Research Methods for

Engineering Projects

Conducting Qualitative Research:

Theory and Applications

Unit 2 Lesson Summary

From General to Specific

Deductive vs. Inductive

Participants

User Observation

Case Studies

Interview Protocol

Subjectivity vs. Objectivity

From general
to specific

Whether the researcher is conducting a qualitative The researcher can start off with a very general topic of
piece of research or a quantitative one, the research interest from which a specific research idea will be
idea can be formulated by starting off with a more derived at a later stage.
general topic of interest and then narrowing this down
to a more specific measurable research idea. The
researcher needs to think of questions such as “what”,
“where”, and “who”.

Formulating a research idea can be viewed as a

daunting task. As long as the researcher tries to find
answers to questions such as “what”, “where”, and
“who”, these can help in formulating a research idea.
The researcher needs to make sure that the exact
research idea has not already been investigated, as the
main purpose of a research project/dissertation is to
explore a novel/new aspect of a given topic.

The researcher can then start narrowing down the

research directions by thinking of possible aspects that
could further be investigated within that specific topic of
interest.
It is then important to further narrow this down by
thinking of more specific elements such as possible
contexts/locations in which the research may be
conducted.
It is also important to narrow down the research
idea/question by considering the participants needed
for the research.
Elements such as what is going to be researched, where
the research is going to take place, and who is going to
take part in the research need to be taken into
consideration
idea/question.
when formulating a research
Summary
Narrowing down a research topic to a research
idea/question can be a difficult process. If the
researcher brainstorms some ideas with regards to
questions such as “what”, “where”, and “who”, these may
aid in formulating a measurable and meaningful research
idea/question. Of course, the researcher needs to
conduct a preliminary literature search and review in
order to be able to do this.
5 Key Points
1. Start with a research topic.
2. Try to find possible questions such as “what”,
“where”, and “who”.
3. The answers to these questions will aid in
formulating a more specific measurable
research idea/question.
4. Make sure this research idea has not already
been investigated in the exact manner you are
planning to.
5. Conduct both an initial literature review before
formulating your research idea and one once
you have formulated your research idea.
Deductive
vs. inductive

When doing a research project/dissertation, the
researcher can conduct either a quantitative piece of
research or a qualitative one or even a mix of both. The
main differences between the two types of research is
that in qualitative research, fewer participants are
required compared to quantitative research and no
statistical tests are used in order to test for any given
hypotheses. When conducting qualitative research, the
researcher can take either a deductive or an inductive
approach.
One of the strengths of the deductive approach is that it
represents a systematic method which is useful to use
when probable responses are already known. The deduc-
tive approach is relatively quick and easy to use and it
may be easily replicated. Some of the weaknesses of the
deductive approach are that it is inflexible and it can
severely limit theme and theory development. The
deductive approach can potentially bias the whole analy-
sis.

The deductive approach assumes that the researcher is

working with a pre-established framework, based
mainly on the literature review. The inductive approach
assumes that the researcher is not working with a
pre-established framework, especially where research-
ing a completely new theory/concept. Both deductive
and inductive approaches have their strengths and
weaknesses.

One of the strengths of the inductive approach is that it

uses data to drive the structure of analysis whilst being
flexible and pragmatic. The inductive approach is useful
when little is known about the area under investigation
whilst also being a systematic method. Some of the
weaknesses of the inductive approach are that it is a
labour-intensive and time-consuming approach. The
inductive approach may not be replicable or verifiable.

Researchers can
Summary

Although there are some differences between

take either a
quantitative and qualitative research methods, different
approaches can be taken even within qualitative
research. The researcher may undertake either a
deductive or an
inductive
deductive or inductive approach when conducting
qualitative research.

approach.

5 Key Points

1. A smaller number of participants and no use of

hypotheses and statistical tests represent
some of the main differences between
quantitative and qualitative research.

2. Within qualitative research, the researcher can

undertake either a deductive or an inductive
approach.

3. A deductive approach is usually used when

there is an existing framework the research is
derived from.

4. An inductive approach is usually used when

such a framework does not exist.

5. Both deductive and inductive approaches have

both strengths and weaknesses and are
normally used depending on the nature of the
research project/dissertation the researcher is
planning to conduct.
Participants

Once a researcher has decided whether to conduct a take part in the research). The researcher can work either
quantitative or qualitative piece of research, the with a convenience sample, where any types of
researcher needs to think of the type of participants participants can take part in the research, usually anyone
they would like to take part in the research over the age of 18, or with a targeted sample, where only
project/dissertation. specific participants can take part in the research, usually
based on some inclusion/exclusion criteria.
When thinking of the participants who may take part in
the research, the researcher needs to consider details
such as participant characteristics and inclusion or
exclusion criteria needed for conducting the research
project or dissertation.

Participants need to be representative. That is to say

that participants need to come from the group the
researcher is targeting in relation to the research
idea/question of the research project/dissertation (i.e. if
the researcher is investigating students’ behaviours in
relation to healthy eating, then only students should
 The
The inclusion/exclusion criteria are used in order to filter
out who can take part in the research and who cannot
take part in the research (i.e., if you are investigating
students’ behaviours in relation to healthy eating, then
you can ask individuals who want to take part in the
inclusion/exclusion
research whether they are students or not if, for
example, you are using questionnaires as part of your
criteria are used
in order to
research).

Summary

Participants in a quantitative piece of research need to

filter participants
be representative. We are implying that they need to
come from the group the researcher is targeting as part
to take part in
of the research project/dissertation. The researcher can
work with either a convenience sample or with a the research.
targeted sample. The researcher needs to think of
inclusion/exclusion criteria.

5 Key Points
1. The researcher may be undertaking either a
quantitative piece of research, a qualitative
one, or a combination of both.

2. The researcher may be working with

participants in both quantitative and qualitative
research.

3. Participants being “representative” refers to

participants coming from the targeted group.

4. Convenience samples allow any participants,

usually over the age of 18, to take part in the
research, whereas targeted samples require
the researcher to work with inclusion/exclusion
criteria.

5. Inclusion/exclusion criteria allow the

researcher to select who should and should not
take part in the research project/dissertation.
User Observation

In our studies in engineering management, we are

emphasising the importance of developing goods and
services with the customer (or end user) in mind. This User Observation
approach of User Centred Design leads to the Planning of user-centred
design
development of devices and processes that are more
likely to be adopted as they better meet people’s
Determination of
requirements and are more intuitive for users to interact user context

with.
Determining of organisational
Evaluation of Design
and user requirements

Development of Design
Fulfilling of
Expectations
User Observation Source: ISO 13407 User-Centered Design Cycle

Experiment

Build
From this understanding, the requirements for a
proposed product or service should be developed. This is
then followed by the design and development activities
Learn Measure as well as testing and evaluation.
Assumption
Metric

A researcher may wish to conduct research in the field as

a means of getting a better understanding of a person’s
situation and perspective. Ideally, as engineering
The focus on customers and end users through the managers, we would observe users in their usual setting
design and development processes requires us to – such as at their place of work. However, this may not
involve people to test our product (or system) concepts always be practical, for example if they work at a remote
and initial designs. This necessitates user observation, location such as an off-shore wind farm.
which we will now discuss.

Qualitative research approaches are usually involved

User Observation
when we conduct field research that involves observing
and getting comments from people about a device or 1st 2nd
process. It’s generally recognised that qualitative prototype prototype
research approaches can provide a deeper view of a
person’s situation or issue. This approach to field Test Build Test Build
Continue
research supports the User Centred Design approach, iterating
which starts with the recognition of an end user’s
situation – known as the user context. Learn Learn

Design Improve
Developers may therefore use prototypes to provide
learning opportunities including human factors and
user interaction. This way, developers can increase their
knowledge in an iterative manner, enhancing the design
incrementally.
Summary
Researchers should be ready to record words and
Research by engineering managers into product or
images as well as other ways of capturing the events
process innovation will likely involve field research, where
being observed in the form of qualitative data. Data
the researcher observes people’s activities and
collection methods for user observation sessions may
technology usage in the appropriate context (in situ).
range from making sketches and taking notes by hand
The researcher needs to plan ahead and have equipment
to taking photographs or video recording activities
such as video recording equipment available to capture
and/or some other means of noting events. For
the key events and record observations. Qualitative data
research studies concerning engineering management
collected through observation of users (or other types of
products, processes, and systems, we may also want to
field research) needs to be analysed and patterns looked
record numerical data, such as timings of activities,
for. It can be helpful to use a software package to
which will produce quantitative data. From this we
manage and analyse data from field research; the tools
should appreciate that a researcher involved in field
available differ depending on whether the data collected
research needs to be flexible and able to adapt their
is qualitative in nature or quantitative (numbers based).
data observation and recording to fit the situation.

Recording relevant data may require capturing

information concerning the background and the
surrounding situation (such as noise or interruptions
from other engineering activities). To capture the
events in situ (on location) requires that you plan ahead
and decide what recording equipment you’ll need. 5 Key Points
During the field research stage it’s usually considered
good practice not to apply labels or some other means 1. To better understand customers’ viewpoints and
concerns, we may conduct field research that involves
of categorising the activity. As a researcher you should observing the usage of a device or process.
be focused on recording what you are observing (such
as a person’s online transactions) for analysis at a later
stage, at which time you might use a software package 2. This qualitative research approach enables us to observe
people in their situation (in their context) and get
to assist you. comments and feedback.

3. The data collection phase needs to be planned, as a wide

range of qualitative data needs to be recorded, including
textual and visual information.

4. Suitable recording equipment and other means of

capturing events and activities need to be available for
the researcher in situ (on location) during the field
research phase.

5. Data analysis should occur at a later stage – after the field

research. It can be helpful to use a software package to
manage and analyse data collected.
Case Studies
Field research studies in engineering management may Data capture typically involves detailed case study
involve organisations that provide a setting (or context) records, which may range from copies of existing meet-
suitable for the topic being researched. The organisa- ing records (such as from project meetings) through to
tions are providing a case study for the researcher to gain textual descriptions of observations made and
insight into the way that activities are conducted in a comments received. Key business activities – such as a
specific setting, such as an industrial practice. A survey firm’s production processes – may also need to be docu-
may be used as an instrument to collect data within a mented and considered as part of the case study
case study organisation; however, this quantitative appraisal.
research approach is often supplemented with personnel
interviews and research approaches that are more quali-
Production Activities
tative in nature.

Case study research by engineering managers may

involve one or more organisations that provide suitable
Enterprise Level
settings for research studies concerning engineering
management products, processes, and systems. This Production/
Operations
approach allows a researcher to look in depth at one or a
small number of companies and their working practices. Processes
Analysis may be made within a single case or cross-case
where patterns (or differences) may be established. The
basis for selecting cases should have a rationale that fits
with the focus of the research. The level of analysis needs
to be decided before conducting any field research. Capturing operational activities and practices in an
industrial setting requires a researcher to be familiar
with that sector, its operations, and the key business
processes, as well as specialised terminology.
Level of Analysis

A researcher may find that once on-site and talking to

people in the industrial setting, many issues and items
are raised with them. The difficulty can be in maintaining
Sector Level research focus and being able to handle the range of
items. Due to this, it may be useful to get together a
small number of knowledgeable participants for a group

Enterprise Level
discussion on a specific issue. This could be in the form

Production/ Other Level of a focus group, where the researcher acts as a facilita-
Operations Eg Process or Unit tor. However, it can be difficult to arrange in practice
given the likely limited availability of participants.

The research project or study may be focused at the

industry level (such as within a given sector) or at the
firm level (within a business enterprise, for example), or
some other level as appropriate.
An alternative approach is to have several meetings,
each with one or a small number of people knowledgea-
ble about the issue in hand. To assist with the data collec-
tion and analysis, it can be helpful to use a Repertory Grid
to better structure the discussion and capture the points
raised.

However, in order to capture sufficient material during a

Repertory Grid case study, a researcher may use a mixed methods
approach whereby they intentionally pursue a combina-
tion of qualitative as well as quantitative approaches
such that a systemic research design is developed for the
Constructs Contrasts
Item 1 Item A
case study organisation(s). Note that for any of these
Item 2 Item B research approaches the focus of the research activity
Item 3 Item C may alter once the researcher is on-site, so it’s important
Item 4 Item D to have a means to maintain contact with a supervisor to
... Item n ... Item N discuss any shift in direction.

As for any other research approach, there are advantag-

es and drawbacks to using case studies as a research
Each item (or construct) can be captured and shown
method in a research project (or study). This approach is
visually (as a row on the left side) for the group to
recognised as providing the ability for a researcher to
discuss, with the opposite to that item (the contrast)
capture the complexities of real-life situations and gain a
shown on the right side.
deeper understanding as an engineering manager. We
should also consider the limitations of this type of
research. The findings from a study may not be consid-
Repertory Grid ered suitable elsewhere – in other words, generalisation
of the findings from case studies can be difficult. The size
of the data sample can be a factor that limits the credibili-
Participant Ratings
ty of case study-based research, so advice should be
Constructs 1 2 3 4 5 6 Contrasts
Item 1 Item A
taken on a suitable number of companies (and partici-
Item 2 Item B pants) for your data sample. However, for many
Item 3 Item C engineering managers, conducting research in a compa-
Item 4 Item D ny environment in which they are familiar can hold a
... Item n ... Item N strong appeal.

Once the discussion has tapered off with no new issues

being raised, the participants can be asked to giving
ratings, which the researcher can analyse at a later time.

Many researchers will approach case study research by

either using a predominantly qualitative approach with
some additional quantitative material or vice versa.
Summary

As researchers we may look to conduct field research

within an organisation such as a manufacturing firm to
examine the working practices in greater depth. The
research approaches may comprise a mixture of primary
field research as well as reviewing secondary (existing)
data such as meeting reports. Surveys can be useful to
get an idea of a situation for which appropriate
participants should be approached – such as staff
working on certain business activities (under review).
These research approaches (which mainly provide
quantitative data) are often supplemented with
interviews with staff and managers, which are more
qualitative in nature.

5 Key Points
1. As engineering managers we may look to conduct
case study research in one or more organisations that
provide suitable settings.

2. Case study research entails taking a look in depth at

one or a small number of companies and their
working practices.

3. The level of analysis needs to be decided before

conducting any field research. This may be at the
industry level or at the firm level or some other level
(such as process level).

4. Data collection varies from internal company

documents (such as meeting reports) to staff surveys
(quantitative data) to field observations and
interviews (qualitative data).

5. Analysis of case studies may be made within a single

case or cross-case where patterns (or differences)
may be established. However, it can be hard for the
study findings to be accepted more widely – known
as generalisation.
Interview
protocol

When conducting qualitative research and working details about their ideas in relation to the research topic,
with primary data, the researcher can use methods such the researcher can include some probe questions as part
as structured and semi-structured interviews, focus of the interview protocol.
groups, diaries, and open-ended questions as part of a
close-ended questions survey. Semi-structured
interviews represent probably one of the most Summary
commonly used methods of collecting primary data
within qualitative research. In qualitative research, when the researcher works with
primary data, semi-structured interviews may be used as
Semi-structured interviews allow the researcher to a method of collecting the necessary data for the
work with a pre-established interview protocol and to research project/dissertation. If working with
be flexible and ask additional questions, if needed. The semi-structured interviews, then an interview protocol
interview protocol guides the researcher in terms of the should be developed before the interviews themselves
questions to be asked in an interview and in what order take place.
they will be asked.

5 Key Points
1. In qualitative research, the researcher may be
working with primary data.

2. The researcher may be using methods such as

structured and semi-structured interviews,
focus groups, diaries, and open-ended
questions in order to collect primary data.

3. Semi-structured interviews are probably most

commonly used when collecting qualitative
data.

4. An interview protocol
conducting interviews.
is needed when

The questions mentioned in an interview protocol need

to be based on the research idea and on the literature
review conducted in relation to that specific research
idea. The questions need to flow in a logical order. In the
case that participants need to be probed to offer more
5. The interview protocol should list, in a logical
order, all the questions the researcher wants to
ask participants during the interviews.
Subjectivity
vs. Objectivity

Findings need to be analysed. Even though a Summary

step-by-step rigorous process always has to be
followed in order to analyse data, qualitative research is The researcher can conduct either quantitative or
considered subjective while quantitative research is qualitative research, or a combination of both as part of a
considered objective. There are certain techniques that research project or dissertation. Whilst quantitative
can be applied to qualitative research in order to ensure research is considered objective, qualitative research
its objectivity. tends to be considered quite subjective. Objectivity can
be implemented in qualitative research by using a
Although considered subjective compared to third-party verification process.
quantitative research, qualitative research can in fact
achieve some objectivity by using a third-party
verification process. This allows for the researcher’s
data analysis process to be verified by other individuals
in order to ensure consistency in the patterns found
within the collected data.

5 Key Points
1. The researcher can conduct either quantitative
or qualitative research, or a mix of the two as
part of a research project or dissertation.

2. Quantitative research is considered objective.

3. Qualitative research is considered subjective.

The third-party verification process can be done by

participants themselves but this is considered to be 4. Participants may be used as part of a
third-party verification process.
time-consuming and participants may change their
views or answers. For better consistency or inter-rater
reliability, the third-party verification process can be 5. Other researchers may be used as part of the
third-party verification process.
done by another researcher instead. This may add new
insights and may confirm the initial analytical process.