 K (ii) outside surface area of pipe

Wall thickness
ro
Note : Since L>>r, can assume that all heat flow is
radial. (i.e. in the direction of the radius) This is a
typical assumption for heat loss from pipes.
r
∴Fourier rate eqn (for cylindrical coordinates)
reduces to:
𝑞𝑟 𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘
𝐴 𝑑𝑟
ri
Since 𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿
𝑞𝑟 𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘
2𝜋𝑟𝐿 𝑑𝑟
Assumption has been made that k is constant (=42.9 W/(m.K)) Also, since the surfaces are at
constant T’s and there is no heat generation within the solid, this is steady state heat
conduction, ie. qr is constant.

Wall thickness 𝑟𝑜 𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑖
ro
𝑑𝑟
𝑞𝑟 = −2π𝑘𝐿 𝑑𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑑𝑇
𝑟
𝑟𝑖 𝑇𝑖 𝑇𝑜
Solving
𝑟𝑜
r 𝑞𝑟 ln = 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑟𝑖
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
𝑞𝑟 = (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑟𝑜
ln 𝑟
𝑖
ri
 2𝜋𝑘𝐿
𝑞𝑟 = (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
𝑟𝑜
ln 𝑟
𝑖
𝑟𝑜 𝑑𝑜
Note: =
𝑟𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑑𝑜 = 𝑑𝑖 + 2 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑜 = 1.88 + 2 0.391 = 2.662cm

2𝜋 42.9𝑊𝑚−1 𝑘 −1 1𝑚 367 − 344 𝑘

𝑞𝑟 =
2.66
ln 1.88
=17860 w per metre of pipe length

Surface areas (per meter of pipe) = 𝜋𝑑𝐿

𝐴𝑖 = 𝜋 1.88 × 10−2 𝑚 1𝑚 = 0.059 𝑚2
𝐴𝑜 = 𝜋 2.662 × 10−2 m 1m = 0.084 m2

∴ Fluxes are:
𝑞𝑟 𝑘𝑊
= 302.7
𝐴 𝑖 𝑚2
𝑞𝑟 𝑘𝑊
= 212.6
𝐴𝑜 𝑚2
Note : Fourier rate equation (15-2) gives no info on:
• T-profile (as a function of distance)
• Changes in heat flow rate (q) or T as a function of time
∴ Need additional equations for these.

From energy eqn. (6-10, WWW+R), can derive general differential equations for heat transfer.
(See WWW+R, pg. 217-221, Eqn 16-13).
Can be simplified for certain special case which interest us, eg. For solids (i.e. most conduction
problems we encounter) and assuming k constant.
𝜕𝑇 𝑞
= 𝛼𝛻 2 𝑇 + Rate of heat addition Eqn. 16-17
𝜕𝑡 𝜌𝐶𝑝
𝑘
𝛼= WWW+𝑅, 𝑝𝑔. 648 − 656
𝜌𝐶𝑝

𝜕𝑇
No heat sources = 𝛼𝛻 2 𝑇 Eqn. 16-18
𝜕𝑡
Fourier field eqn. or Fourier’s
second law of heat conduction
𝑞
Heat sources but no time 𝛻 2𝑇 + 𝑘 = 0 Eqn. 16-19
variation. (i.e. steady-state)

No heat sources & steady state 𝛻 2𝑇 = 0 Eqn. 16-20

Will return to unsteady-state cases (i.e. where St≠0) later but start with simplest case, 𝛻 2 𝑇 = 0
Can often reduce to one-dimensional conduction, for which Eqn. 16-20 becomes (WWW+R, pg
224, Eqn. 17-1)

In rectangular coordinates
𝜕2 𝑇
=0 e.g. flat furnace walls
𝜕𝑥 2

In cylindrical coordinates
𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑟 𝜕𝑟 =0 e.g. pipes/cylindrical vessels
𝜕𝑟

In spherical coordinates
𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑟 2 𝜕𝑟 =0 e.g. nuclear reactor pressure vessels
𝜕𝑟
Temperature Profiles
To obtain T-profiles, must solve these (2nd order) differential equations.

Example (WWW+R, pg. 225) 𝜕2 𝑇

=0
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕𝑇
Solving = C1
𝜕𝑥
L
𝑇 = 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
T1
(∴ a linear T-profile in this case, see WWW+R, Fig 17.1)

T2
Boundary Conditions at 𝑥 = 0, 𝑇 = 𝑇1

x 𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝑇 = 𝑇2
∴ 𝐶2 = 𝑇1
x=0 x=1

Plane (flat) wall, thickness = L 𝑇2 − 𝑇1

𝐶1 =
𝐿
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
∴𝑇= 𝑥 + 𝑇1 = 𝑇1 − 𝑥
𝐿 𝐿
What about rate or heat flow?

From Eqn 15-2 (For rectangular coords, 1 dimensional)

𝑞𝑥 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
= −𝑘 𝑑𝑥 (From above 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐶1 )
𝐴

𝑞𝑥 𝑇2 −𝑇1
= −𝑘
𝐴 𝐿

𝑘𝐴
𝑞𝑥 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝐿

𝒌𝑨 𝑳
= 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑳 𝒌𝑨

Note: Could also have got this by simply solving 15-2 with the Boundary Conditions above.

Make sure that you can also do the heat flow and T-profile analyses for a long, hollow cylinder
(WWW+R, pg. 227) and a hollow sphere (WWW+R, pg. 229)
In general, for conduction

𝑇𝑖 −𝑇𝑜
𝑞= 𝑅

𝑘𝐴 𝐿
For plane wall, 𝑞= (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) ∴ 𝑅 = 𝑘𝐴
𝐿

𝑟
ln 𝑟𝑜
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑖
For cylinder, (See pg. 3) 𝑞= 𝑟
(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) ∴𝑅=
ln 𝑟𝑜 2𝜋𝑘𝐿
𝑖

1 1
−
4𝜋𝑘 𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑜
For sphere 𝑞= 1 1 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) ∴𝑅=
− 4𝜋𝑘
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑜
Conduction in composite (flat) walls – steady state
T1 T2 T3 T4
qx
k1 k2 k3 Note : Steady-state ∴ qx is same through each
L1 L2 L3 section of wall
1 2 3

𝑘 1 𝐴1 𝑞 𝐿
1) 𝑞𝑥 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑘𝑥𝐴1
𝐿1 1 1

𝑘 2 𝐴2 𝑞 𝐿
2) 𝑞𝑥 = (𝑇2 − 𝑇3 ) 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 = 𝑘𝑥𝐴2
𝐿2 2 2

𝑘 3 𝐴3 𝑞 𝐿
3) 𝑞𝑥 = (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 = 𝑘 3𝐴3
𝐿3 3 3

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
Adding 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 = 𝑞𝑥 +𝑘 +𝑘
𝑘 1 𝐴1 2 𝐴2 3 𝐴3

𝑇1 −𝑇4
𝑞𝑥 = 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
+ +
𝑘1 𝐴 1 𝑘2 𝐴 2 𝑘3 𝐴 3

𝐿
Remember 𝑘 𝐴𝑖 = thermal resistance (𝑅𝑖 )
𝑖 𝑖

𝑇1 −𝑇4 𝑇1 −𝑇4 𝑉
∴ 𝑞𝑥 = 𝑅 = Note similarity to Ohms Law with resistors in series 𝐼 =
1 +𝑅2 +𝑅3 𝑅 𝑅
Example: (WWW+R, pg. 226, E.g. 1)
T1 T2 T3 T4
Furnace wall with 3 layers: k1 k2 k3

1) L1= 10 cm, k1= 1.560 Wm-1k-1 T1= 1370 K L1 L2 L3

2) L2= 23 cm, k2= 0.073 Wm-1k-1 T2= 360 K 1 2 3

3) L3= 5 cm, k3= 1.0 Wm-1k-1

Per metre squared of conducting area
𝐿1 0.10𝑚 𝐾
𝑅1 = 𝑘 = (1.560 𝑊𝑚−1 𝑘−1 )(1𝑚2) = 0.0641 𝑊
1 𝐴1

𝐾
𝑅2 = 3.15 𝑊
𝐾
𝑅3 = 0.05 𝑊

Note as expected (since 𝑘2 ≪ 𝑘1 , 𝑘3 & 𝐿2 > 𝐿1 , 𝐿3 ) 𝑅2 ≫ 𝑅1 , 𝑅3

𝑇1 −𝑇4 1370−360 𝐾
𝑞𝑥 = = 𝐾 = 309.8 𝑊 per m2 of conducting area
𝑅 3.26𝑊

𝐾
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑞𝑥 𝑅1 = 309.8 𝑊 0.0641 𝑊 = 19.9 𝐾

∴ 𝑇2 = 1350.1 𝐾 Similarly 𝑇3 = 375.5 𝐾

Notes:
1) Since R2 >> R1, R3, the temperature drop over section 2. (∆T=1350.1-375.5=974.6K) Is much
bigger than the ∆T’s over sections 1 & 3 (19.5K and 15.5 K respectively)
2) Analysis ignored possibility of vapor spaces/oxide films, etc. between sections of wall. In
reality, these would provide resistances and thus change the temperature profile.

See also example in WWW+R, pg. 226-7 involving combination of series and parallel paths.

Note: In “real world”, would not usually know the temperatures of the solid surfaces but rather
the temperatures of the fluids in contact with the surfaces. Thus, to solve real world problems,
need quick intro to convection.
 CONVECTION
IN SERIES WITH CONDUCTION

Rate of heat Convective heat transfer

transfer (W) coefficient (Wm-2K-1) To be

𝑞
examined in detail later.

= ℎ∆𝑇
𝐴 Temperature difference
Area normal to between surface and fluid (K)
direction of heat
flow (m2)

WWW+R, pg. 209, Eqn. 15-11

 Re-look at previous scenario (see WWW+R, 209-211)
T1 T2 T3 T4
k1 k2 k3
Hot 𝑞𝑥 = ℎℎ 𝐴ℎ (𝑇ℎ − 𝑇1 )
TH TC Cold 𝑞𝑥 = ℎ𝑐 𝐴𝑐 (𝑇4 − 𝑇𝑐 )
L1 L2 L3
1 2 3 Remember : Steady-state ∴ 𝑞𝑥 same on both sides and
same through each section of the wall.
Also have convective heat
transfer between outer surfaces
and fluids.
𝑞𝑥 1 𝐿1 L2 L3 1
H) 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇1 = ℎ Adding : 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 = 𝑞𝑥 +𝑘 +k +k +h
ℎ 𝐴ℎ ℎℎ 𝐴ℎ 1 𝐴1 2 A2 3 A3 c Ac

𝑞 𝐿
1) 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑘𝑥𝐴1
1 1 𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐
𝑞𝑥 =
𝑞 𝐿 1 𝐿 L L 1
2) 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 = 𝑘𝑥𝐴2 + 1 + 2 + 3 +
2 2 ℎℎ 𝐴ℎ 𝑘1 𝐴1 k 2 A2 k 3 A3 hc Ac
𝑞 𝐿 𝑇ℎ −𝑇𝑐 𝐿
3) 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 = 𝑘𝑥𝐴3 Or 𝑞𝑥 = 𝑅𝑖 = 𝑘 𝐴𝑖 For Conduction
3 3
𝑅 𝑖 𝑖

𝑞𝑥 1
C) 𝑇4 − 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑅𝑖 = ℎ 𝐴 For Convection
ℎ𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝑖 𝑖

Note : For now, values for h’s will simply be given in problems. (e.g. lots of the problems at end
of WWW+R, Chapter 17) – Later, we will see how to calculate/estimate h values.
 Example (WWW+R, pg. 220-221)

Long steam pipe, outside radius r2 covered with thermal insulation with outside radius r3.
Temperatures of outer surface of pipe (T2) and of surrounding air (T∞) are constant.

T∞

T2
Insulation
r2
Pipe Wall r1 h, R3,
r3

k1, R1,

k2, R2,

Derive formula for heat flow (i.e. energy loss) from pipe. From this, figure out if energy loss can
increase with increase in insulation thickness and, if so, under what conditions
Note : Since we are given T2, we are only interested in the insulation, not in the pipe itself (i.e.
only R2 and R3) Remember from WWW+R, pg. 206, Eg. 1 for hollow cylinder,

2𝜋𝑘𝐿
qr = 𝑟
(𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 )
ln 𝑜
𝑟𝑖

∴ Thermal resistance can be expressed as

𝑟
ln 𝑜
𝑟𝑖 𝑇𝑖 −𝑇0
𝑅= 𝑞𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑅

Thus for insulation in this example

𝑟
ln 𝑟3
2
𝑅2 =
2𝜋𝑘𝐿
𝑞𝑟
For Convection 𝐴
= ℎ(𝑇3 − 𝑇∞ )

∴ 𝑞𝑟 = ℎ 2𝜋𝑟3 𝐿 𝑇3 − 𝑇∞
1
∴ 𝑅3 = ℎ 2𝜋𝑟3 𝐿
 𝑇2 − 𝑇∞ 𝑇2 − 𝑇∞
∴ 𝑞𝑟 = =
𝑅2 + 𝑅3 ln 𝑟3
𝑟2 1
+
2𝜋𝑟3 𝐿 ℎ(2𝜋𝑟3 𝐿)

2𝜋𝐿(𝑇2 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑞𝑟 =
𝑟
ln 𝑟3
2 1
+
𝑘2 ℎ𝑟3
Term 1 Term 2

As 𝑟3 ↑ Term 1 ↑ Term 2 ↓
Can 𝑞𝑟 reach a minimum ? (i.e. where effect of Term 2 decreasing out ways effect of Term 1
increasing)
Differentiate 𝑞𝑟 w.r.t 𝑟3

1 1
2𝜋𝐿 𝑇2 − 𝑇∞ − 2
𝑑𝑞𝑟 𝑘2 𝑟3 ℎ𝑟3
=− 2
𝑑𝑟3 1 𝑟 1
ln 𝑟3 +
𝑘2 2 ℎ𝑟 3
For 𝑞𝑟 to have a minimum (or a maximum)

𝜕𝑞𝑟 1 1
=0 Assuming 𝑇2 ≠ 𝑇∞ , the only way this can occur is if − ℎ𝑟 2 = 0
𝜕𝑟3 𝑘2 𝑟3 3

𝑘2
i.e. if 𝑟3 = ℎ

The radius of insulation is known as the critical radius.

Does 𝑞𝑟 have a minimum or a maximum at 𝑟3 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ?

𝜕2 𝑞𝑟 𝑘2
Need to find the 2nd derivative and evaluate it at 𝑟3 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = .
𝜕𝑟32 ℎ

𝜕2 𝑞𝑟
Turns out that is negative ∴ 𝑞𝑟 has a maximum at 𝑟3 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 . ∴ 𝑞𝑟 can only decrease as 𝑟3
𝜕𝑟32

increases beyond 𝑟3 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 .

𝑘
When critical radius (=ℎ) is evaluated using typical values of k,h, it is found that it is very small.

Thus for all practical purposes, 𝑞𝑟 only decreases as the thickness of insulation increases.
Note: For a more basic numerical problem involving insulation of steam piping, please read
WWW+R, p 211-2 , Eg 3 and make sure you understand it.
Saturated steam @ 0.276 MPa flows inside a steel pipe with:
I.D. = 2.09 cm
O.D = 2.67 cm
h(steam side) = 5680 Wm-2K-1
h(outside) = 22.7 Wm-2K-1
Surrounding air at 294K
Find:
a) Heat loss per metre of bare pipe
b) Heat loss per meter of pipe with 3.8 cm thick insulation (85 % magnesia) on outer surface.
Tsat(steam @ 0.276 MPa) = 404 K
k(mild steel) = 42.9 Wm-1K-1
k(85% magnesia) = 0.0675 Wm-1K-1
Conduction with internal generation of energy (WWW+R, pg. 230-233)
Sometime have heat generated within the conducting solid e.g. electrical resistance heaters,
nuclear fuel rods.

𝜕𝑇 𝑞 𝑞
Starting point is Eqn 16-17 (or Eqn 16-19 for steady state) : = 𝛼𝛻 2 𝑇 + 𝜌𝐶𝑝 or 𝛻 2 𝑇 + 𝑘 = 0
𝜕𝑡

Note: WWW+R re-derives those on pg. 230-1.

(Eqn 17-19) ≡ (Eqn 16-17)
(Eqn 17-20) ≡ (Eqn 16-19)
Two typical steady state cases:
a) Uniform/homogeneous energy generation (i.e. energy generation happens at the same rate
at every point in the solid, 𝑞 is constant.)
b) Variable (T-dependent) energy generation (i.e. 𝑓 𝑇 , e.g. 𝑞 = 𝑞𝐿 1 + 𝐵 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 )
We will look at an example of (a) [WWW+R, pp 230-2] For radial conduction in a cylindrical rod;
Eqn 16-19 becomes:
𝑘 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑞 + 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 = 0
Re-arrange,
𝜕 𝜕𝑇
𝑘 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 = −𝑞𝑟

Integrate,
𝜕𝑇 𝑞𝑟 2
𝑘𝑟 𝜕𝑟 = − 2 + 𝐶1

𝜕𝑇 𝑞𝑟 𝐶1
𝑘 𝜕𝑟 + =
2 𝑟

𝜕𝑇
Solid cylinder ∴ T−gradient must be finite at centre of cylinder (i.e. when r=0). In above
𝜕𝑟

eqn, right hand term will be infinite when r=0 UNLESS C1=0 (i.e. r.h. term does not actually exist)
∴ C1 must be 0.
𝜕𝑇 𝑟
∴ 𝑘 𝜕𝑟 + 𝑞 2 = 0

𝑞𝑟 2
Integrating, 𝑇=− + 𝐶2
4𝑘

Now using a B.C (eg. T=T5 at r=r5), C2 can be ecaluated, etc.

𝑞𝑟 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝑞𝑟 qr 𝑞𝑟
Heat flow? = −𝑘 𝜕𝑟 but 𝜕𝑟 = − 2k ∴ =
𝐴 A 2

𝑞𝑟
𝑞𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑟𝐿 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝐿𝑞
2
Read thru example of (b) [WWW+R, pp 232-3]
Many other examples of conducting systems, e.g.
• H.T from extended surfaces (e.g. fins) [WWW+R, pg. 233-240]
• 2/3 dimensional systems (e.g. non-simple geometries) [WWW+R, pg. 240-246]

Some can be solved analytically (as in e.g.’s we’ve seen) but many require graphical, numerical
and/or experimental (analog) solutions.
• Not examinable but should be aware they exist and how/where to find solutions.

Note: in all the examples/derivations we have covered, it has been assumed that k=const. Thus,
the “𝛻 ∙ 𝑘𝛻𝑇” term from Eqn 16-16 can be simplified to “𝑘𝛻 2 𝑇”. In systems/materials where k is
strongly dependent on T, it may be necessary to use Eqn 16-16 as a basis.
𝜕2 𝑇 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
e.g. instead of 𝑘 𝜕𝑥 2 may need to use 𝜕𝑥 𝑘 𝜕𝑥
Unsteady state conduction and convection
T is a function of position (e.g. x, r) and time (t)
Two categories:
1. Processes going from some initial state to a final steady state (e.g. plant startup, batch plants,
etc.
2. Short-time processes where T changes continually (e.g heat treatment of steel rods etc.)

Starting eqns are energy equations (6-10)

𝜕𝑇 𝑞
And: 𝜕𝑡 = 𝛼𝛻 2 𝑇 + (Eqn 16-17)
𝜌𝐶𝑝
Can also be
f(x and t)
𝜕𝑇
Since is not 0 in unsteady-state, this partial d.e has to be solved. Some cases have analytical
𝜕𝑡

solutions but often need graphical or numerical methods.

Need B.C.’s but also initial conditions – I.C ( i.e. T when t=0)

Internal (conductive) & external (conductive) resistances important but, in some cases, one is
limiting & other can be ignored. Under what conditions?
Lumped parameter analysis (LPA) and the Biot Modulus (WWW+R, pp.252-254)
Lumped parameter analysis assumes the entire object is at the same T at any particular time, i.e.
the T of the object is a function of time but not of position. (We will evaluate the conditions
under which this occurs later)

Eg. Spherical metal object (initially at To) immersed in hot oil at T∞ for time t (WWW+R, p. 253)

𝑟𝑄 𝜕
Energy Equation (6-10) reduces to 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜕𝑡 𝑤
𝑒𝜌𝑑𝑉

𝜕𝑄 𝜕 𝜕𝑇
= ℎ𝐴(𝑇∞ − 𝑇) 𝑐𝑣
𝑒𝜌𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
∴ Substituting and rearranging
𝜕𝑇 ℎ𝐴 𝑇∞ −𝑇
=
𝜕𝑡 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝

Separating variables and intergrating

𝑇 𝜕𝑇 ℎ𝐴 𝑡
𝑇𝑜 𝑇∞ −𝑇
= 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝 0
𝜕𝑡

Solving
ℎ𝐴𝑡
𝑇−𝑇∞ −
=𝑒 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝
𝑇0 −𝑇∞

ℎ𝐴𝑡 𝑊𝑚−2 𝑘 −1 𝑚2 𝑠
Look at the units of exponent = (Note all units cancel and is
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3 𝑚3 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾−1

dimensionless as expected.)

It has been found that it is useful to re-arrange exponents into two new dimensionless constants.

𝑉
ℎ𝐴𝑡 ℎ 𝐴 𝛼𝑡 𝛼𝑡
= 𝑉 2
Fo, Fourier Modulus = 𝑉 2
𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝 𝑘
𝐴 𝐴
 𝑉
𝑉 𝐴
ℎ
𝐴
Biot Modulus, 𝐵𝑖 = = 𝐾
1
𝑘
ℎ

𝑉
𝐴
- Unit of length

𝑉
𝐴
𝑘 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
1 - 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
ℎ

Case 1 Bi << 1
∴ Convective Resistance Controls
∴ Big T-gradient from solid surface to surroundings.
Almost no T-gradient within solid.
This is the condition that must be met for LPA to be valid.
Rule of thumb: If Bi< 0.1 less than 5% error from using LPA. ∴ First thing is to always evaluate
ℎ𝐴𝑡
𝑇−𝑇∞ −𝜌𝑉𝐶
Bi. If Bi < 0.1 use =𝑒 𝑝 and 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇∞ − 𝑇)
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇∞
 Example (WWW+R, pg. 255)
A long copper wire, 0.635cm in Diameter (D), is exposed to an airstream at a temperature
T∞ 𝑜𝑓 310𝐾. After 30s the average temperature of the wire increased from 280 to 297K.
Estimate h.
𝑇𝑜 = 280𝐾 𝑇∞ = 310𝐾 𝑡 = 30𝑠 T=297K
𝑉
ℎ
𝐴
𝐵𝑖 = 𝑘

k - pg. 386 Wm-1K-1 from WWW+R , Appendix H

𝜋𝐷2 𝑉 𝜋𝐷 2 𝐿 𝐷
𝑉= 𝐿 𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 ∴ = =
4 𝐴 4𝜋𝐷𝐿 4

0.00635𝑚
ℎ
𝐵𝑖 = 4
= 4.11 × 10−6 𝑊 −1 𝑚2 𝐾 ℎ
386 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾−1

To use LPA, Bi must be < 0.1

∴ 4.11 × 10−6 𝑊 −1 𝑚2 𝐾 ℎ < 0.1
∴ ℎ < 24 300 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1
This is almost certain to be true. (See WWW+R p 208, Table 15.1) ∴ Use LPA
 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 𝑇𝑜 −𝑇∞
ℎ= ln
𝐴𝑡 𝑇−𝑇∞

𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 8890 𝑚3 WWW+R, Appendix H

𝐶𝑝 = 385 𝐽. 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1 WWW+R, Appendix H

t = 30s
T = 297 K

h= 151 Wm-2K-1 (Much less than 24300 wm-2K-1 ∴ Valid to use LPA.
Case 2 Bi >> 10 (WWW+R, p. 255-257)

This means conductive resistance controls

∴ Big T-gradient within solid
Almost no T-gradient from solid surface to surroundings (i.e Ts = 𝑇∞ for all t > 0)

Consider a large flat plate with thickness L.

Assume no internal heat generation ∴ Equation 16-17 becomes
𝜕𝑇
= 𝛼𝛻 2 𝑇 or, for one dimensional plate
𝜕𝑡

𝜕𝑇 𝜕2 𝑇
𝜕𝑡
= 𝛼 𝜕𝑥 2

I.C . 𝑇 = 𝑇0 at t=0 0≤𝑥≤𝐿

B.C. 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑆 (= 𝑇∞ ) at x = 0 and x = L when t > 0

Solving (by method of separation of variables)

𝑛𝜋 2
𝑇−𝑇𝑆 4 ∞ 1 𝑛𝜋 − 𝐹𝑜
= 𝑛=1 𝑛 sin 𝑥 𝑒 2
𝑇0 −𝑇𝑆 𝜋 𝐿

with n = 1, 3, 5……

𝛼𝑡 𝑘
Note: 𝐹0 = 𝐿 2
𝛼 = 𝜌𝐶𝑝
2

𝑉 2
This is slightly different to what we saw previously but some units so Fourier modulus
𝐴

(Fo) is still dimensionless overall.

 The above equation (WWW+R, 18-13) gives T as a function of both time and position. If
𝐿
we set 𝑥 = 2 (i.e. the centre of the plate) , we can get T as a function of time only. This is

presented graphically in WWW+R, p.257, Fig 18.3)

Also presented are solutions for other geometries ( long rod, w/ square cross-section,
long cylindrical rod, cube, “stubby” cylindrical rod & sphere) Thus Figure 18.3 can be used
to find centre T as a function of time for different size/shape objects.
 Example (WWW+R, pg 257)
Concrete cylinder, L=0.1 m, D=0.1 m, T0=292 K, TS= 373 K, h=8500 Wm-2k-1
i) Time required for centre to reach 310 K ?
ii) For very long cylinder, how long would it take ?
Case (i) – first step, evaluate Bi
𝑉
ℎ 𝜋𝐷2 2𝜋𝐷2
𝐴
𝐵𝑖 = 𝑉= 𝐿 𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 +
𝑘 4 4

𝜋𝐷2 𝐿 𝐷𝐿
𝑉 4 4
= 𝜋𝐷2
= 𝐷
𝐴 𝜋𝐷𝐿+ 2 𝐿+ 2

𝐷𝐿
ℎ 4
∴ 𝐵𝑖 = 𝐷 𝑘 = 1.21 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 (𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑥 𝐾)
𝑘 𝐿+ 2

Bi = 117 (i.e. >10 ∴ Use Figure 18.3)

𝑇−𝑇𝑆 310−373 𝐾
= = 0.778
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑠 292−373 𝐾
0.778

0.11
From Figure 18.3
𝛼𝑡
= 0.11
𝑥12

𝑘
𝛼 = 𝜌𝐶 𝑘 = 1.21 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
𝑝

𝜌 = 2310 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
𝐶𝑝 = 880 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
∴ 𝛼 = 5.95 × 10−7 𝑚2 𝑠 −1
𝐷
𝑥1 = = 0.05𝑚
2

𝑥12 0.11 0.05𝑚 2

𝑡 = 0.11 × = = 462 𝑠 = 7.7 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝛼 5.95 × 10−7 𝑚2 𝑠 −1
Case (ii) – first step, evaluate Bi
𝑉
ℎ 𝐴 𝜋𝐷2
𝐵𝑖 = 𝑉= 𝐿 𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 (𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒)
𝑘 4

𝜋𝐷2 𝐿
𝑉 4 𝐷
= =
𝐴 𝜋𝐷𝐿 4

ℎ𝐷
∴ 𝐵𝑖 = 4𝐾 𝑘 = 1.21 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 (𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑥 𝐾)

Bi = 176 (i.e. >10 ∴ Use Figure 18.3)

𝑇−𝑇𝑆 310−373 𝐾
= = 0.778
𝑇𝑜 −𝑇𝑠 292−373 𝐾

From Figure 8.18

𝛼𝑡
= 0.13
𝑥12

∴ 𝑡 = 546 𝑠 = 9.1 𝑚𝑖𝑛

0.778

0.13
Case 3 0.1<Bi<10 (WWW+R, p. 258-9, 261-3)

Both conductive and convective resistances are significant.

∴ Significant T-gradient within solid and from solid surface to surroundings

Similar to Case 2 but with different B.Cs. For flat plate , 1-dimensional heat flow, no 𝑞.
𝜕𝑇
= 𝛼 𝜕 2 𝑇/𝜕𝑥 2
𝜕𝑡

I.C 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 at t=0
𝜕𝑇
B.C’s =0 at centerline of body (i.e. assuming symmetry)
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑇 ℎ 𝜕𝑇
− 𝜕𝑥 = 𝑘 (𝑇 − 𝑇∞ ) From 𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴 𝜕𝑥 and 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇 − 𝑇∞

Complex solution (See equations 18-16 and 18-17. For simple geometries (Flat plate, long
cylinder, sphere can be represented graphically (See Appendix F, WWW+R)
 Notes on Appendix F (Pg 659-671)
𝑇 −𝑇
1. 𝑌 = 𝑇 ∞−𝑇 𝑇𝑜 = initial uniform T
∞ 𝑜

𝑇∞ = bulk T of surrounding fluid

𝛼𝑡
𝑋 = 𝑥2 As before (see diagrams on pages 660-662)
1

𝑥
𝑛=𝑥 Function of x (i.e. where in the solid are you interested
1

in?). 𝑥1 =radius or semi-thickness.

𝑘 1
𝑚= 𝛼 (but BEWARE factor of 2 or 3)
ℎ𝑥1 𝐵𝑖

Notes: (i) When m>10 (Slab)

m>5 (Cylinder) Bi<0.1
m>3.33(Sphere)
∴ Should be using LPA not these charts
(ii) When m<0.1 (Slab)
m<0.05 (Cylinder) Bi>10
m<0.033(Sphere)
∴ for n = 0 (x=0, i.e. centre) revert to Figure 18.31
 Notes on Appendix F (Pg 659-671)
2. Three types of graph
(a) Y vs X with different curves for different m,n (pg. 660-662)
(b) Y vs X for different m with n=0 (i.e. centre of object) (pg. 663-665)
(c) Y vs X for different m at constant n (pg. 666-671)

Note (c)-type usually easier to use/read but (a) allows interpolation if n is between the
given values. (eg. n=0.9)

3. Can use these charts only when

(a) Eqn 16-18 applies, i.e. no internal heat source
(b) Solid has uniform initial T=T0
(c) T of adjacent fluid is suddenly changed to new value, 𝑇∞
 Notes on Appendix F (Pg 659-671)
4. Although charts are only given for large flat plate, long cylinder & sphere, can also use
for other geometries.
(i) If heat loss is only from one face of flat plate X, n, m evaluated as if thickness is 2x
true value
(ii) For rectangular bar with insulated ends,
𝑌𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 𝑌𝑎 𝑌𝑏
𝑌𝑎 evaluated with 𝑥1 = half-width
𝑌𝑏 evaluated with 𝑥1 = half-thickness
(iii) For rectangular parallelepiped
𝑌𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑑 = 𝑌𝑎 𝑌𝑏 𝑌𝑐
𝑌𝑎 , 𝑌𝑏 as in (ii)
𝑌𝑐 evaluated with 𝑥1 = half-depth
(iv) For cylinder including ends
𝑌𝑐𝑦𝑙+𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 𝑌𝑐𝑦𝑙 𝑌𝑎
𝑌𝑎 evaluated using flat plate chart with 𝑥1 =half-thickness
𝑌𝑐𝑦𝑙 evaluated using cylinder chart with 𝑥1 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
 Example (WWW+R, Pg 262, Eg. 3)
A flat wall, MoC = fire-clay brick, 0.5m thick, T0 = 200 K, 𝑇∞ =1200 K at one face only, other face
insulated so no heat passes thru it, h=7.38 Wm-2k-1
(a) Time to raise T at the centre of wall to 600K?
(b) At time found in (a) , T of insulated wall face
From Appendix H
𝑘 = 1.125 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1
𝐶𝑝 = 919 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
𝜌 = 2310 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
𝑉
ℎ 𝐴
𝐵𝑖 = 𝑉 = 𝐴𝐿 𝐴 = 𝐴 (one side only)
𝑘

ℎ𝐿
∴ 𝐵𝑖 = = 3.3 ∴ Use Appendix F
𝑘

True value of wall thickness is 0.5m. ∴ Evaluate as though thickness were 2X0.5= 1m. ∴ 𝑥1 =
0.25𝑚
0.5 𝑚 and, for part (a), 𝑛 = = 0.5.
0.5𝑚

𝑘 1.125 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾−1 𝑇 −𝑇 1200−600 𝐾

𝑚= = = 0.305 𝑌 = 𝑇∞−𝑇 = = 0.6
ℎ𝑥1 7.38 𝑊𝑚−2 𝑘 −1 0.5𝑚 ∞ 0 1200−200 𝐾

Note: WWW+R uses Fig F7 but not clear if it is for n=0.4 or n=0.6 (Maybe both & take average)
0.6

0.39

0.6

0.31
 𝛼𝑡
(a) From Figure F7, 𝑥 2 = 0.35
1

0.35 0.5𝑚 2
∴𝑡= = 1.651 × 105 𝑠 = 45.9ℎ
5.30×10−7 𝑚2 𝑠 −1

𝛼𝑡
(b) x=0 ∴𝑛=0 m=0.305 = 0.35 (Same as part (a))
𝑥12

From figure F7 (with n=0)

Y=0.74
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇 1200−𝑇
= 1200−200 = 0.74 → 𝑇 = 460 𝐾
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇0

0.74

0.35
Heat transfer to a semi-infinite wall (WWW+R, pg 259-261)

𝜕𝑇 𝜕2𝑇
=𝛼 2
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
I.C . T=T0 @ t=0 for all x
B.C. T=Ts @ x=0 for all t
T → T0 as x → ∞ for all t
For conductive resistance controlling
𝑇−𝑇0 𝑥
= 1 − erf (Eqn 18-20)
𝑇𝑠 −𝑇0 2 𝛼𝑡

erf = the “Error Function” (see WWW+R, Appendix L, for a table of erf values.
When both conductive & convective resistances are significant
𝑥 ℎ𝑥 ℎ2 𝛼𝑡 ℎ 𝛼𝑡 𝑥
(𝑇∞ −𝑇)/(𝑇∞ − 𝑇0 ) = erf + exp + 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓 +2 Eqn 18-2
2 𝛼𝑡 𝑘 𝑘2 𝑘 𝛼𝑡

When do you use these equations (Since, in reality, there is no such thing as a “semi-infinite
wall”)?

When you have finite wall length L and T at x=L is still close to (ie within 0.5% of) T0 at time t,
these equations are valid.

From Appendix L, this corresponds to times when

𝐿
>2 (for Eqn 18-20)
2 𝛼𝑡

Equation 18-21 useful to get TS (i.e. by setting x=0) and is also valid for (relatively) short times.
Revisit Eq 3 on pg. 262 (pg 35 of notes)
Could we have used semi-infinite wall for this problem? Could try but:
(i) Since it is fully insulated on one side and can thus be modelled as a symmetrical
object of double thickness, App F method is easier.
𝐿
(ii) If we did use semi infinite wall, would have to check 2 𝛼𝑡
>2 criterion afterwards. [If

it did not meet criterion, method (& answer) would be invalid.

For this example,

𝐿 𝐿2 0.5𝑚 2
>2 →𝑡< = 𝑚2
i.e. t<29 481 s = 8.2 h
2 𝛼𝑡 16𝛼 16 5.3×10−7 𝑠

Answer using Appendix F method gave t=45.8 h ∴ semi infinite assumption would not have been
valid (since t > 8.2 h) [ Check for yourself what the answer would have been using semi-infinte
wall method.]
In general if you can model it as symmetrical (i.e. if it is symmetrical or if it is fully insulated on
one side etc.) use Appendix F method. If you cannot (or if you are not given the thickness), try
semi-infinte wall method.
Note : Apart from in the case of semi-infinite walls, all the cases so far have involved an
“axis of symmetry” (or assumption that can be made to model the system as symmetric,
e.g. See Example 3 on pg 262 done earlier).

In cases where there is

(a) no axis of symmetry
(b) non-uniform initial T-profile
(c) irregular system geometry
(d) variable ambient/bulk T and other complex cases.
cannot use these methods and must employ numerical techniques.
 Numerical Solutions (a very brief introduction)
From WWW+R, pp. 243-244 and pp. 263-265, the energy equation can be written, using
“finite elements” (rather than full/partial derivatives) as
𝑘 𝑇𝑖 𝑡+∆𝑡 −𝑇𝑖 𝑡
(𝑇 + 𝑇𝑖+1 𝑡 -2𝑇𝑖 𝑡 ) = ρ𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑥
∆𝑥 𝑖−1 𝑡 ∆𝑡

Note: this is a simplification assuming:

(a) no internal heat generation
(b) one dimensional heat flow

i-1, i, i+1refer to special spatial nodes on a one dimensional grid, when each node is at the
centre of a finite element
i.e.

∆𝑡 is a time element
e.g. 𝑇𝑖 t+∆𝑡 refers the temperature at node I when time is 𝑡 + ∆𝑡. Thus, if you know the T at
all of the nodes at t=0, you can ”step forward” to calculate the T of the nodes at other times.

Re-arranging,

𝛼∆𝑡 2𝛼∆𝑡
𝑇𝑖 = 𝑇 + 𝑇𝑖−1 + 1− 𝑇
𝑡+∆𝑡 ∆𝑥 2 𝑖+1 𝑡 𝑡 ∆𝑥 2 𝑖 𝑡

Remember, by using “finite elements” instead of actual derivatives, you introduce errors. ∴
∆𝑥 & ∆𝑡 should be kept fairly small. This type of numerical analysis works well using a
spreadsheet or other form of computer programme.

𝛼∆𝑡 1 𝛼∆𝑡 1
Numerically “stable” when ≤ best to use = since the last term = 0 and
∆𝑥 2 2 ∆𝑥 2 2

𝑇𝑖+1 𝑡 +𝑇𝑖−1 𝑡
𝑇𝑖 𝑡+∆𝑡 = 2
 Example (WWW+R, pp. 255-256, Eg. 5)
𝑚 2
Brick wall, 𝛼 = 4.72 × 10−7 𝑠 , total thickness 0.5m, uniform T0 = 300K. Two surfaces are

raised to 425K & 600K respectively. How long before centre reaches 428K?

Note: Cannot use previous analytical solutions since it is not symmetric.

Use numerical; divide wall into 11 nodes.

𝛼∆𝑡 1
=2 ∴ Use ∆𝑡 = 2648 𝑠 = 0.736 ℎ𝑟
∆𝑛 2

In this case since T’s are held constant at each surface T0 and TS are always 425 K and 600 K.
 T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10
t=0 425 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 600
t=0+∆t 425 362.5 300 300 300 300 300 300 300 450 600
t=0+2∆t 425 362.5 336.3 300 300 300 300 300 375 450 600
t=0+3∆t 425 378.1 336.3 315.6 300 300 300 337.5 375 487.5 600
t=0+4∆t 425 378.1 346.9 315.6 307.8 300 318.8 337.5 412.5 487.5 600
t=0+5∆t 425 385.9 346.9 327.3 307.8 313.3 318.8 365.6 412.5 506.3 600
t=0+6∆t 425 385.9 356.6 327.3 320.3 313.3 339.5 365.6 435.9 506.3 600
t=0+7∆t 425 390.8 356.6 338.5 320.3 329.9 339.5 387.7 435.9 518.0 600
t=0+8∆t 425 390.8 364.6 338.5 334.2 329.9 358.8 387.7 452.8 518.0 600
t=0+9∆t 425 394.8 364.6 349.4 334.2 346.5 358.8 405.8 452.8 526.4 600
Keep going until T5 reaches 425K. This happens between 22∆t and 23∆t (estimated at 22.6∆t)
22.6∆𝑡 = 22.6 0.736ℎ𝑟 = 16.6ℎ𝑟.
Note: With computers could easily shorten ∆t to see if same answer is achieved. If not, shorten
∆t again until two successive iterations give the same answer. Could do the same with ∆x’s.
For 2-3 dimensional cases, cases with internal heat generation, etc. gets more complicated but
still well within capabilities of simple programs.
Another numerical method in pp. 266-270 but not in scope of this course.
Finished with the fundamentals of conduction. Next is convection (i.e. the evaluation of “h”, the
convection heat transfer coefficient). We will see that equations for h often involve
dimensionless groups ∴ in next two lectures, quick intro to these groups and how they come
about. (dimensional analysis)

Dimensional Analysis (WWW+R, pp 125-135, 274-279)

What dimensionless groups have we already seen?
𝜌𝑣𝐷
Reynolds number 𝜇

𝑉
ℎ 𝐴
Biot modulus/number 𝑘

𝛼𝑡
Fourier modulus/number 𝑉 2
𝐴
How are they useful?
• Give us quick way to evaluate a system. Eg. Is flow laminar or turbulent? (Re). Is heat
flow governed by conduction or convection (or both)? (Bi)
• Also very useful for experimental/empirical work and the presentation of results in a
useful way.
e.g. when doing experiments to find the influence of 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝐷, 𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 on the
friction factor (f) instead of doing lots of experiments with a matrix of 5
independent variables, can form two dimensional groups
𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝑒
𝑅𝑒 = and
𝜇 𝐷

and only vary these which cuts down hugely on the number of experiments).
Results are then presented in a user friendly way using the same
dimensionless groups (e.g. WWW+R, pp 173, Fig 13.1 or Eqn 13-7, 13-12,
13-14, 13-15, 13-15a)
• In the same way as above, very useful for determining relationships between heat
transfer and the pertinent variables – and presenting these in empirical equations.
How are dimensionless groups developed?
First read fundamental dimensions. These are dimensions in which ass other
dimensions are expressed.
e.g. For fluid flow, typical fundamental dimensions are Length (L), time (t) and
mass (M), since the dimensions of all the other pertinent variables can be
expressed using these dimensions. i.e. velocity (L/t), density (M/L3), viscosity
(M/Lt), etc.

Method?
Sometimes dimensionless groups “evolve naturally” from a fundamental
equation :
ℎ𝐴𝑡
𝑇−𝑇∞ −𝜌𝑣𝐶
e.g for LPA =𝑒 𝑝 = 𝑒 𝐵𝑖𝐹𝑜 (after some manipulation)
𝑇0 −𝑇∞

More often, need a general procedure, eg. The Buckingham (𝜋) method.
 The Buckingham (∏) Method (WWW+R, pp 129-31)
Theorem : i=n-r

i = number or independent dimensionless groups

n = number of variables involved

r = “rank” of the dimensional matrix

(Usually the number of fundamental dimensions (unless two rows in the
dimensional matrix are multiples of each other – see later)
Example of method
Determine dimensionless groups from variables involved in flow of fluid external to a solid body.
Force (F) on body is 𝑓(𝑣, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝐿 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 )

Step 1: Make a table of variables of dimensions.

Variable Dimensions
F ML/t2
𝑣 L/t
𝜌 M/L3
𝜇 M/Lt
L L
Step 2: Form a matrix (Variables as columns, fundamental dimensions as rows) → get “r”
F 𝑣 𝜌 𝜇 L
M 1 0 1 1 0
L 1 1 -3 -1 1
t -2 -1 0 -1 0
Note: No two rows are multiples of each other ∴ r=3
Step 3: Determine number of dimensionless groups
𝑖 = 𝑛−𝑟 =5−3=2
Call the two dimensionless groups 𝜋1 & 𝜋2

Note : this has nothing to do with the 𝜋 used in mathematics; it is simply a symbol for a
dimensional group.

Step 4: Select “core group” of r variables

Some choice here but certain rules eg.
• Cannot choose variables which themselves can be formed into a dimensionless
group
• Each fundemntal dimension must appear in at least one of the variables.
Usually useful to leave out the variables whose effect you are trying to isolate. F in our
example. In our example, 𝜇 also left out. ∴ 𝑣, 𝜌, 𝐿.
Step 5: Set up equations for each 𝝅.
Each equation includes all core variables (raised to random powers) and one other variable. (to
power one)
𝜋1 = 𝑣 𝑎 𝜌𝑏 𝐿𝑐 𝐹
𝜋2 = 𝑣 𝑑 𝜌 𝑒 𝐿 𝑓 𝜇

Step 6 : For each group, expand the dimensions

𝐿 𝑎 𝑀 𝑏 𝑐 𝑀𝐿
𝜋1 = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑡 0 = 𝐿 𝑡2
𝑡 𝐿3

𝐿 𝑑 𝑀 𝑒 𝑀
𝜋2 = 𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑡 0 = 𝐿𝑓
𝑡 𝐿3 𝐿𝑡
Step 7: for each 𝝅, equate the exponents of fundamental dimensions to obtain the values of the
powers.
For 𝝅𝟏
M: 0=b+1
L: 0 = a - 3b + c + 1
t: 0=-a–2
∴ a = -2 , b = -1, c = -2
𝐹
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝑣 −2 ρ−1 𝐿−2 𝐹 = 𝑣 2𝜌𝐿2 (𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)

For 𝝅𝟐
d = -1, e = -1, f = -1
𝜇 1
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝑣 −1 𝜌−1 𝐿−1 𝜇 = (Look Familiar? = )
𝜌𝑣𝐿 𝑅𝑒

Therefore for this example Eu=f(Re). Would therefore do an experiment where you can vary Re
and measure Eu ( See WWW+R, pp 140, fig 12.3)
Note: Other dimensionless groups could arise from this system by analysing with
𝐹𝜌 𝐹
different “core variables”, e.g. 𝜇2 or 𝜇𝑣𝐿 but these will not be independent of the two

we have found. i.e.

𝐹𝜌 𝐹
= 𝑅𝑒 2 (𝐸𝑢) and 𝜇𝑣𝐿 = (𝑅𝑒)(𝐸𝑢)
𝜇2

Buckingham's theorem tells us there are only 2 independent dimensionless groups.

Dimensionless groups often used to equate conditions between a small-scale model &
a large scale actual system. (See WWW+R, pp 132-134)

See WWW+R, pp168-169 for dimensional analysis of pipe flow.

Steps in dimensional analysis
1. Make a table of variables & dimensions

2. Form a matrix (Check rows and get r)

3. Determine number of dimensionless groups (i=n-r)

4. Select core group of r variables

5. Set up equations for dimensionless group. (𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝑒𝑡𝑐.) Each equation includes all
core variables (raised to random powers) and one other variable (to power of one)

6. For each group expand the dimensions.

7. For each 𝜋, equate the exponents of the fundamental dimensions to obtain values
of the powers.
 Dimensional Analysis of Convective Heat Tranfer (WWW+R, pp 276-279)

Necessary to introduce two additional fundamental dimensions, temperature (T) and heat (Q).
[In addition to mass (M), length (L) & time (t)]

Note: Heat can be expressed as a combination of other dimensions [J≡ kgm2s-3] but it has been
found that it is useful to define it as a fundamental dimension (& thus have one less dimensional
group)

Example : (WWW+R, pp 276-278)

Heat transfer from fluid in a pipe (forced convection)
Variables : 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝐶𝑝 , 𝑘, 𝑣, ℎ (note n=7)
Use Buckingham (𝜋) method to establish pertinent dimensionless groups.

Hint : Choose 𝐷, 𝑘, 𝜇, & 𝑣 as core variables.

Step 1
Variable Dimension
D L
𝜌 M/L3
𝜇 M/Lt
𝐶𝑝 Q/MT
𝑘 Q/tLT
𝑣 𝐿/𝑡
ℎ Q/tL2T
Step 2
D 𝜌 𝜇 𝐶𝑝 𝑘 𝑣 ℎ
M 0 1 1 -1 0 0 0
L 1 -3 -1 0 -1 1 -2
t 0 0 -1 0 -1 -1 -1
Q 0 0 0 1 1 0 1
T 0 0 0 -1 -1 0 -1
Q is a multiple of T, therefore r=4
Step 3 Step 6 and Step 7

i=7–4=3 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 1
0 𝑎
𝑄 𝑀 𝐿 𝑀
𝜋1 = 𝑀𝐿𝑡𝑄𝑇 = 𝐿
𝑡𝐿𝑇 𝐿𝑡 𝑡 𝐿3
Step 4 M: 0=c+1
Core Variables 𝐷, 𝑘, 𝜇, 𝑣 L: 0=a-b-c+d-3
t: 0=-b-c-d
Step 5 Q 0=6
𝜋1 = 𝐷𝑎 𝑘 𝑏 𝜇𝑐 𝑣 𝑑 𝜌1 Note: Since Q row was a multiple of T row in dimensional matrix,
𝜋2 = 𝐷𝑒 𝑘 𝑓 𝜇 𝑔 𝑣 ℎ 𝐶𝑝1 can eliminate T (or Q) equations from this analysis.
𝜋3 = 𝑑 𝑖 𝑘 𝑖 𝜇 𝑗 𝑣 𝑘 ℎ1
𝜌𝑣𝐷
∴ 𝜋1 = 𝐷𝜇−1 𝑣𝜌 =
𝜇
 0 𝑒 𝑄 𝑓 𝑀 𝑔 𝐿 ℎ 𝑄 1
𝜋2 = 𝑀𝐿𝑡𝑄𝑇 = 𝐿 𝑡𝐿𝑇 𝐿𝑡 𝑡 𝑀𝑇

M: 0=g-1
L: 0=e-f-g+h
t: 0=-f-g-h
Q 0=f+1
𝜇𝐶𝑝
∴ 𝜋2 = 𝜇𝑘 −1 𝐶𝑝 = = 𝑃𝑟 (Prandtl number)
𝑘

0 𝑖 𝑄 𝑗 𝑀 𝑘 𝐿 𝑙 𝑄 1
𝜋3 = 𝑀𝐿𝑡𝑄𝑇 = 𝐿 2
𝑡𝐿𝑇 𝐿𝑡 𝑡 𝑡𝐿 𝑇

M: 0=k
L: 0 = i-j-k+l-2
t: 0 = -j-k-l-1
Q 0 = j+1
ℎ𝐷
∴ 𝜋3 = 𝐷𝑘 −1 ℎ = = 𝑁𝑢 (Nusselt number, similar to Biot modulus but for convection.
𝑘

-k is fluid property)
Note: In each case 𝜋1 , 𝜋2 , 𝜋3 the equations in the M,L,t & Q rows are very similar, with only
the constants varying (because of the 𝜌, 𝐶𝑝 & ℎ terms)

Thus, the sets of simultaneous equations could be set up as the following matrix
0 0 1 0 -1 1 0
1 -1 -1 1 3 0 2
0 -1 -1 -1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 -1 -1
And solved (more elegantly than above) using Gaussian reduction [Check this for yourself &
use this method if you find it easier.
Dimensionless groups for forced convection are:
𝜌𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇

𝜇𝐶𝑝
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑘

ℎ𝐷
𝑁𝑢 = 𝑘

Since we are usually looking for h (which is only in Nu), relationship is usually expressed in form
𝑁𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟)
Can also get another group including h

𝑁𝑢 ℎ
𝑆𝑡 = = 𝜌𝑣𝐶
𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 𝑝

But remember, only have 3 independent π’s ∴ St replaces Nu.

Thus another useful relationship is 𝑆𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑅𝑒, 𝑃𝑟)
𝛽𝑔𝜌2 𝐿3 ∆𝑇
By similar analysis for natural convection 𝑁𝑢 = 𝑓(𝐺𝑟, 𝑃𝑟) where 𝐺𝑟 = (Grashof No.)
𝜇2

𝛽 = fluid coefficient of thermal expansion (Dimension: 1/T)

Notes:

Both forced and natural convection functions of Pr (a “physical constant” term). Forced
convection a function of Reynolds number (a “velocity” term) & natural convection a function of
Gr (a “buoyancy” term)

In some cases, where analytical solutions are possible (e.g. in laminar regime), the form of the
functions arise analytically but more often, the functionality is formed experimentally & the
equations are empirical.
Convective heat transfer correlations
Five cases
• Natural convection
• Forced convection (internal flow)
• Forced convection (external flow)
• Boiling
• Condensation
 Natural Convection (WWW+R, pp 297-305)
Experimentally, it has been noted that h differs for different geometries/orientations (i.e.
vertical plates, horizontal plates, vertical cylinders, horizontal cylinders,
vertical/horizontal/tilted rectangular enclosures etc.) ∴ Need to consider each of these
different cases separately.

Remember 𝑁𝑢 = 𝑓(𝐺𝑟, 𝑃𝑟). Usually, Gr & Pr are combined into Rayleigh number, Ra=GrPr
Even in natural convection, can get both laminar and turbulent flow (since less dense fluid
flows into regions of higher density) Depending on geometry, the transition from laminar
to turbulent is usually associated with a particular Ra ∴ correlation changes at the
transition Ra.

The evaluation of physical properties of the fluid (e.g. 𝜌, 𝜇, 𝑘, 𝐶𝑝 , 𝛽) at the correct T is very
important in these correlations (since phys props of fluids change more significantly then
they do in solids in conduction). Different correlations require the evaluation of of phys
𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑖𝑛 +𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑜𝑢𝑡
props at different places (e.g. 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ; 𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ; 𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚 =
2

(𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 +𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑎𝑣𝑔 )
2

So need to be careful to evaluate at the appropriate conditions for each correlation.

There is a difference between the local h (hx) and the mean h (hL) [or Nu & NuL]. hL (or
NuL is hx (or Nux ) integrated over the whole surface. hL (or NuL) is more commonly used
but may be cases where you need to use hx (or Nux) & integrate over the surface yourself.
Vertical Plates/walls
For walls with (a) constant Ts or (b) constant wall heat flux
Analytically
1
4 𝐺𝑟𝐿 4
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 3 𝑓 𝑃𝑟 4

• L in Grashot number is height of plate

• F(Pr) is given in table 20.1 (WWW+R p.299)
(𝑇𝑠 +𝑇∞ )
• Phys props evaluated at 𝑇𝑓 = 2

• This is for laminar flow (Ra<109)

Experimentally (Also for Ra < 109)

1
0.670 𝑅𝑎𝐿4
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.68 + 4
9 9
0.492 16
1+
𝑃𝑟

For turbulent flow (Ra>109)

8 2
1 9 27
0.492 16
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.825 + (0.387𝑅𝑎𝐿 )/( 1 + 2
𝑃𝑟
Inclined Plates
For plates inclined at 𝜃 to the vertical (for 𝜃 = 0°𝐶 𝑡𝑜 60℃)
For laminar regime (RaL<109) : Same as vertical plates but use g cos𝜃 instead of g (when
evaluating RaL
For turbulent regime (RaL >109): Same as vertical plates.

Vertical Cylinder

𝐷 35
Same correlation as for vertical plates if 𝐿 ≥ 1 [This represents the limit at which
𝐺𝑟𝐿4

curvature is negligible] If this condition is not met – no correlation available.

Horizontal Plates
Since natural convection is a function of Buoyancy, it makes a difference whether you are talking
about the top or bottom surface of a horizontal plate & whether the surface is hot or cold
(relative to the fluid)

For hot surface facing up/cold surface facing down

1
105 < 𝑅𝑎𝐿 < 2 × 107 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.54 𝑅𝑎𝐿 4

1
2× 107 < 𝑅𝑎𝐿 < 3 × 1010 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.14𝑅𝑎𝐿 3

For hot surface facing down/cold surface up

1
3× 105 < 𝑅𝑎𝐿 < 106 𝑁𝑢 = 0.27𝑅𝑎 4

In all 3 of these correlations:

(𝑇𝑠 +𝑇∞ )
• Phys props evaluated at 𝑇𝑓 = 2

𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

• L= 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Horizontal Cylinders
As long as cylinders are long enough to ignore end effects

1 2
6
0.387𝑅𝑎𝐷
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.60 + 8
9 27
0.559 16
1+
𝑃𝑟

For 10−5 < 𝑅𝑎 < 1012

OR
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑎𝐷𝑛
See WWW+R, p. 301, Table 20.2 for values of C, n
𝑇𝑠 +𝑇∞
All phys properties at 𝑇𝑓 = 2

Spheres
For 𝑃𝑟 ≈ 1, 1 < 𝑅𝑎𝐷 < 105
1
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 2 + 0.43𝑅𝑎𝐷 4
Rectangular enclosures
Note: Increasingly important as solar collectors.
Two large surfaces (W X H)
Hotter surface (T1)
Colder surface (T2)
𝑞
= ℎ(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝐴

Fluid properties evaluated at:

𝑇1 +𝑇2
𝑇𝑓 = 2

∆𝑇 in RaL = T1 - T2
𝜽 = 𝟎° (horizontal –bottom surface heated)
1
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.069𝑅𝑎𝐿 3
𝑃𝑟 0.074 for 3 × 105 < 𝑅𝑎𝐿 < 7 × 109

𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 1 (heat transfer by conduction) for RaL <1700

𝜽 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎° (horizontal –top surface heated)
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 1 (i.e. heat transfer by conduction)
𝜽 = 𝟗𝟎° (vertical)

𝑃𝑟 0.29 𝐻 𝑅𝑎𝐿 𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.18 𝑅𝑎𝐿 for 1 < < 2, 10−3 < 𝑃𝑟 < 105 , 103 <
0.2+𝑃𝑟 𝐿 0.2+𝑃𝑟

1
𝑃𝑟 0.28 𝐻 −
4 𝐻
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.22 𝑅𝑎 𝐿 for 2 < < 10, 𝑃𝑟 < 105 , 𝑅𝑎𝐿 < 1010
0.22+𝑃𝑟 𝐿 𝐿

1 −0.3
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.42(𝑅𝑎)𝐿 𝑃𝑟 4 0.012 𝐻 for 10 <
𝐻
< 40, 1 < 𝑃𝑟 < 2 ∙ 104 , 104 < 𝑅𝑎𝐿 < 107
𝐿 𝐿

1
𝐻
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.046 𝑅𝑎 3 for 10 < 𝐿
< 40, 1 < 𝑃𝑟 < 20, 106 < 𝑅𝑎𝐿 < 109

𝟎 < 𝜽 < 𝟗𝟎° (tilted)

1
1708 1708 𝑠𝑖𝑛1.8𝜃 1.6 𝑅𝑎𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 3
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 1 + 1.44 1 − 1− + −1
𝑅𝑎𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑅𝑎𝐿 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 5830

𝐻
for 𝐿 ≥ 12 & 0 < 𝜃 < 70°

Note: In applying this correlation, if any bracket term is <0, it should be re-set to 0.
1
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 𝑁𝑢𝐿𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 4 for 70° < 𝜃 < 90°
𝐻
𝑁𝑢𝐿𝑉 is 𝑁𝑢𝐿 for vertical for > 12
𝐿
Notes :
1. Many ranges (of RaL & other variables) are not covered by the correlation in
WWW+R. If you have a situation which is outside the range, could:

(a) look elsewhere for additional correlations (see many articles referred
by WWW+R in this chapter)
(b) use these correlations & take a risk.
(c) do your own experiments in your range of interest

2. In general, it is always worth checking the original source to make sure the
equations have been copied correctly in WWW+R (or other textbooks) – easy to
make typos with these equations!
Example (WWW+R, pp. 303-304, E.g. 1
Determine Ts for cylindrical tank, D=0.75m, H=1.2m, 𝑇∞ =295K. Assume all heat loss from
surface by natural convection. Assume TS is constant. Q=1.5 kW.

Assumption is made that there is heat loss from all surfaces (i.e. top, bottom & sides).
Remember 𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) [for each surface]
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞(𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒) = ( ℎ𝐴)(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋 2
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑡 = = 0.75𝑚 = 0.442𝑚2
4 4

𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 = 𝜋 0.75𝑚 1.2𝑚 = 2.83𝑚2

𝐿 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = [ℎ𝑡 0.442 + ℎ𝑏 0.442 + ℎ𝑠 2.83 ](𝑇𝑠 − 295)
𝑇𝑠 +𝑇∞
Since we do not know 𝑇𝑠 , we must first estimate TS (so that we can use it to calculate 𝑇𝑓 = 2

358+295 𝐾
the temp at which we evaluate the phys props) Choose Ts=385K ∴ 𝑇𝑓 = = 340 𝐾
2
For air at 340K (WWW+R, p. 679, Appendix I)
𝑔𝛽𝜌2 1
= 0.750 × 108 𝑘𝑚3
𝜇2 Height of
vertical For vertical
𝑃𝑟 = 0.699 cylinder (385-295)K cylinder

𝑔𝛽𝜌2 𝐿3 ∆𝑇 1
∴ 𝐺𝑟𝐿 = = 0.75 × 108 𝐾𝑚3 1.2𝑚 3
90𝐾 = 11.7 × 109
𝜇2

𝐷 35
For vertical cylinder, can use flat plate correlation if 𝐿
≥ 1
𝐺𝑟 4

35 35 𝐷 0.75
1 = 1 = 0.106 = = 0.625
𝐿 1.2
𝐺𝑟 4 167×109 4

0.625 ≥ 0.106 ∴ Use flat plate correlation for sides.

For sides : 𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 𝐺𝑟𝐿 𝑃𝑟 = 8.2 × 109 > 109

1 2
0.387𝑅𝑎𝐿6
∴ 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.825 + 8 = 236
9 27
0.492 16
1+ 𝑃𝑟
For top (horizontal plate hot side facing up)

𝜋𝐷2
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 4 𝐷
𝐿= = = = 0.1875𝑚
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝜋𝐷 4

𝛽𝑔𝜌2 𝐿3 ∆𝑇 1
𝐺𝑟 = = 0.750 × 108 𝐾𝑚3 0.1875𝑚 3 90𝐾 = 4.45 × 107
𝜇2

𝑅𝑎 = 𝐺𝑟𝑃𝑟 = 3.1 × 107

1
∴ 𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.14𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 44.0 3

For bottom (horizontal plate hot side facing down)

𝐿 = 0.1875𝑚 (similar to top)
∴ 𝐺𝑟 = 4.45 × 107 (similar to top)
∴ 𝑅𝑎 = 3.1 × 107 (similar to top)
1
𝑁𝑢𝐿 = 0.27 𝑅𝑎𝐿 = 20.2
4
Now remember
ℎ𝐿
𝑁𝑢𝐿 =
𝑘

For top and bottom L=0.1875m

𝑘
∴ ℎ = 𝑁𝑢𝐿 0.1875

For side L=1.2m

𝑘
∴ ℎ = 𝑁𝑢𝐿 1.2𝑚

∴ subbing back into equation.

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 2.36𝑁𝑢𝑡 + 2.36𝑁𝑢𝑏 + 2.36𝑁𝑢𝑠 𝑘 𝑇𝑠 − 295
At 340K, k=0.0293 Wm-1K-1 (Appendix I)
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 1500𝑊, 𝑁𝑢𝑡 = 44.0, 𝑁𝑢𝑏 = 20.2, 𝑁𝑢𝑠 = 236
∴ Solving for TS, TS=367.3K
𝑇𝑠 +𝑇∞ 367.3+295
Would now have to set 𝑇𝑓 = = = 331 𝐾
2 2

Re-evaluate Gr, Pr, k, etc. & see if the next iteration gave a Ts close to 367.3 K, iterate again if
necessary, etc.
Forced convection for internal flow
Analytical and quasi-analytical solutions (WWW+R, pp 286-293)
ℎ For conduit flow 𝐶𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓
𝜌𝑣𝐶𝑝 (Fanning friction factor)

𝐶𝑓
Reynolds analogy : 𝑆𝑡 = Only valid for 𝑃𝑟 = 1 (Eqn 19-37)
2

2 𝐶𝑓
Colburn analogy: 𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 = 3 0.5 < Pr < 50 (Eqn 19-38)
2

𝐶𝑓
2
Prandtl analogy: 𝑆𝑡 = 𝐶𝑓
(Eqn 19-58)
1+5 (𝑃𝑟−1)
2

𝐶𝑓
2
Von-Karman analogy: 𝑆𝑡 = 𝐶𝑓
(Eqn 19-59)
5
1+5 𝑃𝑟−1+ln[1+6 𝑃𝑟−1 ]
2

In all four cases, no “form” drag. In each of the above cases, phys props should be evaluated at
the average Tf.
Note: The case of heat transfer from a long conduct (i.e. pipe, tube, etc.)
adds complexity to evaluation of phys props. Since the bulk T of the fluid
changes significantly from one end of the conduct to the other. Thus, we
now have to calculate average bulk T.

𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑖𝑛 +𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2

and use this to calculate the average film T

𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑎𝑣𝑔 +𝑇𝑆
𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2
 Example (WWW+R, pp 291-293, Eg. 1)
Water, 50 oF (To in solution) enters tube I.D=1 in, L=10 ft, V=20 gal/min. Assuming
constant TS=210 oF, estimate Tout (TL of water using each of the four analogies.

𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝐷
𝑞1 = 𝜌 4 𝑣𝐶𝑝 𝑇 𝑥 (Since 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴𝑥,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑣 𝐴𝑥,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡 = )
∆𝑥

𝑞2 = ℎ𝜋𝐷∆𝑥(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇) (Since Asurface =𝜋𝐷∆𝑥)

𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝐷
𝑞3 = 𝜌 4 𝑣𝐶𝑝 𝑇 𝑥+∆𝑥 (Since 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴𝑥,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑣 𝐴𝑥,𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡 = )
∆𝑥

Steady state : 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 = 𝑞3
or: 𝑞3 − 𝑞1 − 𝑞2 = 0
𝜋𝐷2
Solving: 𝜌 4 𝑣𝐶𝑝 𝑇 𝑥+∆𝑥 −𝑇 𝑥 − ℎ𝜋𝐷∆𝑥 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇 = 0

𝑇 𝑥+∆𝑥 −𝑇 𝑥 ℎ 4
+ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 = 0
∆𝑥 𝜌𝑣𝐶𝑝 𝐷
 𝜕𝑇 4
+ 𝑆𝑡 𝐷 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 = 0
𝜕𝑥

Separating variables & solving with 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 @ 𝑥 = 0

𝑇 = 𝑇𝐿 @ 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑇 −𝑇 4𝐿
ln 𝑇𝐿−𝑇𝑠 + 𝑆𝑡 =0 (Note : this is a general solution for pipe-flow)
0 𝑠 𝐷

𝑔𝑎𝑙 1 𝑓𝑡𝑠 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝑉 20 𝑓𝑡
𝑚𝑖𝑛 7.48 𝑔𝑎𝑙 60 𝑠
𝑣=𝐴= 𝜋 1 𝑖𝑛 2 1 𝑓𝑡2
= 8.17 𝑠
4 144 𝑖𝑛2

𝑇𝐿 +𝑇0
Initially, we do not know 𝑇𝐿 ∴ must estimate it, so that we can calc 𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2

Assume 𝑇𝐿 = 130℉ ∴ 𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 90℉

210℉+90℉
∴ 𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 150℉
2

𝜇
∴ From Appendix I, ν= = 0.474 × 10−5 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑠 −1
𝜌

1 𝑓𝑡
𝐷𝑣 12
𝑓𝑡 8.17 𝑠
∴ 𝑅𝑒 = = 𝑓𝑡2
= 144 000
ν 0.474×10−5 𝑠
From this, using Fig 13.1, p 173, ff=0.0042 (assuming a smooth pipe)
Remember, for conduit flow, 𝐶𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓 (WWW+R, p169)
From Appendix I, Pr=2.72
∴ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 Reynolds Analogy: St=0.0021, TL=152oF
Colburn Analogy: St=0.00108, TL=115oF
Prandtl Analogy: St=00151 , TL=132oF
Von Karman Analogy St=0.00131, TL=125oF

Note: normally, would have to re-evaluate Tbulk,avg+Tfilm,avg for all these cases & re-evaluate phys
props & re-calculate St’s & TL’s BUT in this case, all the Tfilm,avg’s are within 6oF of the origional
assumption (150oF) ∴ not necessary.

TL calculated using Reynolds analogy way out. Why? Pr≠1 (Others fairly close)

Note: These four equations all involved 𝐶𝑓 (𝐶𝑓 = 𝑓𝑓 for flow in conduits) ∴ require Re to be
evaluated at Cf read from Fig 13.1. Better to have a direct function of Re [ i.e. Nu or St=f(Re,Pr)]
 Empirical Conditions (WWW+R, pp 305-311)
Laminar Flow
1
𝐷 3 𝜇𝑏 0.14
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 1.86 𝑃𝑒 𝐿 𝜇𝑊

𝑃𝑒 = (𝑅𝑒)(𝑃𝑟)
Applies for Re < 2300
𝜇𝑤 evaluated at wall (i.e. surface) T
All other phys props evaluated at Tbulk,avg
Turbulent Flow
0.8 𝑛
1. 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 (Dittus-Boelter Equation)
∴ n=0.4 if fluid is being heated
∴ n=0.3 if fluid is being cooled
All phys props evaluated at Tbulk,avg
𝑅𝑒𝐷 > 104
0.7 < 𝑃𝑟 < 100
𝐿
>60
 2
2. 𝑆𝑡 = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝑜−0.2 𝑃𝑟 3

𝑅𝑒𝐷 & Pr evaluated at 𝑇𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑚,𝑎𝑣𝑔

But St evaluated at 𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑎𝑣𝑔
Re>104
0.7<Pr<160
𝐿
> 60
𝐷

2
−3 𝜇𝑏 0.14
3. 𝑆𝑡 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝐷−0.2 𝑃𝑟 𝜇𝑤

Same as previous equation except for “viscosity correction” term

𝜇𝑤 evaluated at Twall (i.e. Ts)
All other phys props evaluated at Tbulk,avg
ReD>104
0.7 < Pr < 17 00
𝐿
> 60
𝐷
Which one to use?
For Pr<100, use Eqn 1. (Simplest since all phys props evaluated at Tbulk,avg)
For 100<Pr<160, use Eqn 2.
For 160<Pr<17000, use Eqn 3.
Notes:
Why is h a function of k & 𝜇 even in turbulent systems? Because of the boundary
layer (see Fig 12.5 in WWW+R, p144)

𝜇𝑠 0.14
Why do we need the term in some cases? Again, because of the viscosity
𝜇𝑤

effect in laminar regimes. In turbulent flow, this can be ignored unless you are dealing
𝜇𝐶𝑝
with high 𝜇 (i.e. high Pr= ) fluids.
𝑘

𝐿 ℎ𝐿 𝐷 0.7
For 2 < <20 =1+
𝐷 ℎ∞ 𝐿

𝐿 ℎ𝐿 𝐷
For 20 𝐷 <60 =1+6
ℎ∞ 𝐿
 Annular Flow (flow in the section between two concentric tubes)

ℎ𝑑𝑖 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑖 0.8 0.33 𝜇 0.14 𝑑2 0.15

𝑁𝑢𝑑𝑖 = = 0.031 𝑃𝑟
𝑘 𝜇 𝜇𝑠 𝑑1

Evaluate fluid phys props at Tbulk,avg except 𝜇𝑠 at Ts [from C+R, 6th edition, p. 433]

Reminder: See Table 15.1, p. 208, WWW+R h is typically much higher in water (or
liquids) than in air (or gases)
 Example (WWW+R, p. 309, Eg. 2)
𝑚
Hydraulic fluid (MIL-M-5606, 𝑣 = 0.005 , 𝐼𝐷 = 2.5𝑐𝑚, 𝐿 = 0.61𝑚, 𝑇𝑜 = 295 𝐾, 𝑇𝑆 = 372 𝐾
𝑠

(assumed during the solution) Calculate q.

From previous example (WWW+R, p 291-3, Eg 1), general solution for TL is:

𝑇 −𝑇 𝐿 ℎ
ln 𝑇𝐿−𝑇𝑠 = 4 𝐷 𝜌𝑣𝐶 = 0
𝑜 𝑠 𝑝

To calc phys props, assume Tbulk,avg= 300 K

𝜇 𝑚 2
∴ ν= = 9.94 × 10−6 𝑠 (Note this is taken from Appendix I at 100oF-should have taken value at 80oF)
𝜌

𝑣𝐷 0.05𝑚𝑠 −1 0.025𝑚
∴ 𝑅𝑒𝐷 = = 𝑚2
= 126
ν 9.94×10−6 𝑠

1
𝐷 3 𝜇𝑏 0.14
∴ 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 ∴ 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 1.86 𝑃𝑒 𝐿 𝜇𝑤
 1
𝐷 3 𝜇𝑏 0.14
∴ 𝐿𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 ∴ 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 1.86 𝑃𝑒 𝐿 𝜇𝑤

𝑃𝑟 = 155 App I at 80oF (300 K)

𝑘 = 0.123𝑊𝑚−1 𝑘 −1 App I at 80oF (300 K)
𝜇𝑏 = 1.036 × 10−2 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−1 𝑠 −1 App I at 80oF (300 K) Note typo in WWW+R
𝜇𝑊 = 3.72 × 10−3 kg m−1 s −1 App I at 200 oF is best available for 372 K (210oF)
Pe=RePr
1
𝑘 𝑘 𝐷 3 𝜇𝑏 0.14
ℎ= 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 1.86 𝑃𝑒 𝐿
𝐷 𝐷 𝜇𝑤

1
0.123𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾−1 1.86 0.14
0.025 3 1.036×10−2
= 126 155
0.025 𝑚 0.61 3.72×10−3

= 98.1 𝑊 𝑚−2 𝑘 −1
Substituting back into pipe flow equation with
𝑘𝑔 𝐽
𝜌 = 843 𝑚3 𝐶𝑝 = 1897 𝑘𝑔𝐾 (Appendix I at 80oF)

And solving for TL.

TL = 304 K. (Note with correct ν, Re TL = 303 K so error does not make a big difference.)
 304+295 𝐾
Since 𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 299.5 ≈ 300 𝐾 no need for further iteration.
2

How to get q?

𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 𝜌𝐴𝑣𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝐿 − 𝑇𝑜
𝑘𝑔 𝜋 2 𝑚 𝐽
= 843 𝑚3 0.025𝑚 0.05 1897 𝑘𝑔𝐾 9𝐾
4 𝑠

= 353 𝑊

Do WWW+R, p 310, Eg. 3 yourself. Note the error in the find calc of h: phys props
should be evaluated at Tbulk,avg (not Tfilm,avg as in WWW+R). h should be 112 Wm-2K-2
 Example
3500 kg/h of superheated steam at 600 K flows through a horizontal mild steel pipe ( k = 35
W/m.K) with an inside diameter of 154 mm and an outside diameter of 168 mm. On its outer
surface, the pipe has 50 mm thickness of insulation with thermal conductivity of 0.10 W/m.K. The
insulation is still surrounded by still air at 295 K. Calculate
(a) the heat loss per metre of pipe
(b) the outside surface temperature of the insulation.
Use a first estimate of 345 K for the outside surface temperature of the insulation. Do only one
iteration of the calculation, and comment on how you would proceed further.
Note : Superheated steam is not saturated ∴ not condensing ∴ gas
Four resistances
1
Inside convection = 𝑅1 = ℎ𝑖𝐴𝑖 𝐴𝑖 = 𝜋𝑑𝑖 𝐿; 𝑑𝑖 = 0.154𝑚

𝑑𝑜
ln
𝑑𝑖 𝑊
Pipe conduction = 𝑅2 = [𝑑𝑖 = 0.154𝑚; 𝑑𝑜 = 0.168 𝑚 ; 𝑘 = 35 𝑚𝐾]
2𝜋𝑘𝐿

𝑑𝑜
ln
𝑑𝑖 𝑊
Insulation Conduction 𝑅3 = 𝑑𝑖 = 0.168 𝑚 ; 𝑑𝑜 = 0.268 𝑚; 𝑘 = 0.10 𝑚𝐾
2𝜋𝑘𝐿

1
Outside convection R 4 = 𝐴𝑜 = 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿; 𝑑𝑜 = 0.268𝑚
ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜

0.168𝑚
ln0.154𝑚 𝐾
𝑅2 = 𝑊 = 0.000396 𝑊
(2𝜋 35𝑚𝐾 1𝑚

0.268𝑚
ln0.168𝑚 𝐾
𝑅3 = 𝑊 = 0.743 𝑊
(2𝜋 0.10𝑚𝐾 1𝑚
𝑅1 : Internal forced convection (∴ 𝑁𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑒)
Bulk average T of steam = 600 K
𝐽 𝑘𝑔
∴ From Appendix I, 𝜌 = 0.3667 𝑘𝑔. 𝑚3 ; 𝐶𝑝 = 2026.4 ; 𝜇 = 20.64 × 10−6 ;
𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑚𝑠

𝑊
𝑘 = 4.22 × 10−2 𝑚𝐾 ; 𝑃𝑟 = 0.992

𝑘𝑔 1ℎ𝑟
𝑚 𝑚 4𝑚 4 3500 ℎ𝑟 3600𝑠 𝑘𝑔
𝐺 = 𝜌𝑣 = = 𝜋𝑑2
= = = 52.2 𝑚2𝑠
𝐴 𝑖 𝜋𝑑𝑖 𝜋 0.154 𝑚 2
4

𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑑𝑖 52.2 2 0.154𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑖 = = 𝑚 𝑠
𝑘𝑔 = 3.89 × 105
𝜇 20.64 ×10−6 𝑚𝑠

∴ Turbulent flow ∴ Use Dittus-Boelter equation with n=0.3 (since steam is being cooled)
 0.8 0.3
𝑁𝑢𝑑𝑖 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑖 𝑃𝑟 = 0.023 3.89 × 105 0.8 0.992 0.3 = 680.8

𝑊
𝑘 680.8 4.22×10−2 𝑤
𝑚𝐾
ℎ𝑖 = 𝑁𝑢𝑑𝑖 𝑑 = = 186.6 𝑚2𝐾
𝑖 0.154𝑚

Note: This is in the range for forced convection in gases (WWW+R), p.208, Table 15.1)

1 1 𝐾
∴ 𝑅1 = ℎ 𝜋𝑑 𝐿 = 𝑊 = 0.0111 𝑊
𝑖 𝑖 186.6 2 𝜋 0.154𝑚 1𝑚
𝑚 𝐾

𝑅4 : Natural convection-horizontal cylinder (∴ 𝑁𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎)

𝑇𝑠 −𝑇∞ 345+295 𝐾
First estimate Ts = 345 K, 𝑇∞ = 295𝐾, ∴ 𝑇𝑓 = = = 320 𝐾
2 2

From Appendix I for air @ 320 K

𝑔𝛽𝜌2 1 𝑊
= 0.9942 × 108 𝐾𝑚3 ; 𝑃𝑟 = 0.703; 𝑘 = 2.7785 × 10−2 𝑚𝐾
𝜇2

∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇∞ = 345 − 295 𝐾 = 50𝐾

𝑔𝛽𝜌2 𝑑𝑜3 ∆𝑇 1
∴ 𝐺𝑟𝑑𝑜 = = 0.9942 × 108 𝐾𝑚3 0.268𝑚 3 50𝐾 = 9.57 × 107
𝜇2
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑜 = 𝐺𝑟𝑑𝑜 𝑃𝑟 = 9.57 × 107 0.703 = 6.73 × 107

8 2
1 9 27
0.559 16
𝑁𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 0.60 + (0.387𝑅𝑎𝑑 )/( 1 + 6
= 50.0
𝑜 𝑃𝑟

[Or 𝑁𝑢𝑑𝑜 = 0.125𝑅𝑎𝑑0.33

𝑜
= 50.5 (WWW+R, p-301, Table 20.2 )]

𝑊
𝑘 50.0 2.7785 ×10−2 𝑊
𝑚𝐾
ℎ𝑜 = 𝑁𝑢𝑑𝑜 𝑑 = = 5.19 𝑚2𝐾
𝑜 0.268𝑚

(In the range for natural convection, WWW+R, Table 15.1)

1 1 𝐾
𝑅4 = ℎ = 𝑊 = 0.23 𝑊
𝑜 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿 5.19 2 𝜋 0.268𝑚 1𝑚
𝑚 𝐾

𝐾
𝑅 = 0.984
𝑊

∆𝑇 600−295 𝐾
(a) 𝑞 = 𝑅
= 𝐾 = 310.1 𝑊
0.984
𝑊

𝑇𝑠 −295 366+295 𝐾
(b)𝑞 = → 𝑇𝑠 = 366 𝐾 ∴ 𝑇𝑓 = = 330.5 𝐾
𝑅4 2

Re-evaluate phys props @ 330.5 K & recalculate

 Forced Convection for external flow (WWW+R pp. 311-319)
Flow parallel to plane surface
Laminar flow (Re<2 X 105)
Amenable to analytical solution (WWW+R, pp. 279-283)
NuL=0.644ReL1/2Pr1/3
All phys props evaluated at Tfilm
Turbulent flow (Re>3X106)
NuL=0.036ReL4/5Pr1/3
Phys props evaluated at Tfilm
Note: For flow past spheres & cylinders in cross-flow, local Nu(or h) differs greatly depending
on the angle from forward stagnation point (See Figs 20.7, 20.8 and 20.10) ∴ Correlations give
average Nu (or h) over the entire sphere or cylinder.
 1 2 1
0.4 𝜇∞ 4
Spheres 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 2 + 0.4𝑅𝑒𝐷 + 0.06𝑅𝑒𝐷
2 3
𝑃𝑟 𝜇𝑠

𝜇𝑠 evaluated at Ts, all other phys props at Tbulk

0.71<Pr<380
3.5 < ReD < 7.6X104
𝜇∞
1.0< < 3.2
𝜇𝑠

Also, for falling liquid drops modelled asspheres

1 1
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 2 + 0.6𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 2 3

Evaluation of phys props as above (Presumed)

Cylinders in crossflow 𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 𝐵 𝑅𝑒𝐷𝑛 𝑃𝑟1/3
For B, n at various ReD, see table 20.3, p.314
Phys Props at Tf
OR

1 4
1 5 5
2
0.62𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 3 𝑅𝑒𝐷 8
𝑁𝑢𝐷 = 0.3 + 1 1+
2 4 282000
0.4
1+ 𝑃𝑟 3

𝑅𝑒𝐷 𝑃𝑟 > 0.2

Phys props at Tf (Presumed)
Tube banks in cross flow (e.g. in a shell & tube heat exchanger!) Different
from single cylinders in crossflow and depends on configuration.
 2
𝜇𝑊 0.14
For 1<Re<1000 see Fig 20.12, p 317. This plots 𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 3 𝑣𝑠 𝑅𝑒
𝜇𝑏

In calculation of Re & St:

𝜋𝐷2
4 𝑆𝐿 𝑆𝑇 −
4
-D is Deq = 𝜋𝐷

where D is diameter of tubes

SL is centre-to-centre distance between tubes along direction of flow
ST is centre-to-centre distance between tubes normal to direction of flow
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
-G = 𝜌𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚

𝜇𝑤 evaluated at Ts
All phys props evaluated at Tbulk,avg
For 1<Re<10 4 and if tube arrangement is one of the five shown in Re diagram see Fig 20.13
(p317) Can also use friction factor!

In Calculation of Re & St
-D is diameter of tubes
-G(=𝜌𝑣) is same as for Fig 20.12
Evaluate 𝜇𝑊 at Ts and all other phys props at Tbulk,avg

Use 20.13 unless tube configuration is not available. Then use Fig 20.12

When doing H.E design on computers, it is useful to have an equation rather than using a chart,
WWW+R does not have one therefore need to look elsewhere.
Could use
0.6
𝑁𝑢 = 0.33𝐶ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑟 0.3
for number of rows >10
for number of rows = 5 multiply by 0.92(Correction factor)
for number of rows = 8 multiply by 0.97(Correction factor)
𝐺𝐷𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜇 Table 9.3 , Values of Ch and Cf
X=1.25do X=1.5do
In-line Staggered In-line Staggered
Ch Cf Ch Cf Ch Cf Ch Cf
Y=1.25do
2000 1.06 1.68 1.21 2.52 1.06 1.74 1.16 2.58
20000 1.00 1.44 1.06 1.56 1.00 1.56 1.05 1.74
40000 1.00 1.20 1.03 1.26 1.00 1.32 1.02 1.50
Y=1.50do
2000 0.95 0.79 1.17 1.80 0.95 0.97 1.15 1.80
20000 0.96 0.84 1.04 1.10 0.96 0.96 1.02 1.16
40000 0.96 0.74 0.99 0.88 0.96 0.85 0.98 0.96
 Boiling and Condensation
More complex than single-phase convection ∴ also a function of hfg, 𝜎 & other props of 2-phase
systems.

Boiling (WWW+R, pp 323-328)

Two types -Pool Boiling
-Flow Boiling (Not discussed in this course)

Different regimes of boiling, depend on the T difference (TW-Tsat)

TW – Surface T (Same as Ts)
Tsat – T of the boiling fluid
See WWW+R, Fig 21.1, Pg 324

𝑞
Note: This plots heat flux vs 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 ∴ shows direct heat transfer in different regimes.
𝐴
𝑞
𝐴 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡
I No bubbles. Natural convection of superheated liquid. Liquid evaporates at free liquid surface.

II Bubbles form at heated surface – break off & condense before reaching free liquid surface.

III Bubbles form at heated surface – break off & rise to free liquid surface.

IV Vapour film forms around heated surface Portions of film break off & rise, briefly exposing
heated surface to liquid.

V Stable vapour films forms around heated surface

VI Heat transfer by radiation

Notes:
1. Heat flux increases dramatically in regimes II & III (Nucleate boiling) & reaches a
𝑞
maximum in regime III. Why is 𝐴 so high here? Because the bubbles create greater

turbulence at the heated surface

2. Heat flux then decreases sharply in Regimes IV & V (film boiling) & reaches a minimum
in regime V (Stable film boiling). Why? Because when heated surface is surrounded by
a vapour film, we have gas-phase convection with a very low h.

In which regime would we always like to operate? Regime III ∴ if you know the T-range of your
boiling fluid (e.g. in the reboiler at the bottom of a distillation column) should choose the T of
your heating fluid so that Tw-Tsat is in the appropriate range.

Note: Regime VI is out of range for most engineering applications

Correlations
Regime I- use natural convection correlations (WWW+R, pp. 297-305)
Regime II- can superpose/interpolate between h-values for regime I & III.
1
𝑞 𝑔 𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑣 2 𝐶𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑠 −𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
Regime III- = 𝜇𝐿 ℎ𝑓𝑔
𝐴 𝜎 𝐶𝑠𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑃𝑟𝐿1.7

All phys props evaluated at Tsat

𝜇𝐿 , 𝜌𝐿 , 𝐶𝑝𝐿 , 𝑃𝑟𝐿 liquid props
𝜌𝑣 vapour prop
ℎ𝑓𝑔 latent heat of vaporisation
𝐶𝑠𝑓 see Table 21.1
𝜎 surface tension For water 𝜎 = 0.1232[1 − 0.00146𝑇]
𝑁
answer in 𝑚 , Temperature in K

𝜎 = 0.00844 1 − 0.00082𝑇
1
𝑞 𝜎𝑔 𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑣 4 lbf
= 0.18 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑣 answer in , Temperature in K
𝐴 𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 𝜌𝑣 2 ft

Note: this is max possible (q/A)

 Regime IV- not of great engineering interest – no satisfactory correlations.
Regime V- only of interest to get “worst case scenarios” for low heat flux (e.g. in
cooling of nuclear reactors) or damage to hot surface (e.g. in cooling of solid electronic
components)-see WWW+R, p. 327 for correlations.
Regime VI- Use regime V correlations BUT add radiant h (i.e. hr, see later in
Chapter 23)
1
ℎ 3
ℎ= ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐 + ℎ𝑟

h is total heat transfer coefficient

hc is from Regime V correlations
hr is radiant heat transfer coefficient
Note: All correlations should be used with extreme caution in cases with appreciable
liquid or vapour (or 2-phase) flow – see recent literature for “flow boiling”
 Condensation (WWW+R, pp 328-334)
Vapour contacts surface (where T<Tsat), condenses flow under gravity. Two cases:

(a) Spreads out, forms a film (i.e. wets entire surface) → film condensation

(b) Forms droplets, surface not fully wetted → drop wise condensation

In film condensation, heat transfer has additional resistance through liquid film ∴ h is
greater for dropwise condensation. BUT dropwise condensation difficult to achieve
industrially ∴ all design on basis of film condensation.

Note: Condensation associated with very high h-values (See WWW+R, p. 208, Table 15.1)
 Vertical plates/cylinders
Analytical solution for laminar flow

1
3
𝜌𝐿 𝑔𝑘𝐿3 𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑣 ℎ𝑓𝑔 +8𝐶𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤 4
ℎ = 0.943 𝐿𝜇𝐿 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤

ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 , 𝜌𝑣 evaluated at Tsat

𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤
𝜌𝐿 , 𝑘𝐿 , 𝐶𝑝𝐿 , 𝜇𝐿 evaluated at 𝑇𝑓 =
2
3
Experimental data fits well with above except replace “8 “ with 0.68

𝑃𝑟 > 0.5

𝐶𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤

< 1.0
ℎ𝑓𝑔

Can also apply to plates/cylinders inclined at 𝜃 to horizontal (where 𝜃 not to small) by

inserting sin𝜃 into { } term.

4Γ𝐶
What is laminar flow in condensate film? 𝑅𝑒 = where Γ𝐶 is mass flow rate of condensate per
𝜇𝑓

unit width of surface.

Laminar flow ≡ Re< 2000

Empirical equation for laminar flow:

1 1
−3
𝑘 3 𝜌2 𝑔 3 4Γ𝐶
ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 1.51 (The subscript f implies film (i.e. liquid props)
𝜇2 𝑓 𝜇𝑓

Can use either “modified analytical” or empirical solution (or perhaps use both & compare)

4Γ𝐶
For turbulent flow 𝑅𝑒 = > 2000
𝜇𝐿2

1 4
3 2 1 1
𝑘 𝜌 𝑔 3 4Γ𝐶 4Γ𝐶 5
ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.045 𝑃𝑟 /(
3 − 364 + 576𝑃𝑟 3
𝜇2 𝑓 𝜇𝑓 𝜇𝑓

𝜌𝐿 𝑔 𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑣 𝑘𝐿3
ℎ = 0.0077 𝑅𝑒 0.4
𝜇𝐿2

𝜌𝑣 at 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 , other phys props at Tf (presumed)

 Horizontal Plates
In this case, the condensate does not “flow” away (especially if there is a lip around the edge of
the plate, i.e. a pen) ∴ condensate film gets thicker & thicker and it is simply a conduction
problem (with the thickness of the “conduction plate” a function of time) See WWW+R, pp 330-
331, Eg. 1.

Horizontal Cylinders

1
3
𝜌𝐿 𝑔 𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑣 𝑘𝐿3 ℎ𝑓𝑔 +8𝐶𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤 4
ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.725 (𝜇𝐿 𝐷 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤

Note: This is the same as the vertical cylinder except for the “0.725” is “0.943” and “D” is “L”
∴ We can divide one equation by the other
1 1
ℎ𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 0.943 𝐷 4 𝐷 4
= = 1.3
ℎℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧 0.725 𝐿 𝐿

𝐿
Thus, for a > 2.86, heat transfer is greater for a horizontal cylinder.
𝐷
 Banks of horizontal tubes
Condensate from one tube runs on to the ones below it, etc.

Therefore, liquid film thickness increases as you go down & there is a

reduction in heat transfer per tube as you go down. However, this is partially
offset by the effect of condensation on the liquid layer between the tubes.

1
3
𝜌𝐿 𝑔 𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑣 𝑧 𝑘𝐿3 ℎ𝑓𝑔 +8𝐶𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤 4
𝐶𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤
ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.725 × 1 + 0.02 𝑛−1
𝑛𝐷𝜇𝐿 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑊 ℎ𝑓𝑔

Reduction term Offset term

n= number of tubes in vertical bank

𝐶𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤 𝑛−1

Valid for >2
ℎ𝑓𝑔

Note: For several vertical tubes, h is same as for one tube since tubes do not interact with each
other.
 Example
Saturated steam at atmospheric pressure condenses on the outside surface of a 1-m-long tube
with 150-mm diameter. The surface temperature is maintained at 91oC. Evaluate the
condensation rate if the pipe is oriented:
(a) vertically
(b) horizontally

1
𝜌𝐿 𝑔𝑘𝐿3 𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑣 ℎ𝑓𝑔 +0.68𝐶𝑝𝐿 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑊 4
(a) ℎ = 0.943 𝐿𝜇𝐿 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 −𝑇𝑤
(Note: this is the equation for laminar flow)

𝑇𝑊 = 91℃; 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 100℃ steam condensing at atmospheric pressure ; ∴ ∆𝑇 = 9℃

(91+100)℃
∴ 𝑇𝑓 = = 95.5℃
2

∴ Evaluated 𝜌𝐿 , 𝑘𝐿 , 𝐶𝑝𝐿 , 𝜇𝐿 at 95 ℃
𝑘𝑔 𝑊 𝐽 𝑘𝑔
From Appendix I, 𝜌𝐿 = 961.2 𝑚3 , 𝑘𝐿 = 0.679 𝑚𝐾 , 𝐶𝑝𝐿 = 4206 𝑘𝑔𝐾 , 𝜇𝐿 = 297 × 10−6 𝑚𝑠

Evaluate ℎ𝑓𝑔 , 𝜌𝑣 at 100℃

𝐽
From Appendix I, 𝜌𝑣 = 0.596 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 From steam tables, ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2258 × 103 𝑘𝑔
 𝑊
L= 1m, D=0.150 m ∴ Substituting, ℎ = 6616 𝑚2𝐾

𝐴 = 𝜋𝐷𝐿 = 0.471 𝑚2
𝑊
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇 = 6616 𝑚2𝐾 0.471 𝑚2 9℃ = 28059 𝑊

𝐽
𝑞 28 059𝑆 𝑘𝑔
𝑚= = 𝐽 = 0.0124
ℎ𝑓𝑔 2.258×106 𝑘𝑔 𝑠

4Γ𝐶
Now must check laminar assumption 𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇𝑓

Γ𝐶 is mass flow condensate per unit width of surface. “Width” has no meaning for tubes ∴
instead use perimeter of circumference (=𝜋D)
𝑘𝑔
𝑚 0.0124 𝑠 kg
Γ𝐶 = = = 0.0264 ms
𝜋𝐷 π 0.150𝑚

𝑘𝑔
4 0.0264𝑚𝑠
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑘𝑔 = 355 < 2000 ∴ laminar
297×10−6 𝑚𝑠

Now that we have Re, can also calculate h from empirical equation → h=6782 W/m2K (only 2.5%
different)
 𝑊
ℎ𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 6616 2 𝑊
𝑚 𝐾
(b) = = 8177 𝑚2𝐾
ℎℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧 0.809

𝑞 = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇 = 34 682 𝑊

𝑞 𝑘𝑔
𝑚=ℎ = 0.0154
𝑓𝑔 𝑠
 Overall heat transfer coefficient (𝑼𝒐 )
For any metal tube, we know of three thermal resistances:
1
Convective (inside) : 𝑅1 = ℎ 𝐴
𝑖 𝑖

𝑟
ln 𝑜
𝑟𝑖
Conductive (thru the tube): 𝑅2 = 2𝜋𝑘𝐿

Convective (outside): 𝑅3 = 1/ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜

In practice, there are two additional thermal resistances that have to be considered: those due
to fouling(or scaling) on the inside and outside of the tube. These can be written as:
𝑅𝑖
𝑅4 =
𝐴𝑖

𝑅
𝑅5 = 𝐴𝑜
𝑜

Where 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑜 are unknown as the fouling factors (with units m2K/W or hr.ft2/Btu). Some
typical fouling factor values are given in WWW+R, p. 355, Table 22.1.

Note: the difference in fouling factor value between water above & below 325 K.
Therefore rate of heat transfer can be written

∆𝑇
𝑞= 𝑟
ln 𝑟𝑜 𝑅 𝑅
1 1
+ 𝑖 + + 𝑖+ 𝑜
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝐴𝑖 𝐴𝑜

The overall heat transfer coefficient (𝑈𝑜 ) is defined by the equation

𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇
i.e. 𝑈𝑜 is a single heat transfer coefficient which takes into account all the heat transfer
mechanisms from the inside to the outside of the tube. Note that 𝑈𝑜 is based on the outside
surface area of the tube (Ao), hence the subscript “o” Equating the two equations above, we see

1
that: 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 = 𝑟
ln 𝑟𝑜 𝑅
1 1 𝑅
+ 𝑖 +ℎ 𝐴 +𝐴𝑖+𝐴𝑜
ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 𝑜 𝑜 𝑖 𝑜

𝑟
ln 𝑟𝑜
1 1 1 𝑅
or 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜
= ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖
+ 2𝜋𝑘𝐿
𝑖
+ℎ + 𝑅𝑖 𝐴𝑖 + 𝐴𝑜
𝑜 𝐴𝑜 0

Multiply through by 𝐴𝑜

𝑟
𝐴𝑜 ln 𝑟𝑜
1 𝐴𝑜 1 𝑖 1 𝑑𝑜
= + + + 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑜
𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑖 ℎ𝑖 2𝜋𝑘𝐿 ℎ𝑜 𝑑𝑖
 1
Note: because Uo is based in the outer surface area of the tube, the “ℎ ” &” Ri” terms are
𝑖

𝐴𝑜
“corrected” by an ratio.
𝐴𝑖

𝐴𝑜
Note: Equation 22-28 on WWW+R, p. 355 erroneously omits the ratio in the 𝑅𝑖 term (and has
𝐴𝑖

a typo in “2𝜋𝑘𝐿" )

𝑟 𝑑𝑜
Since 𝐴𝑜 = 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿, 𝐴𝑖 = 𝜋𝑑𝑖 𝐿 & 𝑟𝑜 = the above equation can be further simplified to
𝑖 𝑑𝑖

𝑑
𝑑𝑜 ln( 𝑑𝑜 )
1 𝑑𝑜 1 𝑖 1 𝑑𝑜
= + +ℎ + 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑜
𝑈𝑜 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖 2𝑘 𝑜 𝑑𝑖

Note: that the terms for inside and outside fouling factor are sometimes combined and referred
𝑑𝑜
to as “overall fouling factor” = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑜 .
𝑑𝑖
𝑈𝑜 has been determined experimentally (i.e. in thousands of different industrial applications)
and typical ranges of 𝑈𝑜 for various fluid combinations are listed in WWW+R, p. 356, Table 22.2.

These 𝑈𝑜 values are often used to get first estimates of the heat transfer are (𝐴𝑂 ) of a heat
𝑞
exchanger [ using the equation 𝐴𝑜 = 𝑈 (with the “modified ∆𝑇“ that we will discuss in the
𝑜 ∆𝑇

next section)]

Notes:

𝑑
𝑑𝑜 ln 𝑑𝑜
𝑖
Because of the high k-values for metals, the conductive term is usually negligibly
2𝑘

small compared to the other terms & can often be ignored.

The fouling factor terms are often dominant, i.e. they often determine the design area of the
heat exchanger.
Log-mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) WWW+R, pp. 339-347
The following diagrams give T-profiles for some typical H.E scenarios

Note: Whenever faced with an H.E problem, it is worth making a quick sketch like one of these.
This will avoid T- “crossover” situations (which are impossible in reality!)
In each of these cases, the ∆𝑇(= ∆𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 ) changes over the length of the H.E. ∴ the equation
𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇 does not make sense over the whole exchanger (i.e. which ∆𝑇 would you use?) &
the ∆𝑇 term has to be modified.

Take the single-pass counter flow example for analysis

Hot side: 𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐻 𝑇𝐻2 − 𝑇𝐻1 = 𝐶𝐻 𝑇𝐻2 − 𝑇𝐻1

Cold side: 𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑐 𝑇𝐶2 − 𝑇𝐶1 = 𝐶𝐶 (𝑇𝐶2 − 𝑇𝐶1 )
Since heat lost on hot side is heat gained by cold side
𝐶𝐻 𝑇 −𝑇
𝐶𝐻 𝑇𝐻2 − 𝑇𝐻1 = 𝐶𝐶 (𝑇𝐶2 − 𝑇𝐶1 ) 𝐶𝐶
= 𝑇 𝐶2−𝑇𝐶1 (energy balance)
𝐻2 𝐻1
Over an incremental part of the H.E. (i.e dA)
𝑑𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑑𝐴𝑜 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑑𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇
but also
𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑑𝑇𝐶 → 𝑑𝑇𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶

𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶𝐻 𝑑𝑇𝐻 → 𝑑𝑇𝐻 = 𝐶
𝐻

Since ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶
𝑑 ∆𝑇 = 𝑑𝑇𝐻 − 𝑑𝑇𝐶 (Sub in from above)
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 1 1 𝑑𝑞 𝐶𝐻
𝑑 ∆𝑇 = 𝐶 − 𝐶 = 𝑑𝑞 −𝐶 =𝐶 1−
𝐻 𝐶 𝐶𝐻 𝐶 𝐻 𝐶𝑐

𝐶𝐻 𝑇 −𝑇
But, from energy balance = 𝑇 𝐶2−𝑇𝐶1 (Sub into above equation)
𝐶𝑐 𝐻2 𝐻1

𝑑𝑞 𝑇 −𝑇 𝑑𝑞 𝑇𝐻2 −𝑇𝐻1 −𝑇𝐶2 +𝑇𝐶1

∴ 𝑑 ∆𝑇 = 𝐶 1 − 𝑇 𝐶2−𝑇𝐶1 = 𝐶
𝐻 𝐻2 𝐻1 𝐻 𝑇𝐻2 −𝑇𝐻1

𝑑𝑞 ∆𝑇2 −∆𝑇1
∴ 𝑑 ∆𝑇 = 𝐶
𝐻 𝑇𝐻2 −𝑇𝐻1

𝑑(∆𝑇)
𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶𝐻 (𝑇𝐻2 − 𝑇𝐻1 ) ∆𝑇 equates to 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑑𝐴𝑜 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑑𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇
2 −∆𝑇1
 𝑑(∆𝑇)
𝑑𝑞 = 𝐶𝐻 (𝑇𝐻2 − 𝑇𝐻1 ) ∆𝑇 equates to 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑑𝐴𝑜 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑑𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇
2 −∆𝑇1

𝑑∆𝑇
𝑈𝑜 𝑑𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇 = 𝑞 𝑞 = 𝐶𝐻 (𝑇𝐻2 − 𝑇𝐻1 )
∆𝑇2 −∆𝑇1

𝑑 ∆𝑇
= 𝑈𝑜 ∆𝑇2 − ∆𝑇1 𝑑𝐴𝑜
∆𝑇

Integrating across the whole H.E

∆𝑇2 𝑑 ∆𝑇 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜
∆𝑇1 ∆𝑇
= (∆𝑇2 − ∆𝑇1 ) 0
𝑑𝐴𝑜
𝑞

∆𝑇2 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜
ln = (∆𝑇2 − ∆𝑇1 )
∆𝑇1 𝑞

∆𝑇2 −∆𝑇1 ∆𝑇2 −∆𝑇1

𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇 with ∆𝑇𝑙𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = ∆𝑇
ln ∆𝑇2 𝑙𝑛 ∆𝑇2
1 1

∴ 𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷)
Note: Could do the same analysis for any of the T-profiles given previously. If ∆𝑇2 = ∆𝑇1 , then
0
LMTD = 0. L’Hopitals rule can be used to show that 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = ∆𝑇, i.e. ∆𝑇 is constant across the

∆𝑇2 ∆𝑇2 +∆𝑇1

whole H.E & 𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 ∆𝑇. If 0.67 < < 1.5 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 ≈ to within 1%
∆𝑇1 2
 Example (WWW+R, pp. 342-3, Eg. 1)
𝐽 𝐾𝑔
Lube oil: 𝐶𝑝 = 2090 ,𝑇 = 375 𝐾, 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 350 𝐾, 𝑚 = 0.5
𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑖𝑛 𝑠

𝑘𝑔 𝑊
Water : 𝑇𝑖𝑛 = 280𝐾, 𝑚 = 0.201 , 𝑈𝑜 = 250 𝑚2𝐾
𝑠

Calculate Ao for (a) counterflow, (b) parallel flow

Cp for water assumed to be 4177 J/kg-1K-1

Energy Balance:

𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 =𝑞
𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑘𝑔 𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝐽
∴ 0.5 2090 𝑘𝑔𝐾 375 − 350 𝐾 = 0.201 4177 𝑘𝑔𝐾 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑤 − 280𝐾
𝑠 𝑠

∴ 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑤 = 311.1 𝐾 and q= 26 125 W

280+311.1 𝐾
Note: at this point should re-evaluate Cp for water ar Tbulk,w= = 296𝐾 & iterate, etc.
2

but Cp at 296 K = 4181 Jkg-1K-1 so close enough.

(a) Counterflow

70 − 63.9 𝐾
∴ 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = = 66.9 𝐾
70
ln 63.9
∆𝑇2 −∆𝑇1
Note: If you reverse ∆𝑇2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑇1 , you would get the same value. would give you an
2

almost identical answer.

𝑞 26 125 𝑊
∴ 𝐴𝑜 = = = 1.56 𝑚2
𝑈𝑜 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 𝑊
250 2 66.9𝐾
𝑚 𝐾
(b) Parallel Flow

95 − 38.9 𝐾
∴ 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = = 66.9 𝐾
95
ln 38.9

∴ 𝐴𝑜 = 1.66 𝑚2

i.e Ao lower for counterflow case by 7%. In general, counterflow will always give a lower Ao then
parallel flow.
 What about multiple pass heat exchangers?
E.g. Hot fluid in 4 tube-pass, cold fluid in one shell pass.

Note : In certain cases, could potentially get illegal

temperature crossover.

This involves an extremely complex analysis and it has been found that the mean temperature
difference is a function of 1) the LMTD calculated as though it were for pure counter current
flow and 2) a correction factor, F (or ft)
𝑞
i.e 𝐴𝑜 = 𝑈
𝑜 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

For one shell pass

1−𝑌
𝑍 2 +1 ln1−𝑍𝑦
𝐹=
2−𝑌 𝑍+1− 𝑍2 +1
𝑍−1 ln
2−𝑌 𝑍+1+ 𝑍2 +1

𝑇𝐶,𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑇𝐶,𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑐 𝑇𝐻𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡

Where 𝑌= 𝑍= =
𝑇𝐻,𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝐶,𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐻 𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑇𝐶𝑖𝑛
Note: When a pure condensing fluid (𝑇𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇𝐻𝑖𝑛 ) or boiling fluid (𝑇𝐶𝑖𝑛 = 𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) are used, F=1.

If there is an illegal temperature crossover in the one shell pass case, this equation will give an
“illegal” value for F (i.e. log of a negative number). In this case, would have to try two shell-
passes.

For two shell-passes (and 4,8, 12 etc. tube passes)

𝑍2 +1 1−𝑌
ln 1−𝑍𝑌
2(𝑍−1)
𝐹= 2 2 where Y and Z are as given previously.
−1−𝑍+ 1−𝑌 1−𝑍𝑌 + 𝑍2 +1
𝑌 𝑌
ln[ 2 2
−1−𝑍+ 1−𝑌 1−𝑍𝑌 − 𝑍2 +1
𝑌 𝑌

Note: This implies 2,4,6 tube passes per shell pass.

For computer solution, equations for F are useful but for manual calculations it is much quicker
to plot F=f(Y,Z) graphically. See Figs 22.9 & 22.10 in WWW+R, pp 344-345.
Notes: 1) The H.E schematic diagram for Fig 22.9 (b) is wrong & thus this graph may be
unreliable. 2) Eqn 22-12 & 22.13 for Y & Z are different from those given in the notes. Both sets
of equations are valid & the ones in these notes are more consistent with Figs 22.9 and 22.10.
If there is still an illegal temperature crossover in two shell passes , the equation will
again give an illegal value for F. In this case, would try three shell-passes, etc.

No equations available for 3,4, etc. shell passes but graphs available & will be
provided separately.

Even for cases with no illegal temperature crossover, low F values result in large Ao
which may not be economically viable. Therefore, even though moving to multiple
shell-passes has other costs associated with it, sometimes makes economic sense
since it gives a larger F-value (and may, for example, result in two small shells which
are cheaper than one very large shell). [More about this later].
 Example (WWW+R pp. 346-347 E.g. 2
Same as previous example but use shell-and-tube with 4 tube-passes.
Reminder 𝑇𝐻𝑖𝑛 = 375 𝐾 𝑇𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 350 𝐾
𝑇𝐶𝑖𝑛 = 280 𝐾 𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 311.1 𝐾
𝑇𝐶,𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑇𝐶,𝑖𝑛 311.1−280 𝐾
∴𝑌= = = 0.327
𝑇𝐻,𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝐶,𝑖𝑛 375−280 𝐾

𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑐 𝑇𝐻𝑖𝑛 −𝑇𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑡 375−350 𝐾

𝑍= 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝐻
= 𝑇𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑇𝐶𝑖𝑛
= 311.1−280 𝐾
= 0.804

From Fig 22.9 (a), F=0.97

𝑞 26 125 𝑊
∴ 𝐴𝑜 = = = 1.61 𝑚2
𝑈𝑜 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 𝑊
250 2 0.97 66.9𝐾
𝑚 𝐾
Notes:

1) Although we calculated Y & Z differently to WWW+R, we ended up with the identical F. I

prefer my equations for Y & Z because you always know which is the hot & cold stream but you
don’t always know (at the preliminary stage in design) which fluid is in the shell/tubes. You can
use either – they’ll give the same answer.

2) The above example implies that you would need a larger Ao in the 4-pass H.E. than you would
in a one-pass H.E. . This is a false impression created by the use of the same Uo for both cases.
In reality Uo would be higher in the 4-pass case than in the one pass case.
Now know everything you need to about conduction & convection to design a heat
exchanger. Still need to know about:

• Heat exchanger equipment

• Overall heat transfer coefficients (including fouling factors) in heat exchanger
design
• How to deal with non-uniform TH-TC in heat exchanger design
• Pressure drop (head loss) in external flow.

We have already dealt with the overall heat transfer coefficients and non-uniform TH-TC,
therefore only have to look at heat exchanger hardware and Pressure drops.
 Heat Exchanger Hardware
Brief discussion in WWW+R, pp. 336-338 but generally inadequate ∴ the following is mostly
from C&R, 6th edition, pp 502-510 and other sources.

Simplest heat exchanger design is double-pipe heat exchanger.

To obtain reasonable h values inside the (inner) pipe, velocity needs to be kept above a certain
value. ∴ diameter of inner pipe cannot exceed a certain value. ∴ only way to increase surface
area is to extend length of pipe. At a certain point this becomes impractical ∴ double pipe only
used for A < 20 m2
Can obtain greater surface area for heat transfer by putting many small tubes inside a pipe, i.e. a
shell and tube heat exchanger (by far the most common type of H.E. in the industry)

i.e. the bigger “outer pipe” is now the shell & the small “inner pipe” is replaced by a tube
bundle. The tube side fluid enters & leaves via heads attached to either end of the tube
bundle. This configuration, where the fluid goes in one head, through the tubes and out
through the other head is known as having one tube-pass.
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<,,, Could not read notes cut off
Over the double pipe heat exchanger. Many small tubes have a greater surface area than one
large pipe but the number of tubes is still limited by the fact that the overall cross-sectional area
of the tubes is the same as that of the “inner pipe” (to keep the velocity high)

How can we increase the number of tubes while keeping the velocity high? By having more
than one tube-pass. This is achieved by placing baffles in the heads e.g. for two tube pass:
Notes: 1) With two tube-passes, can have double the number of tubes (i.e.
double the heat transfer area) with the same velocity. Can also have 4,6 and 8
tube passes (BUT the head loss increases proportionally); 2) With multiple tube-
passes, there is no longer pure counter flow.

Velocity : as noted, it is important to keep velocity high to obtain good h-values.

In certain “fouling” services (i.e. where liquids can leave a deposit) a high velocity
also helps reduce fouling. However a velocity that is to high results in high head
loss (∆𝑃) which means that the pumping power requirements increase ∴ Typical
range for tubeside velocity is 1-2.5 m/s (“Tubeside” means in the tubes;
“shellside” means in the shell i.e around the tubes)
-Tubes: Standard tube sizes are given in WWW+R, Appendix N, pp. 700-701. The
smaller the tube size used, the greater the heat transfer area (for a certain shell
size) BUT ¾” tubes usually are the smallest used, to allow for adequate tubeside
cleaning ∴ ¾” is the most commonly used tube size (BUT 1” & other sizes up to 2”
are also seen, particularly in heavily fouling applications, or in thermosiphon
reboilers where there is two-phase tubeside flow)

Tube length Standard tube lengths are 6,8,12,16 & 20 ft (longer tubes are possible
in special cases) 16 & 20 ft are the most commonly lengths.

Tube thickness (or gauge) must be such to withstand internal pressure & provide
adequate corrosion allowance. (See Appendix N & note relationship between
B.W.G and actual thickness
Note: Fouling fluids are usually put tubeside. Why? Because it is easier to clean the inside of a
tube!

Tube pitch : This is the distance from the centre of one tube to the centre of the next closest
tube. Minimum tube pitch is 1.25 do (But if shell-side cleaning is required, minimum is larger of
1.25do+do+0.25”) Common tube pitches are 1.25do & 1.33do.
Tube configurations: A staggered configuration allows more tubes to be fitted in than in-line
configuration. BUT if there is a fouling fluid on the shell-side then an in-line configuration should
be used. Why? Because its easier to get a cleaning device in.
Tubesheet configurations: The diagrams shown so far have been of fixed tubesheet
configurations, where the tube bundle is permanently enclosed within the shell (with a head
attached to either end) . This is cheap to manufacture BUT is not good if a) the tubes &shell
experience differencial thermal expansion. b) the outside of the tubes are fouled and have to be
cleaned periodically (i.e. for which they are removed from the shell) To allow for differntial
expansion & tube bundle removal, a floating head configuration or U-tube/hairpin bundle must
be used.
For these two configurations, 𝑆𝐿 ≡ 𝑙ℎ and 𝑆𝑇 ≡ 𝑃𝑡 ≡ 𝑌
<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<<< Notes cut off
Tubesheets but the inside of the tubes cannot be mechanically cleaned ( of the U-bends) ∴ they
are used for cases where either (a) no fouling occurs but differential expansion is an issue; or (b)
the tubeside fluid is clean but the shell side fluid is fouling (eg. reboilers or large fractional
columns where the steam is tubeside).

Floating heads allow cleaning on both tube and shell side (as well as differential expansion) but
are more expensive than fixed tubesheets or U-tubes (∴ of more complex construction)

Heads (See sheet with TEMA codes): In fixed tubesheets where the tubes require cleaning, A/L
(or N in some very large diameter cases) heads are used, since access can be gained without
disturbing the pipework. Where no tubeside cleaning required, B/M used (or D at pressures >
100 bar). For U-tubes (since no tubeside cleaning possible), B used as front end head. For
floating heads, S-type has the greatest thermal efficiency ∴ used (as rear-end head) for shell
diameters (Ds)<1m and pressure <70 bar. Construction of T-type less complex, and of shell
diameter > 1mn thermal inefficiency less significant. Also P> 70 bar has sealing problems. ∴
𝐷𝑠 > 1𝑚
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> Notes cut
W-type occasionally used but both susceptible to spillage problems ∴ only used
when spillage creates no hazard.

Note : Floating head configurations can accommodate fewer tubes (than fixed
tubesheet or U-tube) for a certain Ds (or, for a certain number of tubes, require
a greater Ds). See shell-bundle diagram later.
Shell-side velocity : The velocity in the shell-side is increased by inserting vertical baffles at
regular intervals along the length of the shell (See above). These baffles are usually segmental
with about 25% of the “circle” cut away.

Baffles are also used to support the tubes.

Baffle spacing : Segmental baffles should not be spaced closer
than 20% of the shell ID or 500 mm, whichever is greater. Max
spacing should be such that unsupported tube length (i.e. 2 X
baffle space) does not exceed max.
Shell Diameter: For shell diameters ≤ 12 inches, standard wall (Schedule 40) steel pipe is used;
for shell diameters 12-24 inches, standard steel pipe with 3/8” wall thickness is used; for shell
diameters > 24 inches, steel plate rolled at discreet intervals is used. Effectively this means the
1 1
following shell ID’s are possible (in inches) : 8, 10, 12, 13 4, 154,
1 1 1 1
174,194,214,234,25,27,29,31,33,35,37,39,42,45,48,54,60
Shell-bundle clearance: the shell ID should fit as closely round the tube bundles as possible, to
reduce by passing around the outside of the bundle. Typical values for the clearance (for
various tubesheet configurations) are given in Fig 9.68 in C&R.

T-type

S-type

P-type
No. of tubes in a bundle : This can be estimated from the following equation

𝑑𝑏 𝑏
𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑏 = diameter of bundle
𝑑𝑜

𝑑𝑜 =diamter of tube

Note Correction-
should read 2.617

Note: As the no. of tube-bypasses increases, the number of tubes that can fit in a bundle
decreases because the head baffle would obstruct some of the tubes. For detailed tables, see
Perry-tables for ¾” tubes on various pitches and pitch configurations handed out.
Shell passes: In cases where there is a >>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>> approach between the hot and cold
streams (& also sometimes to increase shell side velocity) it is occasionally useful to have
multiple shell passes. This is commonly achieved by having two (or three or four) small shells
(rather than a single large one):

Very Simplified

OR using a horizontal baffle(s) in a single shell (which makes construction more complicated &
expensive)

Very Simplified
Shell Types (See sheet with TEMA codes): Standard configuration is E-type. F-type same
thermal effect as 2 X E-types in series but expensive construction & tendency of longitudinal
baffle seals to leak means only used for large diameter, fixed tubesheet units (where
longitudinal baffle can be welded to shell); or in small approach temperature cases where you
want perfect counter current flow (i.e. F-type shell with two tube-passes). In this respect,
sometimes used in retrofits when E-shell (i.e. one shell pass) with two tube-passes is converted
to an F-shell by inserting a longitudinal baffle-creates perfect counter-current flow and better
performance without having to replace the whole heat exchanger.

For very low shell-side pressure drop (∆𝑃) (e.g. in low P condensers), J-type can be used (or X-
type in extreme cases) but note: no counter current flow achievable.

H-type (& occasionally G-type) for horizontal thermosiphon reboilers (and G-type very
occasionally for standard forced flow service) Note: Longitudinal baffle in these types has same
problem as in F-type.

Pool boiling (e.g. for reboilers or evaporators) in K-type

TEMA codes: As noted in the discussions on heads and shell-types, all heat exchangers have a
three-letter TEMA-code which specifies the shell configuration& two heads. Most common and
cheapest are BEM and AEL.
 Other types of heat exchangers
• Double-pipe (Use annular flow correlation)
• Cross-flow (mixed or unmixed) – WWW+R, p.337
• Finned tube (esp. as air coolers using fin-fan)
• Plate and frame (See diagram)
• Spiral
• Compact (WWW+R, p.338 Fig 22.4)
• Plate and Fin
• Printed circuit
• Scraped surface

Note: The above alternatives are growing in popularity (a) in specialized cases; (b) as industry
becomes less conservative
 When would you consider using a plate and frame heat exchanger instead of a shell-and-tube
H.E?
1. When material costs are high (e.g. non-standard material)
2. When maintenance is critical (P&F easier to maintain)
3. When very low approach ∆𝑇 is required (i.e. as low as 1oC in P&F , 5-10oC in S&T) F will also
be higher in P&F.
4. When flexibility is important (can add plates in P&F)
5. When highly viscous materials are being used
6. When fouling is a major problem (fouling is less in a P&F)
When would you definitely not use P&F
1. At high P (flat plate not a good shape to resist P)
2. At T’s > 250oC – P&F require specialized gaskets whose materials cannot resist high T.
3. At flow rates > 2500 m3
Typical applications
Food and beverage industries: easy to inspect/clean, etc. & to make multiple products.
 Rating a shell-and –tube heat exchanger
Unlike in the design of a heat exchanger (H.E) (which we will deal with later), in the rating of an
H.E. many of the variables are already known, e.g. which fluid is tube-side & which shell side;
the length, diameter and number of tubes; the tube pitch, size and configuration; the shell
diameter; and the number of baffles (or the baffle spacing). Therefore, the procedure is much
simpler (& thus a good starting point).

There are two cases for which you could be rating a heat exchanger
1. To see if it is still performing according to design in its current service
2. To see whether it could be used in a different service

In both cases, we start with the equation

𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝐹)(𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷)
Thus, the general procedure will be as follows.

Case 1
• Evaluate 𝑞, 𝐴𝑜 , 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
𝑞
• Use these to calculate 𝑈𝑜 = 𝐴
𝑜 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

• Calculate hi and ho from correlations

• From Uo, hi and ho and the known physical parameters, calculate the overall fouling factor.
• From the heat exchanger design specification sheet (which should be available in company
𝑑𝑜
records!), calculate the overall design fouling factor. 𝑅𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑜 (these should
𝑑𝑖

all be found on the spec sheet)

• If Ractual<Rdesign, okay. If Ractual >Rdesign, needs cleaning ( but an economic analysis would be
required to further justify this.)
Case 2
• Evaluate 𝑞, (𝐴𝑜 )𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 , 𝐹 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
𝑞
• Use these to calculate 𝑈𝑜 = 𝐴
𝑜 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

• Calculate hi and ho from correlations

• Use hi, ho , fouling factors (given or found in tables) & known physical parameters to
calculate Uo.
• Calculate the required heat transfer area
𝑞
𝐴𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 =𝑈
𝑜 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

• If (Ao)actual> (Ao)required, OK
• If (Ao)actual< (Ao)required, Cannot be used in new service (New H.E required)

Note: There are also other factors to consider. 1) If (in the new service) the velocities are too
low, it could lead to rapid fouling; 2) The pressure drops across tube- and shell-side must not be
excessive; etc.
In both cases 1) & 2), hi & ho have to be calculated, which requires calculation of velocities, etc.
To elaborate, we will now develop the algorithm for case 2 in more detail.
 Algorithm for rating an existing H.E. for a new service
Note: Subscript “I” refers to tubeside (i.e. inside the tubes) and “o” shellside

1. Decide which fluid should go tube-side & shell-side ( see p.163). Compile all
physical property data.
2. Perform a heat balance on the stream that is completely specified (i.e. Tin, Tout, 𝑚 all
known): 𝑞 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇. Use this to calculate the unknown variable (either 𝑚 or Tout)
for the other stream. Calculate the volumetric flow rates of the two streams (𝑉𝑖 ,𝑉𝑜 )
3. Calculate LMTD (for the counterflow situation) and F (from equation or graph)
4. From the number of shells in series (Ns), the number or tubes per shell (nt), and
their outside diameter (do) & length (Lt), calculate the actual overall area for heat
transfer,
𝐴𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿𝑡 𝑛𝑡 𝑁𝑠 (𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿𝑡 = surface area of
one tube)
5. From nt, the tube inside diameter (di) & the number of tube passes per shell (Nt), calculate
the overall cross-sectional area of the tubes available for flow (ai) From this & the tubeside
volumetric flow rate (𝑉𝑖 ) , calculate the
velocity in the tubes (𝑣𝑖 ).

𝜋𝑑𝑖2
Cross-sectional area of one tube = 4

𝜋𝑑𝑖2
Overall cross-sectional area of all tubes = 𝑛𝑡
4

However, in multi tube pass cases, flow goes through one pass at a time, e.g.

𝑛
∴ Full volumetric flow goes thru 𝑁𝑡 tubes
𝑡

𝜋𝑑𝑖2 𝑛𝑡 𝑉𝑖
∴ Overall cross-sectional area available for flow 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑣𝑖 =
4 𝑁𝑡 𝑎𝑖
6. From do, the tube-pitch (Pt), the shell (inner) diameter (Ds) & the baffle spacing (LB), calculate
the (maximum ) shell-side area available for flow (ao)

𝐿𝑡
Note: 𝐿𝐵 = 𝑛 where 𝑛𝐵 = number of baffles
𝐵 +1

The location of the maximum flow area is still

at the “equator “ on the shell.

Expanded view of setup between two baffles at the

“equator” normal to flow (i.e. seen from above or
below). Shell-side fluid flowing around tubes so need
overall area of these sections.
Area available for flow,
𝑎𝑜 = total area-total area taken up by tubes
= 𝐿𝐵 𝐷𝑆 - (area taken up by tubes)(No. of tubes)
D
= 𝐿𝐵 𝐷𝑠 − (𝑑𝑜 𝐿𝐵 ) ( Ps)
t

𝐷𝑠
∴ 𝑎𝑜 = 𝑃𝑡 − 𝑑𝑜 𝐿𝐵
𝑃𝑡

From this and the shell side volumetric flowrate (𝑉𝑜 ), calculate the minimum shell-side velocity
𝑉
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑎𝑜
𝑜

Note: At locations other than the “equator” the area available for flow will be <𝑎𝑜 & thus the
velocity will be > 𝑣𝑜 . Thus 𝑣𝑜 will result in conservatively low Reo and ho.
7. Estimate the wall temperature [which we assume (for this step) to be the same both tube-
and shell-side] by taking the average of the tube-side and shell-side bulk average
temperatures, i.e.
𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 −𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑇𝑊 𝑖,𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑇𝑊 𝑜,𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 2

Ti,in −Ti,out
where 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2

To,in −To,out
𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2

Note: In cases where wall effects can be ignored i.e. Pr < 6 or 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 < 20 step 7
𝜇
can be omitted; the 𝜇 terms in steps 8 & 9 can also be omitted.
𝑤

Look up the wall viscosities 𝜇𝑤 𝑖 & 𝜇𝑤 𝑜 at this temperature.

8. Using 𝑣𝑖 & 𝑑𝑖 and the appropriate physical properties, calculate the inside heat transfer
coefficient (hi) using the modified Dittus-Boelter equation

0.14
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑖
𝑁𝑢𝑖 = = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝑖0.8 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛
𝑘𝑖 𝜇𝑤 𝑖

n=0.3 for fluid being cooled

n=0.4 for fluid being heated
9. Using 𝑑𝑜 & 𝑃𝑡 , ascertain the equivalent diameter (de) for the shell-side

𝜋𝑑2
4 𝑆𝐿 𝑆𝑇 − 𝑜
4
𝑑𝑒 = 𝜋𝑑𝑜

Note for square pitch, SL=ST=Pt , for equilateral triangular pitch, SL= 0.866Pt, ST=PT
Using 𝑣𝑜 , 𝑑𝑒 & the appropriate physical properties, ascertain the outside heat transfer coefficient
(ho)

𝑑𝑒 1
𝜇𝑜 0.14
𝑁𝑢𝑜 = ℎ𝑜 𝐾 = 𝐽ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑟𝑜 3
𝑜 𝜇𝑤 𝑜

𝜌𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑒
Note: Reo= 𝜇𝑜

Get 𝑗 from Sinnot Fig 12.29

10. Using hi, ho, di, do, the fouling factors and the appropriate physical properties calculate
(Uo)actual.

𝑑𝑜
1 𝑑𝑜 1 𝑑𝑜 ln 1 𝑑𝑜
𝑑𝑖
= + + + 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑜
𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖 2𝑘 ℎ𝑜 𝑑𝑖 𝑖
We call this (Uo) Note: this is the k Ri and Ro are
actual to for the metal actual worst case
distinguish it from tubes values given or
other Uo’s we will found in tables.
see later Sometimes
combined as Rtotal

11. From (Uo)actual, hi, ho, Ti,avg & To,avg, obtain better estimates for wall temperatures.
Since the system is at steady state

𝑞 ≈ 𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑜 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 ≈ ℎ𝑜 𝐴𝑜 (𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 𝑜 ) ≈ ℎ𝑖 𝐴𝑖 ( 𝑇𝑤 𝑖 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 )

𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
∴ 𝑇𝑤 𝑜 ≈ 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔
ℎ𝑜

𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜
𝑇𝑤 𝑖 ≈ 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖

Using these new Tw’s, re-estimate 𝜇𝑊 𝑖 & 𝜇𝑤 𝑜

Note: In cases where a) the fluid viscosities are relatively low (i.e. Pr<6) or b) 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 &𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 are

fairly close (i.e. 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 < 20℃ ), step 11 (&step 12) can be omitted since wall effects

𝜇 0.14
can be ignored in these cases, i.e. 𝜇 ~1.
𝑤

12. Repeat steps 8-12 with successive iterations give similar 𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 values. When they do,
proceed to step 13.
13. From q,F,LMTD & (Uo)actual, calculate the required heat transfer area,
𝑞
𝐴𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

𝐴𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝐴𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
Also calculate the over design factor = 𝐴𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑

Note: If the over design Factor is negative, the H.E is underdesigned for the new service.
14. Calculate the tube-side pressure drop

∆𝑃 𝑖 = 𝜌𝑖 𝑔 ℎ𝐿 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ𝑠 + ℎ𝐿 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

The total length of the tube the fluid must pass through is Ltotal = LtNtNs.

𝐿 𝑣𝑖2 𝐿 𝑁𝑁 𝑣𝑖2
Therefore, (hL)straight lengths =2𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 2𝑓𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 (WWW+R Eqn 13-3 p. 169)
𝑑𝑖 𝑔 𝑖 𝑔

𝑓𝑓 can be calculated using the Haaland formula (WWW+R, Eqn 13-15a, p. 175)

𝑣2
The entrance/exit loses can be estimated as four velocity heads (i.e. 4 per pass )
2𝑔

𝑣𝑖2 𝑣𝑖2
∴ ℎ𝐿 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 =4 𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝑠 = 2 𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝑠
𝑔 𝑔

𝐿 𝑁𝑁 𝑣𝑖2 𝑣𝑖2
∴ ∆𝑃 𝑖 = 𝜌𝑖 𝑔 2𝑓𝑓 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 +2 𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝑠
𝑖 𝑔 𝑔

10
𝐿 1 6.9 𝑒
2𝜌𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝑠 𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑡
9
∆𝑃 𝑖 = +1 where 1 = −3.6 log10 + 𝑑 𝑖
𝑖 𝑅𝑒𝑖 3.7
𝑓𝑓2

e=roughness of tubes
15. Calculate the shell side pressure drop
𝜌𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑜 = (see step-9)
𝜇𝑜

From Sinnot Fig 12.30, read off jf

𝐷 𝐿𝑡 𝜌𝑜 𝑣𝑜2 𝜇𝑜 −0.14
∆𝑃 𝑜 = 8𝑗𝑓 𝑑𝑠 (𝑁𝑠 )
𝑒 𝐿𝐵 2 𝜇𝑤 𝑜

𝜇
Note: If wall effects can be ignored (see notes in step 7 & 11), omit 𝜇 term.
𝑤
16. Draw conclusions on whether H.E. is suitable for new service.
• If over-design factor is:
• Negative → No!
• > 0.1 → may be oversized
• Between o and 0.1 → ok
• ∆𝑃′ 𝑠 & velocities
• Depends on process conditions, available equipment , materials of construction, energy
costs, etc. but can use the following rules of thumb (based on C&R, vol 1, 6th ed, p. 527)
Description ∆𝑃 Velocity (m/s)
Tubeside Shellside
Liquids 𝜇 < 10−3 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 <35 kPa 1-2, max 4, 0.3-1.0
1.5-2.5 for water
𝜇 = 10−3 − 10−2 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 < 70 kPa

Gases High Vacuum < 0.8 kPa 50-70

Low Vacuum < 0.1 kPa
0-1 barg < 0.5 Pgauge 10-30
> 10 barg < 0.1 Pgauge 5-10

At velocities < the above, fouling could occur.

At velocities > the above, erosion and/or vibration could occur
Additional Analysis

Since (Ao)actual is known, can calculate the minimum overall heat transfer coefficient that will still
𝑞
allow the H.E. to perform the service 𝑈𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

Can also calculate a clean overall heat transfer coefficient (i.e. assuming no fouling)
𝑑
𝑑𝑜 ln 𝑑𝑜
1 𝑑𝑜 1 𝑖 1 1 1
= + + or = − 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 (see step 10)
𝑈𝑜 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖 2𝑘 ℎ𝑜 𝑈𝑜 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙

∴ Can ascertain the maximum allowable fouling factor (Rallow), i.e. the maximum fouling factor at
which the H.E. can still perform the service.

1 1
𝑅𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = −
𝑈𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑈𝑜 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛

𝑑𝑜
Can then compare 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑜 with Rallow to see how much extra fouling can be
𝑑𝑖

tolerated.
 Design of shell-and tube H.E’s
In the design case, many parameters we used in the rating case are not yet known, i.e. Fluid
designation, 𝑛𝑡 , 𝑁𝑠 , 𝑁𝑡 , 𝑑𝑜 , 𝑑𝑖 , 𝐿𝑡 , 𝑃𝑡 , pitch configuration,𝐷𝑠 , 𝐿𝐵 , (𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝐵 ). Therefore, some of
these have to be set based on practical considerations (as discussed in the “Heat exchanger
hardware “ section) and initially have to be estimated. The H.E. based on initial estimate is
then rated and, depending on the outcome, either the H.E is accepted as the final design or
changes are made and the procedure is repeated.

In the design of H.E’s, there are two competing economic forces: the size of the exchanger
(i.e. the heat transfer area) & the energy required to pump the fluids through the H.E.
(which is a function of the ∆P’s ) The one parameter that effects both of these is velocity:
high velocity leads to high heat transfer coefficients & thus low areas, but also to high ∆𝑃.
Low velocities lead to high 𝐴𝑜 & low ∆P. Thus the principle challenge in H.E. design is to
balance these two factors by finding the optimum velocities
Note: In the following algorithm, steps have already been discusses in the “ Rating “ section
will not be discussed in detail but merely given in abbreviated form

Algorithm for designing a new shell-and-tube H.E

1. Decide which fluid should go tube-side and which shell-side. (see C7R, pp. 526-7)
• Tube-side for corrosive, fouling, scaling, hazardous & high pressure fluids. (& fluids where
temperature is so high that expensive MoC is required). All else being equal, fluid with
lowest allowable ∆𝑃 tube side
• Shell-side for viscous fluids (as long as flow is turbulent, i.e. shell side Re>200) and
condensing fluids.
Compile all physical property data
2. Perform heat balance to get q and all 𝑚 & T values. Calculate 𝑉𝑖 &𝑉𝑜 .
Because we do not know nt, we have to estimate it, since it is the basis of all our velocity
(and therefore heat transfer) calculations. How do we do this? If we could estimate Ao we
could get nt (by making standard choices of do & Lt, and getting Ns from considerations of F-
see later)

So what is a good first estimate for Ao ? Since ranges of Uo values for many cases are well-
established , can use these & 𝑞 = 𝑈𝑜 𝐴𝑜 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 to get a good estimate of Ao & thus nt
(see next six steps)

3. From tables in WWW+R, handouts or elsewhere, estimate 𝑈𝑜 → 𝑈𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡

4. Calculate LMTD (for counterflow situation

𝑞
4 ½. Calculate 𝐴𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡,𝑐𝑓 = . If 𝐴𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡,𝑐𝑓 < 20 𝑚2 consider a double-pipe
𝑈𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

heat exchanger and design accordingly. Otherwise proceed to step 5.

5. Calculate F (from equation or graph) & establish Ns.
Start with Ns= 1, calculate F. If F is an illegal value (implying illegal temperature crossover),
go to Ns= 2 & repeat etc. If F is a legal value we are faced with two choices

1. Proceed with Ns=1 & & this F value

2. Try Ns=2 which will give you a higher F-value ( & thus a lower overall Ao).

A lower overall F value means fewer tubes & should be cheaper BUT since we now have two
shells, the cost of additional fittings, weldings, supports etc. have to be factored in. Thus,
the choice between 1 & 2 depends on by how much F increases (& Ao decreases) As a rule
of thumb if F<0.75 for Ns=1 it is usually favourable to go to Ns=2, and likewise for additional
shells. i.e.
If F>0.75 for Ns=1, then set Ns =1.
If F<0.75, proceed to Ns=2 (or 3 or 4 etc.) until F>0.75
6. Calculate the estimated overall are , (Ao)est and the estimated area per shell 𝐴𝑜 𝑠,𝑒𝑠𝑡

𝑞
𝐴𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

𝐴𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝐴𝑜 𝑠,𝑒𝑠𝑡= 𝑁𝑠

7. Choose do, tube thickness (&thus di), Lt , Pt, pitch configuration & rear end head type.
• Do: ¾ “ unless heavily fouling fluid, etc.
• Thickness (from C&R, p.508): must withstand internal pressure & provide adequate
corrosion allowance. Generally 16 B.W.G (0.065”) for non-corrosive fluid in
moderate pressure applications. 14 B.W.G (0.083” ) also common (see WWW+R
Appendix N) Note: di=do-2(tube thickness)
• Lt start with 16ft or 20ft (unless space limitations)
• Pt=1.25do unless shell cleaning necessary. For cleaning (Pt)minimum=do+0.25”
• Pitch configuration triangular for best heat transfer, square best for cleaning & low
(∆P)o
• Head type-See lecture notes (Differential expansion an issue if (Th)in-(Tc)in>80oC)
8. Calculate the estimated number or tubes per shell.
𝐴𝑜 𝑠,𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡 = (Use next highest even number)
𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿𝑡

9. Determine the number of tube passes per shell (Nt) to give a 𝑣𝑖 in the required range

𝑉 𝜋𝑑𝑖2 𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑣𝑖 𝑒𝑠𝑡 = where ai est =
𝑎𝑖 𝑒𝑠𝑡 4 𝑁𝑡

∴ Let 𝑁𝑡 = 2,4,6, etc. until:

𝑚
Liquids: 𝑣𝑖 𝑒𝑠𝑡 =1−2 (up to 4 for highly fouling fluid)
𝑠
𝑚
= 1.5 − 2.5 for water
𝑠
𝑚
Vapours: 𝑣𝑖 𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 50 − 70 𝑠
𝑚
= 10 − 30
𝑠
𝑚
= 5 − 10 𝑠

Note: If Nt =1, reset F to 1 and go back to step 6

10. From the standard sizes, choose the shell (inner) diameter (Ds) for required 𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡 , Nt &
rear-end head. Preferably use detailed tables (see Resource Pack, Perry, etc.). For the given
Nt & rear-end head type, choose the Ds which gives the next highest number of tubes above
(nt)est ,unless (nt)est is fairly close to the next lowest number of tubes – then chose Ds for that
(especially if your (Uo) est was at the low end of the expected range).
If tables are not available (at all or for chosen rear-end head type, e.g. T-type) can use 𝑛𝑡 =

𝑑𝑏 𝑏
𝑎 , together with C&R Table 9.13 & Fig 9.68 (see lecture notes) [Note db=bundle
𝑑𝑜

diameter]

Procedure is as follows
1)From Table 9.13 find a & b values for given Nt & pitch configuration
1
𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑏
2) 𝑑𝑏 𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑑𝑜 𝑎

3)From Fig 9.68, for given rear-end head type & 𝑑𝑏 𝑒𝑠𝑡 , find shell bundle clearance. (𝐷𝑠 − 𝑑𝑏 )
4) (Ds)est= (db)est + shell bundle clearance
5) Ds = next largest standard shell size> (Ds)est (unless (Ds) is fairly close to next smallest stnd size)
11. From Ds get nt, ai, 𝑣𝑖 , & (Ao)s, where these are the actual (i.e. not estimated) values.
If you used tables to get Ds, nt is the value directly from the tables (chosen Ds, Nt & rear-end
head)

If you used the procedure in 10, then:

𝑑𝑏 = 𝐷𝑠 − 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑑𝑏 𝑏
𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑜

𝜋𝑑𝑖2 𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑖 = 4 𝑁𝑡

𝑉
𝑣𝑖 = 𝑎𝑖
𝑖

𝐴𝑜 𝑠 = 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿𝑡 𝑛𝑡
Finally calculate the actual overall area, 𝐴𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑠 (𝑁𝑠 )
12. Choose baffle cut & number of shell-side baffles (𝑛𝑏 )
• Initial baffle cut usually 25 %
𝐿𝑡
• Nb should be such that (Note: LB is baffle spacing (i.e. space beteen baffles) 𝐿𝐵 = )
𝑛𝐵 +1

a) LB> 50mm and

LB > 0.2 Ds
b) LB < ½ X(max unsupported tube length)
c) (Minimum) shell side velocity (𝑣𝑜 ) is, for
Liquids 0.3-1.0 m/s
Vapours Vacuum 50-70 m/s
0-1 barg 10-30 m/s
> 10 barg 5-10 m/s
𝑉 𝑃𝑡 −𝑑𝑜 𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝐵
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑎𝑜 where 𝑎𝑜 =
𝑜 𝑃𝑡

m
For the first iteration, adjust nB to give 𝑣𝑜 = 0.7 (Make sure criteria (a) & (b) are not violated)
s

Note: that nB must be a whole number.

Steps 9-12 have given us our “ design H.E.” which we can now rate.
13. Estimate the wall temperatures. 𝑇𝑤 𝑖,𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑇𝑤 𝑜,𝑒𝑠𝑡

𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 −𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑇𝑊 𝑖,𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑇𝑊 𝑜,𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 2

Ti,in −Ti,out
where 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

To,in −To,out
𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2

Look up the wall viscosities 𝜇𝑤 𝑖 & 𝜇𝑤 𝑜 at this temperature.

Note: In cases where wall effects can be ignored i.e. Pr < 6 or 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 < 20 step
𝜇
13 can be omitted; the 𝜇 terms in steps 14 & 15 can also be omitted.
𝑤

14. Calculate hi

ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑖 0.14
𝑁𝑢𝑖 = = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝑖0.8 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛
𝑘𝑖 𝜇𝑤 𝑖

n=0.3 for fluid being cooled

n=0.4 for fluid being heated
15. Calculate de & ho

𝜋𝑑2
4 𝑆𝐿 𝑆𝑇 − 4 𝑜
𝑑𝑒 =
𝜋𝑑𝑜

Note for square pitch, SL=ST=Pt , for equilateral triangular pitch, SL= 0.866Pt, ST=PT
𝜌𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑒
Reo= → 𝑗ℎ from Sinnot Fig 12.29
𝜇𝑜

0.14
𝑑𝑒 1 𝜇𝑜
𝑁𝑢𝑜 = ℎ𝑜 = 𝐽ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑟𝑜 3
𝐾𝑜 𝜇𝑤 𝑜

16. Calculate (Uo)actual.

𝑑𝑜
1 𝑑𝑜 1 𝑑𝑜 ln 1 𝑑𝑜
𝑑𝑖
= + + + 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑜
𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖 2𝑘 ℎ𝑜 𝑑𝑖 𝑖

𝑑𝑜
• Ri, Ro are design values from tables ∴ 𝑅𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 = 𝑅 + 𝑅𝑜
𝑑𝑖 𝑖

• (Uo )actual is calculated using the velocities, etc. In our “design H.E.”. Can now use this to see if
the design is adequate or needs to be altered
17. Obtain better estimates of the wall temperatures
𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜
𝑇𝑤 𝑖 = 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖

𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑇𝑤 𝑜 = 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 ℎ𝑜

Using these new Tw’s, revise 𝜇𝑤 𝑖 & 𝜇𝑤 𝑜

Note: If Pr<6 or or 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 < 20, omit steps 17 & 18 and proceed directly to step 19.
18. Repeat steps 14-18 until successive iterations give similar (Uo)actual values. When they do
proceed to step 19.
19. Calculate the required heat transfer area, (based on the actual overall heat transfer
coefficient)
𝑞
𝐴𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = (This is the minimum area necessary to perform the
𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷

required duty.)
 𝐴𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 − 𝐴𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
Calculate the over design factor = 𝐴𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑

Note: This tells us whether

(a) the “design H.E.” can actually perform the required service
(b) if so, whether we could reduce its size (& cost) and still meet the requirements.
The reason it might be overdesigned is that we based our (Ao)actual on an estimate Uo (see steps
3-12). Now that we have a more accurate Uo, it may allow a smaller (Ao)actual (or require a
larger one). But before we can discuss the way forward we must calculate the ∆𝑃′ 𝑠
20. Calculate ∆𝑃 𝑖

10
𝐿 1 6.9 𝑒
2𝜌𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝑠 𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑡
9
∆𝑃 𝑖 = +1 where = −3.6 log10 + 𝑑
𝑖
1
𝑅𝑒𝑖 3.7 𝑖
𝑓𝑓2

21. Calculate ∆𝑃 𝑜

𝜌𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑜 = (See step 15)
𝜇𝑜

From Sinnot Fig 12.30, read off jf

𝐷 𝐿𝑡 𝜌𝑜 𝑣𝑜2 𝜇𝑜 −0.14
∆𝑃 𝑜 = 8𝑗𝑓 𝑠 (𝑁𝑠 )
𝑑𝑒 𝐿𝐵 2 𝜇𝑤 𝑜
22. Evaluate “design H.E.” & iterate if necessary.
If: (a) 𝐴𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 > 𝐴𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙

(b) Overdesign factor > 10%

(c) ∆𝑃 𝑖 or ∆𝑃 𝑜 exceed maximum (See lecture notes)
Then need to change design. How?
Depends on which of (a), (b) or (c) are problems.
1) If (a) or (b) only, replace (Uo)est with (Uo)actual and repeat step 6 and 8-21.
1 𝑑𝑜
2) For (a) only, check which resistance [i.e. 1/ho or or Rdesign is largest. If
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖

1
[& ∆𝑃 𝑜 &𝑣𝑜 are much lower than their max values], then increase nB (as long as
ℎ𝑜

1 𝑑𝑜
LB does not exceed minimum value). If [& ∆𝑃 𝑖 & 𝑣𝑖 are much lower
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖

than their max values], then increase Nt. If Rdesign, schedule more regular cleaning
(&reduce Rdesign)
3) If (b) & (c) together, could reduce Nt [if ∆𝑃 𝑖 is excessive] or nB [ if ∆𝑃 𝑜 is excessive], as
long as minimum velocity limits not violated.

4) If (c) only, depends by how much. For ∆𝑃 𝑖 might have to reduce Nt (& thus 𝑣𝑖 ). This
may result in (a) & then could apply (1). For ∆𝑃 𝑜 could reduce nB or, if it only exceeds max
by a small amount, could increase baffle cut (see Sinnot Fig 12-30). Could also “live with it”.
Remember : Max ∆𝑃 values are only “rules of thumb” based on economic considerations, not
absolutes. Could do more “in-depth” economic evaluation.

𝐿
Another consideration: Typical 𝐷𝑡 is 5-10.
𝑠

𝐿
If 𝐷𝑡 <5, consider longer tubes
𝑠

𝐿
If 𝐷𝑡 >10 , consider shorter tubes
𝑠

Remember: Can do additional analysis to check how much fouling can be tolerated (see
notes). Shell is a pressure vessel & is designed accordingly (including relief valve, etc.
 Example
Gas oil at 200oC is to be cooled to 40oC. The oil flow rate is 22 500 kg/h. Cooling water is
available at 30oC & the temperature rise is limited to 20oC. The ∆P allowance fr each stream is
100 kPa & to space limitations the tube length cannot exceed 19 ft.
Design a suitable H.E. for this duty
 ℎ.𝑓𝑡 2 ℉ 𝑚 𝐾 2
1. From handout, 𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 0.01 = 1.76 × 10−4 𝑊
𝐵𝑡𝑢

ℎ.𝑓𝑡 2 ℉ 𝑚 𝐾 2
𝑅𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 0.03 = 5.34 × 10−4 𝑊
𝐵𝑡𝑢

∴ gas oil more fouling ∴ gas oil in the tubes.

T Cp K 𝝁 𝝆
(oC) (kJ/kg.K) (W/mK) (kg/m.s) (kg/m3)
Water 30 4.18 0.618 7.97 x10-4 995.2
40 4.18 0.631 6.71 x10-4 992.8
50 4.18 0.643 5.44 x10-4 990.1

Gas Oil 200 2.59 0.130 0.6 x10-4 830

120 2.28 0.125 1.7 x10-4 850
40 1.97 0.120 2.8 x10-4 870
𝑘𝑔
22 500 ℎ
2. Oil: 𝑚𝑖 = 𝑠 = 6.25 𝑘𝑔/𝑠 𝑞 = 𝑚𝑖 𝐶𝑝𝑖 ∆𝑇 =
3600ℎ

kg J
6.25 2280 200 − 40 K = 2 280 000W
s kgK

𝑞 2 280 000 𝑊 𝑘𝑔
Water: 𝑚𝑖 = 𝐶𝑝∆𝑇 = 𝐽 = 27.3
4180𝑘𝑔𝐾 50−30 𝐾 𝑠
Note: The values quoted in this table are the inverse of the fouling factor as defined in lectures.
 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑖 6.25 𝑚3
𝑠
𝑉𝑖 = = 𝑘𝑔 = 0.00735 𝑠
𝜌𝑖 850 3
𝑚

𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑜 27.3 𝑠 𝑚3
𝑉𝑜 = = 𝑘𝑔 = 0.0275 𝑠
𝜌𝑜 992.8 3
𝑚

3. From Perry Table 10-10, for water-gas oil (Uo)=25-50 Btu/h.ft2oF≈140-280 W/m2K
∴ Table (Uo)est=210 W/m2K

(150−10)℃
4. 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 150 = 51.7 ℃
ln 10

𝑞 2 ∴ no double pipe]
[(𝐴𝑜 )𝑒𝑠𝑡,𝑐𝑓 = 𝑈𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
= 210𝑚
 TC,out −TC,in 50−30 ℃
5. Y= = = 0.1176
TH,in −TC,in 200−30 ℃

mCp c THin −THout 200−40 ℃

Z= = = = 8.00
mCp H TCout −TCin 50−30 ℃
From charts for one shell pass, Y=0.1176 does not intersect with Z=8.0 ∴ must go to two shell
passes → F=0.94

Note: In this case it was very difficult to read the charts ∴ might be easier to use equations.
For one shell pass

1−𝑌
𝑍 2 +1 ln1−𝑍𝑦
𝐹=
2−𝑌 𝑍+1− 𝑍2 +1
𝑍−1 ln
2−𝑌 𝑍+1+ 𝑍2 +1

For 2 shell passes

𝑍2 +1 1−𝑌
ln 1−𝑍𝑌
2(𝑍−1)
𝐹= 2 2
𝑌 −1−𝑍+ 𝑌 1−𝑌 1−𝑍𝑌 + 𝑍2 +1
ln[ 2 2
𝑌 −1−𝑍+ 𝑌 1−𝑌 1−𝑍𝑌 − 𝑍2 +1

In this case, in the 1-shell pass equation, the denominator has the 𝑙𝑛 of a negative number
which is impossible. ∴ would have to go for 2 shell-pass equation → F=0.94
∴ 𝑁𝑠 = 2 (Assume these are two separate shells ∴ shell-type is “E”
 𝑞 2 280 000 𝑊
6. 𝐴𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡 = = 𝑊 = 222.8 𝑚2
𝑈𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 210 2 0.94 51.7𝐾
𝑚 𝐾

𝐴𝑜 𝑒𝑠𝑡 222.8𝑚2
∴ 𝐴𝑜 𝑠,𝑒𝑠𝑡 = = = 111.4 𝑚2
𝑁𝑠 2

7. Select ¾” 14 B.W.G tubes, 16 ft long

∴ Thickness = 0.083” =0.00211 m
∴ 𝑑𝑖 = 0.584" = 0.01483 𝑚
3
∴ 𝑑𝑜 = 4 " = 0.01905 𝑚

Use triangular pitch with (assuming no shell-side cleaning required)

Pt=1.25do =0.9375” =0.0238 m
Lt= 16 ft = 4.877 m (Cannot exceed 19 ft ∴ cannot use 20ft tubes)
Because of the big ∆𝑇 between the hot & cold streams, use floating hear H.E. (S-type)
∴ 𝐶𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝐴𝐸𝑆 (A - Tubeside cleaning will be required)
 𝐴𝑜 𝑠,𝑒𝑠𝑡 111.4𝑚2
8. 𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡 = =𝜋 =382 (per shell)
𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿𝑡 0.01905 𝑚 (4.877𝑚)

𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
9. 𝑣𝑖 𝑒𝑠𝑡 = = 𝜋𝑑2
𝑎𝑖 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖 𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡
4 𝑁𝑡

4𝑉𝑖 𝑁𝑡
= 𝜋𝑑2
𝑖 𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡

𝑚3
4 0.00735 𝑁𝑡
𝑠
=𝜋 0.01483𝑚 2 382

𝑚
=0.111 𝑁𝑡 𝑠

𝑚
𝑁𝑡 𝑣𝑖 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠

2 0.22 Nt=10 is very high (unusual to have more than 8. ∴

4 0.45 Choose Nt=8 and allow for 𝑣𝑖 𝑒𝑠𝑡 slightly lower

6 0.67 than 1 m/s. (Check later that hi is not limiting

8 0.89 factor. If it is, may have to go to > 8 tube passes)

10 1.11
10. Nothing in tables for 8 tube-passes ∴ use equation
1
𝑑𝑏 𝑏 𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑏
𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎 → 𝑑𝑏 𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑑𝑜 with a=0.0365 and b=2 675
𝑑𝑜 𝑎

1
3 382 2.675
𝑑𝑏 𝑒𝑠𝑡 = " = 23.86" = 0.61m
4 0.0365

From C&R Figure 9.68, for split-ring floating head (i.e. rear-end S-type). Shell-bundle clearance
is 62 mm (Note this is Ds-db)
∴ 𝐷𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐 𝑖𝑠 23.86+62/25.4 =26.3
Should strictly now take Ds=27” but that will increase number of tubes & thus reduce 𝑣𝑖 further
so try Ds=25”=0.635m
62
∴ 𝑑𝑏 = 25" − =22.56" = 0.57𝑚
25.4
From graph, clearance is now 60 mm (Note mini-iteration required)
60
∴ 𝑑𝑏 = 25− =22.63 = 0.575 𝑚
25.4
 𝑑𝑏 𝑏
No. of tubes in a bundle : This can be estimated from the following equation 𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑜

where db is the bundle diameter and 𝑑𝑜 is the diameter of the tube.

 22.63" 2.675
11. 𝑛𝑡 = 0.0365 ≈ 331.3
0.75"

Take the next lowest even number

nt=330

𝑉
𝑣𝑖 = 𝜋𝑑2
= 1.03 𝑚/𝑠
𝑛𝑡 𝑖
𝑁𝑡 4

𝐴𝑜 𝑠 = 𝑛𝑡 𝜋𝑑𝑜 𝐿𝑡 = 96.3 𝑚2
𝐴𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑠 𝑁𝑠 = 96.3𝑚2 2 = 192.6 𝑚2

12. Select 25 % baffle cut

𝑉 𝑉𝑜 𝑃𝑡 𝐿𝑡
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑎𝑜 = 𝐿𝐵 = 𝑛
𝑜 𝑃𝑡 −𝑑𝑜 𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝐵 𝐵 +1
𝑛𝐵 LB (m) 𝑣𝑜 (m/s)
𝑉𝑜 𝑃𝑡 𝑛𝐵 +1
= 14 0.325 0.688
𝑃𝑡 −𝑑𝑜 𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝑡

15 0.305 0.712
𝑚3
0.0275 𝑠 0.0238𝑚 𝑛𝐵 +1
= LB exceeds 0.2Ds =0.114 ∴ take nB=14
0.0238−0.01905 𝑚 0.635𝑚 4.877𝑚

0.0445 𝑛𝐵 +1 𝑚
= 𝑠
 (200+40)℃
13. 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 120℃
2

(50+30)℃
𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 40℃
2

(120+40)℃
𝑇𝑤 𝑖,𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑇𝑤 𝑜,𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 2
= 80 ℃

𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝜇𝑤 𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 3.52 × 10−4 𝑚.𝑠

𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝜇𝑤 𝑖 𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 2.25 × 10−4 𝑚.𝑠 (interpolate)

𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝜌𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑖 850 3 1.03 𝑠 0.01483𝑚
𝑚
14. ℎ𝑖 : 𝑅𝑒𝑖 = = 𝑘𝑔 = 76 375
𝜇𝑖 1.7×10−4 𝑚.𝑠

Note: As expected this is turbulent (since we have set a relatively high 𝑣𝑖 )

𝜇𝑖 0.14
𝑁𝑢𝑖 = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝑖0.8 𝑃𝑟𝑖0.3 μ𝑤 𝑖

𝑘 𝑘𝑖 𝜇𝑖 0.14
ℎ𝑖 = 𝑁𝑢𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 0.023𝑅𝑒𝑖0.8 𝑃𝑟𝑖0.3
𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 𝑖

𝑊
0.125𝑚𝐾
0.8 0.3 1.7 0.14 𝑊
= 0.023 76375 3.10 = 2109 𝑚2𝐾
0.01483𝑚 2.25
15. ho: Since using triangular pitch
𝑆𝑇 = 𝑃𝑡
𝑆𝐿 = 0.87𝑃𝑡

𝜋𝑑2
4 0.87𝑃𝑡2 − 4
𝑜

∴ 𝑑𝑒 = = 0.5481" = 0.01392 m
𝜋𝑑𝑜

𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝜌𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑑𝑒 992.8 3 0.67 𝑠 0.01392 𝑚
𝑚
𝑅𝑒𝑜 = = 𝑘𝑔 = 13 800
𝜇𝑜 6.71×10−4 𝑚.𝑠

𝑘𝑔 𝐽
𝜇𝑜 𝐶𝑝𝑜 6.71×10−4 𝑚.𝑠 4180𝑘𝑔𝐾
𝑃𝑟𝑜 = = 𝑊
𝑘𝑜 0.631𝑚𝐾

From Sinnot Fig 12.29 jh=0.0050

1 0.14
𝑘𝑜 𝑘𝑜 𝜇𝑜
∴ ℎ𝑜 = 𝑁𝑢𝑜 = 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑟𝑜 3
𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝜇𝑤 𝑜

𝑊
0.631𝑚𝐾 1
6.71 0.14
= 0.0050 13800 4.44 3
0.01392𝑚 3.52

𝑊
= 5626 𝑚2𝐾
5.0X10-3
4.5X10-2
 𝑑𝑜
𝑑𝑜 ln
1 𝑑𝑜 1 𝑑𝑖 1 𝑑𝑜
16. = + +ℎ + 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑅𝑜
𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖 ℎ𝑖 2𝑘 𝑜 𝑑𝑖

3
With 𝑑𝑜 = 0.01905 𝑚𝑚 " Step 7
4

𝑑𝑖 = 0.01483 𝑚 (0.584") Step 7

𝑊
ℎ𝑖 = 2109 Step 14 &15
𝑚2 𝐾
𝑊
ℎ𝑜 = 5626 𝑚2𝐾 Step 14 & 15

𝑚 𝐾2
𝑅𝑖 = 5.34 × 10−4 𝑊 Step 1

𝑚 𝐾 2
𝑅𝑜 = 1.76 × 10−4 𝑊 Step 1
𝑊
k(stainless steel)= 17 𝑚𝐾 Assume MoC

1 𝑚2 𝐾
= 0.001789
𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑊

𝑊
∴ 𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 559
𝑚2 𝐾
 𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜
17. 𝑇𝑤 𝑖 = 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 + 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 92.7℃
ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖

𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑇𝑤 𝑜 = 𝑇𝑖,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 + 𝑇𝑜,𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 47.9℃
ℎ𝑜

𝑘𝑔
∴ 𝜇𝑤 𝑖 = 2.1 × 10−4 𝑚𝑠

𝑘𝑔
𝜇𝑤 𝑜 = 5.71 × 10−4 𝑚𝑠

18. Back to steps 14/15 with new 𝜇w values

𝑊
• ℎ𝑖 = 2129 𝑚2𝐾
𝑊
• ℎ𝑜 = 5258 𝑚2𝐾
𝑊
• 𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 557 𝑚2 𝐾

𝑊
∴ negligible change from previous value 𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 557 𝑚2𝐾

𝑊
∴ Use 𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 557 𝑚2𝐾

Go to step 19
 q
19. Ao required = = 84.2 m2
Uo actual F LMTD

Ao actual − Ao required
Overdesign Factor = × 100%
Ao required

192.6−84.2 m2
= × 100%
84.2 m2

= 128.7% ‼!
20. Tubeside ∆𝑃

10
1 6.9 𝑒 9
= −3.6 log10 + 𝑑
1
𝑅𝑒𝑖 3.7 𝑖
𝑓𝑓2

For stainless steel e=0.000007 ft=0.00000m

∴ 𝑓𝑓 = 0.00482
𝐿
∆𝑃 𝑖 = 2𝜌𝑖 𝑣𝑖2 𝑁𝑡 𝑁𝑠 𝑓𝑓 𝑑𝑡 + 1 = 74 823 Pa = 75kPa
𝑖
19. Shellside ∆𝑃
From step 14., 𝑅𝑒𝑜 = 13 800
From Fig 12-30, jf = 4.5 X 10-2

−0.14
𝐷𝑠 𝐿𝑡 𝜌𝑜 𝑣𝑜2 𝜇𝑜
∆𝑃 𝑜 = 8𝑗𝑓 𝑁𝑠 = 106 375 𝑃𝑎 = 106 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑒 𝐿𝐵 2 𝜇𝑤 𝑜

If over design factor is 129%, shows that the H.E. is seriously overdesigned. Best is to replace
(Uo)est with (Uo)actual and repeat steps 6 and 8-21. No point in altering all other parameters at
this stage as the new (Uo)est will result in big changes.

After a few iterations the following configuration is obtained:

𝐴𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 96.9 𝑚2 𝐴𝑜 𝑠 = 48.45𝑚2 𝑛𝑡 = 166 𝑛𝐵 = 7
1 𝑊
𝑁𝑡 = 4 𝐷𝑠 = 17 4 “ ℎ𝑖 = 2135 𝑚2𝐾
𝑊 𝑊
ℎ𝑜 = 4771 𝑚2𝐾 𝑈𝑜 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 552 𝑚2𝐾 𝐴𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 84.8𝑚2

Overdesign factor = 14.2% ∆𝑃 𝑖 = 37.1 𝑘𝑃𝑎 ∆𝑃 𝑜 = 25.3 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Notes:
1) The Uo-value is significantly different from the initially estimated Uo-value (210 W/m2K). Why?
Possibly this is a lighter gas oil than average. Possibly the allowable ∆P’s are higher than usually
used. [In Sinnot, water was put tubeside (possibly for corrosion reasons) & a Uo of 800 W/m2K
was calculated];

𝐿 𝑙𝐵 ×12
2) 𝐷𝑡 = 1 = 11.1
𝑠 174"

∴ Could also consider 8ft (or 12 ft) tube lengths.

 Designing shell and tube heat exchangers
Clearly, the iterative nature of H.E. design lends itself to spreadsheet application because:
(a) once the formulae have been set up in a template, this template can be used for
each new design
(b) once all the data for a particular design has been entered, it is easy to change a few
key parameters (e.g. (Uo)est, Nt, nB, etc.) to optimise the design.
Use of IF-function
In the design procedure described in these notes, there are several instances where a choice
between two (or more) values is made, depending on another parameter, e.g. in the Dittus-
Boelter equation, if the fluid is being cooled, then n (the power of Pr) is 0.3; or if the fluid is
being heated, n=0.4. Or if pitch configuration is equilateral triangular SL=0.87Pt; if it is square,
SL=Pt.

Rather than having to type these values in manually, it is useful to use the IF function on MS
Excel. The format of this function is as follows
= 𝐼𝐹 (Logical_test,[value_if_true],[value_if_false])
e.g. If an exam mark is stored in cell B3 and you wished to indicate whether the canidate had
passed (P) or failed (F), you could type the following (in the cell where you wished to see F or P)
=F(B3<50,”F”,”P”)
Thus if the mark were less than 50, you would see P.

Note: If you want to see text (e.g. F or P) you need to use inverted commas. If you want a
number, you do not need inverted commas. You can also reference in the [value_if_true] or
[value_if_false] positions.

If there is a choice between more than two options, “nested” IF’s, can be used.
e.g. If, instead of simply giving a pass/fail, you wanted to give a 1st (1), a 2nd (2), a 3rd (3) or a fail
(F) you could type =IF(B3<50,”F”, IF(B3<60,3, IF(B3<75,2,1))).

𝑑𝑏 𝑏
For H.E design, this could be used to provide the a & b values for the equation 𝑛𝑡 = 𝑎 ,
𝑑𝑜

depending on Nt & the pitch configuration (although it would be quite complicated “nested” IF)
 Manual entry or curve-fits?
In our design procedure, with each iteration, a change in nB (or Ds) gives a change in the 𝑣𝑜 and
𝑅𝑒𝑜 & thus a new jh(& jf) has to be ascertained from Fig 12.29 (& 12.30). With spreadsheet
iteration being so rapid anyway, this may not take to much time, but an alternative method is to
fit an equation to the curve in Fig 12.29, i.e. jh=f(Reo), so that jh is calculated automatically. Note
that, since jh is also a function of baffle cut percent, the formula for jh (for each baffle cut) could
be set up in a “nested” IF.

Note: If different formulae apply in different ranges of Reo a “nested” IF could also be used for
these.

Spreadsheet (or any other computer based ) design makes it possible to evaluate many different
options very rapidly; e.g. for the design example we did in class, what if we used
(a) 1” (instead of ¾ “ ) tubes,
(b) square (instead of triangular) pitch; or
(c) 12 ft (instead of 16 ft) tubes
 Case 1 2 3 4
𝑑𝑜 (inch) ¾ 1 ¾ ¾
Pitch tri tri square tri
𝐿𝑡 (𝑓𝑡) 16 16 16 12

𝑛𝑡 166 116 140 180

𝐷𝑠 (inch) 17 ¼ 21 ¼ 17 ¼ 19 ¼
𝑛𝐵 7 12 13 9
𝑁𝑡 4 6 4 6
𝐿𝑡 11.1 9.0 11.1 7.5
Just shell & 𝐷𝑠
tubes (i.e. 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 (𝑚3 ) 0.156 0.167 0.142 0.128
excluding
heads, baffles
etc.
Notes:
1) We would normally expect triangular to be better than square configuration BUT
when (Ds)est falls well below standard size in the triangular case, sometimes cheaper to
use square case. ∴ fewer tubes & still (Ao)actual > (Ao)required. Lesson: rule of thumbs can
be broken.

𝐿
2) 𝐷 > 10 is an indication that shorter tubes could be used → verified in case 4.

𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑠
3) 0.13 m3 might seem small BUT 𝜌𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 7.8 ∴ 0.13 𝑚3 ≈ 1 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒. Current
𝑚3

steel price ≈ R8500/tonne. ∴ Cost of steel = R8500.

4) The cost of steel is obviously only a small fraction of the overall price, but indicative
for comparison.
 NTU method of design & analysis (WWW+R, pp. 347-354)
This is an alternative method to the LMTD & F approach we have used. Defines an
effectiveness factor (𝜀) which is ratio of actual heat transfer in a H.E. to maximum
possible heat transfer in infinitely big H.E. (i.e if the limiting factor was ∆𝑇)

This method is useful if you do not have both of the outlet T’s but otherwise no real
advantage over the LMTD & F method.

Not examinable but read it for yourself if you ever have the situation mentioned above.
 Heuristics for H.E.’s, pumps, piping, utilities
This course covers detailed design of H.E.’s & Fluid flow systems. In early design stages,
need quick estimates for lots of pumps, H.E.’s. Heuristics (based on experimental
𝑞
design) available (e.g. Uo’s and F’s for use in 𝐴𝑜 = 𝑈 ) (See separate handout)
𝑜 𝐹 𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
 Design of Condensers
Similar principles & methodology as design of H.E.’s whithout phase change, but some
additional complexities, e.g.

• Condensers can be horizontal or vertical

• Condensation can be in shell or in tubes
• Condensation can be total or partial
• Sometimes vapour must be de-superheated before condensing
• Sometimes condensate must be sub-cooled
• Condensation can be non-isothermal (i.e. mixtures).
• Condensing vapour & condensate can flow in opposite directions (e.g. vapour
up, condensate down under gravity.
Depending on the previous information, one can have :
• Several different heat transfer correlations
• Combination of corrilations
• Different mechanisms of heat transfer in different parts of the condenser.
• Different two-phase flow patterns in different parts of the condenser
• Issues of “tube flooding” etc.

For more information, see Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Series, Volume 6:
Chemical Engineering Design”, 4th Ed. By R.K Sinnott pp. 709-728.

Notes:
1) Most common condenser configurations are
• Horizontal with condensation shell-side
• Vertical with condensation in tubeside.
2) Horizontal exchangers with condensation in tube-side are rare for process condesers
but are common for heaters & vaporizers using condensing steam as heating medium.
 Design of reboilers & vaporisers
Again, two-phase flow adds complexity but principle & methodology of design similar to H.E.’s
without phase change.
Reboilers: used in distillation columns to vaporise a fraction of the bottoms.
Vaporisers: vaporise all the feed.

Types of reboiler
1. Forced circulation– dluid pumped through exchanger. Suitable for heavily fouling & highly
viscous fluids ∴ high (& predictable) velocities. Also suitable for low vacuum operations &
low rates of vaporisation. Disadvantages: high pumping costs; risk of pump leakage.

2. Thermosiphon (or natural circulation) – vertical H.E. with vaporisation in the tubes (or
horizontal with vaporisation in shell). Circulation maintained by density difference between
liquids in base of column and two-phase mixture in exchanger. Most economical but not for
high vacuum or highly viscous fluids. Needs higher column elevation (to provide hydrostatic
head) : leads to higher costs of column supports.
3. Kettle – boiling takes place on tubes immersed in pool of liquid. No circulation
of liquid ∴ lower ho than other types. Suitable for vacuum operation & high
rates of vaporisation but not for fouling materials. Expensive but can be
competitive if tube bundle can be installed directly in column base.

Different design process for each of these types- for more information, see Sinnott
pp. 728-755.
 Plate & Frame heat exchangers (F&F H.E.’s)
P&F H.E.’s usually proprietary designs ∴ not possible to give exact methods. (i.e.
correlations kept secret) Approximate method given in Sinnott pp. 756-764

Very similar to S&T H.E. but with number of plates and plate area rather than number of
tubes & tube area.

Discussion & some other design information on various other heat exchanger equipment
(e.g. Welded plate, Plate-fin, spiral, direct contact, finned tubes, double pipes, air coolers,
jacketed vessels, internal coils) in Sinnott, pp. 764-769, 775-781.
 Radiation Heat Transfer (WWW+R, pp. 359-397)
Understanding of radiation heat transfer important in design of furnace/ boilers, etc.

Reminder: Unlike conduction & convection, radiation does not require a medium. In fact,
a medium impedes radiation.

In radiation, heat transferred between two bodies depends on the temperature difference
between the two bodies and on the absolute T.

Radiation travels at speed of light (c) : 𝜆𝜈 = 𝑐 where 𝜆 = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝜈 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦.

Of the entire magnetic spectrum (from high energy cosmic, gamma & X-rays to low energy
radio waves), we are interested in thermal radiation (𝜆 = 0.1 − 100 𝜇𝑚): mostly infra-red
& visable (but some UV)
 Thermal radiation-absorptivity, emmissivity & total emissive power
When thermal radiation strikes a surface, it can be absorbed, reflected & transmitted. If fraction
is absorbed, reflected & transmitted is 𝛼, 𝜌 & 𝜏 respectively the 𝛼 + 𝜌 = +𝜏 = 1
𝛼 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜌 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝜏 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
Most solids do not transmit radiation ∴ 𝜏 = 0 and α + 𝜌 = 1 (we will come back to this later,
when dealing with radiant heat transfer between “gray” surfaces)

An ideal absorbing body (𝛼 = 1, 𝜌 = 0, 𝜏 = 0) is called a black body.

Total emissive power (E) (units W/m2) is the total rate of thermal energy emitted via radiation
(per unit surface area) at a particular T. Eb is the total emissive power of an ideal radiating
surface (i.e. black body) at a particular T. The ratio of E (for non-ideal radiating surface) to Eb is
𝐸
known as the emissivity (𝜖) of the non-ideal surface, i.e. 𝜖 = 𝐸 [Note: E and Eb would be
𝑏

evaluated at the same T]

In cases of thermodynamic equilibrium (i.e. all surfaces at the same T, no heat transfer), 𝛼 = 𝜖
(Kirchoff’s law). This law even holds when the surfaces are not all at the same T, as long as T’s
are not too high (i.e. < 1370 K) BUT if one body is very high T (e.g. the sun at 5000 K) 𝛼 ≠ 𝜖

When 𝛼 is constant (i.e. independent of wavelength) the surface is called gray. For gray
surfaces, 𝛼 = 𝜖 even when the T’s of the different surfaces are not the same.

Values for 𝜖 for various surfaces are given in WWW+R, pp. 371-3, Table 23.4.

From Plank’s law of radiation (WWW+R, pp. 363-367), it can be shown that 𝐸𝑏 = 𝜎𝑇 4
where 𝜎 = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.76 X10-8 W/m2K4 or 0.1714 x10-8 Btu /hr ft2oR4)

Note: with this law & Table 23.4, can work out total emmisive power for several
surfaces/materials since 𝐸 = 𝜖𝐸𝑏
 Radiant heat transfer between black bodies – view factors (WWW+R, pp. 370-379)
Heat transfer between black bodies depends on:
(a) T-difference : 𝜎 𝑇14 − 𝑇24
(b) Geometry
Consider two surfaces :
It can be shown (WWW+R, pp. 370-373)
that the rate of heat transfer between
surfaces is:

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 𝑑𝐴2 𝑑𝐴1

𝑞1↔2 = 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2 𝐴1 OR
𝐴1 𝐴 1 𝐴2 𝜋𝑟 2

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 𝑑𝐴2 𝑑𝐴1

𝑞1↔2 = 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2 𝐴2 𝐴2 𝐴 1 𝐴2 𝜋𝑟 2

Note: the terms in brackets are purely geometric (i.e. they do not depend on T, etc.)
The bracketed terms are known as view factors
cos 𝜃1 ,cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴2 𝑑𝐴1 1 cos 𝜃1 ,cos 𝜃2 𝑑𝐴2 𝑑𝐴1
𝐹12 = 𝐹21 = 𝐴
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝜋𝑟 2 2 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝜋𝑟 2

Since 𝑞1↔2 & 𝐸𝑏1 & 𝐸𝑏2 is the same in both cases.
𝐴1 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 𝐹21 (reciprocating relation)

Notes on view factors:

• Reciprocating relation (A1F12= A2F21) always valid
• View factor independent of T –purely geometric
• For an enclosure (i.e. sides of enclosure all facing inwards) : 𝐹11 + 𝐹12 +
𝐹13 … … … = 1
 Example (WWW+R, p.374, Eg. 1)
Determine View factors F11, F12, F21

The flat circle can only “see” the hemisphere, i.e. it

cannot see itself ∴ F22=0 and F21 =1. The hemisphere
Can see the circle and itself ∴ F11 + F12 = 1
But 𝐴1 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 𝐹21 = 𝐴2 and 𝐴2 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑜2 (half surface
of a sphere)
1
∴ 2𝜋𝑟𝑜2 𝐹12 = 𝜋𝑟𝑜2 ∴ 𝐹12 = 2

Not all view factors are so easy to determine. In most cases, the integral 𝐹12 =
 Example (WWW+R, p.377, Eg. 2)
Determine view factor from a 1m square to a parallel rectangular plane 10 m X 12 m central
above the 1 m square.

Since square is so much smaller than the rectangle, consider it a “differential area” (relative to
the triangle) & use Fig 23.12
Fig 23.12 is based on differential area being at the corner of the rectangle ∴ split the rectangle
into four separate rectangles (each 5m X 6m) each with a corner over the square.

𝐷 8𝑚
∴ 𝐿 = 6𝑚 = 1.33
1

𝐷 8𝑚
= 5𝑚 = 1.60
𝐿2

∴ View factor is 0.09 for each of the 4 squares (Fig 23.12)

∴ Total view factor is 4 X 0.09 =0.36
 View Factor Algebra (WWW+R, pp. 377-379)
𝑛
Generally 𝑗=1 𝐹𝑖𝑗 =1
𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑗 𝐹𝑗𝑖

Define 𝐺𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗

∴ 𝐺𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖 𝐹𝑖𝑗 = 𝐴𝑖
𝑛
∑ shorthand for 𝑗=1

Also, if surface 1 “sees two other surfaces (2&3)

We write 𝐺1− 2+3 = 𝐺1−2 + 𝐺1−3
or 𝐴1 𝐹1− 2+3 = 𝐴1 𝐹1−2 + 𝐴1 𝐹1−3
Cancel A1 𝐹1− 2+3 = 𝐹1−2 + 𝐹1−3
Note: 𝐺1−2 ≡ 𝐺12 and 𝐹1−2 ≡ 𝐹12

Similarly, 𝐺 1+2 − 3+4 = 𝐺1− 3+4 + 𝐺2−(3+4)

= 𝐺1−4 + 𝐺1−3 + 𝐺2−3 + 𝐺2−4
Example(WWW+R, pp. 378-3790, 2nd )
Determine view factor F1-2
𝐺 2+4 − 1+3 =𝐺 2+4 −1 +𝐺 2+4 −3 = 𝐺2−1 + 𝐺4−1 + 𝐺 2+4 −3

BUT 𝐺4− 3+1 = 𝐺4−3 + 𝐺4−1

∴ 𝐺4−1 = 𝐺4− 3+1 − 𝐺4−3 (Substitute in above)
Substituting
𝐺 2+4 − 1+3 = 𝐺2−1 + 𝐺4−1 + 𝐺4− 3+1 − 𝐺4−3 + 𝐺 2+4 −3

Or 𝐺2−1 = 𝐺1−2 = G 2+4 − 1+3 − G4− 3+1 + G4−3 − G 2+4 −3

Expanding
𝐴1 𝐹2 = 𝐴2+4 𝐹 2+4 − 1+3 − 𝐴4 𝐹4− 3+1 + 𝐴4 𝐹4−3 − 𝐴2+4 𝐹2+4−3
𝐴2+4 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴2+4
𝐹1−2 = 𝐹 2+4 − 1+3 − 𝐴4 𝐹4− 3+1
4
+ 𝐴_1 𝐹4−3 − 𝐹2+4−3
𝐴1 1 𝐴1

Each of the view factors 𝐹 2+4 − 1+3 , 𝐹4− 3+1 , 𝐹4−3 & 𝐹 2+4 −3 can now be evaluated using
Fig 23.13.
Each of the view factors 𝐹 2+4 − 1+3 , 𝐹4− 3+1 , 𝐹4−3 & 𝐹 2+4 −3 can now be evaluated using
Fig 23.13.
𝑭 𝟐+𝟒 − 𝟏+𝟑 : y=5m, z=4m, x=3m (Note: In Fig 23.13, A, is the area on which the view
factor (F1+2) is based. Thus “y” is for A2+4 and “z” is for A1+3 in this case.
𝑦 5 𝑧 4
∴ 𝑌 = 𝑥 = 3 = 1.67 and 𝑍 = 𝑥 = 3 = 1.33

From Fig 23.13, 𝐹 2+4 − 1+3 =0.15

𝑭𝟒− 𝟑+𝟏 : y=3m, z=4m, x=3m

𝑦 3 𝑧 4
∴ 𝑌 = 𝑥 = 3 = 1 and 𝑍 = 𝑥 = 3 = 1.33

From Fig 23.13,𝐹4− 3+1 =0.22

𝑭𝟒−𝟑: y=3m, z=2m, x=3m

∴ 𝑌 = 1 and 𝑍 = 0.67
From Fig 23.13,𝐹4−3=0.165
Similarly for 𝑭 𝟐+𝟒 −𝟑 =0.10
From Fig 23.13
𝐹 2+4 − 1+3 = 0.15
𝐹4− 3+1 = 0.22
𝐹4−3 = 0.165
𝐹 2+4 −3 = 0.10
𝐴4 = 3𝑚 𝑋 3𝑚 = 9𝑚2
𝐴1 = 3𝑚 𝑋 2𝑚 = 6𝑚2
𝐴2+4 = 5𝑚 𝑋 3𝑚 = 15 𝑚2
𝐴2+4 5
∴ =2
𝐴1

𝐴4 3
=2
𝐴1

5 3 3 5
∴ 𝐹1−2 = 2 0.15 − 2 0.22 + 2 0.165 − 2 0.10 = 0.0425
 Radiant Exchange in Black Enclosures (WWW+R, pp.379-80)
For any two black surfaces, radient heat exchange is given by:
𝑞12 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 (𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2 )
For surface 1 and any other surface I in a black enclosure:
𝑞1𝑖 = 𝐴1 𝐹1𝑖 (𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏𝑖 )
∴ For an enclosure where surface 1 views n other surfaces, the net heat transfer with respect
to surface 1 is:
𝑛 𝑛
𝑞1−𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 𝑖=1 𝑞1𝑖 = 𝑖=1 𝐴1 𝐹1𝑖 (𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏𝑖 )

𝑛 ∆𝑉𝑖
This is analogous to Ohm’s Law 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑖=1 𝑅
𝑖

where 𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ≡ 𝑞1−𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑠

∆𝑉𝑖 ≡ 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏𝑖
1
𝑅𝑖 =
𝐴𝑖 𝐹1𝑖

Similarly for q2-others and q3-others etc.

This situation can be depicted by the following electrical circuits for cases
where n=3 & n=4

𝐸𝑏3

1
𝐴1 𝐹13 1 𝑛=3
𝐴2 𝐹23

𝐸𝑏1
𝐸𝑏2
1
𝐴1 𝐹12
 1 𝐸𝑏3
𝐴3 𝐹34
𝐸𝑏4

1
𝐴1 𝐹13
𝑛=4 1 1
𝐴1 𝐹14 𝐴2 𝐹23
1
𝐴2 𝐹24

𝐸𝑏2
𝐸𝑏1 1
𝐴1 𝐹12
 Radiant Exchange with re-radiating surfaces present (WWW+R, pp.380-381)
In previous case various “nodes” (syrfaces) were mentioned at their constant “potentials”
𝐸𝑏′ 𝑠, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑇 ′ 𝑠 by some external influence from the surroundings. In cases where a surface is
insulated from the surroundings, it will re-emit all absorbed energy and adjust its T to an
equilibrium value. In this case analogous electrical current (for n=3) is:
This node
represents insulated
(i.e. re-radiating
surface)
1
(RA) 𝐴 𝐹 1
1 13 (RB)
𝐴 𝐹 2 23

𝐸𝑏2
𝐸𝑏1
1
𝑅𝐶
𝐴1 𝐹12
Note: This is a analogous to two parallel “electrical” paths, one with two resistors in series
1 1 1
(𝑅𝐴 = 𝐴 , 𝑅𝐵 =𝐴 ) & the other with a single resistor in series 𝑅𝑐 = 𝐴
1 𝐹13 2 𝐹23 1 𝐹12
 𝐸𝑏1 −𝐸𝑏2
∴ 𝑞12 = 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

1 1 1
=𝑅 +𝑅
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐 𝐴 +𝑅𝐵

1 1
=𝐴 + 1 1
1 𝐹12 + 𝐴 𝐹
𝐴1 𝐹13 2 23

1
= 𝐴1 𝐹12 + 1 1
𝐴1 𝐹13
+ 𝐴 𝐹
2 23

1
∴ 𝑞12 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 + 1 𝐴 (𝐸𝑏𝑖 − 𝐸𝑏2 )
+ 1
𝐹13 𝐴2 𝐹23

1
𝐹12 + 1 𝐴 is defined as a new type of view factor, the “re-radiating view factor” 𝐹12
+ 1
𝐹13 𝐴2 𝐹23

𝑞12 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2

Fig 23.14 allows you to determine 𝐹-values (for different geometries) in curves 5-8
 Example
A room 3m X 3m X 3m has one side wall maintained at 260oC and the floor is maintained at
90oC. The other four surfaces are perfectly insulated (and can thus be considered as re-
radiating surfaces). Assume that all surfaces are black. Calculate the net radiative heat
transfer between the hot wall and cool floor.

3 (other surfaces,
re-radiating)

1 1
𝐴1 𝐹13 𝐴2 𝐹23

𝐸𝑏2
𝐸𝑏1
1 Cool floor
Hot wall
𝐴1 𝐹12
 𝑊 𝑊
𝐸𝑏1 = 𝜎𝑇14 = 5.676 × 10−8 𝑚2 𝐾4 533 𝐾 4
= 4581 𝑚2

𝑊
𝐸𝑏2 = 𝜎𝑇24 = 986 𝑚2

From Fig 23.13 with x=y=z= 3m

Y=Z=1 ∴ 𝐹12 = 0.2
Also 𝐹11 = 𝐹22 = 0
∴ 𝐹13 = 𝐹23 = 1 − 0.2 = 0.8
𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 3𝑚 3𝑚 = 9𝑚2
1 1
∴ R1 = = 0.556m2 and 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = = 0.139𝑚−2
9m2 0.2 9𝑚2 0.8

1 1 1
= + = 5.4 𝑚2
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
∴ 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 0.0185𝑚−2
𝐸𝑏1 −𝐸𝑏2
𝑞= 19 413 W
𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
 Radiant Heat Transfer between Gray Surfaces (WWW=R, pp. 381-388)
When surfaces are not balck bodies, analysis becomes more difficult but we can often model
them as “gray surfaces”. (Reminders: For gray surfaces 𝛼 = 𝜖; in addition, in general , 𝛼 +
𝜌 = 1). To analyse heat transfer between gray surfaces, we must define two new terms:
radiosity (J) is the rate at which radiation leaves a surface (per unit area)’
irradiation (G) is the rate at which radiation is incident on a surface (per unit area)

J is made up of reflected radiation and emitted radiation.

∴ 𝐽 = 𝜌𝐺 + 𝜖𝐸𝑏 (Remember for non-black bodies 𝐸 = 𝜖𝐸𝑏 )
𝐽−𝜖𝐸𝑏
∴𝐺= 𝜌

The net heat flux (by radiation) from a surface is:

𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡
= 𝐽 − 𝐺 = 𝜖𝐸𝑏 + 𝜌𝐺 − 𝐺 = 𝜖𝐸𝑏 − 1 − 𝜌 𝐺
𝐴

𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 1−𝜌 𝐽−𝜖𝐸𝑏

∴ = 𝜖𝐸𝑏 −
𝐴 𝜌
But since 𝛼 + 𝜌 = 1 → 1 − 𝜌 = 𝛼
𝛼𝐽 𝛼𝜖𝐸𝑏
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜖𝐸𝑏 − +
𝜌 𝜌

ρ𝜖𝐸𝑏 +𝛼𝜖𝐸𝑏 𝛼𝐽
= −
𝜌 𝜌

𝜖𝐸𝑏 𝛼𝐽
= 𝜌+𝛼 −
𝜌 𝜌

𝜖𝐸𝑏 𝛼𝐽
= −
𝜌 𝜌

But for gray surfaces 𝛼 = 𝜖

𝐴𝜖
∴ 𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝐸𝑏 − 𝐽)
𝜌

𝑉 𝑑
Again (!) there is an analogy with Ohm’s law 𝐼 = 𝑅 where 𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 ≡ 𝐼; 𝐸𝑏 − 𝐽 ≡ 𝑉, 𝐴 ≡ 𝑅
𝑒

Note: Eb is the “potential” of an imaginary black body at the same T at the gray body (which has
potential of J)
Similarly to black bodies, the net exchange of heat (by radiation) between two gray surfaces will
be: 𝑞12 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐽1 − 𝐽2 = 𝐴2 𝐹21 𝐽1 − 𝐽2
Therefore one can write three separate equations for heat flow, q

𝐴1 𝜖1 𝑞𝜌1
Rate of heat leaving surface 1 𝑞= 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐽1 → 𝐴 = 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐽1
𝜌1 1 𝜖1

𝑞
Rate of heat exchanged between surface 1&2 𝑞 = 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐽1 − 𝐽2 → 𝐴 = 𝐽1 − 𝐽2
1 𝐹12

𝐴2 𝜖2 𝑞𝜌2
Rate of heat received at surface 2 𝑞= 𝐽2 − 𝐸𝑏2 → 𝐴 = 𝐽2 − 𝐸𝑏2
𝜌2 2 𝜖2

𝜌1 1 𝜌2
𝑞 +𝐴 +𝐴 = 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2
𝐴 1 𝜖1 1 𝐹12 2 𝜖2

(𝐸𝑏1 −𝐸𝑏2 )
𝑞= 𝜌1 1 𝜌
+ + 2
𝐴1 𝜖1 𝐴1𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜖2

𝜌1 1 𝜌2
𝑅= 𝑅= 𝑅=
𝐴1 𝜖1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴1 𝜖2
Notes :
1) To use this approach to solve radiation problems, the following must apply
• Each surface must be gray
• Each surface must be isothermal
• Kirchoff’s law must apply 𝛼 = 𝜖
• No Heat absorbing medium between surfaces.

2) The expression could also be re-written

1
𝑞 = 𝐴1 𝜌1 1 𝐴 𝜌2 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2
+ + 𝐴1
𝜖1 𝐹12 2 𝜖2

𝑞 = 𝐴1 𝐽12 𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐸𝑏2

3) Since 𝛼 = 𝜖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 + 𝜌 = 1 → 𝜖 + 𝜌 = 1
∴𝜌=1−𝜖
 Example (WWW+R, p. 383, Eg 4.)
Two parallel gray surfaces at T1 and T2. Both surfaces very large ∴ assume infinite. Generate an
expression for net heat transfer (in terms of T’s & 𝜖 ′ 𝑠 of the surfaces).

(𝐸𝑏1 −𝐸𝑏2 )
𝑞= 𝜌1 1 𝜌
+ + 2
𝐴1 𝜖1 𝐴1𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜖2

• For very large parallel plates A1=A2=A and F12=F21=1

• 𝜌1 = 1 − 𝜖, 𝜌2 = 1 − 𝜖2
• 𝐸𝑏1 = 𝜎𝑇14 𝐸𝑏2 = 𝜎𝑇24

Aσ 𝑇14 −𝑇24 Aσ 𝑇14 −𝑇24

∴ q12 = 1−𝜖1 1−𝜖 = 1 1
+1+ 𝜖 2 −1+
𝜖1 2 𝜖1 𝜖2
 Example (WWW+R, p. 384, Eg 5. (c))
Two parallel plates (2m x 2m) are 2m apart.
Plate 1: T1=1100 K, gray, 𝜖1 = 0.4
Plate 2: T1=550 K, gray, 𝜖1 = 0.8
Black surroundings at 0 K.
Determine the rate of total heat transfer from plate 1.

2𝑚
From Fig 23.14 (Curve 2) with x-axis Ratio 2𝑚 = 1, 𝐹12 = 𝐹21 = 0.2. Therefore, since each plate

views only the other plate and the surroundings, the view factors to the surroundings,
𝐹1𝑅 , 𝐹2𝑅 = 1 − 0.2 = 0.8
𝑊 𝑊
𝐸𝑏1 = 𝜎𝑇14 = 5.676 𝑥 10−8 𝑚2𝐾4 1100 𝐾 4 = 83102 𝑚2

𝑊 𝑊
𝐸𝑏2 = 𝜎𝑇24 = 5.676 𝑥 10−8 𝑚2𝐾4 550 𝐾 4 = 5194 𝑚2

𝐸𝑏𝑅 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 = 𝜎𝑇𝑅4 = 𝜎 0 4

=0
𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 2𝑚 𝑥 2𝑚 = 4𝑚2
 𝐸𝑏𝑅 = 0

1 1
𝑅2 = 𝐴 𝑅4 = 𝐴
1 𝐹1𝑅 2 𝐹2𝑅
𝑞2 𝑞4
𝑞1 𝑞3 𝑞5

𝜌1 1 𝜌2
𝑅1 = 𝑅3 = 𝐴 𝑅2 = 𝐴
𝐴1 𝜖1 1 𝐹12
2 𝜖2
𝐸𝑏1 𝐸𝑏2

𝑅1 = 0.375 𝑚−2 , 𝑅2 = 0.3125 𝑚−2 , 𝑅3 = 1.25 𝑚−2 , 𝑅4 = 0.3125𝑚−2 , 𝑅5 = 0.0625𝑚−2

𝐸𝑏1 − 𝐽1 𝐽1 𝐽1 − 𝐽2
𝑞1 = , 𝑞2 = ,𝑞 = ; 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 + 𝑞3
𝑅1 𝑅1 3 𝑅3
𝐽 𝐽2 −𝐸𝑏2 ′
𝑞4 = 𝑅2 , 𝑞5 = 𝑞3 = 𝑞4 + 𝑞5
4 𝑅5

7 Equations, & unknowns can solve. 𝑞1 = 131 200 𝑊 = 131.2 𝑘𝑊

Note: Go through parts (a) and (b) of this example yourself.
Note: WWW+R, pp. 385-8 shows how to set up a system of equations (i.e. matrices) for an
enclosure with n surfaces. Useful for computer/ numerical solution of complex systems (Not
examinable but remember it for the future)
 Radiation from Gases (WWW+R, pp. 388-92)
Important for furnaces where heat is transferred to walls by radiation from hot gases
(combustion products ∴ typically CO2 , H2O and CO)

Gases emit & absorb energy in discreet energy bands (determined by the allowable energy
states within the molecule) ∴ while solids emit/absorb energy over all wave lengths, gases only
emit energy in certain wavelength bands.

𝑐 𝑐 𝑐ℎ
𝜆= = =
𝜈 ΔΕ ΔΕ
ℎ
Where 𝜆= wavelength of radiation
𝜈 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑐 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
ℎ = 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
ΔΕ = 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒.
See emission bands of CO2 and H2O in WWW+R, p 389, Fig 23.22 (Note: radiation all occurs
within IR regions, i.e. thermal radiation.
While CO2 and H2O emit/absorb thermal radiation, diatomic gases (e.g. N2, O2, H2) emit/ absorb
in different wavelength regions & are thus transparent to thermal radiation/

Anaysis of gas radiation complex but can be simplified by the following assumptions.
1) All gas at same T
2) Gas is gray (i.e 𝛼 = 𝜖)

Emissivities (𝜖) of H2O and CO2 at PT= 1 atm are given inWWW+R, pp. 390 Figs 23.23 &23.25.
respectively.
Note: that 𝜖 is a function os absolute T, partial pressure of the gas (pw for water, pc for CO2); and
mean beam length (L) . L depends on geometry & is given in WWW+R, p. 390, Table 23.5 for
various spaces in which the gas is enclosed. For geometries not in table, L≈3.4 (Volume/surface
area)

At P≠ 1 atm, a correction factor must be used for 𝜖. See WWW+R, Figs 23.24 &23.26. pp 391-2
Note: In Figs 23.23 & 23.25 , values are given for “near-zero partial pressure” of H2O + CO2.
These Figs are still relevant for most furnace/ combustion gasses since these gases consist
mostly of N2 and uncombusted O2 (from the excess air).

From WWW+R, p. 389, Fig 23.22, it can be seen that the emission/absorption bands of H2O +
CO2 overlap in some regions. Thus when dealing with these two gases together, an error would
occur if you simply added the separate emissivities to get the total emissivity. Instead, one must
also subtract an overlap term (∆𝜖) which is found in WWW+R, p392, Fig 23.27.
The 𝜖𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜖𝐻2𝑂 + 𝜖𝐶𝑂2 − ∆𝜖

Notes
1) For gases in an enclosed space view factors (from the gas to any particular part of the solid
surface) would simply be the ratio of that surface area to the overall inside surface area of
the enclosed solid.
2) Remember that gray gas assumption is a simplification-see literature for rigorous analysis.
 Example
The wall of a combustion chamber,0.5 m in diameter, and 2 m long, have an emissivity of 0.5 and
are maintained at 750K If the combustion products containing 10% (v/v) carbon dioxide and
10% (v/v) water vapour, are at 150 kPa and 1250 K, what is the net rate of radiation to the walls?

150𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑐 = 𝑃𝑤 = 0.1 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 0.148 𝑎𝑡𝑚
101.3𝑎𝑡𝑚

Geometry not in Table 23.5

𝜋
𝑉 4
0.5𝑚 2 2𝑚 3.28𝑓𝑡
∴𝐿= 3.4 𝐴 = 3.4 𝜋 = 0.38𝑚 = 1.25 𝑓𝑡
[ 0.5𝑚 2𝑚 +2 0.5𝑚 2 𝑚
4

∴ 𝑃𝑐 𝐿 = 𝑃𝑤 𝐿 = 0.148𝑎𝑡𝑚 1.25𝑓𝑡 = 0.185 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑓𝑡

Gas temperature = 1250 K=2250oR
∴ From Fig 23.23, 𝜖𝐻20 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 0.070
& From Fig 23.25, 𝜖𝐶𝑂2 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 0.083
 𝑘𝑃𝑎
1 1 150101.3𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜌 + 𝑝𝑤 = + 0.148 𝑎𝑡𝑚 =0.814 atm
2 2 𝑎𝑡𝑚

∴ From Fig 23.24, Cw=1.39

∴ 𝜖 = 0.07 1.39 = 0.097

150𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑃= 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 1.48 𝑎𝑡𝑚
101.3𝑎𝑡𝑚

∴ From Fig 23.26, Cc=1.03

∴ 𝜖𝐶𝑂2 = 0.083 1.03 = 0.085

𝑃𝑊 1
= 2 = 0.5 𝑃𝑐 𝐿 + 𝑃𝑤 𝐿 = 0.37 𝑎𝑡𝑚. 𝑓𝑡
𝑃𝑐 +𝑃𝑤

∴ From Fig 23.27 ∆𝜖 = 0.011

∴ 𝜖𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜖𝐻2𝑂 + 𝜖𝐶𝑂2 − ∆𝐸 = 0.171
If gas =1 & wall=2
𝜋 2
𝐴1 = 𝜋 0.5𝑚 2𝑚 + 2 0.5𝑚 = 3.53𝑚2
4

𝐴2 = 𝜋 0.5𝑚 2𝑚 = 3.14𝑚2
𝐴
𝐹12 = 𝐴2 ∴ 𝐴1 𝐹12 = 𝐴2 = 3.14𝑚2
1

Net rate of heat transfer between two gray bodies,

𝜎 𝑇14 −𝑇24
𝑞12 = 𝜌 1 𝜌2
+ +
𝐴1 𝜖1 𝐴1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜖2

𝜖1 = 0.171
𝜖2 = 0.500
𝜌1 = 1 − 𝜖1 = 0.829
𝜌2 = 1 − 𝜖2 = 0.500
𝑇1 = 1250 𝐾
𝑇2 = 750 𝐾

∴ 𝑞12 = 60 007 𝑊 = 60 𝑘𝑊
 Radiation Heat Transfer Coefficient (hr)
Since 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 ∝ ∆𝑇 4 , i.e. not proportional to ∆𝑇, one can only get an hr value by “linearizing “ the
𝑞
= 𝑓 ∆ 𝑇4 at the particular T of operation.
𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑑

The outcome of the linearization procedure (See WWW+R, p 393) is:

ℎ𝑟 = 4𝜎𝑇13 𝐽12
𝜌 1 𝐴 𝜌2
Where T1 = Absolute T of the hot body (K or oR) and 𝐽12 = 1/( 𝜖 1 + 𝐹 + 𝐴1
1 12 2 𝜖2

Note: For black bodies, 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 = 0

∴ 𝐽12 = F12
Strictly the equation that should now be used is:
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝑟 𝐴 𝑇1 − 𝑇𝑅
Where

𝑇14 −𝑇24
𝑇𝑅 = 𝑇1 − 4𝑇13

But 𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ℎ𝑟 𝐴 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 gives a good approximation, except at a very high T1

 ∴ ℎ𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ℎ𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + ℎ𝑟
Note: You can use the equation for hr & Table 15.1 to get an idea of
which h is dominant at which T’s. In a vacuum, hconvection =0 ∴ ℎ𝑟 & this
𝑞𝑟𝑎𝑑 is always dominant.
 Fired Heater Design (brief overview)
Not in WWW+R. Mostly in Sinnot “Chem Eng Design” 4th Ed. Pp.
769-775 and Kern “ Process Heat Transfer” Int. Stud. Ed. Pp 674-
715.

Common applications for fire heaters are:

• Steam generation (i.e. boilers)
• High T reactors (e.g. thermal cracking, reforming, pyrolysis)
• Refinery feed stream heating/vaporization
• Reboilers for crude oil distillation
 Basic Construction/Operation
Rectangular (or cylindrical) steel chamber, lined with refractory bricks. Tubes
arranged along the walls in horizontal or vertical banks. Fluid to be heated flows
through the tubes. Burners are located at the base or sides of the chamber.
Gaseous or liquid fuels, or pulverised coal, is reacted with excess air to give
combustion gases which heat the tubes along the walls by radiation (& some
convection). This main chamber is known as radiant section.

In a boiler, the water typically flows upward through the tubes & then enters a
boiler drum at the top where the steam and water are separated. The water is
returned to feed water heaters at the bottom of the tubes. The steam enters a
new set of tubes in the super heater section.
After leaving the main chamber (at a lower T), the combustion (or flue) gases flow
through the superheater section, where they heat the steam, mainly by convection.
Thereafter, they flow the economizer section, where new feed water flows through
the tubes and is heated to saturation temperature before it enters the boiler drum.
Finally, the flue gas passes through the tubes and is pre-heated before going to the
burners. The superheater, economizer and air heater is collectivelly known as the
convection section.

Because there is two-phase flow in the tubes in the radiant section, larger tubes are
used than in a heat exchanger, 3-6 inches. Tube velocities are typically 1-2 m/s.
 Design –Radiant section
From previous analysis, radiant transfer from combustion gases to solid surfaces
𝑞 = 𝐴1 𝐽12 𝜎(𝑇𝑔4 − 𝑇𝑠4 )
Where A1 is the surface area of the enclosed gas

1
𝐽12 = 𝜌1 1 𝐴 𝜌
+ + 1 2
𝜖1 𝐹12 𝐴2 𝜖2

Where 𝜖1 , 𝜌1 = gas emmisivity, reflectivity

𝜖2 , 𝜌2 = surface
𝐴2 = area of solid surface
Actual fired heaters are more complex because :
(a) Instead of smooth walls there are banks of tubes
(b) Some radiation that passes between the tubes re-radiates or reflects back to the tubes.
Thus, the design equation for fired heaters is usually given as

𝑞 = 𝜎𝛼𝐴𝑐𝑝 𝐹 𝑇𝑔4 − 𝑇𝑠4

Where Acp is the “cold-plane” area of the tubes.
𝐴𝑐𝑝 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 × 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝛼 – the absorption efficiency factor
F – radiation exchange factor

Note: Between them Acp, 𝛼 & F take into account the emissivities, reflectivities & the geometric
view factors (including the complexities mentioned previously).

For more information on the estimation of 𝛼 & F, and on the full design procedures, see Kern
(reference given previously ) or the handout by Wimpress.
Notes :
1. Heat losses from radiant section ~ 2%
2. Will be some heat transfer by convection in the radiant section but, because the gas velocity
is very low, hconv is usually only about 10 W/m2K.
3. Thermal efficiency ~ 80-90%

Convection Section
Use correlations we have learned in cross-flow in tube banks. Typically Uo=20-50 Wm-2K-1
∆𝑃 same for shellside of the S&T H.E’s