One of the requirements to pass the subject “Observation of Teacher-

Learning in Actual School Environment” is to accomplish this Experiential

Learning Course (ELC) 101 Portfolio. I would like to extend my humblest
gratitude to individuals who contributed and lent their help financially,
emotionally, and physically for a boundless achievement from gathering of
datas and ideas up to the finishing process of my portfolio.
First and foremost, I would like to offer this success to our Almighty
Creator ALLAH for the patience, wisdom, and knowledge He bequeathed
upon me. I have been a lot of hardships these past few days because of
internet connectivity and my health status. Allah protected me at all cost
and offered me strength, knowledge, and wisdom just to finish this portfolio.
Secondly, I would like to take this opportunity to commend and
acknowledge, Dr. Jovar G. Pantao, our ELC 101 adviser for not letting us take
this difficult journey all alone. And for providing us the necessary knowledge,
attitude, and skills we neede as future educators. Thank you, sir.
My most noteworthy gratitude to my parents, siblings, and relatives, for
their undying and unconditional love, care, and support emotionally,
physically, and financially during especially during these diffcicult times
Additionally, to my college buddies, Almera and Ren Heart for always
cheering me up and for always having my back whenever I needed
someone to lean on. To Meryll Kaye, and my blockmates for always making
themselves available by helping me out with all their capabilities.
Moreover, I would like to thank my cooperating teacher Ma’am
Celevic C. Cornito for providing me documents I needed in this portfolio and
for the learnings she has shared with me which are indeed useful in my
present and future career.
 Table of Contents

CHAPTER I. THE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT………………………………………………………….……..08

A. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………..............09

B. The Facilities of the Observed School………………………………………………………………...10-14

C. School Facilities Observation Checklist………………………………………………………….….15-18

D. Sketch or drawing of an Ideal School Environment………………………………………………..….19

E. Sketch or drawing of an Ideal Classroom…………………………………………………………….…20

F. Layout of a Classroom Board Display……………………………………………………………….……21

G. Proposed Board Display………………………………………………………………………………..22-23

H. Reflection…………………………………………………………………………………………………..24-27

CHAPTER II. LEARNERS DIVERSITY: DEVELOPMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS, NEEDS, AND

INTERESTS…………………………………………………………………………………………….…28
A. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………….…29

B. Learners’ Developmental Matrix……………………………………………………………………..30-38

C. Compilation of Research Articles on Learners’ Diversity………………………………….….…39-135

D. Reflection………………………………………………………………………………………………….....136

CHAPTER III. PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCIES OF TEAHERS…………….…137

A. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..………..138

B. Observation/Interview of Cooperating Teacher……………………………………………..…139-142

C. Reflection on Ron Clark Story…………………………………………………………………………...143

D. Metrobank Outstanding Filipino Teachers…………………………………………………..……144-146

E. Future Educator’s Vision Board……………………………………………………………………..…...147

F. Poem About a Glocal Teacher of the 21st Century…………………………………………..…148-150

CHAPTER IV. UTILIZING TEACHING-LEARNING RESOURCES AND ICT…………………………..151

A. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………….
 Table of Contents
B. Observation of Online Teaching Demonstration………………………………………………...152-154

C. Lesson Plan with ICT Integration……………………………………………………………………155-166

D. Documentation of Online Teaching Demonstration……………………………………………167-168

E.
Reflection…………………………………………………………………………………………...………..…169

CHAPTER V. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND CLASSROOM ROUTINES….......................170

A. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………....171

B. Classroom Management Checklist…………………………………………………………………..…172

C. Classroom Rules…………………………………………………………………………………………….173

D. Reflection………………………………………………………………………………………………….…174

CHAPTER VI. DESIGNING A MINISCULE CURRICULUM………………………………………....175

A. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….176

B. Compilation of Lesson Plan……………………………………………………………………….....177-206

C. Strenghts and Weaknesses Matrix……………………………………………………………...….207-208

D. Reflection……………………………………………………………………………………………………..209

CHAPTER VII. ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING…………………………………………………………210

A. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………….211

B. Assessments from the Modules…………………………………………………………………………..212

1. Assessment FOR Learning…………………………………………………………………..213-214

2. Assessment AS Learning…………………………………………………………………….215-216

3. Assessment OF Learning…………………………………………………………………….217-219

C. Reflection…………………………….………………………………………………………………………220

CHAPTER VIII. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHING ………………………………

 Table of Contents

A. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………221

B. Philosophies of Education……………………………………………………………………………222-225

C. My Philosophy of Teaching………………………………………………………………………...........226

D. Reflection…………………………………………………………………………………………………...227
 In my three and a half years in this institution, Mindanao State University-
General Santos City, and being in this college-College of Education, have
made me realized that education indeed plays a vital role in an individual’s
life. I learned that in order to achieve your goals and ambitions in life, you
still need to undergo and walk along the thorny paths of life. You will meet
people who will either test or guide you. Professors and subjects who and
which will be your worst nightmares or you will look forward to.
Education is a long-term learning and re-learning process. In between
that process, you will be able to build a character and a person within you
whom you have not expected to bloom. You will learn essential skills for both
teaching and learning. And in this journey, I’ve learned a lot about learning
styles, techniques, and methods which will be useful in my student and
teacher journey. Being in this journey is both a failure and success. Your
patience, faith, and ability will be tested. There will be lots of what ifs, whys,
hows, and self-doubts. Yet, you will realize in the end that all of those are
just roadblocks.
This subject the Observation of teaching-learning in Actual School
Environment is one of the avenues for us, the pre-service teachers to better
know ourselves, our strengths and weaknesses. We are sadden by the fact
that we were not able to experience the actual happenings in a school
because of this pandemic, yet we are still thankful for those people who
offered us opportunities and experiences we needed.
Also, this course had given us the opportunity to apply what we have
learned from the beginning of our college journey up to now by providing
us activities or challenges which we can practice our skills and abilities as
pre-service teachers.
 This first chapter of this portfolio, the School Environment will give us an
overview about the school, we, pre-service have observed during this
course. Photographs will be provided for a more clearer and validity of the
information which will be introduced in next pages of this chapter.
Knowing the school environment will allow teachers to know how to
adjust to such practices, environment, and how to deal with people in that
institution.
Also, this will serve as a key to open doors of opportunity. Know the
strengths and weaknesses of the school for easily determining the possible
solutions in such problems for the benefit of tha scool population, especially
the learners.
 MULTI-PURPOSE HALL

CHILD PROTECTION CENTER

 PRINCIPAL’S OFFICE

OPEN FIELD
 COMPUTER LABORATORY

CANTEEN
CLASSHOME
 SCHOOL CLINIC

COMFORT ROOM
 Facilities Description Will it contribute to the
students’ learning and
development? Why?
Office of the Principal This office is considered Yes, the office of the
as the administrative principal is a contributing
facility where the head factor to the students’
of the school usually learning and development.
stays and where school In this facility, children are
records are kept. The trained and informed about
office of the principal has the behavior they should
a very welcoming consider. Also, the presence
ambiance. It has a of this office is of great help
friendly welcoming in students’ learning for they
space where comforting can realize that they are well
sofas are located. The supported, guided, and the
walls covering the area security are all in one place
are decorated with Also, this office is a facility
teachers’ profile board, which hones learners to
performance indicator become responsible,
poster, the vision, mission, respectful, disciplined, and
and goals. Also, there is hopeful learners and citizens.
available desktop
computer and printer to
be used by the principal
and even the other
teachers. This office
offers disciplinary actions
where misbehave
children are brought to
interrogate and reflect
on their performed
behavior.
Library The library contains Yes, it contributes to the
several books like students’ learning and
encyclopedias, development because of
dictionaries, story books, the presence of readable
gameboards, and even materials in which they can
manipulatives like cards practice their reading,
and Lego blocks. Long writing, and comprehension
 and short tables are also
visible but all are in
limited numbers. The
library is somehow
unrenovated and all the
things present inside are
old except the
gameboards and
manipulatives.
Canteen The school canteen is
somehow small but it
contains all the
necessities needed by
the students like food,
educational materials,
and even hygiene
supplies. But, it does not
have tables and chairs
where children can
enjoy their food. Also,
because of its size, it
cannot cater all the
students one at a time,
they should fall in line
and wait for their time.
Clinic Due to some restrictions,
we were not allowed to
enter the school clinic for
it is under renovation.
However, we are able to
see what’s inside the
clinic through the glass
windows. There are two
beds, a glass and
wooden cabinets which
contain medicines, first
aid kits, and other health
supplies. Also, the clinic
has a fresh, friendly, and
comforting environment
where students,
skills. The reading materials
also contain illustrations
which attract the learners
and may also develop their
abilities in arts. Also, the
presence of manipulatives
and gameboards may help
them in developing their
ability in decision-making,
critical-thinking, and
reasoning-skills.
For me, it somehow offers
avenue for learners to
practice their mathematical
skills. They can practice their
learning through applying
the basic mathematical
operations when purchasing
something.
Yes, school clinic is one of
the contributors of child’s
learning and development
and learning. Since the
school has its own school
nurse, the nurse is of great
help in educating learners
about the proper way of
keeping themselves healthy
and safe from harm. They will
also be enlightened how to
take care of a wound or
whatever accident they will
be encountering. Teaching
learners about first-aid can
save their lives and as of
 teachers, and others
who need medical
assistance can enjoy
their stay.
Multi-purpose Hall The school multi-purpose
hall is a covered area
where children can play
and eat. It is also where
some various events are
held like academic and
sports activities. The
school multipurpose hall
has a stage and
concrete benches on
both sides. It can cater
all the school population.
Outdoor/Garden The outdoor is an open-
space where children
are free to run, play
whatever they like, and
this serves as their leisure
area where they enjoy
doing things they like.
Things like reading,
singing, playing an
instrument, drawing,
playing, gardening, and
others. The outdoor is
considered as a safe
area for it is filled with
only grasses and soil. The
corners are covered with
trees but are assured to
not cause harm or
accident to the students
Comfort Room There are two comfort
rooms in every
classroom. One for boys,
and the other one is for
others. Students will be more
aware of what food they eat
and their habits.
Yes, this multi-purpose hall is
a great factor in learners’
learning and development
process. This multi-purpose
hall provides avenue for
learners to interact and get
engaged with one another.
This may serve as their
training area for sports and
even the academic
activities. This facility allows
students to share their
abilities which contribute to
their well-being by letting
them explore and develop
their skills.
Yes, outdoor/garden
contribute a lot in students’
learning and development.
This area allows students to
enjoy while doing the things
they love doing. They are
becoming more productive.
They are able to realize their
strengths and even
weaknesses. They can
communicate with others
which develops their
communications skills.
Yes, comfort rooms also
provide learners the
knowledge about
cleanliness and gender
 girls. In every comfort sensitiveness. With this, they
room there are are aware that he is a he
functional faucet, pail, and she is a she. They will be
water dipper, soap, toilet informed about the basic
cleaner, and a bleach. etiquettes before, during,
The space is just enough and after using the comfort
for the children to feel room. Also, they will able to
safe and comfortable. distinguish the things which
are being used in the
comfort room.
Classroom I have observed that the Yes, classrooms are the
classrooms in the nearby second home of the
school I visited were all students which implies that
well-structured. The their learning and
teachers provided development process are
children spaces forcontinuing. Class home
reading and resting. The serves as training,
color of the rooms are all developing, and exploring
good for the eyes, the area where learning never
objects displayed are stops. In this area, students
child-friendly. During this are learning, unlearning, and
situation, teachers are re-learning. Classrooms serve
doing their best to as a safe area where
provide learners the students are being provided
safest area for learning with activities to know
by installing seats divider themselves better, what they
to maintain the health of like and dislike and what are
every learner. Each their strengths and
classroom also has first- weaknesses.
aid cabinet or kit, two (2)
comfort rooms, washing
area, hygiene kit which
includes toothpaste,
toothbrush, and soap.
Each classroom is
spacious enough for
children to feel
comfortable. Also, each
classroom has a smart TV
for an easy access to
learning.
Others (Please specify) What’s another good The presence of technology
Computer Laboratory thing in the school I is highly requested in every
visited is that it has school in today’s
computer laboratory generation. Therefore, I
which can be used by believe that the availability
both teachers and of computer laboratories in
learners. In their schools are of great
computer laboratory, advantage and of huge
there are sixteen (16) help in the learning and
complete sets of desktop development of the
computer, all are students. This provides
functional and most of opportunity for learners to
the units are new. learn something worthwhile
and up-to-date for their
benefits. Skills in web
applications like MS Word,
PPT, Excel and others are the
needed skills in today’s era.
Also, this skill will help them to
be more creative,
productive, effective
communicator, and
functional citizens.
 Sketch or drawing of an
ideal school environment
Sketch or drawing of an
ideal classroom
 Hand-made drawing or layout/Electronic
drawing/illustration of your classroom board
display layout
 My Proposed Board Display
Theme: Learners’ Weekly Peak Bulletin Board

Board Title: Let’s Aim for A Star

Rationale: The learners’ weekly peak bulletin board titled Let’s Aim for A Star is one of the
best ways to acknowledge the achievements of the learners. It is importanct to give them
entitlement and appreciation for their academic or life-skills success. This board offers
them avenue to commend and give credits to themselves. In this way, they will become
more motivated and challenged. Also, this bulletin board will motivate, encourage, and
inspire other students to make the best out of their lives by giving their best in every thing
they do. Lastly, this will help the learners discover who they really are.

Objectives: The Let’s Aim for A Star bulletin board aims to:

 Provide learners with an opportunity to be appreciated and recognized.

 Encourage, inspire, and motivate learners to do their best.
 Develop learners’ sense of responsibility, uniqueness, and ownership.

Best features of my proposed bulletin enhancement

The following are the best features of my proposed bulletin enhancement board:
 Eye-catching and child-friendly designs (printed objects, letter cuttings, colors, etc.)
 The excellent students are the ones to decide what designs will be put in the board
by letting them choose from the given options.
 Students will be exposed for the whole week which can be seen by ths school
population.
 Students will be receiving medal of excellence.
Content Resources (Name each needed resource and give each a brief description)
 Medal of Excellence-this will be given to students who will have the most numbers
of achievements in a week.
 Designs-the designs are very vital in this project. This will also serve as one of the
factors to be considered if the bulletin board is appealing, effective, and useful for
the growth and success of learners.
 Photographs-the photographs of the students will serve as a proof that those
students are recognized. The learners will have the opportunity to design their own
frame.
  Fonts and Colors- these will also be of great help in increasing the engagement of
the learners. Appropriate colors with readable yet playful fonts will make the project
for effective.

Materials for aesthetic enhancement

 Letter cut outs
 Cork board
 Push pins
 Medals
 DIY frames
 Stickers
 Markers
 Cartolina
 Strings
1. How do you describe the school environment of the school you observed?

Lake Sebu Central Elementary School (LSCES) which is located at Lake

Sebu, South Cotabato is the first school which gave me so much reasons to
continue my education. LSCES offers learners a lot of necessary experiences and
opportunities which are of great help in the academic and life-skills success of the
learners. One of the reasons why there are lots of learners who chose to study
there it is because the school has a pleasing, friendly, and comfortable ambiance
because of the presence of trees all over the campus. Another one is that,
teachers are well-committed to teaching. They don’t rely on the curriculum
instead they fulfill the needs of the learners by doing something which the
curriculum lacks with. They are approachable, caring, responsible, and anything
you could describe to a good parent. But, I can say that the facilties needed by
learners are not fully equipped with materials and other amenities to support the
learners. They have library but it lacks with reading materials. The computer
laboratory is also present, yet only grades 5 and 6 are allowed to use them. The
school clinic is also available in school yet there are also things which are still
needed.

Each classroom has its own way to motivate and inspire learners. Each
classroom are contained with diversed learners which makes the learning more
fun, meaningful, and worthwhile. The school has its own wide open field to let
learners enjoy they leisure time with their friends, parents, and teachers.
Moreover, the school has its own sports equipments for learners who
wanted play sports. Musical instruments are also available for students who love
music.
Lastly, the school has also its flower and vegetable gardens to teach and
train students and equip them with skills and abilities they can be used in their
every day living.
2. What kind of school campus is conducive to learning?

A good school environment offers learners a safe and conducive space for
learning. It provides learners appropriate materials in relevance to the
development of their fundamental skills which would probably serve as keys to
more opportunities and learning exposure.
Also, a good school environment is welcoming. Where learners coming
from different cultural backgrounds will still feel safe, protected, accepted, and
loved. A place where learners can freely showcase what they got, can show who
they really are, where children can freely play, run, and make their dreams do
come true.
Moreover, a good school environment is open for changes and
advancements. Which can offer learners high-technical skills and high-definition
learnings.
3. What kind of classroom is conducive to learning?

A classroom can be considered as conducive to learning if first: the pupils

are comfortable, they feel secured and safe, they feel love, respected,
welcomed, and accepted. Second, when a classroom provides visuals which are
pleasing, relevant, and advantageous to the development and growth of
learners. Third, a classroom which encourages engagement, interaction,
collaboration, and interaction. Fourth, when a teacher demonstrates, radiates.
and promotes discipline, honesty, respect, compassion, fairness, and cleanliness.
Lastly, when a classroom can cater all the individual needs of learners.
4. Why is bulletin board display important in the classroom?

Bulletin board display has its own function and importance in a certain
school most especially in every classroom of a school. The bulletin board serves
as a channel in dissemination information or announcement for the knowledge
of the school population and even the individuals outside from the school
premises. Bulletin board is a powerful tool to grab learners’ attention.
Moreover, bulletin board is can be used in relaying lessons to learners,
reinforce discipline, and even offers opportunity to learners to share their works or
artworks by posting or displaying it in the bulletin board.

Furthermore, bulletin board display can be considered as a visual

representation of a school’s identity.
 This second chapter, the Learners’ Diversity, Developmental Characteristics,
Needs, and Interests will lead us to the learner’s developmental matrix which will allow us
to know about tha skills, attitudes, and abilities of pre-schoolers, elementary and high
school learners in the different developmental domains namely: physical, social,
emotional, and cognitive domains.
In the physical domain, we will explore the gross motor, fine-motor, and self-help
skills of learners. In social domain, we will go learn about the way learners interact with
their teachers, classmates, and friends, and what are their interests. The emotional
domain will give us knowledge about how the pre-schooler, elementary, and high
school learners differ in the moods and temperament, expression of feelings, and
emotional independence.
Lastly, this chapter will let us know how the pre-schoolers, elementary and high
school learners differ from their abilities in cognitive domain which focuses on the
communication, thinking, and problem-solving skills of learners.
 Learners’ Development Matrix

Development Pre-schooler Elementary High School

Domain
Physical Gross motor Gross motor skills. Gross motor skillsof
Gross development can Examples: highschool.
Motor be developed -Kicks rolling ball. School-aged
through free-play - Jumps over children are
Fine- and adult-guided objects 10 inches gaining more
motor activities. In this high. alignment and
stage, the -Rides a bicycle motor function
Self-help development with training with greater
skills involves larger, wheels. physical strength
stronger muscle -Throws with and endurance.
Others groups of the accurate Examples:
body. placement. -Thow, catch, and
Examples: hit object with
-Balancing beam Fine motors. another object.
-Skip alternatingHands-on fine -Can ride a two-
feet. motor skills are wheeled bicyle or
-Hop 5 times on 1 badly needed in motorcycle.
foot. this stage. -Good balance
-Begin to jump Examples: and co-ordination
rope. -Can take care of in relation to a
-Throw a ball to hitpets. variety of tasks.
a target. -Use a knife to cut -Actively join
-Climb the rungs of or tear food. sports.
a playground slide -Use scissors -Interested in
ladder. appropriately. outdoor activities.
-Jump back. -Can write all the
-Perform letters and Fine motors.
somersaults. numbers fro 1-10. Concise and fine
-Pump and
-Learning different neuromotor
mainrain sports. responses are
momentum while -Can use eating indications of fine
on a swing. utensils motor control.
-Hopscotch. -Able to draw with Examples:
-Obstacle course. precision and --Can comfortably
-Tape Jumping control of write paragraphs
illustrating of writing.
Fine motors ability materials. -Manipulate
helps preschoolers -Ride a bicycle. objects using two
in increasing their hands.
independency in
smaller but -Learn to play -Tie shoe laces and
significant matters. musical undo small buttons
It open doors to instruments. needed for
exploration, dressing.
learning, and Self-help skills. -Cut papers with
creative Considered as scissors.
expression activities of daily -Button.
Examples: living. -Sew.
-Paste things onto -Self-feeding. -Fasten.
paper. -Hygiene and -Draw match-
-Clap hands. toileting. sample designs.
-Touch fingers. -Independent
-Button and dressing and Self-help skills.
unbutton. grooming. Examples:
-Work a zipper. -Table setiing. -Being self-aware.
-Build 10 blocks of -Toys picking. -Making value-
tower. -Put own garbage based decisions.
-Complete puzzles to trash containers. -Resolving
with five or more conflicts.
pieces. -Practicing self-
-Manipulate art care.
materials. -Managing
-Copy a circle or money.
cross onto a piece -Organizational
of paper. skills.
-Cut out simple -Managing stress.
shapes with safety -Managing time.
scissors. -Building healthful
habits.
Self-help skills
enable or provide
opportunity for
preschoolers to
have a sense of
autonomy with
their bodies. They
will feel responsible
for themselves and
they will be able to
know that they are
well-trusted by
their parents.
Examples:
 -Explore hair
washing alone.
-Cackings eggs
alone.
-Making simple
sandwich.
-Learn house
ohone number
and own address.
-Dress
independently.
-Use the kitchen
sink.
-Use toilet brush.
-Brush teeth and
hair
independently.
-Explore tying shoe
laces.
-Explore more
cooking skills.
-Understand what
to wear in a
certain weather.
-Take a bath
independently.

Social Interaction with Interaction with Interaction with

teachers’ can teachers. Children teachers.
Interactio either support or invest trust to the -Meeting with
n with hinder children's teachers. They teachers.
teachers learning and follow rules and -Availability in
development in a regulations scheduled times.
Interactio diverse array of teachers have -Inclusion in
n with interaction given them. instructional and
classmate situations. classroom
s/friends Examples: Activities: management.
-Behavior -Bond together. -In-depth
Interests management. -Feedbacking. conversations.
-Read books. -Reading. -Discussions.
Others -Role playing. -Student-content -Setting and
-Open activity. communicating
communications. espectations.
-Classroom social -In-depth -Group study.
management. conversations. -Group sports.
-Teacher entering -Collaborating.
children’s play. -Question and Interaction with
-Listening and answer activities. classmates/friend.
responding. They are being
-Modelling. Interaction with picky with peers
-Feedbacking. classmates/friend. they involve
They love to share themselves. They
Interests. When their ideas and will choose those
children are being stories with other who have the
engaged in children. This stage same experiences,
activities based on develops the likes, interests as
their interests, learners’ ability to theirs.
they’ll learn better trust others.
and might result Examples:
into something Examples: -Peer-counseling.
productive, -Peer-teaching. -Discussions.
successful, and -Pairing. -Group works.
worthwhile. -Sharing. -Playing sports.
Examples: -Role playing. -Discovering
-Messy play -Free play. hobbies.
(dough, clay, and -Classroom jobs. -Resolve conflicts.
paint). -Resolve conflicts. -Peer inclusion.
-Interactive -Experiments. -Reciprocal
reading. -Group sharing. teaching.
-Outdoor play. -Collaborative
-Interested in art Interests projects.
and craft. -Board games. -Discussion
-Board games. -Science seminars.
-Dress-ups. experiments. -Engaging in
-Sorting and -Reading. cascading groups.
building blocks. -Playing. -Debate.
-Writing. -Team-based
-Learning from learning.
Interaction with failure.
classmates/friends -Being Interests
. Children should competitive and -Artistic interests.
learn how to make active in class. -Social interests.
companions. -Self-discipline. -Learning or
Once children are mastering different
engaged with musical
others, they instruments.
 establish skills that -Trying new and
will benefit their different sports.
social connections -Completing
either now or in the assignments.
years ahead. -Listening carefully.
Examples: -Thinking deeply.
-Sharing. -Make new friends.
-Taking turns. -Join a club.
-Listening to others. -Get involved in
-Cooperating. performing arts.
-Dealing with -Outdoor
disagreements. adventures.
-Say something -Volunteering.
nice to a -Writing.
classmate/friend.
Emotional Moods and Moods and Moods and
temperament, temperament, temperament,
Moods expression of expression of expression of
and feelings. A feelings. The kids feelings. High
tempera preschooler are outspoken school students
ment, enable them to about their have a total
expressio practice their thoughts and control of their
n of emotional feelings. moods,
feelings development and -Once they are expressions, and
capacity. They are delighted, feelings.
Emotional learning about sorrowful, or -They can show
independ emotions always. It frustrated, they self-regulation
ence is in need to communicate over things.
provide their emotions to Sometimes they
Others preschoolers an others. would opt to hide
opportunity for -They are moody what they truly feel
them to explore and seldomly to avoid
emotions and to express their disappointments,
use or express feelings through rejections, and
them in varied actions and words. embarassments.
ways. -They are true with -They are fond of
Examples: their feelings. sharing their
-Use words to -Express feelings feelings and
describe basic with limitations. problems to their
and more -Also, they have a peers.
complex feelings narrow attention -Adolescents know
(sad, happy, and patience how to handle
angry, and span. their patience.
excitement, guilt, -Maybe quite
disappointment, dramatic and Emotional
and jealousy). sensitive. independence.
-Relate to how In this stage,
others are feeling. Emotional adolescents invest
-Show an independence. trust more on their
understanding of Children in this peers than their
sharing. stage are more parents regarding
-Literally do things likely to start their battles and
which show independence. feelings.
affection to others Somehow, they stiil - They believe that
-Hide the truth if needed comfort Gaining
they feel guilty, from adults. independence is a
embarrassed, or - Exhibit significant significant
frighthened. autonomy, that steppingstone to
-Better at also gives rise to a adulthood.
managing strong consideration with -They love making
emotions. standards, which decisions all by
-Having less could also result to themselves.
tantrums. obnoxiousness. -They create and
-Feel concerned -Develop their set their own
about unfamiliar interest in boundaries and
places, people, sportsmanship. limitations.
and things. -Develop sense of -They set goals and
-Follow rules. competitiveness. things to achieve
-More patience. - Initiate to make in a scheduled
an informed time.
Emotional choice. -They manage
independen conflicts
ce. At 3- constructively.
year-old, a -Respect, love,
child is care, and trust are
starting to important for
feel and adolescents in this
understand stage.
that they -They develop
have still a their ability to
little control reason out
over their abstractly.
emotions. - Most teenagers
Preschoolers nevertheless hold
will still act a great deal of
according information it to
 to what they themselves and
would like to they evaluate
do. themselves relying
Examples: with how others
-Regulate theur perceive them.
emotions.
-Empathy starts to
arise.
-Start to control
impulses.
-Attempt to test
limits (adult-
guided).
-Have control over
their aggression.
-Being observant
of others.
-Asking for help if
needed.
-Learning from
mistakes
-displaying self-
importance in
accomplishments.
Cognitive Communication Communications Communications
skills. Childrenskills. Learners in skils. This skill is
Communi learn by retaining elementary level quite relevant for a
cation information from are more likely to successful and
skills their frequentexhibit well and productice career
encounters and
clear ideas. of learners.
Thinking relationships with -They can talk and Communication
skills their parents,
communicate in skills play an
peers, teachers,an appropriate important role in
Problem and other people. manner. today’s modern
solving -Ideas are well- and competitive
Examples: chosen. world.
Others -Use of gestures -They try to -They are wise and
and sign communicate with smart in choosing
language. positive attitudes. words to use in a
-Listening and -They free talk with certain
understanding. confidence. conversation.
-Asking questions. -Adolescents
communicate and
-Acknowledge Thinking skills. This creates idea and
their name, skill are vital at this answers on point
gender, home stage for it open and constructively.
address, and a few doors for a more -They know how
nursery rhymes. advance ang persuade other
-Love talking and higher level using words.
initationg thinking response. -Their ideas are
conversations. -In this stage, basically coming
children love to from their
Thinking skills. create idea with authentic
Critical thinking for others. experiences or
preschoolers Incorporate the from something
entails the ability to varied ideas and they have
process even discern observed, read, or
information and questions over watched.
rationally to those ideas -Ideas are well-
understand links formed. organized.
between ideas. -Children enjoy -They expresses
Children must be decision-making what they want to
encouraged to activities. share in a freely
become active manner.
learners rather Examples: -They talk with full
than passive -Questioning. blast confidence
recipients of -Answering. and poise.
information in way -Vizualizing. -Effective in
to involve in -Encapsulating communicating
reflective thinking ideas. feelings, ideas,
and intellectual -Differentiating old and emotions.
curiosity. from new -Words are being
garnered ideas. pronounced loud
Examples: and clear.
-Problem-solving. Problem solving -They respond
-Interpretation skills. Children in quickly.
-Explanation. this stage practice
-Asking and this skill to improve Thinking skills and
answering their reading, Problem solving
questions. emotional, and skills. Tw of the
-Linking concepts social problem required and
and ideas. and needed 21st
independence. century skills are
Problem-solving thinking skills and
skills. This skill is vital problem solving
in children’s skills which are
cognitive believed to help
development. This develop and
skill can be used produce
throughout the productive,
existence of an effective,
individual. worthwhile, and
competitive
Examples: learners.
-Negotiation. -Adolescents
-Reasoning. confront
-Initiating. instructive
-Come up with contexts with an
solutions to inquisitive and
problems. objective attitude.
-Resolving a kiddie -They create
commotion or questions based
fight. on authentic
-Creating rules for observation and
a certain game. experience.
-Untying and tying -They love linking
of shoe laces. different
-Building ways to perspectives.
connect or -They seek answers
disconnect things. through
exploration and
experiments.
-They value
evidence-based
questions and
answers.
-They fully
understand that
there’s more than
one possible
answer to a
specific question.
 Compile five research articles on learners’ diversity
1. Nontraditional Adult Learners: The Neglected Diversity in Postsecondary
Education
Joseph C. Chen

Abstract
In the discourse on diversity in colleges and universities in the United States, an
often-neglected population is nontraditional adult learners. This article explores
this invisible aspect of undergraduate diversity, and addresses how competence-
based education, which focuses on demonstrating the actual ability to do, is an
innovative approach that caters to adult learners’ life phase and learning needs.
College arguably is a youth-centric phase of life generally designed for the
younger student. However, the stereotypical full-time student who lives on
campus is actually a small percentage of the entire postsecondary population.
Due to the demands of an increasingly competitive world of work, nontraditional
adult learners will continue to seek out postsecondary education. Unfortunately,
the credit hour system is a significant barrier for both entry and success of adult
learners. Merits of competence-based education are discussed, and implications
are provided to best meet this significant component of student diversity.
Keywords diversity, nontraditional, adult, competence-based education, credit
hour

Over the past 15 years, the undergraduate student population in degree-granting

postsecondary institutions of higher learning in the United States has seen
significant growth in diversity. In 2013, there were just under 17.5 million total
undergraduate students, represented by approximately 56.6% Caucasian, 16.4%
Hispanic, 14.3% African American, 6.1% Asian/Pacific Islander, .85% Native
American/Alaskan Native, 2.9% multiracial, and 2.8% nonresident alien students
(Snyder & Dillow, 2015). As a point of comparison, in 2001, 67.6% of students were
Caucasian, 11.6% were African American, 9.8% were Hispanic, 6.4% were Asian/
Pacific Islander, 1% were American Indian/Alaskan Native, and 3.5% were
nonresident alien (Snyder, 2005). In terms of the overall U.S. population, U.S.
Census projections indicate that the general population will continue to increase
in diversity, and by 2060 the percentage of Caucasians will represent 43.6% of the
population, down from 62.2% as of 2014 (Colby & Ortman, 2015). In 2044, the
United States is projected to become a “majority minority” (Colby & Ortman, 2015,
p. 9) nation, where the total percentage of minorities will exceed the Caucasian
population. With the total undergraduate population projected to increase by
about 37% to just less than 24 million students by 2022 (Hussar & Bailey, 2014), the
increasing racial/ethnic diversity in the United States will invariably continue to
impact the diversity on college and university campuses across the country.

An important population of student diversity that is often neglected in

postsecondary education, however, is nontraditional adult learners (NALs) even
though they represent approximately 38.2% of the postsecondary population in
the United States (National Center for Education Statistics, 2009). NALs, usually
defined as aged 25 and over, also include those under 25 but who have
characteristics indicative of adult responsibilities, such as working full-time, being
financially dependent, has nonspousal dependents, is a single parent, as well as
having a nontraditional educational trajectory, such as delayed enrollment into
higher education or did not complete high school (Horn, 1996). Given these
characteristics, the majority of students in undergraduate programs can be
classified as nontraditional, suggesting that the traditional student, who enrolls full-
time and lives on campus, is now actually the exception rather than the norm
(Choy, 2002), even though they, the traditional student, arguably receive the vast
majority of attention and resources from colleges and universities.
The purpose of this article is to take the position that the presence of NALs on
campuses across the United States is a diversity issue by bringing attention to
decision-makers within higher education that certain postsecondary education
systems and structures actively serve as barriers to entry and impediments to
teaching practices that can benefit their learning. While the literature on adult
learning theory and adult education is quite robust, the translation of these
scholarship areas into actual education administration and subsequent teaching
practice is quite limited (Cruce & Hillman, 2012). NALs are “often treated as
‘charity’ cases to be rescued from ignorance” (Northedge, 2003, p. 17), and this
secondary student status is problematic because it continues to perpetuate
limited progress in meeting their educational needs. The result is often a
patronizing learning atmosphere that is acutely experienced by NALs when they
step onto college and university campuses (Kasworm, 2010). I will explore the
importance and implications of framing NALs as a distinctive issue of diversity, and
discuss the value of a competence-based approach for teaching this significant
yet invisible and neglected student population.
NALs as a Neglected Component of Diversity in Higher Education

The success of the American higher education system in achieving the broad
range of postsecondary outcomes can largely be attributed to the diversity
present in the system. The ability to provide access for both traditional and
nontraditional students and all levels of academic achievement represents an
American success unseen in virtually any other nation. (M. Harris, 2013, p. 54) A
significant strength of the American higher education system (Morphew, 2009),
institutional diversity as an “ideological pillar” (Birnbaum, 1983, p. ix), has allowed
postsecondary institutions to more effectively serve a diverse student population
and their needs; it has both afforded opportunities to those historically
underserved as well as removed barriers to both access and entry. Institutional
diversity provides an important basis for colleges and universities to make
decisions that both increase and accommodate a diverse student population. It
provides opportunity for institution-side change, rooted in institutional self-
assessment of their own student-readiness, instead of overly focusing on college
readiness of students, or the preparation of potential students to fit and meet the
demands and culture of postsecondary education (White, 2016). Evaluating
college-readiness of students, while needed, runs the risk of blaming students
when they do not fit the academic culture. Evaluating institutional student-
readiness, however, allows institutions to review systemic processes that may
interfere or prevent student entry and success. It can even uncover institutional
biases, implicit or explicit, that relate to potential practices that disadvantage
specific student populations.

NALs are largely invisible to higher education, especially first-tier universities

(Coulter & Mandell, 2012). An American Council for Education (ACE) survey found
that over 40% of institutions indicated that they “did not identify older adult
students for purposes of outreach, programs and services, or financial aid” (Lakin,
Mullane, & Robinson, 2008, p. 12). When they do, the prevailing view of adult
learners is that they are “one-dimensional” (Lakin, 2009, p. 40) focused
predominantly on lifelong learning. The assumption in this perspective is that
learning is an ancillary activity implying less urgency or need. However, adult
students seek higher education for a multitude of reasons related to retirement,
career change, and career retooling (DiSilvestro, 2013; Yankelovich, 2005).
Overall, there is a paucity of research and data on NALs (Cruce & Hillman, 2011)
and what has been conducted has mainly been descriptive analyses in policy
reports (Irvine & Kevan, 2017). Between 1990 and 2003, only 1% of articles in seven
widely circulated peer-reviewed higher education journals focused on adult
learners (Donaldson & Townsend, 2007). Given the dearth of largescale research
and multivariate analyses, higher education institutions have had little data to
even consider institutionside changes to address their needs. As a point of
comparison, colleges and universities have admirably made institution-side
changes to address or increase diversity of traditional students on their campuses
through two major strategies. First, on the domestic front, colleges and universities
have increased their efforts to attract and retain students from different
socioeconomic backgrounds through the elimination of barriers that may
preclude diverse students to apply or enroll. One particular strategy that attempts
to eliminate application barriers is the test optional admissions criteria whereby
students have the option to withhold ACT and SAT scores; standardized college
admissions examinations are not a requirement for admissions. Currently, over 850
colleges and universities have test optional criteria (FairTest, 2016). Research on
the effectiveness of this criteria have been mixed with some research indicating
that increased diversity has not been a consistent outcome (Belasco, Rosinger, &
Hearn, 2015) to other data showing that those who do not submit scores tend to
be first generation students, students of color, Pell grant recipients, and students
with learning differences (Hiss & Franks, 2014). Another strategy to increase
diversity is best encapsulated by Texas House Bill 588, which is also known as the
“Top 10% Rule” (Cullen, Long, & Reback, 2013). In this legislative bill, the top 10%
of students in each high school in the State of Texas receives automatic
admissions to all state-funded institutions. While some have applauded this bill by
recognizing the connection between diversity and socioeconomic status, critics
have argued that the bill unfairly punishes qualified students from high-performing
high schools, but who are not in the top 10% (Heilig, Reddick, Hamilton, & Dietz,
2010). Lastly, a small number of selective institutions have attempted to remove
financial.
barriers by offering free tuition for admitted students with family incomes less than
a specific amount, such as recent proposals to offer free tuition for community
colleges (Cubberly, 2015). Overall, these well-intended efforts are designed to
actively address barriers for qualifying and/or potentially qualifying students,
especially those from less resourced backgrounds. Second, on the international
front, colleges and universities have increased their outreach to international
students. From 2005 to 2013, colleges and universities experienced a 64% increase
in the international student population with representation from all around the
world, but with particular influx from Asian and Middle Eastern countries, which
represented around 58% of the total current international student population
(Institute of International Education, 2016b). These efforts are partially to grow their
international reputations and partially an economic one: International students
pay full tuition, and in 2011 they contributed more than $30.5 billion to the U.S.
economy (Institute of International Education, 2016a). International students are
an increasingly important part of the higher education economy, and they will
likely continue to grow in presence on campuses across the country. The two
major strategies represent some important institution-side shifts in postsecondary
education that has resulted in opening new channels of entry for both domestic
and international traditional students. The problem as it relates to NALs, however,
is that these strategies have little impact or relevance to them. With estimates of
adult learners projected to grow at a rate faster compared with the traditional
late adolescent student for the foreseeable future (National Center for Education
Statistics, 2009), it is vital for colleges and universities to recognize and cater to this
aspect of student diversity. With projections indicating that 63% of jobs in the
future will require at least a bachelor’s degree (Carnivale, Smith, & Strohl, 2010)
and that the United States needs at least 106 million Americans to have some
postsecondary credentials for jobs by 2025 (Sherman & Klein-Collins, 2015), the
demand for postsecondary education will increasingly attract an older student
population that is qualitatively, developmentally, and socially very different from
the traditional-age, late adolescent undergraduate student. As the need arises
for more collegiate-level learning across the lifespan to meet the demands of
workplace settings, a well-educated workforce requires institutions of higher
learning to embrace this aspect of diversity as an economic and national
necessity (Jones, Mortimer, & Sathre, 2007). The heterogeneity of both the NAL
population and their learning needs demands that postsecondary education
view them through a diversity perspective to engage institution-side changes. If
not, postsecondary institutions will continue to view NALs as the “proverbial
‘square peg’ that meets resistance when forced to go through a round hole” that
has been designed for the traditional student (Hagedorn, 2005, p. 22).

Youth-Centricity as an Institutional Barrier for NALs

The lack of a diversity perspective and the square-peg-inround-hole view of NALs
are rooted in the historic youth centricity of postsecondary education. College is
generally known as a phase of life for young persons, and a milestone for those
leaving adolescents and entering into young adulthood (Kasworm, 2005, 2010).
Developmentally, late adolescence/young adulthood is understood as a time to
solidify an identity while also developing intimate relationships (Erikson, 1968).
Therefore, it is not surprising that based upon these psychological stages of
development, colleges and universities have often been seen as an important
part of youth maturation, with significant resources deployed to support the well-
being and transition of these students. With both domestic and international
diversity represented, along with progressive social movements that are giving
voice to previously invisible populations such as those who identify as LGBTIQ, as
well as a diverse range of spiritual and religious backgrounds, colleges and
universities have attempted to accommodate the range of lifestyles within the
late adolescent life phase represented on campuses in three main ways. First,
colleges and universities have focused on physical structures to both house and
offer different spaces to increase the quality of life for students. In 2014, colleges
and universities spent over $12 billion on construction, 78.8% of which were new
constructions (Abramson, 2015). For buildings completed in 2014/2015,
approximately 60.8% were related to facilities typically related to supporting the
lifestyles of the traditional-age student such as residential housing and physical
education/athletics. Second, social programs assisting in the sociocultural
development and adjustment of diverse students encourage formal and informal
student organizations to develop community and friendships, which include the
notion of safe spaces, physical places for cultural and other underrepresented
groups to congregate and develop community in safety (Pittman, 1994). Third,
colleges and universities have needed to reexamine curriculum and its delivery.
Curricular changes include knowledge and skills for the modern era including
environmental sustainability (Vincent & Focht, 2009), civic engagement
(Adelman, Ewell, Gaston, & Schneider, 2014), information technology literacy
(Jarson, 2010), and even multicultural and diversity training. Delivery changes
include the growth in online courses and programs, electronic learning
management systems, and more mobile and technologically focused solutions.
With the exception of education delivery changes, such as online learning, the
aforementioned accommodations have a distinctly youth-centric feel, which are
often significant barriers to NALs for engagement in postsecondary education.
Traditional-aged students have held and continue to hold a privileged position
within postsecondary education as represented by these institution-side changes.
Frankly, there is uneven support for students based on age and life stage. Past
research has found that the traditional youth-centric environment has socially
and educationally often been hostile or nonresponsive to adult learners
(Kasworm, 2005), which perpetuates the feelings of difference and
nonacceptance in higher education (Kasworm, 2010; Reay, 2002). NALs are not
attracted to youth-centric lifestyle-based resources on campus and, in fact, these
resources can confirm their feelings of alienation and isolation as college students.
Not only does institutional youth-centricity negatively impact academic entry
and learning success, services that actually help NALs engage with academics
are increasingly being cut. Estimates suggest that there are approximately 4.8
million college students who are parents. Over the past 10 to 15 years, however,
colleges and universities that have daycare centers have steadily decreased
(Eckerson et al., 2016), even though research has shown that student parents who
have access to childcare are not only more likely to return to school but are also
three times more likely to graduate. While modern residential halls and athletic
facilities are “nice to haves” for traditional-age students, adult services like
childcare or after business hours administrative services are essential to NALs
academic success.

The NAL
to meet the learning needs of NALs, it is necessary to understand the nature of
their diversity, who they are, and why they decide to enroll. Compared to
traditional students, who primarily perceive their identity as students, NALs
primarily perceive their identities as employees (Wirt et al., 2002), and it is through
this identity in which they evaluate and prioritize higher learning. For the
traditional-age student who enters college shortly after high school graduation,
their identities have revolved around being a student. While many may have held
part-time jobs and may have been involved with organizations that were not
befitting of a student role, most of their time was spent as a student, and this
primary identity moves with them to college. NALs, however, spend the majority
if not all of their current time out of the educational setting, and mostly in
employment settings. It is through this employment-based identity rooted in adult
life responsibility in which they seek postsecondary education. Their unique
diversity revolves around three general characteristics: the role of adult identity,
the role of self-direction, and the role of life experience.

The Role of Adult Identity

One of the primary reasons that NALs struggle with postsecondary education is
the competing nature of their life roles that accompany adulthood. While they
may seek educational opportunities to advance their career identities, which
may ultimately have a positive impact on their role as a caregiver in the long-
term, the commitment and effort needed in the short-term in adopting a student
role often comes in conflict with familial roles and work roles.
NALs typically experience what is known as role strain (Goode, 1960), which is
experiencing difficulty in meeting the demands of separate life roles. Roles strain
is further subdivided into role conflict, role overload, and role contagion. Role
conflict occurs when meeting the demands of multiple roles interfere with each
other. Role overload occurs when there is a lack of resources to the demands of
a role. Role contagion occurs when preoccupation with one role while being
engaged in another. When NALs decide to add on a student role, this is another
variable that adds to their experience of role strain. NALs’ engagement with
higher education is impacted by the intersection of role strain and life stressors.
Commitment to the student role, which conflicts with other roles (Padulla, 1994),
has been found to be a significant predictor of psychological distress (Chartrand,
1990), and especially detrimental is that stress impacting work identity is the
strongest predictor of well-being (Giancola, Grawitch, & Borchert, 2009). Simply
put, the greater level of distress that interferes with the student role, the greater
likelihood of disengagement with postsecondary education. Indeed, NALs’ work-
based identity is one that is most likely to be non-negotiable, and they have very
little control over it. The demands of a job or a manager tend to push other
identities aside. When NALs compare their struggles to the traditional-age student,
the perception of difference was related to thoughts of withdrawing (Markle,
2015). When stress related to adult role conflict arises, NALs feel isolated from what
they feel is a youth-centric environment that does not understand them or
attempt to accommodate them.

The Role of Self-Direction

To cater to NALs’ diversity, educators and practitioners must understand the
difference between pedagogy, “the science and art of teaching children”
(Knowles, 1980, p. 43), from andragogy, or “the science and art of teaching
adults” (p. 43). Catering to adult learning needs requires understanding some
basic assumptions about adult learners that are distinct from the late adolescent
student. Whereas pedagogy is educator dependent (i.e., the educator is central
to the learning process and students are dependent upon the expertise of the
educator), andragogy is learner-dependent (i.e., the learner is central to the
learning process and the educator is a partner). There are six key assumptions
about adult learners (Knowles, 1980):
1. Self-concept: Adults desire becoming more self-directed and independent
2. Experience: Adult brings life experiences into learning situations, which can
enhance or prevent learning 3. Readiness to learn depends on need: Life
situations determine the need and readiness to learn

4. Problem-centered focus: Immediate application of learning is essential,

especially to solve a relevant problem
5. Internal motivation: These are motivations that are personally meaningful and
more influential
6. The need to know why they are learning something: Adults need to see the
relevance of the learning
Inherent in these assumptions about adult learners is the personalization of
learning, and the importance of learning both in terms of practical utility and
personal meaning. These assumptions fit with their developmental life phase and
their work-based identity, which demands that NALs take initiative and hold
responsibility for their life outcomes. At the root of the concept of andragogy is
self-directed learning, which is a foundational tenet of adult learning theories
(Merriam, 2001). Self-directed learning is a process in which individuals take the
initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their needs, formulating
learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing
and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning
outcomes. (Knowles, 1975, p. 18) Self-directed learning and andragogy are
important perspectives in understanding adult learning because it follows a long
tradition of defining the purpose of learning for adults: that education is necessary
for a changing world and a fundamental skill crucial to the life of every adult
citizen (Knowles, 1975). Adult learning was founded partially upon the view that
education is a medium for citizenry and a vital component of both self-
betterment and societal progress (Dewey, 1916, 1938). Education is vital for
becoming a competent and active adult and citizen, and a significant portion of
the ability to do so is to improve one’s economic stability. NALs are unlikely to stay
committed to their schooling if they cannot justify it with outcomes that will
improve or better their life situation, which ultimately becomes an issue of
economics (Cruce & Hillman, 2011).
The Role of Experience and Social Context

Whereas the traditional student is more impressionable and has limited life
experiences, NALs are not “blank slates” (Nelken, 2009, p. 183) and they enter
learning situations with significant life experiences, often accompanied with
strong opinions and perspectives. This implies that adult learners do not fit the
student-as-vessel learning model typically ascribed to postsecondary education
where knowledge is poured into them as receptive and empty vessels (Freire,
1970). While such top-down, educator-as-expert approaches may
developmentally fit with the younger learner, NALs are more engaged with
learning when their experiences are included and used as a major media for
learning (Chen, 2014). Importantly, NALs seek to derive meaning from their
educational experiences especially as they relate to their life histories (Nelken,
2009).

In using life experiences as a major medium for learning, academic knowledge

moves quickly from something theoretical to something that is tangible and
relevant. Understanding and perceptions of experiences are often deep-set, yet
untested or evaluated. Within an academic learning environment, these
perspectives are challenged when NALs interact with other students, many of
whom may share different experiences and interpretations of experiences.
Known as perspective transformation (Mezirow, 2009), NALs often engage in a
process of learning that includes both cognitive as well as emotional change due
to disorienting events that highlights the subjectivity of their perspectives. This type
of learning can be highly uncomfortable yet extremely powerful because
students begin to understand that their perceptions are shaped by sociocultural
forces. Perspective transformation occurs when NALs engage in critical reflection,
which aims to uncover biases in worldview. This type of learning is accelerated
within a social context as issues related to race, class, and gender enter the
learning process and understanding of experience (Cranton & Taylor, 2012).
Importantly, this type of learning develops consciousness related to hegemonic
worldviews (Brookfield, 2000; Freire, 1970). NALs realize that their perception and
understanding of their experiences is situated within their personal social context.
Therefore, they come to understand that others have different yet equally valid
perceptions. NALs then experience less rigidity and more flexibility in their thinking.
Competence-Based Education (CBE): A Diversity Affirming Approach to Adult
Learning
Given the unique diversity that NALs bring to postsecondary education, CBE is a
model of learning that is particularly well-suited for them. It is defined as a learning
structure that is flexible and focused on mastery of academic content regardless
of time, place, or pace of learning (Porter & Reilly, 2014). This type of education is
distinct from traditional approaches that dominate the postsecondary education
landscape because it is not tied to assigning college credit by seat time (i.e.,
actual time spent in a classroom), and, instead, provides students with
personalized learning opportunities with various ways to earn college credit,
including blended learning, project- and community-based learning, prior
learning assessments, and independent learning. It focuses on the actual
demonstration of skills learned. Learning within a competence-based framework
entails both the development and demonstration of new, improved learning, or
the expanded ability to do (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Especially
important in competence-based frameworks is the ability to adapt learning to a
variety of situations and challenges (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005), which happens to
be a necessary and vital attribute for employment success (Eichinger &
Lombardo, 2004). CBE approaches fits well with NALs’ learning needs due to its
academic flexibility as well as its conceptual alignment with the demands and
processes within the world of work. CBE approaches have been in existence since
the 1970s but have exploded in popularity over the past few years with more than
600 postsecondary institutes offering CBE or planning to do so (Tate & Klein Collins,
2015).
The Problem with the Traditional Credit Hour
Higher education has long focused on the credit hour as the standard bearer for
whether students have met requirements for learning (Laitinen, 2012). However,
the credit hour, which requires a certain amount of classroom time to obtain
credit, is best designed for the full-time student who lives on campus, and who
can consistently attend classes or give up other responsibilities to accommodate
classroom attendance. Only 14% of all undergraduates both attend college full-
time and live on campus (Laitinen, 2012). The credit hour and the youth-centric
perspective that learning equals seat time is increasingly irrelevant, and serves as
a major barrier for engagement and an impediment to academic success for
NALs. The idea of the credit hour began in the late 1800s as a standard unit to
better compare the time high school students spent learning a subject (Shed,
2003). At the postsecondary level, the credit hour as a standard unit arose out of
Andrew Carnegie’s concern for the poor compensation of faculty (Laitinen,
2012). The credit hour was used to measure the amount of time faculty and
students interacted, for the purposes of qualifying for retirement pensions for
faculty. It is important to note that the credit hour was an administrative
measurement not a measurement designed to assess educational quality. In fact,
the Carnegie Foundation was quite clear about this but in the early 1900s,
colleges and universities did not head the Foundations advice because of the
educational assessment convenience of the credit hour (J. Harris, 2002). Perhaps
the most vital aspect of the credit hour that is a detriment to NALs is the
assumption that all students will take the same predetermined amount of time to
learn and complete their degree (Irvine & Kevan, 2017); it assumes learning
uniformity and ignores the issues that arise from NAL diversity. Research has
consistently shown that time spent in the classroom does not equate to actual
learning. Several major studies have revealed some sobering statistics related to
actual college-level learning. Forty-five percent of students completing the first
two years of college and 36% of students completing 4 years of college show no
statistical difference in critical thinking, complex reasoning, and communication
skills (Arum & Roksa, 2011). Graduating college students have been found to
demonstrate deficiencies in document, prose, and quantitative literacy, with
results ranging from only 25% to 31% of college graduates being able to do these
tasks (Kutner, Greenberg, & Baer, 2006). As a result, employers have expressed
their dissatisfaction with the preparation of college students for the workplace
(Hart Research Associates, 2010). Thus, while the credit hour as a means of
educational assessment for credit is (a) not being used as its intended function
and (b) has not been found to predict academic success, it continues to be the
de facto framework for colleges and universities and is perhaps the most
significant systemic barrier for NALs to engage with postsecondary education.
Because missing a certain amount of class time typically results in automatic
failure, and given work, family, and other adult responsibilities, it is difficult for NALs
to succeed in this type of environment. While NALs have been found to be
dedicated students and highly motivated (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson 2012;
Merriam et al., 2007), their adult status and issues that relate to this type of diversity
directly conflicts with the dominant method for assessing and assigning college
credit in postsecondary education. It is important to note that the credit hour
system has implications not only for educational delivery and assessment, but also
for financial aid and full/part-time student status (Silva, White, & Toch, 2015). To
cater to their needs, colleges and universities, along with NALs themselves, must
first eschew their stereotypical framework associated with learning within the
credit hour system both in terms of what constitutes learning and the traditional
nature of educational hierarchy. First, learning defined in CBE is measured by the
actual demonstration of competence; therefore, time is an irrelevant metric. NALs
and colleges and universities must break the association with classroom time, and
focus upon mechanisms that showcase the demonstration of competence.
Second, because CBE approaches focus on personalized learning and a learner
centric stance to education, educators play multiple roles in addition to being
the context expert, which means that NALs and colleges and universities must
break the association between educator and content expert. While educators
within CBE approaches do have content expertise, they also play the role of
mentor, facilitator, and educational collaborator. CBE breaks down traditional
educational hierarchy in the classroom and, instead, works toward empowering
the NAL. Consequently, NALs must become accustomed to being an active
partner as well as taking a leadership role in this framework. They can no longer
be passive recipients of knowledge since the basis for CBE is dependent on the
educational desires and direction of the learner. But perhaps one of the most
important aspects of CBE for NALs is its potential for meaningful and
transformative learning. Given its highly personalized and customized approach,
NALs have the opportunity to confront the basis for their prior learning through a
reflective process, and they come to understand how they have developed
knowledge. Postsecondary education does not only meet the employment and
practical needs of NALs, it can provide a personal, lifechanging experience.

Remedying the Credit Hour Problem

Competence-based approaches fit particularly well with NALs because it
upholds and accommodates two important factors: (a) learning for a purpose in
a (b) flexible way. There are several characteristics of CBE approaches that
address the diversity of needs represented in the NAL population.
Self-paced. Given the demands of adult life, NALs engagement with higher
education is highly dependent on other schedules related to work and family
identities. Schooling is often a priority to exclude when there are stressors.
Traditional modes of education based on the credit hour demands a certain
amount of physical seat time in the classroom to obtain credit. This rigid structure
often precludes NALs from obtaining credit due to the need to be away from the
classroom for various reasons. The self-paced structure of CBE is not tied to actual
time in a seat and, instead, assesses learning based upon the demonstration of
learning at a pace that respects NALs’ life schedules.
Individualized. CBE models are learner-centric in the sense that programs will
personalize learning plans to meet both the outcomes desired as well as allow the
learner to help identify the methods of demonstration of mastery. CBE meets
students where they are by helping them determine what they already know, and
to build upon that knowledge in a way that meets their goals for education. NALs
have the option to be as focused and personal in their learning as they wish;
learning is dependent on what they want to learn.
Assessment of prior learning/multiple ways of knowing. In a credit hour system,
students have to physically be present to receive credit. This is simply not possible
for many NALs. A midlevel manager at a financial services firm most likely already
has competence in basic finance and accounting. However, the only way for her
to obtain credit is to take the requisite courses even though she likely already
knows the material and can demonstrate competence. In fact, she likely has the
expertise to teach some classes. Assessment of prior learning is a set of strategies
used by institutions to evaluate college-level learning for credit outside of a formal
college course (credit hour; Tate & Klein-Collins, 2015). Removing the constraints
of minimum time in the classroom opens the door for NALs to receive credit for
knowledge and skills they already demonstrate. Assessment of prior learning
opens the door to receiving credit for evaluation of corporate or military training,
individualized student portfolios, or standardized exams. These methods
demonstrate that there are multiple ways of knowing, and that NALs can utilize
several methods to not only learn but to demonstrate their level of learning.

Deeper meaning through critical reflection. For NALs who have a wealth of
experience, learning is typically not “new” in the sense that they will be learning
something that they have never heard of or have been exposed to. However,
learning more likely entails a reorientation of prior assumptions or beliefs. Critical
reflection is a process of questioning the veracity and integrity of longstanding
beliefs (Taylor, 2008), and looks to understand the basis of these beliefs and how
they developed. It is the “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any
belief or supposed form of knowledge in light of the grounds that support it and
the further conclusion to which it tends” (Dewey, 1993, p. 9). It can be an
inherently disconcerting experience but one that holds tremendous long-term
utility for NALs because of its potential for long-term, memorable learning. There is
potential for learning to include emotional reactions, spiritual formation, and
embodied experiences in addition to cognitive/intellectual growth.

Challenges and Criticisms with CBE

While CBE approaches are not new, they have only recently attracted attention
at a large scale. While CBE holds potential to address the diversity issues that arise
with NALs, there are several significant challenges and criticisms associated with
the interconnectedness of both its viability as a learning approach as well as its
viability for wide-scale adoption. According to Irvine and Kevan (2017), CBE faces
significant headwinds in establishing itself as a viable educational approach.
Perhaps the main criticism of CBE is the lack of quantitative, large-scale,
multivariate studies. Research on CBE has predominantly been disseminated
through policy papers by nonprofit educational think tanks, likely due to the fact
that CBE programs continue to reside in the periphery of postsecondary
education. A recent large-scale review of CBE, conducted by a policy research
institute, consisted of analyses of 380 articles of which only 26.8% employed
quantitative, descriptive methodology (Kelly & Columbus, 2016). Sixty percent
were qualitative investigations and 11.6% were literature reviews (1.6% was not
categorized). While qualitative methods provide insightful, populationspecific
data, predictive quantitative methods are needed to provide statistics on
effectiveness and prediction confidence. Without large-scale, quantitative data,
there are limits to extolling the effectiveness of CBE. Another significant criticism is
that CBE lacks a standard definition. The literature contains different monikers
including mastery-based, proficiency-based, and outcomes-based education
that adds to the complexity of formally defining CBE (Book, 2014; Gallagher,
2014). Accompanying the criticisms are specific challenges. First, there are
different two main models, course/credit equivalence and direct assessment,
within CBE. Course/ credit equivalence are competences that are embedded
into the traditional course-based format (Book, 2014). They are currently the more
common of the two but because of their similarity and ties to the credit hour, its
relevance to NALs runs into similar challenges of traditional course. Direct
assessment allows self-paced progress and demonstration of mastery before
moving to another level (Book, 2014). Given that there are several ways to
demonstrate mastery of competences apart from traditional course assessment,
there has been hesitancy for institutions to implement these models. Although
potentially viable, the nature of these self-paced programs may not include
consistent interaction with faculty, as required by federal law (but assumed within
a credit hour system), which brings up the third challenge for CBE: the role of the
federal government. CBE program viability is closely tied to federal financial aid
because of its connection to the credit hour (Irvine & Kevan, 2017), and CBE has
had difficulty being recognized by the U.S. Department of Education as well as
accrediting bodies. There has been little guidance from the federal government
regarding their perception and support for direct assessment (Fain, 2014). Lastly,
CBE has fundamental implications for the role of faculty and assessment (Irvine &
Kevan, 2017). The trend has been the “unbundling” or “disaggregation” (p. 13) of
faculty roles, which shifts some responsibility to support staff, so that faculty can
focus less on delivery of academic content but more on personalized feedback
to students. Given the self-paced and self-directed nature of CBE, individualized
feedback and support and an understanding of students unique goals may be
more effective for student learning compared to faculty solely focused on
content development as in the traditional model. In terms of assessment, CBE has
not achieved consensus on quality assessment. Currently, there are differing views
on the role of assessment, when competence is achieved, and the role of
standardization (Gibson, 2013).
Implications for Practitioners and Institutions

While there are understandable criticisms and challenges related to CBE, given
the specific set of diversity issues that NALs bring to postsecondary education, it is
imperative to understand them through a diversity lens. Their purposes for entering
higher education and their ability to engage with it are distinctly different from
the late adolescent student and the youth-centric institutions that serve them.
Catering to NALs requires an educational approach that respects their life phase
and the limitations that these life phases have on their ability to consistently
engage within time-based, credit hour system. CBE offers an approach that
provides a model that respects the demands of their life phase as well as
maximizes their learning experience. Because of its personalized approach, NALs
greatly benefit due to its direct relevance to multiple areas of their lives. Adopting
a CBE perspective holds significant potential for both education practitioners as
well as institutions to better attract, retain, and educate this subsection of the
undergraduate population that will only continue to grow in the future.
Implications for Practitioners

At a tangible level, practitioners need to reorient their perceptions of their role

and move away from the limitations of a content expert and time-based credit
hour perception of college learning. The relationship between educator and NAL
has been shown to be one of the most impactful factors in the ability to persist in
schooling (Daloz, 1999), especially when their struggles and stressors are
acknowledged and validated. Three implications of a more relational approach
to educating adults are provided.
Facilitating self-direction. Due to its emphasis on learner-centricity, the key to
learning success in CBE for NALs is the learner, not the educator. To help the NAL
realize his/her potential, he/she must be encouraged to adopt self-direction to
take educational initiative. The personalized nature of CBE indicates that prior to
determining the path toward graduation, the educator must first understand the
reasons that the NAL is engaging in higher education. This requires a more
intimate and interactive relationship that is different from traditional academic
advising. The educator is tasked to adopt more of a facilitator role that helps to
set the conditions for self-direction and subsequent learning (Brockett & Hiemstra,
1991; Knowles, 1980) through inviting the learner to accept the primary
responsible role for learning. Tennant (2006) uses the metaphor of a growing plant
to demonstrate the facilitative role of adult educators. Much like a seed is
determined to be a plant, an adult learner is determined to better herself.
However, in the same way that there are certain environmental conditions that
can either promote or inhibit growth in the plant, there are conditions that can
act similarly with an NAL. The educator facilitates learning (i.e., growth) through
helping set conditions for learning. This generally revolves around creating safety
for the NAL to ask difficult questions, to challenge their own thinking, and to feel
that their experience is valid.

Personal narrative as a primary learning medium. What is clear about working

with NALs is that their experiences and narratives are key to learning (Chen, 2014).
Unlike traditional students who have less life experience and who are generally
more impressionable, NALs have opinions and convictions, sometimes very
strongly, regarding certain topics. Utilizing their perspective and inviting them to
delve into the formation of their viewpoint and narrative is an important step
toward learning. These experiences are often jarring for NALs as they are
appropriately challenged to consider the basis of their perspectives (Mezirow,
2009). While colleges and universities should have established curricula, which
represent a diverse range of academic topics, finding ways for an adult learner
to find usefulness in the topic is paramount. For example, while an adult learner
may be working in finance and have little utility for Latin American literature,
situating the literature within an appropriate context of globalization and culture
can increase relevance of the material Chen 9 as the adult learner may work with
colleagues with Latin American backgrounds or she may have contact with
colleagues living within Latin American countries. Personalizing learning also
provides flexibility for NALs to use settings, questions, and problems of interest as
the main media for learning. For example, a professor of psychology may be
teaching a course on group dynamics. While there are general psychological
principles to be learned, application of the learning could be based upon the
interests and experiences of the adult learner. They could be asked to pick a
group that they are either involved in or can readily observe, and they would be
able to observe the principles occurring within those groups.

Transformational versus instrumental learning. Given the wealth of experiences

that NALs bring to the classroom, the chances of them having some conflictual
or uncomfortable past life experiences is quite high (Daloz, 1999). Adult educators
recognize the interconnection between learning and emotional growth in NALs.
Respected adult education scholar, Laurent Daloz (1999), best sums up this
connection, “I have come to believe that the line between learning and healing
is finer than we might think . . . Within the obvious limits, perhaps a deeper
understanding of the dynamics of healing would inform our knowledge of
learning” (p. 241). However, they may not have had the opportunity to
understand or even examine the experience. In CBE, having prior experiences by
themselves is not learning (we all have life experiences), but the ability to
disentangle the nuances of the experience, critically examine it, and derive
meaning from them is part of the process to more fully develop a tested, open,
flexible perspectives (Mezirow, 2009). For example, an NAL of color, through
repeated discriminatory experiences, may demonstrate internalized racism. He
comes to believe that he is inferior, he has accepted this perspective, and he
brings this perspective to the classroom. When encountering a difficult
assignment, he may attribute his challenges to inferior ability, and give up.
Transformational learning allows the student to confront the experiences that led
to this belief, and it frees him to be able to learn without the constraints of the
previously oppressive self-perspective.

Implications for Institutions

Postsecondary institutions play a powerful role both in the educational lives of
students as well as in the broader educational policy community. The growth in
recent years of forprofit educational institutions is due, in part, to the market for
postsecondary education that fits with the learning needs and lifestyle of NALs.
Given that colleges and universities serve at some level as gatekeepers toward a
more educated workforce, they are at the frontlines of national stability and
economic prosperity. Colleges and universities, in adapting to both employment
and educational realities, can help shape the betterment of citizens. Three
implications of institutionside change are provided.

Reassessment of the credit hour. One of the boldest initiatives is for colleges and
universities to reassess tying college credit to the credit hour for NALs. This
longstanding foundation of higher education fits the needs of a more static world
but given that the student body is quickly changing, the credit hour is now
providing numerous challenges and proving to be a significant barrier for entry
into higher education. Loosening of this concept while also embracing the notion
that there are a variety of ways to demonstrate learning will help make
postsecondary education more accessible to NALs. Most importantly, recognizing
that knowledge can be gained outside the constraints of the credit hour system
is also symbolic in that the institution validates multiple ways of learning. The one-
size-fits-all credit hour system, while useful in its administrative intentions, is less of a
relevant concept in today’s educational landscape. One could argue that it is
an archaic relic of a different era that has long outlived its utility, and is now a
potentially unfair practice.
Adult-friendly campuses. Youth-centric campuses tend to deter NALs from
engaging with them (Kasworm, 2010; Nelken, 2009) especially if they have had
prior negative experiences (Crossan, Field, Gallacher, & Merrill, 2003).
Interestingly, NALs’ identities as students are often shaped by institutional
shortcomings when it comes to their needs (O’Donnell & Tobbell, 2007); they rally
around the fact that they are outliers in colleges and universities. These institutions
can become more attractive to NALs through two main strategies. First, the
educational model must fit with their life stage and needs. Adopting CBE models
offers the flexibility that begins to solve one of the biggest barriers for NALs, the
aforementioned credit hour. A robust CBE model reveals multiple pathways to
obtaining a college degree. Second, college and university campuses can better
accommodate NALs by offering support services relevant to them. While colleges
and universities should not get rid of the youth-centric services that attract
traditional students, they can do a better job of offering adult-centric services. For
example, university counseling centers in recent years have expanded services
to better fit the needs of NALs (e.g., evening hours, adult-centric groups). Given
the primary role of work in their decision to engage with postsecondary
education, more robust career services designed for students in higher job
positions would be especially welcomed, as well as services focused on more
adult-centric career themes such as career transitions or second career seekers.

Educational partner. It is quite clear that NALs do not fit the youth-centric
educational mold. Given that the demand for postsecondary education from
NALs will continue to increase, colleges and universities need to reassess their role
within an educative environment. Currently, traditional 10 SAGE Open models of
education are highly prescribed in terms of credit hours needed for graduation
as well as specified courses that make-up general education requirement and
major courses. While these requirements make sense for the traditional-age
student, this top-down approach is poorly matched to the adult learner, in which
top-down hierarchy and predefined learning is both personally and
developmentally incompatible. Instead, colleges and universities can benefit
from adopting a partnership approach to educating NALs. While standards of
competence and learning do need to be upheld, perhaps a more collaborative,
flexible approach, based upon the needs of the actual learner, would be more
beneficial. Adopting an educational partnership role allows colleges and
universities to work more closely and intimately with NALs to meet their individual
needs.
Conclusion
In the broader discussion of diversity in colleges and universities, NALs should not
be neglected. For too long, this significant section of the undergraduate student
population has been ignored. While they are motivated students, they have less
opportunity to successfully engage in postsecondary education due to the youth-
centric collegiate culture serving as a barrier to both entry and success for NALs.
The demands of a dynamic world of work requires an increasingly educated
workplace and employees. NALs are looking to better their own situations and
part of their strategy is to engage in postsecondary education. Because their
presence on campuses is projected to continue to grow and at a faster rate
compared to the traditional, late adolescent student, they can no longer be
ignored. The totality of the undergraduate student population is outgrowing the
traditional educational mold. Ignoring this section of diversity in the
undergraduate population will ultimately have economic, political, and social
ramifications.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the
research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of
this article.
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2. Bridging the Gap: Teachers’ and learners’ diversity of beliefs in SLA.

Eva Bernat
Macquarie University, Sydney

Abstract
Among the rich tapestry of cognitive and affective factors in language learning,
teachers’ and learners’ perceptions and beliefs have received considerable
attention in the last two decades. Most studies report a gap between the two
groups. Despite the impact beliefs have on human cognition and behaviour, very
little has been proposed as a way of minimizing this gap in the classroom. This
paper will discuss the various cognitive, social and emergent ecological
perspectives on beliefs, explore their diversity among teachers and learners in
light of pedagogical implications, report on the findings of a quantitative study,
and suggest a number of intervention measures that could be implemented to
minimize this gap.
Introduction
The field of second or foreign language acquisition is relatively new in
comparison to other so-called ‘hard sciences’. The hard sciences have a long
and distinguished history and well-established laws that position them in a superior
category by default. Therefore, they seem to demand greater respectability. Lord
Ernest Rutherford, the winner of the 1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry once said:
“There is physics… and there is stamp collecting.” The fields of linguistics and
language education have indeed come a long way from the undesirable status
of ‘stamp collecting’ and made particularly important advancements to
knowledge in the last few decades. Yet, it is only in the last two-three decades
that learners’ contributions to language learning, both cognitive and affective,
have become the focus of research for the light they shed on the learners’
language development and ultimate their success.
It is now accepted that learning a second language is not merely an
abstract exercise in memorizing vocabulary and applying grammatical rules.
Such views simplify what is a highly complex process involving and intricate
interplay between the learning process itself and the individuals’ make up which
includes all that they bring with them to the learning situation. These include, but
are not limited to: their personalities, their cognitive abilities, their reservoirs of past
learning and life experiences, their motivationsand expectations, anxieties,
attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs about the learning situation.
Learner beliefs are important, as early psychological studies into learners’
perceptions and beliefs about learning “opened a whole new Aladdin’s cave of
personal beliefs, myths, understandings, and superstitions as they were revealed
by the persons’ thoughts and feelings about their learning” (Thomas & Harri-
Augstein, 1983, p. 338). These studies concluded that learners’ own beliefs about
learning explained much more about individual differences in achievement, than
even psychometric measures such as intelligence or aptitude.

The recognition of the role of learners’ beliefs across various disciplines such
as mathematics and science education, contributed to a growing body of
evidence suggesting that they play a central role in learning experience, and
have a profound influence on learning behaviour, as well as learning outcomes.
Furthermore, because beliefs shape the way we perceive things, they also act as
strong filters of reality (Arnold, 1999). For example, learners may be directly
influenced by their perception of own success and levels of expectancy, with
realistically high helping to build confidence, and low (or unrealistically high)
helping to build incompetence (Puchta, 1999).

The study of perceptions and beliefs in the field of second language

acquisition is important for a number of reasons. The literature reports that while
some beliefs may have a facilitative effect on learning, others can in fact hinder
it. For example, students may hold misconceptions about:
• the length of time it takes to learn a foreign language;
• the existence of language aptitude and whether one must possess it in
order to acquire a
foreign language;

• the usefulness of certain learning strategies such a memorization;

• whether one should not say anything in English until one can say it
correctly;

• whether learning English is similar to learning other academic subjects; or

• whether uncorrected grammatical mistakes become fossilized.

A university teacher once told a story: “In my first year as a teacher of

foreign students preparing for American universities, I taught a reading class to
intermediate students. One of my students, a classroom teacher himself from
Kuwait, told me in no uncertain terms that I was not teaching correctly: Everyone
knew that all students should stand up and read in unison! It took some discussion
before he would accept the fact that this does not normally occur in the university
classes for which he was preparing.” The student was confused and frustrated.
This scenario is a poignant example of how beliefs shape the learners’
expectations about the ‘right way’ to learn to read, for example.
Indeed, research shows that having realistic and positive beliefs helps to
overcome problems and sustain student motivation, while negative or unrealistic
beliefs can lead to decreased motivation, frustration, and even anxiety (for a
review of studies, see Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005). Therefore, we can safely
conclude that an awareness of learners’ beliefs is central to the language-
classroom pedagogy.
Theoretical perspectives Providing a definition for a very complex and
latent concept such as ‘beliefs’ is always a challenge. Most often, researchers
adopt definitions that suit the purposes of their own empirical frameworks and
reflect their personal ideological viewpoints. So, they either define beliefs along
the lines of personal cognitive constructs or more socially and culturally shaped
folkloristic ideas, with others yet falling somewhere between the two polarities.
Yet, one might ask: which definition is ‘correct’? Are beliefs merely folkloristic ideas
shaped by one’s culture and experiences and therefore may be subject to
change? Or, are they individual and very personal cognitive constructs, strongly
held, and intertwined with stable individual learner differences?

The diversity of definitions and perspectives are a result of researchers

simply using ‘different lenses’ and therefore providing us with different
perspectives. Their studies often evolve out of various competing paradigms,
which are reflected in the approach they take to investigate learners’ beliefs.
The debate concerning diverse ideological perspectives in the field of
language education is not new. Zuengler and Miller (2006), in a recent special
40th Anniversary issue of TESOL Quarterly take up such a debate, acknowledging
that conflicting views in the field of language acquisition do exist. However,
debates on diverse ideologies reflect a healthy state in scholarship, as they
require us to reflect deeper and question our own understandings. Therefore, as
a result of this diversity of perspectives, research on learner beliefs can generally
be categorized as ‘cognitive’ and ‘socio-cultural’, with a recently emerging
‘ecological’ perspective closely aligned to the latter.

From the cognitive perspective, the emphasis is on the individuality of

mental knowledge as representations or schemata stored in the mind, and
contextual influences are seen as secondary. In this view, the properties of the
mind are not necessarily dependent on the outside influences and once
established are relatively stable. Much of the research on learner beliefs in the last
two decades has indeed been conducted from this perspective. Studies are
usually large scale where quantitative data are collected using questionnaires.
These studies have been useful in showing us general trends in beliefs across large
learner groups.
However, in recent years there has been an exponential rise in more socially
and contextually oriented approaches to research, including the study of
learners’ beliefs in the contexts in which they emerge. In this view, Rust (1994)
describes beliefs as ‘socially-constructed representation systems’ which are used
to interpret and act upon the world. He acknowledges the role of context on
mental processes. Here, beliefs are seen as fluid and dynamic, not stable entities
within the individual. Socioculturally-based studies on learner beliefs include
ethnographic classroom observations, diaries and narratives, metaphor analysis,
and discourse analysis (e.g. see Kalaja & Barcelos, 2003). They aim to bring
students’ emic perspectives into account.

Under the broad umbrella of sociocultural approaches, yet distinct and a

relatively recently emergent field of enquiry in the area of language learning
provides a new lens on the learner. Similar to ecological systems in nature, the
learning environment is seen as diverse, adaptive, dynamic, and responsive. In
this view language learning should be unstructured and “alive”. And, unlike the
more traditional perspectives on language acquisition being of reductive nature
that assume a simple casual relationship betweeninput and output, the
ecological perspective assumes that the processes are much more complex. A
key characteristic of any ecological approach is its contextualized or ‘situative’
character. From this perspective, learner beliefs are observed as embedded in
their semiotic contexts, emergent during the learning process, dynamic and
changeable. Undoubtedly, each of these perspectives has a narrow focus and a
number of limitations. Yet despite these, each has different and important
offerings to our understanding.
Teacher and Learner Beliefs During the last two decades, teacher
education research has made significant advances in studying teacher beliefs,
and the connection between teacher beliefs and educational practice has
already been well established (Borg, 2003). However, there is still paucity in
literature reporting the relationship between language teachers’ beliefs and their
students’ beliefs about language learning.

Such studies are important since a number of researchers (e.g. Banya &
Cheng, 1997; Peacock, 1998, 1999; Siebert, 2003; Davies, 2003; McCargar, 1993;
EslamiRasekh & Valizadeh, 2004) found that in certain domains teachers’ beliefs
bore little – if any – relationship to students’ beliefs. Some researchers have
suggested that this diversity produces a gap, and might result in tensions in the
classroom (Kern, 1995), suggesting that we need to find innovative ideas to deal
with the gap. Therefore, the gap should serve as a catalyst for change.
Identifying this gap is crucial to providing defendable pedagogical
practices that are in line with students’ beliefs and expectations for the course.
Alternatively, if students’ beliefs are found to be detrimental to their learning,
those need to be addressed first. Professor Elaine Horwitz, the pioneer of the field
of research into learner beliefs found that beginning foreign language students
reported a much higher preference for grammar and vocabulary learning
exercises than their teachers (Horwitz, 1988). She also suggests that this can lead
to an unwillingness to participate in communicative activities, and that language
teachers can ill afford to ignore those beliefs. These types of findings still emerge
in recent studies, almost two decades later. Others, still, have pointed out that
mismatches between teachers’ and students’ beliefs can cause problems such
as:
• misunderstanding and miscommunication (Luppescu & Day, 1990),

• students questioning of their teachers’ credibility (Schultz, 1996),

• learners’ engagement in strategies of which the teacher disapproves
(Rees-Miller, 1993); and

• students’ withdrawal and feelings of unhappiness (McCargar, 1993).

In short, the conflict can affect learners’ motivation and efforts, and the
types of activities they choose to engage in (Schultz, 1996).
Literature Review

A relatively small number of studies have been conducted (predominantly

quantitative, showing patterns across large learner groups), that investigate the
relationship between teacher and learner beliefs. In one study, Kern (1995) surveyed 288
students of French as a foreign language and 12 instructors in the US. Kern’s data showed
that students’ beliefs were often consonant with those of their instructors and reflected
certain current trends in language pedagogy. However, Kern found somewhat troubling
the fact that the learners in his study seemed to be over-optimistic or unrealistic about
the length of time it takes to become fluent in a foreign language.

In another study, Banya and Cheng (1997) investigated the beliefs of 224 EFL
college students and 23 teachers in South Taiwan. They found that Chinese students
seem to be more optimistic in language learning than their teachers and regarded
English as less difficult than their teachers. Students also regarded grammar and
translation to be the most important components of learning English. Teachers on the
other hand, were more likely to believe in that females are better language learners, and
that intelligence plays an important role in language learning.

Peacock (1998) investigated the gap between teachers’ and students’ beliefs
about classroom tasks in Hong Kong. He found that learners rated error correction and
grammar exercises much higher, and pair work and group work much lower than did
their teachers. This corroborates Block’s (1994) findings, that “teachers and learners
operate per quite different systems for describing and attributing purpose to tasks” (p.
473).

Peacock (1998) argued that “this wide gap almost certainly had a
negative effect on learners’ linguistic progress, satisfaction with the class, and
confidence in their teachers, and that similar differences probably occur in many
other contexts” (p. 233).
 In a 1999 study, Peacock surveyed 202 EFL learners and 45 teachers using
both questionnaires and interviews. The researcher noted a number of significant
discrepancies among learner and teacher beliefs, though they were not dissimilar
to those found in other studies. Learners placed a significantly greater emphasis
on vocabulary, grammar learning, and excellent pronunciation than did their
teachers, and had a greater preference for practice in a language lab. In his
study, Peacock concluded that a number of different learner beliefs were
detrimental to language learning and they also resulted in many dissatisfied and
frustrates students who could not understand the rationale behind the tasks they
carried out in class.

In a recent study, Siebert (2003) explored beliefs about language learning

held by 156 ESL students and 25 teachers at institutions of higher education in the
Northwest region of the US, using a survey questionnaire. Findings obtained in the
US context reveal that students placed strong emphasis on pronunciation,
grammar and vocabulary learning and translation. Siebert also noted that a
number of student beliefs, such as those related to language learning methods,
differed from those held by their teachers and that this had significant
pedagogical implications.
In another recent study, Davies (2003) investigated the mismatch of 18
teachers’ and 97 learners’ beliefs in a tertiary institution in a small territory of
Macao (a special administrative region of China). Using a survey instrument,
Davies reported robust differences between the two groups. For example,
students were much stronger than teachers in their belief that:
• teachers should correct students when they made grammatical mistakes
in order to prevent the

formation of bad habits;

• most of the mistakes L2 learners made were due to interference from L1;
• teachers should present grammatical rules one at a time and students
should practice each of these before moving on; and
• teachers should use materials that expose students only to those
language structures that have already been taught (this matter being of
greatest disagreement).
Davis concluded that students sought a more structured and safer
approach, basing their views on a different theoretical underpinning from that of
their teachers, and thus essentially supporting very different classroom practices.
 Other studies have looked at domain specific beliefs about language
teaching and learning among teachers and their students. For example, in a
large, cross-cultural U.S. study, teacher and student role expectations were
compared by McCargar (1993), who found that 18 of 19 nineteen role-
expectation-sets contained significant differences, and pointed out that “such
differences could cause classroom tension or dissatisfaction” (p. 198).
In a recent Italian study, Hawkey (2006) found a mismatch in student and
teacher perceptions of the prominence of grammar and pair-work in their lessons,
with students favouring more grammar and teachers favouring more discussion
pair-work.

And, classroom activities and tasks were investigated by Eslami-Rasekh and

Valizadeh (2004) using 603 EFL Iranian students and 27 teachers. Unlike many other
studies, findings revealed that students had indeed a higher preference for
communicative activities than did their teachers, and that their teachers were
not aware of this mismatch.
Finally, beliefs about oral language instruction and assessment among
learners of French in the US were investigated by Cohen and Fass (2001). The
researchers found that there was some disagreement between student and
teacher beliefs regarding the appropriate amount of student and teacher talk in
the classroom, with teachers believing in more student participation. They also
found, that teachers reported focusing more on pronunciation and grammatical
accuracy when assessing students’ oral abilities than on more communicative
aspects of oral production (e.g. fluency, comprehensibility, discourse strategies).
In addition, learners underestimated the difficulty of the English language in
comparison with their teachers. The researchers concluded that the beliefsheld
by the teachers and students did not generally reflect a communicative
approach to foreign language teaching.
The current study
The aim of the current study was to identify the beliefs about language
learning held by English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students at an intensive
English language centre at one Australian university in an effort to reveal possible
areas of misconceptions. Furthermore, their compatibility with beliefs held by their
classroom teachers, which might come into conflict, were explored. Importantly,
this study fills a gap in current research by elucidating crucial differences among
teachers and their learners’ beliefs in the Australian tertiary EFL context.

Methodology
Participants
 There were 262 students (107 males and 155 females) aged between 17
and 39 years (mean age 24) who took part in this study. At the time of data
collection, they were enrolled in various academic English courses for both
undergraduate and postgraduate university entry, taught by participant
teachers. Students represented 19 different countries, including China (N=153)
being the predominant country of origin. The participants’ overall TOEFL score was
570 or higher (equivalent to an overall IELTS score of 6.0 or higher). Also, 36 English
language teachers participated, 6 males and 30 females, with a mean of 14 years
language teaching experience. This sample indicates a significant ethnicity bias
among the students, and a significant gender bias among the teachers.

Instrument
Horwitz’ (1985, 1987, 1988) BALLI (teacher and student versions) were used
to collect data. Both instruments contain statements related to the following
categories:
• foreign language aptitude;
• the difficulty of language learning;
• the nature of language learning;

• learning and communication strategies;

• motivation and expectations (student version only),
• authentic language exposure (teacher version only); and

• and the benefits of technology in the EFL classroom (teacher version only).
All respondents were required to rate their agreement to each statement
on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree).
Findings
Foreign Language Aptitude.

With reference to foreign language aptitude (see Table 1), both teachers
and students endorsed the concept of foreign language aptitude, and believed
in the effects on age on language acquisition. These findings reflect a popular
belief that children are better language learners than adults, and are consistent
with research studies showing a positive effect of young age on – for example, L2
phonological development (Patkowski, 1990), and fluency (Donato, Antonek &
Tucker, 1996).
 However, teachers and students differed in their views on links between
aptitude, gender and intelligence, and whether knowing one foreign language
already helps to learn another. Students were much less likely than their teachers
to agree that “People who are good at maths or science are not good at learning
foreign languages”, suggesting that they do not make a distinction between an
aptitude for the sciences and an aptitude for the humanities subjects – a
distinction put forward by Gardner (1999) in his Multiple Intelligence theory
distinguishing linguistic intelligence from logical/ mathematical intelligence.
Teachers were also more likely to believe in the role of intelligence and the
superiority of the female gender in language learning.

Difficulty of Language Learning.

These questions (see Table 2) concern the general difficulty of learning a

foreign language and the specific difficulty of the students’ particular target
language - English. While both teachers and students agreed that some
languages are easier to learn than others, they markedly disagreed on the
difficulty of the English language. As in the Banya and Cheng’s (1997) study, the
teachers in this study believed English to be much more difficult than their students
did, with the majority of teachers rating English as a difficult or very difficult
language, and the majority of their students rating English as being of only
medium difficulty. In addition, students were more optimistic regarding the length
of time it takes to learn English. Yet, having realistic expectations about the
difficulty of the language under study and the length of time it takes to become
fluent is crucial to the learners’ positive outlook.

The Nature of Language Learning.

In this category (see Table 3), questionnaire items cover a broad range of
issues related to the nature of the language learning process. The results among
student respondents and their teachers indicate a discrepancy in the areas of
learning vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Students placed a greater
emphasis on learning vocabulary, and a much greater emphasis on grammar
and pronunciation learning than their teachers. It seems that they endorsed a
more ‘traditional’ approach with a strong focus on grammar and pronunciation
practice, and perhaps saw it as more fruitful than the more contemporary
communicative approaches to language learning (Rao, 2002). A rather surprising
finding is noted for item 8. The data show that students were more likely than their
teachers to believe that “It is necessary to learn about English-speaking cultures
to speak English”. In other words, students showed a greater awareness of the
need to have knowledge of linguistic pragmatics. Being aware of the L2
community’s socio-cultural norms for speaking is a necessary part of foreign
language acquisition as it allows the learner to have an adequate
communicative competence in various contexts and situations (Canale & Swain,
1980).

Learning and Communication Strategies.

Learning and communication strategies reported (see Table 4) are
probably most directly related to a student’s actual language learning practices.
The greatest discrepancy between teachers and students here refers to the
importance of speaking English with ‘an excellent pronunciation’. These findings
seem to suggest that learners consider it more important to speak with excellent
pronunciation than with grammatical correctness. However, with the emergence
of English as an international language (EIL), new developments in English
language pedagogy have seen a shift from a focus on ‘excellent’ pronunciation
to intelligibility and general communicative competence. Nonetheless, both
groups of respondents were unanimous that not being able to speak ‘perfectly
correctly’ should not prevent learners form speaking at all. Next, item 22 assessed
the belief whether one can ‘unlearn’ incorrectly acquired language forms. To the
statement “If beginning students are allowed to make mistakes in English, it will be
difficult for them to speak correctly later on”, surprisingly, students were more likely
than teachers to disagree. In other words, the teachers were more likely to believe
that if students’ mistakes were not corrected immediately, they might become
‘fossilized’. Questionnaire items in this category also revealed that students
believed in the benefits of technology for the purposes of language learning. In
fact, students were almost twice as likely as their teachers to agree with the
benefits of using audio-cassettes and CD Roms, reflecting a more ‘audio-lingual’
preference for learning L2 rather than a communicative one.
Finally, while teachers strongly believed in exposing learners to natural L2
speech, they were somewhat divided on the need to modify written texts for use
in the classroom. However, this ambiguity may likely be due to the subjective
nature of the question (i.e. depending on the level of complexity of the text and
level of learners’ language proficiency).

Motivation and Expectations.

Questionnaire items in this category (see Table 5) concern desires and
opportunities the students associate with the learning of their target language.
Here, the vast majority of responses seem to reflect the learners’ desire for and
optimism in achieving their language learning goals. Both students and teachers
strongly believed that this competency would give the students better job
opportunities. The vast majority of students also expressed a desire to get to know
Australians better and make friends.

Therefore, this finding does not fully support Dörnyei’s (1990) argument that
in EFL contexts (i.e. English language students in foreign contexts) students have
a higher instrumental motivation than integrative one. This is perhaps due to the
circumstances of the learners' current situation. As international students living
abroad, the need to integrate with peers and become part of the local
community is a necessary survival strategy for the duration of their study abroad,
while learning English in one’s home country would not make this aspect of any
relevant importance.

To summarize, the findings overall do not differ significantly from those of

other comparable studies described earlier. Learners and their teachers held
diverse beliefs which reflect a clear conceptual gap between the two groups.
Learners and teachers differed on the concept of language aptitude, and the
influence of one’s gender and intelligence on foreign language acquisition
processes.

However, other belief discrepancies will likely have a greater bearing on

practical learning and teaching aspects. For example, students favoured more
strongly rote learning techniques such as repetition with audio-equipment and
the learning of vocabulary; compared with their teachers, they also tended to
underestimate the difficulty of the English language and the length of time it takes
to become fluent in L2. Teachers, on the other hand, perceived English to be more
difficult than did their students, were much more likely to endorse technology
assisted language learning, and more strongly believe in the fossilization of
uncorrected errors. However, the greatest discrepancy between teachers’ and
their students’ beliefs related to the importance of learning grammar and
pronunciation, with students giving more value to these aspects in the language
learning process. Finally, the most surprising finding is that students were much
more likely than their teachers to believe that one must know the foreign
language culture to speak the language. In other words, students showed a
greater need for socio-cultural pragmatic awareness necessary for a sufficient L2
communicative competency than did their teachers. In fact, 28% of teachers
believed one does not need to know the L2 culture to speak L2 at all.

Discussion of Pedagogical Implications

Since learners’ beliefs about the learning process are “of crucial
importance to the success or failure of [their] efforts to master a foreign language”
(Rifkin, 2000, p. 394), and their juxtaposition with teacher’s beliefs highlight areas
of conflict, pedagogical implications becomes paramount.
Researchers have suggested possible measures teachers might take to
promote positive beliefs in the classroom, and eliminate the negative ones (for a
review, see Bernat & Gvozdenko, 2005). Bada and Okan (2000) argue that many
teachers acknowledge the need to understand learners’ preferences, but may
not actually consult learners in planning language classroom activities. This may
be for a number or reasons. Teachers may be restricted by their syllabus, time
constraints, institutional practices, as well as personal perceptions about the
appropriateness of such initiatives. On another level, teachers may simply be
acting on their own beliefs and unwilling to compromise on what they believe to
be true. Although Nunan (1988) claims that “no curriculum can claim to be truly
learner-centered unless the learner’s subjective needs and perceptions relating
to the processes of learning are taken into account” (p. 177), a certain degree of
controversy surrounds the issue on whether it is the teachers who should shift their
beliefs in line with their students’ views on language learning, or vice-versa. Yet,
Block (1994) suggests that it is the teachers who should make an attempt to align
their task orientation to that of learners, because they have a greater awareness
of what goes on in the classroom.
So far, little research has been conducted that involves investigations into
the effects of instructional interventions, based on students’ beliefs about
language learning. No doubt, more research is needed in this area in order to
determine the extent of belief change as a result of teacher and curriculum
interventions. Hofer (2001) argues that
 “there has been a presumption of all those working in this area that
educational experiences play a role in fostering development or belief change.
But what types of experiences are most conducive? What instructional strategies
can best be employed? Although the literature is replete with advice, less
research exists that clarifies the relation between methods and types of instruction
and personal epistemology." (p. 372)
In the meantime, a number of measures or strategies could be taken to
ensure teacher-learner mismatches are minimized, though at the same time
teachers need to be aware that students may have a significant emotional
investment in previous beliefs. Nonetheless, finding ‘middle-ground’ may not be
an impossible task.
Woods (2003) describes a case study of two EFL teachers dealing with -
what he terms - a “pedagogical shock” experienced by overseas students from
different cultural backgrounds who hold ‘traditional’ beliefs about language
learning based on their past experiences. Both teachers had a very high degree
of freedom to make instructional choices in terms of their own views of the needs
and goals of the students. At one extreme, they could teach in a manner
completely coherent with students’ beliefs and expectations even if it contradicts
the general teaching approach of the language institution. At the other extreme,
they could teach according to the conventions of the institution and the
program, and ignore students’ beliefs, leaving the issue of adjusting up to them.
In practice, however, teachers fell in between these two extremes, both altering
their activities to suit the students, and supplementing them with explanations and
rationales for teaching methods and choice of materials to make them more
acceptable to students.

The importance of giving students a rationale so that they fully understand

the reasons behind the teacher’s motives and actions is paramount. It is also one
strategy that could potentially address the diverse beliefs and expectations
students have about the appropriateness of certain teaching methods and
materials. This strategy also seems feasible for the earlier described study, since
almost all questionnaire items teachers and learners differed on were related to
actual language teaching and learning practices.
Another strategy for minimizing the gap between the beliefs and
expectations of students and their teachers has been suggested by Sim (2007) in
his doctoral dissertation. In an experimental study involving 84 pre-entry university
students, Sim found that by integrating a structured and explicit focus on goal
setting each week, and getting students to become more proactive and
autonomous learners, he was able to change the beliefs of participants in his
treatment group to fit closer to those of their teachers. The treatment group had
received instruction and guidance in setting own autonomous learning goals and
in using specific strategies. Seeing the benefits of implementing these new goals
and active learning strategies, their beliefs, which were re-tested at the end of a
10-week, period had shifted.
Another strategy for minimizing the gap between the beliefs and
expectations of students and their teachers has been suggested by Sim (2007) in
his doctoral dissertation. In an experimental study involving 84 pre-entry university
students, Sim found that by integrating a structured and explicit focus on goal
setting each week, and getting students to become more proactive and
autonomous learners, he was able to change the beliefs of participants in his
treatment group to fit closer to those of their teachers. The treatment group had
received instruction and guidance in setting own autonomous learning goals and
in using specific strategies. Seeing the benefits of implementing these new goals
and active learning strategies, their beliefs, which were re-tested at the end of a
10-week, period had shifted.
However, belief change can also occur through what is called the
‘peripheral route’ (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981, 1986). One peripheral route that has
been extensively studied is ‘the communicator’. Certain characteristics of
communicators, such as physical attractiveness, likeableness, credibility,
trustworthiness, and similarity to the audience, have been all been shown to
influence individuals’ willingness to listen to and believe a message (Fiske & Taylor,
1991). In general, communicators who are attractive and likeable are more
persuasive in their message. This is a general and well-established finding in social
psychology (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993).

Another common finding in the social psychology research is that

communicators who are seen as having a vested interest in a particular position
are regarded more suspiciously and less believable than communicators who
appear to have no vested interest (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). Likewise,
communicators who are similar to the individuals receiving a message are more
believable, trustworthy and often regarded as objective (Fiske & Taylor, 1991).
Therefore, it makes sense that teachers who advocate certain learning methods
and strategies might be less credible to students than peers who advocate these
positions. Peers are more similar to each other and therefore they will often listen
to each other more carefully than they would to a teacher.

One study employing ‘peer communicators’ was conducted by Murphey

(2001) using what is called Near Peer Role Modeling (NPRM). Near Peer Role
Models are people who might be ‘near’ to us in several ways: age, ethnicity,
gender, interests, past or present experiences, and also in proximity and in
frequency of social contact. In three quasi-experimental studies, 115 Japanese
university learners of English were shown an 8- minute video of four exemplary,
slightly older, Japanese studying in the same course, who were expressing beliefs
and attitudes thought to facilitate SLA. A pre- and postquestionnaire revealed
positive changes in viewers' reported-beliefs. The results showed that many of
these students' reported-beliefs and behaviors also changed positively after
seeing the video and they seemed to remain more motivated through post
observations. Interestingly, the experiment also changed the teacher's beliefs.
Finding ways of letting other students know about their peers' highly
successful strategies and beliefs is crucial to the spread of excellence. Here,
teachers have many options: telling stories about effective learners, making
newsletters of student comments, increasing student-student interaction, sharing
language learning histories, and videoing students' conversations (Murphey,
2001).

Finally, for teachers, examining and re-examining our own assumptions and
beliefs through ‘internal dialogues’ and reflection on our own practice is
paramount. In the Woods’ (2003) study mentioned earlier, teachers were able to
reach a compromise, ensuring that both students preferences and curricular
requirements were met. They were able to do so, having re-examined their
previous long-standing beliefs.
Summary and conclusion

This paper has discussed the importance of learner beliefs, the role they
play in the foreign language learning process, as well as their juxtaposition with
beliefs help by their language teachers. It has reported on a study which showed
that the belief patterns held by 262 EFL learners in an Australian sample were not
unlike those help by other language learners across other countries and contexts.
Similar mismatches were reported between learners and teachers elsewhere,
raising similar pedagogical concerns. While there is still paucity in literature on the
success or failure of classroom intervention methods aiming to alter learner beliefs,
a number of strategies have been suggested which could be fruitful in minimizing
the gap.
Finally, in terms of future research directions, longitudinal studies could shed
light on the permanency of any reported belief change, further validating the
success of any trilled intervention measures. In terms of research methodology, in
order to complement current predominantly quantitative studies, researchers
could adopt more qualitative research methods, such as ethnographic studies
which employ phenomenography, metaphor, and discourse analysis which
could compliment quantitative data. A rich tapestry of complementing studies
using various approaches could shed more light on our current knowledge in this
area.

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3. The fipped classroom: supporting a diverse group of students in their learning

Abstract

Higher education faces several challenges including both increased

student diversity and the use of technologies. The fipped classroom approach has
been proposed as a way to address some of these challenges. This study
examined the efects of a fipped classroom trial conducted during a Master’s
course at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam in the Netherlands. Half of the course
was taught in a traditional lecture style while the remaining half was replaced by
fipped classrooms. Interviews and focus-group discussions were conducted with
the students to gather information about their experiences of the fipped
classroom. Questionnaires completed by the students, as well as an interview with
the tutor, were used to gain further insights into the efects of the fipped classroom
on learning processes, such as pre-class preparation and in-class activities.
Findings highlight the success of this trial based on the positive feedback from
both students and the tutor. In particular, the combination of personalised pre-
class learning and peer-learning classroom activities facilitated deeper learning.
Surprisingly, even though the overall experience was good, not all students
agreed that the fipped classroom contributed to positive learning outcomes,
which should be investigated further because such outcomes could difer
depending on students’ general learning styles and preferences. Moreover, in
order to facilitate fipped classrooms on a larger scale, considerable institutional
support is required to enable their practical implementation and to provide
fexible assessments. Our study thus sheds light on the feasibility of implementing
fipped classroom teaching in higher education.
Introduction

Worldwide there has been an increase in university student numbers

(UNESCO 2017). In parallel, technological advances have changed the
educational landscape because they impact on almost every facet of modern
culture (Gajjar 2013). Diversity in students’ learning styles and motivation
challenges university tutors to provide education that leads to optimal
performance for each individual student (Abeysekera and Dawson 2015;
Cruzado and Román 2015). Considering these changes and challenges,
educators have been asking whether the traditional lecture is still preferable and
achieves the desired results. In response to these changes, new and diferent
teaching methods have been proposed, such as blended learning.
One teaching method that has increasingly attracted university lecturers’
interest and has the potential to serve a diverse student population is the inverted
or fipped classroom (Abeysekera and Dawson 2015; Cruzado and Román 2015;
O’Flaherty and Phillips 2015). While there is no universal defnition, the core idea of
the fipped classroom is to shift learning by transmitting information to before class,
in the form of instructional videos, recorded lectures and other remotely-
accessible pedagogical resources. A wide array of methods such as online
videos, PowerPoints and online games can be used for pre-class preparation,
whereby students learn in a refective and self-paced manner (O’Flaherty and
Phillips 2015). Subsequently, tutors spend in-class time applying the material
through complex problem solving, deeper conceptual coverage and peer
interaction (Gajjar 2013; O’Flaherty and Phillips 2015; Strayer 2012; Tucker 2012).
Although the fipped classroom can be organized in learning environments that
are not reliant on technology, it was mainly introduced in a type of blended or
hybrid learning that combines direct and virtual sessions (Skill and Young 2002).
The diversity in students’ prior knowledge is one of the most important
considerations for course designers (Clark et al. 2011). The fipped classroom can
provide opportunities to tailor the learning process to the diversity in students’
expertise and learning styles through several learning processes and activities. For
instance, by moving information transmission outside the classroom setting,
students can work at their own pace at home, and tutors can provide multiple
versions and formats (e.g. readings, videos) of difcult material tailored to students’
diverse learning styles or prior knowledge (Abeysekera and Dawson 2015).
Furthermore, pre-class activities (e.g. pre-class quizzes or assignments) can help
educators to tailor activities to the individual student’s expertise.
 By tailoring pre-class activities to the students’ diversity, and providing
materials that can be viewed at students’ own pace and frequency, university
tutors can also help students in the fipped classroom to manage their cognitive
load (Abeysekera and Dawson 2015). This has been found to make an important
contribution to successful study (Clark et al. 2011). Cognitive load theory (CLT)
posits that, because overloading student’s working memory impedes learning, it
is benefcial for students to work at their own pace (Clark et al. 2011). Our working
memory is subject to three types of load: intrinsic cognitive, extraneous cognitive
and germane cognitive load. Intrinsic cognitive load is the demand made of a
student by the unchangeable core of a learning task, and depends both on its
complexity and the students’ ability to understand new information. The
extraneous cognitive load refers to the pedagogical procedures and can make
a task more difcult in ways that do not lead to learning. Germane cognitive load
enhances learning by construction and automation of schemas, which are the
mental structures to organise knowledge in longterm memory.

In addition, a fipped classroom can provide the opportunity to use active

learning approaches in the classroom, because students can engage with the
pre-studied materials using higher-order intellectual skills such as analysis, synthesis
and evaluation (Gilboy et al. 2015; Roehl et al. 2013; Tucker 2012). Through this
approach, low-level or surface learning (i.e. defning and understanding basic
content) can take place outside the classroom, and high-level deeper learning
(i.e. apply and evaluate the materials) can be achieved inside the classroom
(Biggs and Tang 2007; Gilboy et al. 2015; Roach 2014), thereby realising diferent
learning levels according to Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom et al. 1956). Active
learning activities, such as brainstorming, case-based instruction, simulation, peer-
teaching, and role-play are generally introduced in four instructional
approaches: individual activities, paired activities, informal small groups, and
cooperative student projects (Zayapragassarazan and Kumar 2012). This active
learning approach is specifcally appealing to so-called millennial learners (born
between 1981 and 1996) who thrive in an ever-changing and dynamic
environment (Prensky 2010).
Previous studies have demonstrated the positive efects of the fipped
classroom on increased attendance and academic performance (Mason et al.
2013; O’Flaherty and Phillips 2015; Tune et al. 2013). Moreover, a large number of
studies report increased student satisfaction with the fipped classroom approach
and interactive learning strategies (Critz and Wright 2013; Hung 2014; Yeung and
O’Malley 2014). However, some studies did not fnd positive results for the fipped
classroom for student performance (Bossaer et al. 2016; McLaughlin et al. 2013),
or reported that students were actually less satisfed with the teaching format than
with the traditional lecture (Strayer 2012). A possible explanation for these mixed
results is the large variety in implementation strategies used in fipped classroom
settings; for instance, there are broad diferences in format and structure of study
materials, which precludes validation of one consistent implementation
approach across diferent contexts (Bossaer et al. 2016; O’Flaherty and Phillips
2015; Strayer 2012). Moreover, there is a lack of evidence about whether
particular demographic factors, such as students’ learning preferences, age, sex
or economic background afect their experiences with the fipped approach
(O’Flaherty and Phillips 2015).
There is also criticism of the methods applied in previous studies to evaluate
the efects of fipped classrooms, including that the research was not sufciently
rigorous and that results were rather inconclusive (Goodwin and Miller 2013). While
some studies compare improvement in academic performance by considering
students’ grades, other possible outcomes, such as better learning experiences,
problem solving, critical thinking skills and collaboration, could also be included.
Furthermore, it is not yet clear how studying in a fipped classroom setting results in
better performance because previous studies seldom were specifc about which
fipped approach, in terms of theoretical foundations or conceptual frameworks,
or combination of types of ‘blended’ learning activities, was used or most efective
(O’Flaherty and Phillips 2015; Thai et al. 2017). There is a need for stronger
evidence in evaluating student learning and development in the fipped
classroom environment.

In this study, we used a mixed-methods research design to explore the

possibilities of implementing a fipped classroom in a diverse learning environment
and evaluate its efects on diferent learning processes. We aimed to contribute to
existing knowledge about the efectiveness of fipped classroom techniques that
can help to address learning diversity among students, in terms of prior knowledge
and learning preferences in higher education, by exploring the efect of fipped
classrooms on students’ learning process and making recommendations for
improvement. More specifcally, we explored how diferent fipped approaches, or
combination of types of ‘blended’ learning activities, contributed to the learning
process.
Method

Design
In this exploratory study, we evaluated fve fipped classroom sessions by
using a mixedmethods quantitative and qualitative approach with data
triangulation. To collect data, we carried out nonparticipant observation,
interviews and focus-group discussions (FGDs), as well as sending out two
questionnaires. The frst questionnaire was a baseline measurement asking for
demographic information (age, sex, prior education and results, disabilities,
parents’ education, living arrangements), preferred learning styles and learning
orientation. The preferred learning style was assessed through a question asking
the student to choose one of four learning styles (independently ofine,
independently online, in a group online, or in a group ofine). Learning orientation
was assessed by a question asking students to choose from four statements
relating to diferent learning orientation based on Vermunt (2005): self-test,
vocational directed, certifcate directed and personally interested. The second
questionnaire focused on the evaluation of the fipped classrooms by asking
about their preparation before class, attendance, appreciation and active
participation in class, in addition to whether they felt that they learned more in
the fipped classroom than in a traditional classroom. The questionnaires consisted
of a mixture of yes/no, multiple-choice and 5-point Likert items.
During the fve fipped classroom sessions and four traditional lectures,
unstructured observations were made by two and one researcher(s),
respectively. During the observations, the researchers reported on attendance,
general behaviour and overall participation. Brief semi-structured (group)
interviews, in-depth semi-structured interviews and FGDs with students focussed
on the positive and negative contributions of the fipped classroom to their
learning process. A semi-structured interview with the tutor covered expectations
and outcomes concerning student success and educational quality, as well as
positive and negative aspects of the fipped classroom approach.
Setting, population and procedure
Strategic organising (in Dutch: ‘Strategisch Organiseren’) was an 8-week
Master’s course in the policy, communication and organisation program in the
Faculty of Social Sciences. The aim of the course was to be able to apply
knowledge to current topics in the feld of strategic management and to develop
a critical viewpoint on the scientifc literature on strategic organising. Students also
became acquainted with theories and practical experiences from the feld of
consultancy. The course attracts a student population with diverse levels of prior
knowledge, because some attended the University of Applied Sciences and
followed a pre-Master’s program (33%) and others had Bachelor’s degree. The
course took place in November and December 2016 and consisted of four
traditional lectures (weeks 1, 3, 4–7), fve interactive lectures or fipped classrooms
(weeks 1–3, 6), and three tutorials (weeks 3, 4 and 6). For both the traditional
lectures and the fipped classroom sessions, preclass material was provided in the
form of prescribed readings. Further, for fipped classrooms, these pre-class
reading materials were supplemented with a 120-min video of the previous year’s
traditional lecture. Both the traditional lectures and the fipped classrooms were
90-min sessions, with a 15-min break for traditional lectures. The fipped classrooms
started with a short recapitulation of the studied material, followed by a group
exercise, and ending with student presentations on the group exercise. The design
of the in-class activities was in line with the fipped the classroom paradigm as
described in O’Flaherty and Phillips (2015).
During the frst lecture, the fipped classroom approach and our current
research were introduced, and students were invited to participate in the
research. It was explained that research participation was voluntary and
unrelated to course results. Informed consent was signed and a baseline
questionnaire was administered. Follow-up questionnaires were collected
through GoogleForms immediately after all fipped classrooms; 43 students (aged
22–30 years) completed the baseline questionnaire (M=24.30, SD=1.77). For this
sample, 58.14% were women and 21.4% were the frst generation in their family to
pursue higher education.

During the fipped classrooms, unstructured observations were made, brief

(group-) interviews with students were conducted concerning their experiences
in the fipped classroom, and recommendations for FGD topics were made.
Students were selected using a convenience sampling method because their
availability was the most important criterion. Thirteen students (students 1–13)
were briefy questioned for about 10 min after the interactive lectures. During the
course, four other students (students 14–17) were enrolled in two 2-h FGDs.
Furthermore, two other students (18–19) were interviewed (for about an hour)
during the week after the course ended.
Data analysis

Survey data were analysed using SPSS software to obtain proportions,

means and standard deviations to describe overall trends in responses to the
outcome measures. Interview and FGD data were transcribed with Express
Transcribe and analysed using MAXQDA software. An inductive thematic analysis
was conducted on the qualitative data (interviews, FGDs, open-ended question
from the questionnaire) by following the six steps described by Braun and Clarke
(2006). One researcher (NG) transcribed and inductively coded the data. Then
all codes were examined by the same researcher in order to identify potential
themes and to gather data relevant to each theme. In the fnal phase, the
potential themes were checked against the dataset to determine whether they
represented the data well and linked up with the research questions. In this phase,
themes were refned, which sometimes involved themes being split, combined or
discarded. In the fnal phase, a second researcher (NW) randomly checked the
themes against the data set. The researchers resolved discrepancies through
discussion and reaching consensus on the themes. During the data analysis, it
appeared that data saturation had been reached.
Results

Diversity in learning styles and motivation

Students’ general learning styles for this sample, as measured by multiple-
choice questions administered prior to the fipped classroom, were rather diverse
(see Table 1). More than a third of students (39.5%) reported that their primary
goal was to obtain a degree, whereas 32.6% felt that the practical relevance of
their learning was important. Others were intrinsically motivated and personally
interested in the learning material (25.6%). One student indicated wanting to
study in order to meet other people’s expectations. Almost all students found it
important to complete their studies on time (95.3%). In terms of learning styles,
most students (54.8%) preferred studying with peers, but more than a third
preferred to study alone (35.7%). A remaining 9.5% of the students indicated
preferring independent study in an online environment. In this sample, 65% of the
students had previous experience of videos replacing traditional lectures and
regarded this experience as either positive (65%) or neutral (35%), but not
negative.

Learning experiences in the fipped classroom

The questionnaire asked students whether the interactive lectures helped
them to understand the learning materials better than in traditional lectures. Half
of the students (50%) agreed that they learned better from the interactive
lectures, but 18.2% disagreed, suggesting that the fipped classroom did not
improve everyone’s learning outcomes. Below we elaborate on the specifc
impact of the diferent learning processes pre-class and in-class according to the
students.
Structuring pre-class learning

For the preparation of the interactive lectures, videos and articles were
provided. When comparing the pre-class learning of the fipped classroom with
the traditional classroom, more students indicated that they read the prescribed
reading materials before the interactive lectures (75.5%) than before traditional
lectures (57.8%). This is supported by the FGDs, during which students indicated
that they were more motivated to prepare for the fipped classroom. Students said
that they could not follow and contribute to the interactive lecture if they were
not sufciently prepared:
I learned that I need to prepare myself. I fell fat on my face during the
second lecture. Then I thought: ‘No, it does not work like this. I have to prepare
myself’. (student 17, FGD)
The questionnaire indicated that the pre-class videos were more popular
than the reading materials, with 81.2% of the students watching them. Most
students watched the videos one or two days before class (see Fig. 1). The pre-
class videos were appreciated by most students (60%), although some were
neutral (28.9%) (Fig. 1) or negative about the videos (11.1%), mainly because they
were considered too long. The main advantage mentioned by the students in the
interviews and FGDs was that the videos allowed them to study at their own pace
in their preferred place and at their preferred time of day. Students also reported
watching or listening to the lectures at their desk at home or when riding their
bicycle on the way to class. Being able to watch the videos at their own pace
and place of choice resulted in greater focus, with students being less distracted
and more comfortable than in normal lecture settings:
I am a person who is easily distracted and does not want to sit here (read:
lecture room) all the time […] I just prefer working in peace at home. That is what
I need. (student 3, short interview) You can pause whenever you want. So, if you
lose concentration, and personally I am easily distracted, I can just take some
extra breaks in between. (student 4, short interview)
Structuring in-class learning
On average, the interactive lectures had higher attendance rates (95.4%)
than did traditional lectures (88.6%), with 73.3% of the students attending all fve
interactive lectures compared with 53.3% who attended all four traditional
lectures. In the interviews, students explained that the in-class assignments being
conducted in groups stimulated them to come to class because they did not
want to let their group down:
You have to work together in a group. So you feel like letting your group
down if you are not there. (student 2, short interview)
Most students reported in the questionnaire that they actively participated
during the interactive lectures (94.4%). Students explained in the interviews and
FGDs that immediate application of the concepts and theories during in-class
activities was helpful and working in groups during these assignments facilitated
peer-learning and beneftted their learning:
If you are forced to think about the concepts and try to apply them to your
own example, it is easier to understand and remember them than during a normal
lecture. (student 17, FGD) In my group, we had a brainstorm session about what
an ‘open innovation’ is […] then we came to the conclusion that the case studies
that we initially selected were not really ‘open innovations’ at all […]. During that
lecture, we really got to think about the concept. After the lecture, I had a very
clear picture in my mind of this concept. (student 3, short interview)

Although attendance was higher and benefts were reported during the
interviews and FGDs, overall appreciation of the interactive lectures measured on
a scale from 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent) was the same for the interactive lectures
(M=3.71, SD=0.90) and the traditional lectures (M=3.71, SD=0.92).

Tutor’s experience

From the tutor’s perspective, fipping the classroom was a rewarding

experience. The tutor found the classroom atmosphere welcoming and
engaging. In addition, the interactive lectures were experienced as being less
stressful and requiring less preparation than traditional lectures in the long term.
She explained that, this year, there was more preparation time needed than for
traditional lectures, but she anticipated that this would gradually decline once
the interactive course material was available:
It was very pleasant to give the students an assignment. Because it was not
just me talking, we had a more mutual relationship, which made the lectures
much more enjoyable. (tutor)
Furthermore, the tutor found that overall class performance had improved
compared with the previous year when all lectures were conducted in the
traditional fashion. The tutor explained that the fipped classroom setting positively
contributed to students’ performance, because the students were more involved
with the study material through the in-class activities:
It has to do with the assignments of the fipped lectures, which were linked
to the main assignment […] This resulted in continued active involvement. (tutor)
Lessons learned

Because 18.2% of students responding to the questionnaire disagreed that

they learned better from the interactive lectures, points for improvement were
discussed during the interviews and FGDs. The recording of full lectures was
considered to be too long. Both students and the tutor recommended that videos
replacing traditional lectures needed to be of good quality and appropriate
length (neither too long nor too short) and to be up to date. Furthermore, the
diferent pre-class reading and video materials and in-class activities needed to
be well aligned with each other and with the examination material. Students were
unclear about what was relevant for the examination, because only a small part
of the examination material was covered in the fipped classroom. The students
were unsure about what they needed to know about the concepts and theories
that were not part of the interactive lectures. Students commented that the in-
class activities needed to be sufciently complex and have clear guidelines in
order to beneft their learning process and during classroom observations, it also
became apparent that some of the exercises were not sufciently demanding:

During the exercise, several students made jokes about the simplicity of the
question. During the feedback moment, the educator apologised to the students
for the level of the questions and highlighted that this is not the level of the
examination questions. (observation record during the fipped classroom)
The in-class activities provided insight into students’ mastery of the study
material. Students explained that a reward for successfully completing the
assignments in the fipped the classrooms further stimulated their participation and
interaction. Furthermore, the students welcomed feedback from peers and the
tutor on their performance during in-class activities:
Sometimes, when a group had to present, I didn’t agree with what they
were saying. And then the tutor said ‘Okay, this was the presentation, we are
moving on now’ or ‘This was the end of the lecture, we are going home now’.
That was not satisfactory. (student 14, FGD)
One of the main lessons that the tutor learned was that there was no need
for a short recap of the pre-class videos and reading materials, which she and the
students explained was a duplication of the pre-class activity. Moreover, the
students experienced the recapitulation as rewarding those who had not
prepared. Lastly, from a practical planning perspective, students indicated that
a traditional lecture room is not the best place to give an interactive lecture and
that pre-class self-study time should be considered when scheduling the diferent
interactive lectures, so the students have sufcient preparation time between the
fipped lectures.
Discussion

This study aimed to contribute to existing knowledge about the

efectiveness of fipped classroom techniques with a diverse student population in
terms of the students’ learning process. Below we discuss our fndings in light of
previous studies and provide an overview of the strengths and limitations of the
study.

Main fndings
More students in the fipped classroom prepared beforehand compared
with the traditional lecture, which helped the students to spread the workload
and study throughout the course. Some students might already study in this way,
but for those with diferent learning styles who struggle to plan and equally spread
the workload over the semester, such an approach could help them to achieve
better results. This fnding supports previous research demonstrating that pre-class
activities in the fipped classroom can help reduce the cognitive load
(Abeysekera and Dawson 2015; Clark et al. 2011) and that spacing of learning
maximises students’ memory retention (Khajah et al. 2014). Moreover, the pre-
classroom preparation (videos and reading materials) allowed students to
customise or self-regulate the learning process to their personal needs and
learning styles (i.e. preferences in terms of study time, place, pace, group vs
individual), which could optimise their focus, increase the time spent on each task
and subsequently improve the quality of their study.
The positive relationship between self-regulated learning and academic
outcomes in traditional classroom settings has been mentioned in previous studies
(e.g. Beishuizen and Stefens 2011; Richardson et al. 2012), and these efects have
also been found in online settings, although the efect appeared to be weaker
(Broadbent and Poon 2015). Recent research acknowledged the important
efects of the physical environment on cognitive load and learning (Choi et al.
2014), which was refected by students in our study preferring the quiet home
environment over a busy classroom. Another major beneft was that students with
diferent levels of pre-existing knowledge could get to the same level before
entering class, reducing the diversity in knowledge while accommodating for
diversity in learning styles.

In-class activities were designed to apply the study materials that students
frst had to memorise and understand at home. In this way, a deeper conceptual
coverage was facilitated and provided a context in which deeper learning could
be promoted (Biggs and Tang, 2007). Moreover, the in-class activities in the fipped
classroom in our study were mainly based on peer learning. Our research
suggested that peer-based learning can be strengthened through the fipped
classroom. The group activities could facilitate collaborative learning which,
based on the theory of cognitive load, has also been argued to be more efective
than individual learning, especially in challenging high-load conditions (Kirschner
et al. 2009; Nokes-Malach et al. 2012). This supports our fnding that some students
did not beneft from the in-class group activities because they perceived it as not
being challenging enough. Because group activities are often used in the fipped
classroom, it is important to understand that not all collaboration is necessarily
benefcial (Nokes-Malach et al. 2015), and that therefore activities should be
carefully designed to match prior knowledge and cognitive load. Further
research is needed on how to strengthen peer learning in the fipped classroom
so that (even) more students beneft.
Furthermore, students reported that in-class activities supported their
understanding of the course content. The literature has highlighted that, in fipped
classroom settings, students have more time to refect on their own learning and
to make necessary connections with the course content, but it is crucial for
optimal learning that the tutor provides feedback on specifc aspects of the
students’ refection (Roehl et al. 2013). This supports the fnding that some students
indicated that, for an optimal learning process, they needed feedback from the
tutor. Because group activities are frequently used in a fipped classroom, it is
important to make time available for the tutor to provide immediate feedback.

For the tutor, the fipped classroom was a positive experience and she
reported being less stressed than usual. This is a huge beneft considering the high
levels of burnout in (higher) education (Holmes et al. 2017). Overall, despite these
benefts, some students reported that the fipped classroom did not necessarily
result in better learning outcomes. Perhaps they had not yet seen the benefts at
the time of evaluation, or perhaps fipped classrooms might only beneft a specifc
type of student, such as someone who is less motivated at the start and does not
prefer passive learning through lectures. It must be noted that previous studies
have revealed that students are not always able to assess their own performance
and identify enhancing learning strategies efectively (Hartwig and Dunlosky 2012;
Yan et al. 2014), which could have impacted our fndings.
The presence of millennial students in the traditional classroom and their
relative intolerance of the traditional one-way learning styles have led to
increased attention to alternative approaches (Roehl et al. 2013); the literature
on fipped classrooms is booming. At the same time, several lessons learned in our
study pointed to the current challenges of implementing fipped classroom in
traditional universities. For instance, lecture halls still have fxed seats that all face
the same direction, which is not ideal for collaborative learning. Assessments
mostly rely on multiple-choice questions and individual essays, but they should be
more fexible to align with the learning activities and, for instance, to assess 21st
century skills such as creativity and collaboration (The Partnership for 21st Century
Learning 2015). Besides, during in-class and pre-class learning activities, these
more-practical challenges should be considered in developing blended learning
and fipped classrooms.
Strengths and limitations
Our selected mixed-methods approach that combined both quantitative
and qualitative data is an appropriate way to evaluate a blended learning
program. It not only provides objective data on diferences in attendance and
participation, but also makes it possible to elaborate on the why and how
questions. A strength of our research is that we evaluated the efect of the fipped
classroom within one course and one cohort, thus reducing the number of
confounding factors. However, because of practical and organisational
limitations, the course duration was only eight weeks and only fve fipped
classroom sessions could be organised. It is questionable whether the students
had acquired enough experience with this new learning approach in order to
evaluate it. Besides, it was unfortunate that there were relatively few participants,
which limited investigating learning outcomes in terms of individual student
characteristics (such as learning style and preference) in a quantitative analysis.
The sample was too small to investigate any potential diferences between the
students who did and did not report having benefted from the fipped classroom
approach in terms of learning style and preferences. Moreover, in order to
properly measure learning styles and preferences, we suggest that future
research use reliable questionnaires instead of a single question, which was
beyond the scope of the current study. Another limitation was that, because the
students who participated in the FGDs were highly motivated and generally
reported positive experiences of the fipped classroom, they were not entirely
representative of the full cohort. However, a more-diverse student population was
included in the short semi-structured (group) interviews which were conducted in
class. No major differences between the data gathered through the interviews,
questionnaire and FGDs were observed. One major beneft of the course design
was that it allowed comparison between traditional lectures and interactive
lectures in the same course. This controlled for any possible diference in course
content and student population that could afect study outcomes.

However, the tutor for the traditional lectures was not the same person who
facilitated the interactive lectures, which again could have biased outcomes.
Recommendations

Diferent activities inside and outside the fipped classroom demonstrated

diferent advantages, although such diferent activities could interact when
combined. For instance, both spacing and variation individually beneft learning,
yet a combination of these two can become counterproductive, especially
when spaced variations fail to be connected with the original learning (Appleton-
Knapp et al. 2005). This underlines the importance of constructive alignment, or
the alignment of course activities, assessment and intended outcomes (Biggs and
Tang 2007). When more activities are introduced into the fipped classroom, care
must be taken to ensure that these activities align well with the original course
objectives. In addition, the design of the collaborative learning activities must be
considered carefully, making sure it is sufciently challenging to demand a high
cognitive load and connect with students’ prior knowledge (Kirschner et al. 2009;
Nokes-Malach et al. 2012). This inconsistency and variation in implementation
strategies of fipped classrooms also links to the lack of theoretical frameworks in
this feld, something that could be developed in further studies to enhance
consistency across settings. Because this research was conducted with Master’s
students, who were highly motivated and used to working more independently
at an academic level, probably they have better practised self-regulation
learning strategies compared with undergraduate students. Flipped classroom
research has also been extensive with high school students. Yet, we believe that
a relevant next step would be to conduct a similar study with Bachelor’s students.

Conclusion
The fipped classroom trial in the Master’s course can be considered a
success based on the positive feedback of the diverse group of students and the
tutor. The combination of selfregulated pre-class learning by means of video
materials and prescribed reading in order to obtain comparable levels of pre-
knowledge and understanding, in combination with inclass activities
incorporating collaborative learning activities facilitating deeper learning, was
considered to have merit, especially in a diverse student population. It was
surprising to fnd that, even though the overall experience was good, not all
students agreed that the fipped classroom contributed to their learning
outcomes. This fnding should be investigated further because outcomes might
depend on a student’s general learning styles and preferences. In order to
facilitate blended learning, such as fipped classrooms, on a larger scale,
considerable institutional support is required in order to enable their practical
implementation and provide fexible assessments.

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4. An Institutional Approach to Fostering Inclusion and Addressing Racial Bias:

Implications for Diversity in Academic Medicine
Tomas Diaz, J. Renee Navarro & Esther H. Chen
ABSTRACT

Issue: While an increasingly diverse workforce of clinicians, researchers, and

educators will be needed to address the nation’s future healthcare challenges,
underrepresented in medicine (UIM) perspectives remain relatively absent from
academic medicine. Evidence: Prior studies have identified differential
experiences within the learning environment, lack of social supports, and implicit
bias in evaluations as barriers to the academic interests and successes of UIM
learners. The UCSF Differences Matter initiative has shown that interventions
focused on recruiting diverse academic faculty, building strong social
communities, facilitating cross-cultural communication and understanding, and
mitigating disparities in summative assessments can positively affect the
educational experience for UIM learners and contribute to their academic
success. Implications: Institution-level initiatives are needed to foster a culture of
inclusion, teach cultural humility, and build a culture of trust within academic
medicine. Such initiatives should aim to teach a common language to discuss
diversity issues and place the responsibility of fostering inclusion on all members of
the academic community. Our own institutional experience with systemic cultural
reform challenges others to develop novel approaches toward fostering inclusion
in academic medicine.

Background
Underrepresented in medicine (UIM) voices and perspectives are missing from
academic medicine. The percentage of UIM medical students, residents and
faculty in academic medicine continues to be disproportionately low relative to
the general population.1–3 Increasing UIM representation in medicine improves
training for all learners by broadening classroom discussions, preparing learners to
work in diverse cultural settings, and promoting health equity.4–6 In a racially
diverse state like California, for example, UIM physicians from a variety of
specialties are more likely to practice in medically underserved and primary care
health professional shortage areas than non-UIM physicians.7 As the patient
population of the United States becomes increasingly diverse, diversity among
healthcare providers and educators will be important for providing culturally
appropriate care, reducing health disparities, and increasing patient satisfaction
with their care.
Ultimately, diversity matters

The challenge of increasing diversity in academic medicine begins with

understanding the primary barriers to success faced by UIM students, particularly
their experiences within the learning environment. Students identify the
importance of social support (i.e., emotional support, cultural connection, and
career encouragement) as a main factor in promoting academic success.9,10
UIM students find support through not only family, friends, and colleagues, but also
advisors, mentors, and administrators who help them with their professional
development.9 Belonging to a community within medicine provides mentorship,
scholarly opportunities, and mutual understanding of personal hardships.
Connecting to a community outside of medicine provides an outlet from the
academic environment and an escape from racial isolation.10 Unfortunately,
non-UIM colleagues and educators sometimes lack understanding of their
students’ personal experiences, thereby undermining UIM students’ ability to form
cross-cultural social groups.

All students need social support to succeed, but UIM students have more
difficulty establishing peer support networks and good peer working relationships
compared to non-UIM students in medicine. They also report feeling less satisfied
with the social environment because of isolation, discrimination, and feeling
perceived as intellectually inferior.9,10 UIM students are also more likely to face
racial discrimination and harassment in the classroom and the clinical
environment by classmates, residents, faculty, and patients.9,10 Moreover, they
report lower satisfaction with the learning environment, including timeliness of
their performance evaluations, responsiveness to their concerns, and receipt of
adequate constructive feedback.10 Finally, they report feelings of lack of
confidence, self-doubt, and self-consciousness about their identity and
legitimacy in the social environment.9 As a result of these insecurities, they are less
likely to seek academic assistance out of fear of being perceived as less
competent than their peers.
Another important barrier to success faced by UIM students stems from a
documented legacy of scoring differences across racial and ethnic groups in the
usual tools used to assess clinical performance. On the mini-clinical performance
exam (mini-CEX) using a series of standardized patient (SP) encounters, white
students scored higher than Asian and black students on their communication
scores and were perceived as more “patient-centered,” regardless of the
student’s primary language.12 The differences attributed to ethnicity
disappeared, however, once the authors adjusted for differences in the students’
level of impersonal attitudes toward the doctor-patient relationship. On objective
structured clinical examinations (OSCEs), SPs scored black male students lowest
on physician empathy, compared to white students or black female students,
regardless of SP ethnicity. Notably, the selfreported empathy of black students
(using the Jefferson Scale of Physician Empathy) was discordant with SP
perceptions of physician empathy regardless of gender, raising the possibility of
racial bias or stereotype in OSCE evaluations.13 Moreover, SPs reported being
more satisfied with their care from a racially concordant student pairing
compared to a racially discordant student pairing.14 A similar difference in
assessment related to ethnicity has also been shown in the clinical environment
with faculty and residents. UIM students with similar clerkship grades reported
receiving more negative comments and fewer positive comments during their
clerkships than white students.15 Having more racially diverse SPs, supervising
faculty, and residents may mitigate some of these differences in clinical skills
assessment.

Racial bias in formative assessments during clinical rotations potentially

introduces bias into the summative assessments of UIM students. A recent textual
analysis of Medical Student Performance Evaluations (MSPEs), an integral part of
a student’s application for residency, showed differences in words used to
describe UIM students compared to non-UIM students. White students were more
likely to be described using words such as “standout” or “exceptional,” whereas
black students were more likely to be described as “competent,” even after
controlling for US Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Step I scores.16
Furthermore, white students were more likely than black, Latino, and Asian
students to be inducted into the Alpha Omega Alpha Honor Society (AOA), even
after adjusting for leadership and community service. While there was a strong
association between USMLE score and AOA, within the top quartile of USMLE
scores, Asian students were still less likely than white students to be chosen for
AOA.17 The racial disparities in these summative assessments and distribution of
awards in medical school may directly affect a UIM student’s competitiveness as
a candidate for residency.
The barriers faced by UIM learners are systemic in nature. Cultural
differences, combined with implicit bias, reduce the quality of the learning
environment and change educational outcomes for UIM students. To increase
diversity in academic medicine, such barriers will need to be removed. On the
basis of this evidence and our experience with diversity and inclusion at our own
institution, the most successful intervention is a comprehensive, institutional
approach toward creating an environment of inclusion, teaching cultural
humility, building collaboration and trust, and recognizing the impact of implicit
bias in evaluations and recruitment. Here, we present the multi-pronged
approach adopted at the University of California – San Francisco (UCSF) toward
creating and maintaining a diverse, equitable, and inclusive academic
environment. This initiative, known as Differences Matter
(https://differencesmatter. ucsf.edu), is a $10 million commitment over 5 years
focused on leadership, climate/recruitment, education, clinical care, research,
and pipeline/outreach.

Cultivating an institutional environment of inclusion Institutions must foster

an environment of inclusion, both explicitly and implicitly. A mission statement that
emphasizes a commitment to diversity sends a positive message to UIM learners
and provides accountability for the institution.18 UIM students have identified
unspoken messaging in the lack of ethnic diversity among institutional leaders,
patients referenced in exam questions, and faces featured in portraits lining
lecture halls as contributing to an environment in which they feel ‘othered,’ or
segregated from the larger student population.19 Furthermore, UIM students
sometimes report feeling disconnected from the larger academic community
when exclusively funneled to ethnically-matched administrators for support. This
action conveys the message that UIM student issues may not be relevant to the
student body as a whole.19 Indeed, even when an institution prioritizes diversity,
it can still contribute to othering. For example, when only UIM faculty and students
(rather than all members of an institution) are asked to promote diversity, UIMs are
being treated as other.

At our institution, contributions to a broad definition of diversity are

encouraged of the entire academic community and our Office of Diversity and
Outreach (ODO) monitors the university website regularly to ensure that the
featured images and stories are intentionally inclusive and representative of our
diverse community. These simple messages of belonging may contribute
positively to the learning environment as well as assist with recruitment. For
example, medical school websites may be a critical resource and recruitment
tool for prospective UIM students who do not have access to other sources of
information.20 Although there are few studies of the impact of social
representations on the learning environment for UIM medical students, there is
some evidence to suggest that a culturally engaging campus environment is
positively correlated with a sense of belonging, academic self-efficacy,
motivation, and increased probability of success in diverse college students as
well as dental and medical students.
An important component of an inclusive and supportive environment for
learners is the diversity of an institution’s residents and faculty, who provide career
mentorship and social support.9–11 Recruitment and retention of UIMs at all
academic levels unburdens UIM students and educators by building community
and distributing diversity efforts among a larger pool of individuals. For students,
initiatives such as scholarships for visiting student rotations are important for
recruiting UIM learners and unburdening them from financial stress, a potential
barrier to staying in academic medicine.22 In our institution’s emergency
medicine residency program, for example, five $1,500 scholarships are awarded
to visiting UIM students every year for completing a clinical rotation in our
department. Since implementation, the percentage of incoming UIM interns to
our residency program has increased from 10% to being consistently above 30%
each year over the last 4 years.
Retention of UIM students as residents further strengthens support networks,
which is, in turn, crucial for supporting UIM students in their own academic
pursuits.9 The disparity in faculty responsibility for diversity service work may be
mitigated by weighing diversity-related service activities as an important factor in
the promotions process. UIM faculty may be provided additional support (e.g.,
salary, administrative assistance, protected administrative time) to offset the
disproportionate burden of their nonacademic work as an acknowledgement of
their positive contributions to the institution. Other types of support might include
career counseling, grant writing workshops, academic file preparation assistance,
and proactive mentoring.

Inadequate faculty diversity and the minority tax – the disproportionate

burden placed on UIM faculty to participate in recruitment and diversity-related
service – may hinder the professional development and promotion of UIM
faculty.24 Currently, UIM faculty and residents may feel obligated to serve as
mentors to students or be asked to sit on committees that require significant time
demands but do not necessarily contribute to their own academic success.
Because these service activities are traditionally not as valued by institutions for
promotion as compared to scholarly work, UIM faculty may feel less supported in
their career development and question whether the school is truly committed to
diversity.

To ensure faculty equity in workloads at UCSF, all faculty must demonstrate

their commitment to diversity and inclusion regardless of their self-identified
ethnicity by describing their activities for faculty recruitment and promotion.
Institutional equity advisors are available to support departmental recruitment
efforts by recommending best practices, such as ensuring that recruitment
committee membership is sufficiently diverse and requiring all applicants to
highlight their own contributions to diversity. Moreover, short lists for recruitment
efforts are reviewed by the ODO to ensure that they are demographically
reflective of the larger applicant pool. To further support junior faculty in their
careers, we instituted the John A. Watson Scholars Program
(https://medschool.ucsf.edu/john-watson-faculty-scholars), which provides
salary support and grants of up to $75,000 for a maximum of 3 years for recruiting
and retaining young faculty members who have demonstrated an outstanding
commitment to diversity and service. These interventions have contributed to a
two-fold increase in the number of black and Latino faculty members within seven
years.

Teaching cultural humility

Navigating institutional racism introduces a significant burden on UIM
learners in academia, a burden not experienced by their non-UIM peers.25,26 In
order for UIM learners to excel, teaching institutions must recognize this
phenomenon and offload the responsibility of navigating systems of racism from
learners.26 Currently, UIM learners are more likely to experience a less supportive
and less positive learning environment during their medical education.9,26 They
are also more likely to be subject to discrimination and racial harassment. In the
2017 AAMC Graduation Questionnaire, 7% of responding medical students
indicated that they had been subject to racially or ethnically offensive remarks
by faculty, staff, or other learners at least one time during their education.27
Institutions must seek to create an environment in which UIM individuals are
empowered to report their negative experiences and have confidence that
institutions will act on their behalf by rehabilitating systems and individuals that
demonstrate bias. As an example, our institution has developed an easily
accessible reporting process through the Office for the Prevention of Harassment
and Discrimination (OPHD) that promptly investigates all reports of reported
discrimination on the basis of membership in a protected group
(http://ophd.ucsf.edu/complaintresolution). This new process has led to an
increase in the number of complaints filed in the last few years, presumably
because of improving accessibility, but potentially because of increasing
incidence of events or recognition that these behaviors are unacceptable.
Although the OPHD has not yet identified the primary driver of this phenomenon,
it now has a better understanding of incidents related to discrimination on our
campus to further develop interventions and refine processes to prevent future
events. Curricular design and educational interventions such as cultural humility
training for faculty and learners can facilitate communication between
individuals from different social groups and provide tools for dealing with
discrimination.
Cultural humility describes a process in which individuals engage in self-
reflection and self-critique related to cultural identity and awareness of the
perspective of others, with the primary goal to strengthen relationships with
others.28 Cultural competence, by contrast, describes a knowledge and
understanding of another person’s culture and adapting one’s approach to
healthcare that specifically incorporates cultural preferences.
 A primary goal of our Differences Matter initiative is to teach and share a
common language about diversity and inclusion so that students and faculty can
engage each other in fruitful discussion regarding these topics. Over the past two
years, more than 400 faculty have completed our 1-day skills-based cultural
humility training and small group discussions focused on exploring self-identity and
privilege, identifying microaggressions, and practicing allyship; some of these foci
were identified by our institutional climate assessment on diversity, equity, and
inclusion. A preliminary survey of the first 200 faculty participants showed an
increase in faculty comfort with identifying microaggressions at 3 months post-
training. The initiative aims to train additional faculty leaders and has held each
departmental chair accountable for encouraging their faculty to participate in
these trainings. Although our program is in early stages, we recognize the need
for institutions to collect climate survey data on a regular basis in order to
determine impacts and implement lessons learned. In addition, each department
chair is required to submit a Chair Accountability Report describing departmental
efforts to promote diversity and inclusion each year. A typical report includes a
description of activities supporting the recruitment of UIM faculty and residents,
mentorship of UIM students, numbers of UIM students rotating, interviewing, and
matching within a department, and programmatic and educational faculty
efforts.

Cultural humility training in isolation is not enough and risks further

marginalizing issues of UIM inclusion. Cultural inclusivity must also be an integral
component of curriculum itself. Within undergraduate medical education, one
institution successfully cultivated an inclusive learning environment by offering a
pre-clinical course focused on healthcare disparities, giving medical students the
opportunity to speak from personal experiences on issues of race, ethnicity, and
health.11 Other educators have suggested implementing curricular initiatives by
avoiding the routine use of race and ethnicity as a fixed entity or simple
association with genetic mutations, but rather a reflection of the social
experience or environmental context.

Our institution’s new medical school curriculum integrates social justice,

cultural humility, and health equity throughout the four years of undergraduate
medical education. During new student orientation, students are immediately
introduced to race, skin color, genetics, and social determinants of health and
their relationships to patient outcomes. In the preclinical years, the curriculum
consists of dedicated learning blocks to explore social science approaches to
understanding healthcare and covers a range of topics including advocacy, gun
violence, addiction and recovery, and social identity. As students prepare for
their clinical rotations, they participate in discussions on race and the diagnostic
process and are challenged to identify social, economic, and political forces
affecting patient care. These types of courses may potentiate a better
understanding and appreciation of cultural differences. A helpful resource, the
Tool for Assessing Cultural Competence Training developed by the Association of
American Medical Colleges, can be used to help identify gaps or inconsistencies
in curricula relating to cultural humility.
Building collaboration and trust

An individual’s fear that his or her performance might confirm a negative

stereotype of the group to which he or she belongs, also known as stereotype
threat, has been shown to negatively affect academic performance among UIM
students.11 UIMs often feel pressured to represent their entire community in the
classroom and the clinical environment. They also may feel more apprehensive
about seeking assistance when falling behind academically for fear that this will
reflect poorly on them as race representatives.11 Because remediation is an
important component of any education program, institutions should be aware
that UIM and non-UIM students may experience this process differently.11 De-
stigmatizing requests for help and increasing coaching for students on academic
probation or who self-identify a need for additional academic support represent
an opportunity to create a more positive learning environment for UIM and non-
UIM students alike. An institutional approach to remediation that emphasizes
professionalism, mastery of learning, and a coaching relationship with a
remediation faculty may encourage UIM students to ask for help.

While evidence for the utility of specific programmatic and policy changes
to reduce negative racerelated experiences and improve academic outcomes
of UIM students is lacking,10 student interviews suggest that a noncompetitive
class culture can promote collegiality, collaboration, and class cohesiveness.
Moreover, because UIM students often feel more comfortable around
diverse peers, institutions might consider offering them a central space to find
resources and engage with peers and mentors, particularly when having diverse
peers is so essential to enhancing their learning.11 The Multicultural Resource
Center at UCSF was created to provide a safe space for UIM students, allowing
them to engage with members of the institutional and broader communities.
Collaboration with the local Sinkler Miller Medical Association chapter
(http://www.sinklermiller.org) has also helped to unite a critical mass of UIM health
care professionals. These are examples of opportunities to build community that
are important for building a critical mass of UIMs in academic medicine and
mitigating social isolation.
Recognizing the impact of implicit bias
 A merit-based academic environment is presumed to be relatively immune
from bias but recent studies have shown otherwise.16,17,27 Current student
evaluation processes are not comprehensive, focus on testtaking skills, and may
not accurately measure student achievement of clinical competencies. Studies
have shown that current assessments may be influenced by instructor biases,
learner experiences, and the learning environment.12,13,15,32 We recommend
that institutions recognize the biases inherent in these common evaluation tools
and work toward creating more accurate measures of competency as well as
deliberately reconstructing their definitions of excellence to account for the
different yet comparably admirable talents of trainees. As an example, when our
ODO analyzed undergraduate medical education assessment strategies, it
identified a homogeneous OSCE evaluator group and subsequently
recommended hiring more diverse standardized patients; while this particular
intervention may not necessarily eliminate bias, we feel that it is important to have
different perspectives represented in our standardized patient assessments. The
UCSF educational curriculum and evaluation system undergoes constant analysis
using this lens.

Another relatively simple way to mitigate the effects of bias is to educate

evaluators on the power of implicit bias. Implicit bias has been shown to favor
whites and males regardless of the racial or gender group of the test taker. The
most widely used tool for identifying implicit bias is the Implicit Association Test
(IAT).33 The IAT is an online tool that measures the strength of an individual’s
automatic association between words and images and interprets the
associations as the strength to which an individual holds a particular societal
stereotype. Although there is controversy about whether IAT results accurately
reflect an individual’s actual biased behavior (i.e., its validity) and test-retest
reliability of those results, it can still be used to promote faculty discussion on
implicit bias and be one part of a comprehensive implicit bias training.34 There is
some evidence that IAT results can highlight the relevance and perceived need
for bias reduction in faculty evaluators and may directly affect the quality of
faculty evaluations and decrease disparity in evaluations between racial groups.
Finally, studies have shown that the traditional approach to residency
selection, based on summative evaluations and award distributions (both of
which may be racially biased), has a detrimental impact on diversity within
residency programs.16,17,36 We would recommend that all admissions
committee members receive comprehensive implicit bias training, which might
include taking the IAT prior to reviewing applications, and learning to approach
applications holistically rather than simply focusing on knowledge acquisition as
a measure of academic performance. For example, some personality traits (e.g.,
openness, conscientiousness, and grit) have been shown to be better predictors
of professional success in medical school.

Conclusion
As the US population becomes increasingly diverse, an equally diverse
workforce of clinicians, researchers, and thinkers will be needed to address the
nation’s future healthcare challenges. Diversity is not attained at the expense of
excellence; diversity promotes excellence and contributes to our nation’s health
and wellbeing. Based on this limited evidence, the extensive literature on the UIM
learner experience, as well as our own experience with diversity initiatives, suggest
that the best approach toward advancing equity and inclusion is a
comprehensive institutional initiative aimed at cultivating an inclusive
environment, teaching cultural humility, and building collaboration and trust
within the entire academic community. Specific interventions should include
recruiting and retaining diverse academic faculty and residents, teaching cultural
humility and a common language to discuss diversity and inclusion, and ensuring
that social representations of the institution are diverse and inclusive. Promoting
an inclusive academic environment is the responsibility of the entire medical
community and will require dedicated time, financial resources, and curiosity. We
challenge institutions to develop novel approaches toward increasing diversity,
pursuing equity, and fostering inclusion.

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5. Learner Diversity in Inclusive Classrooms: The Interplay of Language of

Instruction, Gender and Disability
Mwajabu K. Possi

Joseph Reginard Milinga

ABSTRACT
The research was conducted to look into learner diversity in inclusive
classrooms focusing on language of instruction, gender and disability issues, and
their implications for education practices. A qualitative research approach was
used to obtain data addressing the research problem from two inclusive
secondary schools in Dar es Salaam region, Tanzania. A purposive sampling was
used to obtain the schools, and research participants who were teachers and
students. Open ended interviews, classroom observations, and focus group
discussions were used in data collection. The findings have indicated challenges
facing teachers in teaching mixed classes as well as students in such classes;
especially those with disability. However, interactions between girls and boys were
generally positive although the latter dominated in some classroom
conversations. It is recommended that all teachers should be trained on how to
handle students with special needs in particular and acquainted with general
knowledge of learner diversity during initial-teacher training, and further
enhanced through continued in-service trainings. Lastly, it is recommended that
another study, using both quantitative and qualitative approaches, be
conducted using a bigger sample involving other types of participants with
special needs; and that parents of children in special needs should participate in
the proposed study.
INTRODUCTION

Learner diversity is an issue worth addressing in education practices across

countries if inclusive societies are to be developed, promoted and sustained.
Towards realizing inclusive societies, employing inclusive best practices in
education systems would be an important foremost step. Inclusive education is a
process that involves the transformation of schools and other centres of learning
to cater for all children: boys and girls, students from various ethnic groups and
linguistic minorities, rural populations, those affected by HIV and AIDS, and those
who have exceptional learning needs. In the context of Tanzania, inclusive
education is viewed as a system of education in which all children, youths and
adults are enrolled, actively participate and achieve in regular schools and other
educational programmes regardless of their diverse backgrounds and abilities,
without discrimination, through minimization of barriers and maximisation of
resources (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training [MoEVT], 2009; 2013).
Inclusive education facilitates learning opportunities for all youths and adults as
well. It is aimed at eliminating exclusion resulting from negative attitudes and lack
of response to diversity in race, economic status, social class, ethnicity, language,
religion, gender, sexual orientation and ability.
Education takes place in many contexts, both formal and non-formal, and
within families and the wider community. Consequently, inclusive education is not
a marginal issue. It is central to the achievement of high quality education for all
learners and the development of more inclusive societies, and an essential
element to achieving social equity (United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2009).

Worthwhile noting is that, Tanzania has adopted the inclusive education

system. The country has also declared Kiswahili to be the language of instruction
(LoI) at all education levels (United Republic of Tanzania [URT], 2014). Despite the
move, the LoI could be one of the barriers to learners with disabilities’ knowledge
acquisition, if not properly handled in the teaching and learning processes.
Principally, if the students in special needs are not involved or interacting well with
their colleagues and teachers alike in the teaching and learning processes, their
participation and success in school is likely to be constrained. This is because
language, a system of using arbitrary meaningful symbols, is a means of
communication; a process that allows individuals to express their ideas, feelings,
perceptions, and opinions to others who understand the communicated
information. Through this process, individuals can get acquaintance, form
friendship as well as interactions.

In this regard, language is of paramount importance in education,

especially in the teaching and learning processes since it allows educational
messages to be transferred from teachers to learners and vice versa, hence
reciprocal communication in both written and spoken language forms. Based on
this understanding, intriguingly, what happens if the language used in the
communication process is not adequately known or understood by either of the
parties involved? In order for learning to be realized, the language of instruction
should be well understood by teachers and learners (Qorro, 1999). Indeed, many
learners fail in examinations set in English because of poor background in the
language and that they probably understand very poorly what they are taught
in the classrooms (Qorro, 1999).

The aims of the research

Debates on whether or not Tanzania should use Kiswahili as a medium of
instruction in all learning institutions, as well as research findings that girls perform
better in languages than boys and that girls talk more than boys in non-formal
conversation (Chase, 2011), it was important to conduct a research on gender
conversational dominance in the classrooms with students in special needs. The
aim of the current study was to analyse learner diversity in the classrooms focusing
on language of instruction, gender and disability issues. This research was a timely
endeavour in discerning the extent of gender conversional dominance among
learners with hearing impairment and albinism in Dar es Salaam region inclusive
secondary schools. Further, it was the interest of the researchers to find out
whether or not learners in inclusive secondary schools interacted more in Kiswahili
than in English classes or vice versa. To achieve these general aims, the following
questions were addressed.
i. How are the classroom seating arrangements during the teaching and
learning of English and Kiswahili languages?
ii. What is the frequency of teachers’ asking questions to male and female
learners with or without hearing disability or albinism in English and Kiswahili
language classes?
iii. To what extent do male and female learners with or without hearing
disability or albinism respond to teachers’ questions posed in English and Kiswahili
languages?
iv. Who, between male and female learners with or without hearing
disability or albinism, dominate the classroom in asking questions using English
language?
v. What are the challenges facing teachers in handling students with
hearing impairments and those with albinism in inclusive classrooms?
Significance of the study

The present study provides insights into the actual teaching and learning
processes in inclusive classrooms. The findings of this study offer important
information about teachers’ awareness of learner diversity in their classrooms. This
information is expected to help improve in-service teacher practices with regard
to meeting individual needs of learners, and significantly establish the need to
revisit pre-service teacher preparation in Tanzania. Furthermore, since Kiswahili
has been recently declared the medium of instruction at all levels of education
in the country by the Government of Tanzania, the findings are expected to assist
in improving the teaching and learning through English and Kiswahili languages,
taking into account gender and disability issues in inclusive secondary school
classrooms.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Language of instruction and learner diversity nexus in the classrooms

Language of instruction has long been an issue in the delivery of education

in Tanzania whereby more than 130 ethnic tribes exist in the country, each of
which has their own mother tongue. The longstanding debate has been on
whether Kiswahili or English languages be the medium of instruction at all levels of
education. The issue of the language of instruction in Tanzania dates back to
colonial period. Revisiting on the language of instruction in the country during this
period, Swilla (2009) states that; ‘from 1919 to 1961, the British colonial
administration maintained Swahili as the LoI in the first four years of primary school
education for Africans. A gradual transition to English-medium of instruction took
place in the fifth year, and English became the sole LoI from the sixth year through
secondary and postsecondary levels. Swahili remained a compulsory subject in
primary education and in the first four years of secondary education’ (p. 2).
At independence, Tanzania was left with different colonial legacies within
the education sector that required urgent change in national ideology, which in
turn informed about the kind and focus of education in the country (Swilla, 2009).
In attempts to make education more relevant to independent Tanzanians,
making reforms in the education sector was inevitable. Among the Tanzania’s
major education reforms after independence was the enactment of the 1962
Education Act that made Kiswahili to be the language of instruction and
assessment in primary education (Bikongoro, 2015).
Not only that but also it is worth noting that, right after Tanganyika’s
independence in 1961, Kiswahili language was declared the national language.
It was, and still is, the language spoken and appreciated by majority of the
people in the country. However, since independence, it has never been officially
used as a medium of instruction in secondary education and above.
All in all, Kiswahili has long been the medium of instruction in almost all
primary schools, with the exception of a few of them such as those owned by
private entities as well as international organizations, the English medium
institutions. The latter use English as the language of instruction. The language is
taught as a subject in primary and junior secondary schools. Furthermore, it is used
as a medium of instruction in all secondary schools. Not only that but also, the
language is taught as a subject in Teacher Training Colleges for Grade “A”
student teachers prepared to teach in primary schools. At Diploma level, the
language is taught as a subject and used as a medium of instruction for all
subjects with the exception of other foreign languages and Kiswahili
(Mwakasendo, 2011).
From the aforementioned, one learns that using English as a medium of
instruction at secondary school level is a big jump from the use of Kiswahili which
is a local and second language to most Tanzanians, and a medium of instruction
in many primary schools. It is indeed, a sudden switch from Kiswahili to English as
a medium of instruction without prior orientation. In fact this shift has been
reported to be one of the contributing factors to students’ poor academic
performance at secondary school level. To many stakeholders, using English as a
medium of instruction from primary through tertiary levels of education in Tanzania
would solve the mismatch (Godfrey, 2014). Certainly, it is of no wonder that code
switching in secondary school teaching is a reality and common in almost all
classes. Teachers give various reasons for the situation, the major one being that
English is an international language and that Kiswahili lacks technical terms in
science and other subjects (Ministry of Education and Culture, 1995). Teachers
have to know that code switching in the classroom affects teaching and learning
and hinders learners’ eloquence in both Kiswahili and English languages.
Focusing on the use of Kiswahili as the medium of instruction in our
educational institutions, as well as the actual practice of teachers in their day to
day teaching, the following questions are worth posing: If there is still some
hesitation of using Kiswahili as a medium of instruction at secondary school level
because of the fear that students will have deficits in English language, which is
an international language, and if there are teachers who are practising code
switching in their classrooms, where are we heading to? Why shouldn’t the
authorities and stakeholders make a firm decision on the language of instruction?
To save the boat from sinking, should Form One students be given a
comprehensive English course after primary school education for them to grasp
the English language well at secondary school level? On the other hand,
countries such as China, Russia, North Korea to mention some, are using their
national languages as media of instruction and have developed well. Could
these countries serve as role models for Tanzania?

Arguments for using English in teaching and learning are in line with what is
contained in the report by the Ministry of Education and Culture (1995). The report
indicates that English is an international language which makes it easy for people
to communicate internationally. In the document it is contended that Kiswahili
lacks technical terms which can make it difficult for people to understand and
grasp well the science terminologies. The report also shows that since translation
is expensive, the use of Kiswahili is uncalled for. In that report, a question was
raised as to why code switching should not be legalized, if Kiswahili was to be
used as a medium of instruction. It was also learned that teaching through a
bilingual system could be another approach that facilitates teaching and
learning. Another argument against the use of Kiswahili in teaching and learning
was that it might not be possible to use the language in teaching and learning
since teachers have not been well prepared. It is also argued that there are
insufficient teaching and learning materials (Mwakasendo, 2011). These
arguments need to either be challenged or supported through scientific research.
Various researches have been conducted on the use of Kiswahili and
English in teaching and learning as well as on students’ performance. In her
research, Vuzo (2010) found that through classroom interactions, teachers and
students work together to create intellectual and practical activities that shape
both form and content of the target subject. Further, the author has indicated
that students’ participation is low where English is used as a medium of instruction
in comparison to classes where Kiswahili is used as a medium of instruction. It was
therefore important to find out if the findings apply to students in special needs
that is, those with albinism and hearing impairments.

However, not much has been done on gender dominance in Kiswahili

classes. In terms of language differences and students’ performance, a research
conducted in Kenya by Moochi et al. (2013) showed that girls outperformed boys
in overall performance in Kiswahili creative writing, style and spelling conventions.
In the same research however, the two sexes were at par in content presentation,
vocabulary use and use of grammatical elements in Kiswahili creative writing.
Further, a study by Pajares and Valiante (1999) cited in Chase (2011), established
no significant differences between boys and girls in writing performance yet girls
were rated as “better writers” than boys. There is indeed paucity of research in
Tanzania on the use of Kiswahili in teaching children in special needs. It is even
worse to state that not a single research was found on albinism and hearing
impairment focusing on gender conversational dominance in inclusive
secondary school classrooms for children in special needs in Tanzania. The
aforementioned observations, questions, and arguments have led to the current
study, focusing on gender dominance in Kiswahili and English classes in two
secondary schools in the country. From what has been raised in the previous
paragraphs, one would have wished to find out which gender dominates the
other in the classroom in terms of language classes.
Gender and learner diversity nexus in the classrooms
 Generally, research indicates that males dominate in most conversations.
Data from the United States of America (Wood, 1996) have shown that men try to
control conversations and are concerned with using conversations to establish
status and authority, compete for attention and power, and achieve instrumental
status and goals. Other research findings show that women tend to use
communication to build connections with others, to be inclusive, supportive,
cooperative, and responsive to others (Woods cited in Lips, 2005). The author also
argues that gender plays a role in verbal and nonverbal communication which
includes facial expression, tone of voice, gesture, posture, touch, and eye
contact. On the other hand, men tend to talk more than women and hold the
floor, even when they are not saying anything. Further, men interrupt women
when talking. Another aspect is that women keep conversations going by asking
questions, responding to what others say and probing for more information.
In the classroom contexts, there are a number of gender issues which may
create barriers to students’ learning if they are not well considered. These issues
or aspects can be related to teachers, students or specific to the physical
environments within the classrooms. Literature on classroom interaction shows
that teacher-student interaction is characterised by the teacher’s attempt to
influence learning mainly by controlling the learners’ exposure to learning and
providing them opportunities to practise language (Verplaetse, 1998). Further,
teachers control the learning content and direction of the discourse by asking
questions and reformulating the answers given by leaners. Also, research findings
indicate gender and sex differences in conversations. For instance, it is said that
men do not give verbal recognition of contributions made by women, women
are more communicative, women talk more with one another than men, and
that women speak more comfortably than men in public (Lakoff, 1975; Spender,
1980). With respect to the classroom arrangement, traditional models of
classroom setting has in most cases been affecting students’ participation in the
classroom discourses, especially girls (Mlama et al., 2005) making them being
excluded from the teaching and learning processes. After reviewing the
international research literature on the gender socialization process in schools
across countries, Stromquist (2007) found that ‘boys continue to dominate
classroom time and space, a practice that seems to create subdued girls and
naturalizes differences between men and women’ (p. 30). Teachers need to be
aware of such practices and use teaching methods which can make girls more
engaged than what is considered normal in many societies (Mlama et al., 2005).
Classroom conversational dominance, which refers to control over
conversation in terms of speaking time in the classroom, is among critical issues
while teaching in inclusive classrooms that teachers need to be aware of and
respond accordingly. Learners should be encouraged towards producing
meaningful interactions which can facilitate the learning and understanding of
subjects taught (Lewis-Moreno, cited in Mwakasendo, 2011). Classroom
conversations are important in learning for both male and female learners.
Equitable conversational practices in the classrooms between the two genders
are important as a means of appreciation individual differences in the teaching
and learning processes. Coupled with disability issues in the classrooms, teachers
become more loaded with responsibilities.
Classroom conversations, discussions and the medium of instruction used in
teaching and learning do not exclude learners in special needs receiving their
education in special or inclusive schools. Sometimes it may be difficult for teachers
and nondisabled learners to interact with learners in special needs due to the fact
that the latter might feel uncomfortable or be neglected by their teachers and
fellow learners. At times they may not be able to participate in classroom
conversations due to their being handicapped through language.

Learners’ classroom conversations can be hindered by a number of factors,

one of them being the teacher-student and student-student interactions. The
interactions can be worsened by the stigma attached to learners with disabilities.
Research findings from Tanzania show that learners with visual impairment or
health conditions, such albinism are segregated in classrooms and other arenas
due to sustained stigma (Moshy, 2013). It is a lament filled with grief which also
shows that learners with albinism are isolated, feared by their classmates and
have a sense of being disliked. Definitely, such children may not be given time to
speak or participate well in the classrooms. Further, findings indicate that in
coeducation classes for nondisabled learners, teachers ask more questions to
boys than they do to girls (NESSE, 2009). All in all, no study on gender dominance
in Tanzania was found in the literature reviewed, hence the current study.
It was therefore important to find out who dominates during the teaching
and learning process in the classroom so as to control conversations and give
chance to all learners in the teaching and learning process.

Conceptual and theoretical considerations of the study

In this study, both Flander’s Model of Classroom Interaction and Gender
Role Theory were used. The modified Flander’s model of classroom interaction as
indicated in Table 1 was used to discuss and find out the extent of gender
dominance and interactions among male and female as well disabled and
nondisabled learners in inclusive classrooms.
Source:

Modified Flander’s Interaction Model To complement the Flander’s model,

Gender Role Theory guided the study in analyzing gender dominance in
classroom teaching and learning environments. The theory emphasizes nurture
and the contribution of the social environment to learning gender-related
behaviours. It also indicates that reinforcement increases gender appropriate
behaviours. Proponents of Gender Role Theory assert that observed gender
differences in behaviour and personality characteristics are, at least in part,
socially constructed, and therefore, the product of socialization experiences
which may come about due to classroom teaching and learning (Loreman,
Depeller & Harvey, 2010). . In this study, presenting information in multiple formats,
that is, the use of direct teaching, and group discussions which were used in
classroom observations.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research approach and design

Qualitative approach as explained by Ary, Jacobs and Sorensen (2010)

was employed to obtain data addressing the research problem. The approach
assisted in exploring participants’ issues and insights on the topic. A case study
design was used to get the required data from two secondary schools enrolling
students with hearing disabilities and albinism.

Research site, study population, and sampling procedures

The study was conducted in Dar es Salaam region in which two secondary
schools enrolling learners with hearing impairments and albinism. The study
population included teachers and students because the two spend time with
disabled children in classrooms. A non-probability purposive sampling technique
was employed to select the schools and participants. The study sample consisted
of 109 participants as summarized in Table 2.

Data collection methods

Open ended questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, classroom
observations and focus group discussions were used in collecting the relevant
data for the study. Following are their descriptions:
Semi-structured interviews: Semi-structured interviews with open ended
questions were conducted with teachers as well as learners at School B to enable
the researcher get a clear understanding of gender dominance in language
teaching in the classroom. Teachers and students at School A declined to
participate in interviews without giving concrete reasons.
Focus group discussions (FGDs): Four Focus group discussions with eight
participants each, were conducted with students in School B to get information
on the methods used to teach male and female learners in the classrooms. They
were also used to obtain data on whether or not there was gender dominance
in the classrooms when asking and responding to questions. Each group had two
female participants. At School A, 16 student participants were purposely selected
to participate in focus group discussions. There was a gender balance of four
female and four male participants. Only five male teachers participated in the
study leading to 21 participants from the school. Female students did not want to
participate in focus group dissuasions. They declined outright for unknown reasons
since they did not want to disclose the reasons for the decline.

Classroom observations: Four non participatory classroom observations

were used to gather data on how teachers interact with learners as well as on the
learner-learner interaction in each school (two for each language. Data were
collected focusing on the level of questions according to Bloom’s taxonomy
levels of questions while referring to gender dominance and finding out whether
or not there was gender bias and/or gender stereotyping. Two classroom
observations were conducted at School A while four of them were conducted at
School B.

Trustworthiness of the study.

Trustworthiness in research may entail building confidence of the research
process to ensure reliability of its findings. In this study, this was arrived at through
adhering to credibility, dependability, confirmability and transferability criteria for
evaluating qualitative research proposed by Guba as cited in Shenton (2004). The
constructs were used as defined by Ryan, Coughlan and Cronin (2007, p. 743) in
the following ways:

Credibility: ‘addresses the issue of whether there is consistency between the

participants’ views and the researcher’s representation of them’. In this study it
was achieved through triangulation technique whereby different methods were
employed in data collection. Additionally, familiarity with the areas of study was
made to allow for minimization of potential barriers to carrying out the study
effectively.
Dependability: ‘involves the researcher giving the reader sufficient
information to determine how dependable the study and the researcher are’. To
achieve this, the researchers ensured that questions were flexible and also
allowed clarification for consistency. The participants were allowed to listen to the
information collected by the researcher through interpretation and tapes to
ensure if information in the text was what was aired by the participants. The
questions were repeated to various participants to get similarities and/or
differences.
Confirmability: ‘requires the researcher to demonstrate how conclusions
and interpretations have been reached’. The procedure for confirmability was
twofold: First, the researchers acknowledged the weaknesses of the study and
offered suggestions on how to improve the areas of weaknesses in similar future
studies. Second, like credibility criterion, multiple data collection methods and
sources were applied to ensure triangulation of the data.
 Transferability: ‘whether or not findings can be applied outside the context
of the study situation’. The context of the study has been sufficiently provided,
and the findings have been clearly described to allow for comparisons between
and among contexts.

Ethical considerations
The researcher obtained informed consent from the participants after they
were clearly told that no force would be used to make them participate in the
study. Further, the participants’ rights were not violated during the research
process. Participants’ names and identities were kept confidential through the
use of numbers. There were no harmful instruments or items used while interacting
with the research participants. Further, the research was not intended or
expected to involve risk of harm to subjects. The participants were not exposed
to any physical or psychological harm such as stress, discomfort, or
embarrassment, hence no adverse effects. Consent was sought from the Heads
of the sampled schools, and the participants themselves. The researcher also
asked for consent from subject teachers after taking steps to ensure that they had
complete understanding of the procedures to be used, as well as demands
placed on them.
Data analysis
The analysis of data was done thematically leading to the emerged themes
as presented in the findings section. Since the study was qualitative in nature,
data coding and categorisation were used to get meaningful units of analysis
through the use of words, phrases and sentences. The aforementioned enabled
the researchers obtain the exact picture of learner diversity in the inclusive
classrooms.

FINDINGS
Gender conversational dominance was analysed in secondary schools
with a special interest in Kiswahili and English languages, and students in special
needs. The goal was to arrive at a detailed description and understanding of
gender dominance in the use of the two languages in teaching and learning for
the named students and what implication does it have for inclusive education
best practices among teachers, other education stakeholders and the general
community. In this section, the findings are presented according to the research
objectives.
Seating arrangements
 The study sought to find out the classroom seating arrangements in order
to determine whether they meant to address and respond to learner diversity in
the teaching and learning processes with respect to disability and gender.
Through classroom observation, it was found that teachers took into consideration
students’ disabilities and arranged their seats according to their visual acuity.
Those with albinism as well as partial sightedness were required to sit in the front
row for them to easily see what is written on the chalkboard. Further, students with
hearing impairment had to seat where they could easily see their teachers to
facilitate total communication which included both lip-reading and the use of
sign language. It was also noted that there were classrooms with students who
knew sign language, and thus assisted their fellow students with sign language
translation. As for the gender aspect, the classrooms were not separated
according to sex. However, there was some kind of positive segregation in seating
arrangements. There were separate rows for boys and girls. There were no reasons
given for this kind of seating arrangement. The arrangement, however, is
considered too traditional such that subtler forms of gendered stereotypes and
socialization are likely to be perpetuated in the classrooms, especially when
teachers do not make deliberate efforts to positively engage girls in classroom
interactions (Mlama et al., 2005). Teachers need to use instructional strategies and
employ classroom arrangement styles which provide equal opportunity in
classroom participation during the teaching and learning processes.
The frequency of teachers’ asking questions to male and female learners with
/without hearing impairment and/or albinism in English and Kiswahili language
classes
Generally, there was no indication of gender preference in asking questions
to students. Students were picked to ask or respond to questions according to
their frequency in raising up their hands. However, when students in focus group
discussions were asked to explain the extent to which teachers asked questions
to male and female students, participants with hearing impairments from School
B said that teachers who lacked sign language knowledge did not ask questions
to students with hearing impairments because of communication breakdown.
The explanations were qualified by some students who contended that they did
not have qualified teachers to consult in the classroom. In terms of lip-reading,
the students reported that it was difficult for them to lip-read their teachers in the
classroom, especially when they were asked questions, since the teachers speak
very fast in classrooms and at times do not face students with hearing
impairments. The following is a quotation from one of the student respondents in
the research.
 Teachers in Kiswahili do not know sign language. There is one teacher in
English who is at least knowledgeable of sign language. However, he struggles
hard while teaching. Further, some teachers do not attend classes while others
sometimes forget about us.

Another statement to qualify the response was as follows:

Students do not understand the English language subject because they are
not taught by qualified teachers. There is also shortage of specialized teachers in
sign language. The shortage has led to lack of expertise assistance offered to
students with disabilities in all classrooms during the teaching and learning
process.

Definitely, the aforementioned problems affect the teaching and learning

of students with hearing impairments as well as their participation in the classroom.

Results from FGDs with Form Three learners indicated the presence of
teacher-student interactions problems in teaching and learning, especially in
asking questions. It was reported that the teachers did not have skills in sign
language. It was also obvious that there was lack of cooperation between
learners with hearing impairment and those without disability, possibly because of
lack of knowledge in sign language. Knowledge of sign language among learners
was said to be better for those who got their primary education in English Medium
Primary Schools than those who got their education in public secondary schools.
From classroom observations, it was observed that girls were more daring in asking
questions. One of the participants in form Three D said the following in one of the
FGDs:
The girls are daring in asking questions. Many girls ask questions. It may be
due to the fact that all students except one of the boys are deaf. Further, a big
percent of learners are girls. However, during English and Kiswahili language
lessons, when the teacher asks a question and points to learners, some of them
do not respond because they do not understand the language. Likewise, their
teachers do not know sign language. Consequently, teachers write on the chalk
board for learners to copy. In fact, he /she can just leave the classroom after
writing the notes on the board. All in all, girls try a lot.
Another issue raised was shortage of special teaching and learning
materials. Information from teachers showed that shortage or lack of special
equipment affects the learning of students with hearing impairments. The
participants argued that the availability of hearing aids for example would make
both boys and girls learn well. The following sentence was given during a focus
group discussion: “Both boys and girls with hearing impairment struggle hard to
ask questions and learn equally regardless of their gender, as long as they use
hearing aids’’

During focus group discussions at School B, responses from teachers

glaringly showed that more male than female learners ask and respond to
teachers’ questions. One male teacher said, “Boys ask more questions than girls.
It is not that they are cleverer than the latter. No, girls just fear asking questions.’’
Another teacher said the following:

It is the boys who ask more questions. Girls are afraid of being laughed at,
especially when they happen to use broken English. Also girls lack the confidence
of standing up in front of the class to answer questions. They simply do not have
confidence. Generally boys dominate in asking and responding to teachers’
questions because they are brave and girls are fearful.

Gender dominance among learners with albinism and hearing impairment in

responding to teachers’ questions posed in English and Kiswahili language classes
Another objective of the research was to analyze gender dominance
among learners with albinism in responding to teachers’ questions posed in English
and Kiswahili language classes whose findings are presented here. At School A,
the results from FGDs showed that girls were leading in responding to questions
asked in both Kiswahili and English languages as well as in literature. When asked
to state why girls were good at languages, one male participant, while laughing,
said, “It is because languages are simple. Boys are good at structure and
understand it well. Boys in Form Three preferred science to arts subjects’’. This
teacher is gender biased because he thinks that the reason why girls do well in
languages is due to the fact they are simple.
At School B, results showed that all students participated in responding and
answering questions. However, despite the fact that they were given hearing aids,
the latter were not working well. In terms of comprehension, summary, debates
and structure, both boys and girls did well and got support from their subject
teachers.
All in all, several issues were raised in FGDs with Form Three D students. The
students said that those with hearing impairments were not well assisted by both
teachers and students which made them fail in their examinations. At the same
time, the participants said that teachers teach without writing on the chalk
boards. Only those who studied in English medium schools perform well. Girls were
reported to perform even better in English because most of them came from
English medium schools. They also performed better in Kiswahili.
 Further to that, the researchers wished to know the performance of students
in special needs from the teacher in charge of academics at School A. The latter
said the students were performing well. On the other hand, when asked about
the reasons of low performance in the two languages by some students,
especially those with hearing impairments, one student said:
There are very few sign language teachers. Those without knowledge in
sign language fail to translate some words. Sign language teachers do a good
job. They teach well. The rest who do not have sign language education ignore
us. They neither teach nor care about us. They do not use sign language.
Conversational dominance in language comprehension

When teachers in School B were asked to state the position of

conversational dominance in language comprehension, they stated that girls
dominate more than boys in responding to comprehension questions because
most girls know how to express themselves. The reason given was that girls like
languages.
However, when the participants were asked to say who were more
dominant in both Kiswahili and English Literature classes, the response was that
there was no difference between boys and girls. They gave a reason that it may
be due to the fact that languages are easy. This argument does not hold water
since there could be a position whereby one gender would outperform the other
that is, boys could also outshine girls in subjects considered to be easy and vice
versa.

In terms of structure and composition, boys were said to be better than girls
in structure while girls were said to be good in composition as well as in written
tasks. Following is what one of the teachers said:

Both boys and girls are good in Kiswahili and English. People consider
languages to be easy. Why boys are good in language structure and not in
summary is unknown. On the whole, girls are very good in writing. Not only that
but also boys are very careful and kin to learn. They are cooperative and are not
fearful to one another.

The results are a bit different from the report on Boys’ Reading Commission
(2012) which indicated that girls engaged more in reading and outperformed
boys in reading tests.

At School A, the results were different to a certain extent. Initially, discussions

with participants in focus groups indicated no big difference in the extent of
asking questions between boys and girls. However, as time went on in the
discussions, it was clear that boys dominated in asking questions to teachers.
When asked to state clearly who ask more questions in both Kiswahili and English
classes, the participants said that boys asked more questions than girls. The
following statements support the case:

Generally, boys dominate in asking questions in the classrooms. Girls are

afraid of being laughed at if at all they happen to be using broken English. Girls
do not have confidence to stand up and answer questions.

Surprisingly, one teacher in the same school did not find any difference in
terms of dominance in language use and said as follows:
I do not find a line of demarcation. There are female learners with HI who
dominate in conversation and in other classes it is boys. So, I cannot say exactly
who does it. In some classes it is the males while in others it is the females.

Another teacher said, “I do not get a line of demarcation. In some classes

it is the males. In others it is the females. I have a class where a girl with hearing
impairment performs well ….”
Challenges in handling students with hearing impairment and those with albinism
in inclusive classrooms

The research also looked into challenges facing students with hearing
impairments and those with albinism. Responses from research participants in
both schools showed lack of cooperation between disabled students and their
nondisabled colleagues in classrooms for students with hearing impairments. Lack
of cooperation was also evident between specialised and non-specialised
teachers. The problems resulted from inability to use sign language among
teachers and students.
Challenges in handling students with hearing impairment

When the Headmaster in the school for students with Hearing Impairments was
asked to indicate how teachers handle or assist learners with hearing impairment
in classroom interactions several responses were given, especially on whether or
not learners with disability were being asked questions by their teachers, or
whether or not the learners were interactive and cooperative. He said that both
male and female learners with and without disability did not fear each other. With
respect to students’ participation and involvement in the teaching and learning
processes, the Headmaster was of the view that teachers on the whole use
student-centred methods of teaching as he put it that, “We try to reflect
constructivism and the student is at the centre of learning and expect to involve
students in experiments and presentations”.
 In the process of the discussion, contrary to the Headmaster’s views, one of
the teachers said that it is difficult to tell which approach or teaching method
works well in enabling learners to be actively responding in class. The teacher said,
It is difficult. We have mainstreamed classrooms. There are teachers who
have not specialised in special needs education and cannot interact well with
the learners. This is really an impediment. The students are not getting what they
are required to get like other learners. We need to have in-service training.

Another teacher said,

There are many factors affecting the teaching of learners. Communication
barrier is rampant because some language teachers are not well trained. In fact
there are very few teachers with specialised training for teaching students in
special needs. This school is for learners with hearing impairment. However, the
teachers do not have training. The setting is not even appropriate for the learners.
We do not have teaching and learning materials.
Further, in the same vein, the Headmaster had the following concerns:
Teachers relax a lot despite the fact that they lack the skills to enable them
interact with students with hearing impairments. So they are not proactive in
assisting students. They leave them alone. The students are not getting what they
are supposed to get. This is because of communication barrier. There are very few
trained teachers to handle the students. Not only that there is lack of teaching
and learning materials. For example, we do not have Power Point presentations.
At School A, the participants complained that the Syllabi are very long
making it difficult for the teachers to complete subject syllabi. One teacher from
School A reiterated the following: “There are nine topics in the English syllabus, so
time is too short. The exams are composed from the first to the last topic...”

From the findings, it is clear that teachers have challenges in teaching

students with hearing impairments and that students with the disability are facing
problems in their learning since the teachers are not proactive in teaching them.
On the side of students from School B, communication barrier was said to be the
main challenge. Those with hearing impairment do not interact well with their
fellow students and teachers because the latter do not understand sign
language. They also mentioned that lack of reaching and learning materials to
be among the hindrances.

Challenges in handling students with hearing albinism

The following were concerns with regards to problems facing learners with
albinism: “The learners have problems with lighting and that classroom windows
do not have curtains so the light affects learners with albinism. For learners with
albinism, lighting is a problem and they cannot learn well”.

Another finding was stigma in the classroom. Unfortunately, all students with
disability, majority being those with albinism, were at one time placed in one
classroom and that teachers teaching the students in the classroom were
stigmatizing and labelling them. Fortunately, the students were distributed to other
classrooms.

One teacher complained about the challenges of inclusion and said as

follows:
These students have to fit in the social system. I like inclusion but what
preparations are there for inclusive education in terms of infrastructure, teaching
and learning materials. We have to get prepared for that. The policy is there but
not well implemented.
DISCUSSIONS
Data on student diversity in inclusive classrooms were analysed focusing on
three learner diversity nexuses: language of instruction, gender and disability
issues. The findings have clearly indicated the complexity of teaching in
classrooms having students with varied educational needs and backgrounds
which requires a great deal of teachers’ attention in the teaching and learning
processes. The findings have indicated that some teachers were speaking very
fast while teaching in such classrooms as opposed to slowing down their pace of
teaching in order to allow for lip-reading by the students with hearing impairment.
The findings are similar to those by Safder, Akhtar, Ghulam and Misbah (2012) who
found out that, teachers did not make sure that students understood what was
being instructed in the classroom.

The study has also revealed that, the classroom interaction between
students with hearing impairments and those without hearing disability and
teachers was hindered by lack of knowledge in sign language. It has also been
found that, more girls than boys in one of streams were dominating classroom
conversations as reflected in asking more questions, because in this classroom girls
outnumbered boys. These findings match with what was reported by Zhang
(2010) who investigated on differences in the classroom participation for girls and
boys, in terms of amount of talk and styles of talk. On the contrary, Shomoossi,
Amouzadeh and Ketabi (2008) in their study found male dominance despite the
fact that female students outnumbered their male counterparts. This was partly
because of teachers’ controlling the patterns of student behaviours during their
teaching. The differences in the findings imply having a big number of students of
a particular disability may not be necessarily the sole determining factor of
gender conversation dominance in the classrooms. Instead, it signifies teachers’
lack of gender responsive pedagogy practices, whereby teachers do not pay
attention to the specific learning needs of girls and boys (Mlama et al., 2005).
Training teachers in this area is therefore critical to achieving equal learning
opportunity for girls and boys.
In analysing gender dominance among learners with albinism and those
with hearing impairments in responding to teachers’ questions posed in English
and Kiswahili languages classes, the findings have indicated that, girls took the
lead in responding to teachers in both cases at one of the two schools. On the
other hand, there were no differences in response between girls and boys in the
other school.
In terms of academic performance of students in special needs, it has been
indicated that, a good number of these students were doing well in their studies
despite the challenges they encountered in their learning such as lack of teachers
specialized in sign language for students with hearing impairments. This finding is
similar to what Alahmadi (2001) discovered. The author recommended that it is
necessary to consider the facilities and services available in schools and
universities which need to be adapted to the needs of special needs students.
The design of classrooms requires special considerations to adjust students with
disabilities.
Language of instruction has been markedly observed to be an issue in the
teaching and learning at secondary school levels; where students are seriously
challenged in their learning. While students with good background in English
language (those from English medium primary schools) were less affected by
language barrier in the teaching and learning processes, those who did not get
their primary education in English language faced difficulties interacting and
participating in the classroom teaching and learning processes conducted in
English language, the current language of instruction at this level of education in
the country. The findings concur with what was revealed by Qorro (1999), Vuzo
(2010) and Godfrey (2014) calling for the need to address the problem. Could
Tibategeza’s (2010) proposal for 50-50 bilingual education be a promising solution
to the issue of the language of instruction in the country?

Indeed, in inclusive education best practice perspective, the findings

inform about the increased learner diversity in the classrooms signified by different
language backgrounds of learners with respect to the language of instruction. It
is therefore important for teachers to consider this variable as they teach at
secondary school level so that justice is done to all students. In this way, the
inclusion of students in regular schools is deemed to succeed.

In regard to the challenges facing teachers in handling students with

hearing impairment and those with albinism, the findings have vividly indicated
teachers’ incompetence in dealing with the students of the said exceptionalities
coupled with a lack of the necessary teaching and learning materials in order to
facilitate learning for students in special needs. The findings support what was
raised by Booth, ElliottJohns and Bruce (n.d.), who are questioning the training of
teachers as well as effective instructional frameworks, and teaching/learning
strategies which might appropriate for teaching inclusive classrooms. Some
teachers complained about some of the subject syllabi being too long to be
covered adequately within the specified time.
Existence of some forms of stigma has also been pronounced as a problem
facing students in special needs particularly those with albinism in the results of
the present research. This is evident when all the students with disabilities with the
majority being those with albinism were placed in one classroom. It is clear from
the findings that changes have to be made in terms of teacher training,
availability and use of exchange and learning environments.
LIMITATIONS
Some teachers who participated in the study disallowed the researchers to
sit behind their classes for data collection. This situation marred the data
collection from classroom interactions. To circumvent the situation, the
researchers used triangulation of three data collection techniques namely; open
ended questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and focus group discussions.
Another hindrance was that in Tanzania there is no secondary school specifically
designated for inclusive education serving learners with hearing impairment and
visual impairment. The researcher used schools for students with hearing
impairment and albinism. The study was limited to only two secondary schools;
there is a need for another study comprising of a relatively bigger sample to be
done on the topic.

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The paper has presented findings on a research that was carried out to
unpack learner diversity issues in two inclusive secondary schools from Dar es
Salaam region. It looked into classroom interactions among learners with hearing
impairment and albinism with the purpose of analyzing gender conversional
dominance in Kiswahili and English language classes. The findings have shown
that background differences in terms of the LoI perpetuate exclusionary practices
to some learners through classroom instructions. Additionally, some shortcomings
in the use of sign language by teachers and students, availability and use of
special equipment for student with hearing impairment, stigmatisation and poor
teacher-student interactions, as well as lack of training on how to handle students
with hearing impairments and those with albinism have been evident. Consistent
with the findings, the following recommendations are offered for action, policy
issues and further research.

1. Teachers should consider background differences in language among

learners as an issue that needs to be appreciated in order accommodate all
learners in their classrooms especially when they start teaching new students who
join secondary education.
2. The government should train and employ sign language teachers. All
teachers already in inclusive schools with students with hearing impairments
should learn sign language. This implies that all teacher trainees should be trained
on how to handle students with special needs in their courses; it should be a
requirement for all trainees aspiring to teach in inclusive schools making it possible
for teachers to accommodate all learners.

3. Teachers should get in-service training so that they can be able to

recognize and handle learners with disability in their classrooms.
5. The teaching and learning equipment for students with hearing
impairment should be purchased and used by teachers and students. 6. This study
should be replicated in other regions using a bigger sample schools with different
types of disability.4. Learners with and without disability should be encouraged to
work together, taking into account that Tanzania cherishes inclusion.
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Lips, H. M. (2005). A new psychology of women: gender, culture, and ethnicity.

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What is your favorite theory of development? How can this
guide you as a future teacher?
One of the developmental theories I encountered and I
considered as my favorite among other developmental
theories is Erikson’s Psychosocial Developmental Theory. This
theory explains about the stages a human undergoes. Erikson
provided a frameworks which shows the organization of
eight (8) stages of life which are: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy
vs. Shame and Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority,
Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generavity
vs. Stagnation, and Integrity vs. Despair.
This theory will be able to guide me as a future teacher
by understanding key kep concept of this theory allows me
to realize how important the social interaction and
experience to a human. Experiences and interactions which
will contribute to human growth and success. As a future
teacher, I will make sure that my students will understand all
the eight stages of life. This theory might help my future
learners to give importance to their environment, people
they meet, and their emotions.
 This chapter will allow us to take a glimpse of my cooperating
teacher, namely ma’am Celevic C. Cornito. She spent the 27 years
of her life teaching and inspiring children. She is a grade 1 teacher
who garnered respect from her pupils, parents, and her
colleagues.
Ma’am Celevic Cornito has received a lot of awards because
of her teaching strategies and techniques. She mentioned that she
was awarded as ond of the most performing teachers in their
district.
Based on my observation on her, I can attest that she is
indeed a good teacher. Her colleagues love her very much
because of her generosity, honesty, and commitment to her work.
As her student-teacher assistant, I have learned a lot from her even
only in a short span of time we spent together. She always offers
everything to God. She is really a kind person who never expects
anything in return. She always gives more.
So, as we go along in this chapter, we will be able to know
about ma’am Cornito’s personal qualities.
 Observe/interview your cooperating teacher
Complete the matrix
Personal Qualities Observe or Interview Data Results
I have found out that….
a. Dignified Observed My cooperating teacher
values respect from
others by showing a
composed manner. Also,
I observed that she is
considered as one of the
most imminent teachers
in FCES because of how
she treats her
colleagues, students,
and even the parents of
her pupils.
b. Healthy Interviewed My CT always brings
healthy meals. She
mentioned about her
husband who was
diagnosed with
diabetes. With that, she
always makes sure that
the food she prepares for
her family is healthy and
safe. Also, I found out
that my CT always makes
sure that she will stay
healthy and fit by always
taking vitamins and
spends time for exercise.
c. Spiritual Interviewed My CT have a well-
grounded faith. She and
her family spends most of
their time serving in their
church. She even do
some small talks and
sharing in their church.
Also, every time she gives
me advices, she never
forgets to include God
 with it. Every time her
colleagues shares about
their achievements and
downfalls, she always
mentions “praise God”
“thank God” “maayo
kaayo ang Gino”
“communicate lang sa
Ginoo” “isalig lang tanan
sa Ginoo.” She always
reminds me that I should
never forget God when I
achieve something and
especially when I’m
troubled because He is
always in our side.
d. Knowledgeable Observed She has been
awarded/recognized as
one of the outstanding
teachers in their district
because of her initiative,
knowledge. She said that
learning never stops and
I should always study well
and I should never forget
to share my knowledge
with others.
e. Humble Observed My cooperating teacher
is very down-to-earth.
She said that everything
she achieved and the
blessings her family
received were all Gods
favor.
f. determined Observed Every time my
cooperating teacher
wants to achieve
something she always do
it with her full capacity. I
observed that she is
determined to help her
students and even their
parents. Most of her
 students are
unmotivated to learn. In
order to encourage
them she freely
offers/gives food or
educational materials to
keep them motivated.
g. cooperative Observed My cooperating teacher
gives importance to any
collaborative
engagement. She
mentioned that having a
firm relationship and
connection with others
enable us to achieve
goals easier.
 Watch the movie: The Ron Clark Story - YouTube

Reflection on Ron Clark Story

Ron Clark is the only child of Mr. and Mrs. Clark. He is well-cared and
loved. At his age, he still lives together with parents. Ron Clark is an
elementary school teacher. He loves children very much. Because of his
passion in his work, he literally describe his work as his vocation because he
believes that he was put in this world to to teach and to help those who are
in need.
He was awarded multiple numbers of titles and awards because of his
performance. Even the class he handles always ranks on top. But one day,
he got tired of praises, titles, and everything. He wanted to take another risk,
away from his parents. He resigned from the school he currently work in. The
president of the school and the children were all saddened by his leaving.
Ron Clark went to place far away from his parents and fame. He
applied in many schools yet they didn’t accept him. Until one day he
applied in a school which considered “hell” as others say because of the
children studying in there. Clark got tired of teaching children who always
rank top. He wanted something new. So, after he got accepted, he insisted
to teach the section who always got the lower scores in test. His patience
was tested. He thought of quitting yet his friend reminded him that those
children needed him. He sacrificed. He even got sick. After how many trials,
his students are starting to love him. They felt being cared and loved. Many
cried when he got sick.
Ron Clark is indeed an inspiration to all teachers around the world. He
showed that every learner has its own time and way of learning by also
providing proper and appropriate support, attention, and intervention. That
teaching is not just about teaching what’s in the curriculum but it is more on
helping the learners see their worth, make them grow, and change for the
betterment of themselves.
Research about Metrobank Outstanding Filipino Teachers.
Choose 5 from these outstanding
Filipino Teachers and describe each
of them.

1. Lou Sabrina Ongkiko- Lou Sabrina

Ongkiko is already teaching at Culiat
Elementary School Question City for 12-
year. She was hailed as one of the most
outstanding Filipino teachers by
Metrobank. She was known for
overseeing the school’s learning
continuity program for distance
learning; strengthening science, technology,
engineering and mathematics education; and
boosting students’ support environment. She is
considered as a transformative, innovative,
adaptable, and a game-changer teacher.

2. Jason Albaro- is currently a teacher III at

Muntinlupa National High School. Just like miss
Ongkiko, Mr. Albaro was also awardead as one
of the most outstanding teachers by Metrobank.
He was known as Muntinlupa City’s Global
Science Educator, serves as the Program Director
of the “I DID IT! (Invention Driven Instructional
Design and Innovation Transfer)” program, which adopts invention
education that balances formal instruction with progressive learning
experiences for learners. He is considered as innovative, responds to
learners need, and adaptable.

Research about Metrobank Outstanding Filipino

Teachers. Choose 5 from these outstanding Filipino Teachers
and describe each of them

3. Prof. Carla B. Dimalanta, D. Sc-Prof.

Dimalanta Professor 10 at the National
Institute of Geological Sciences, is one of the
10 recipients of this year’s Metrobank
Foundation Outstanding Filipinos Award. She
was considered thhe country’s only female
Exploration Geophysicist with a Doctoral
Degree, “Dimalanta’s 25-year service delves
in researches that provide answers to
geoscientific problems in the Philippines, such
as assessment of landslide hazards,
investigating gold mineralization and
identifying sources of groundwater for coastal communities.”
 4. Caesar A. Saloma, PhD- Dr. Saloma is a
professor 12 at the NIP. He wass recognized
for his outstanding researches and
accomplishments in the field of
instrumentation physics that have resulted in
the development of new techniques and
methods of measuring physical signals,
signal sampling and reconstruction. In his
administration, he provided a fostering and
empowering environment.

Research about Metrobank Outstanding Filipino

Teachers. Choose 5 from these outstanding Filipino Teachers
and describe each of them
5. Dr. Ernelea P. Cao- Dr. Cao isa a
professor 12 at the IB, She is also the
interim director of the Institute for Health
Innovation and Translational Medicine,
Philippine-California Advanced
Research Institutes. She also served as
deputy executive director of the
Philippine Genome Center from May
2011 to July 2014, and as director of the
UP Natural Sciences Research Institute
from April 200 until March 2012.
Future Educators’ Vision Board
Making
 Poem/Rap/ Song Writing about a Glocal Teacher of the 21st
Century

Mga Guro sa Makabagong Panahon

Nakaharap sa isang hugis parihaba na kahoy

Kulay berde at may tatlong matutuwid at mahahabang linya
Hawak ang tisa sa kanan, at pambura naman sa kaliwa
Ang kamay, mukha, at maging ang maninipis na hibla ng buhok ay
Punong puno ng makukulay na alikabok galing sa hinahawakan na pangsulat

“Magandang umaga sa lahat”

“Kayo’y umupo ng matuwid”
“Humarap sa pisara” at;
“Makinig ng mabuti”
Ito lamang ang iilan sa mga pariralang araw-araw kong naririnig
Na para bang mga linya ng paborito kong awitin.

Tutuk na tutok ang mga inosenteng mata sa mga nakasulat sa pisara

Pinilit na itagilid ang tenga upang marinig ng maayos ang boses na
nagmumula sa harapan
Na seryosong nakakatutok sa aklat at pangsulat na hinahawakan
Binuklat ang aklat sa pahinang binanggit
At sabay2x na binasa ang mga salitang nakasulat at pilit inuunawa ang mga
larawang nakaguhit

Lahat ay kontrolado. Lahat ay may limitasyon.

Ngunit, ang lahat nang iyon ay nanatili sa ating nakaraan.

Nakaraang naging gabay, basehan, at inspirasyon ng karamihan
Lalo na ng mga guro na tinaguriang pangalawang magulang ng mga
kabataan
Ngunit, paano tayo sasabay sa mga napapanahong pagbabago
Kung ang ating mga gawi at paniniwala ay naiwan sa nakalipas at nagdaang
mga siglo?

Sa pagpasok ng Ika-apat na Rebolusyong Industriyal

Maraming pagbabago ang inaasahan ng karamihan
Estilo ng pagtuturo, kagamitan sa pagtuturo
At pati na rin ang dapat taglaying kakayahan ng mga guro

Noong mga nakalipas na panahon

 Ang hawak ay tisa, pambura, at mga aklat
Ngayon ay kompyuter, cellphone, at remote ng telebisyon
Kung dati ay sa libro lang binabase ang mga kaalaman
Ngayon naging malaking tulong ang presensya ng internet connection

Kung dati ay mano2x ang pagtuturo

Ngayon isang pindot mo lang, pwede ka nang matuto
Google, youtube, facebook, Instagram, twitter
Iilan lamang sa mga pinagkukunan ng mga impormasyon sa mundong
ginagalawan natin-
Mundo ng teknolohiya ika nga nila

Kung dati ang mga guro ang siyang nangangalap, nanguguna, nagbibigay
Ng mga impormasyon
Ngayon, ay hindi na
Ang guro ay nagisilbing tagagabay lamang
Mag-aaral na ang may hawak ng kanilang sariling kaalaman
Mas napapadali ang siyensya sa tulong ng teknolohiya
Mga kasanayan sa kritikal na pag-iisip at paglutas ng problema
Ang iilan lamang sa ninanais ng mga guro na matututunana ng mga mag aaral
nila
Kung kaya’t ang dating hanggang libro lang na mga gawain,
ngayon ay pisikal nang itinuturo sa kanila
Kung dati ay hanggang basa lang ang mga bata, ngayon gamit ang mga
kamay at pag-iisip, nagagawa na nila ang dating hanggang mga salita lang

Kung dati ay ang pokus ng guro ay sa teorya, katotohanan, at mga prinsipyo

na galing sa aklat
Ngayon, sa makabagong panahon , sa mga mahahalagang karanasan
nakatuon ang lahat
Kabilang sa mga pagbabago ang mga kakayahang dapat taglayin ng mga
guro
Pagkakaroon ng malasakit, may malawak na pag-iisip, may respeto, integridad,
isang mabuting tagapagsalita, binibigyang importansya ang pananaw ng
bawat isa, at higit sa lahat dalubhasa sa teknolohiya

Dahil sa hamon ng pagbabago, maraming ikinakaharap ang mga guro

Lubos na sinasakripisyo ang oras at minsan maging ang kanilang kalusugan
Kung kaya’t lubos akong nagpapasalamat sa lahat ng mga guro sa sanlibutan
Na nagtitiyaga, naghihirap, at patuloy na lumalaban upang magampanan
ang kanilang mga tungkulin sa paaralan maging sa buhay ng mga kabataan
Kabataan na sila rin ang magsisilbing tulay ng bawat pamilyang Pilipino at ng
bansang iniingatan
 Dahil na rin sa mga pagbabago, mas lalong nahahasa ang mga guro
Sabi nga nila “hindi tumitigil ang pagkatuto, nasasaiyo na lamang ang ito kung
ayaw mo nang matuto”
Bagkus, sa kabila ng pagbabago ng mundo at mga kakayahan ng mga tao
Hindi pa rin maipagkakaila na malaki rin ang naging tulong ng mga sinaunang
mga gawi
Mas naging disiplinado, maalam, madiskarte, at matalino ang mga guro
Dahil na rin sa tulong ng teknolohiya
Mas napapadali ang kanilang mga gawain
Mas nagiging produktibo
At nadagdagan ang kanilang mga natutunan sa araw-araw na siyang
magagamit nila magpakailanman

Higit sa lahat, ang makabagong guro ay nag-iisip at kumikilos kapwa sa lokal at

buong mundo gamit ang kaniyang mga pandaidigang kaalaman.
Kaalamang ibinabahagi sa iba upang magsilbing gabay at inspirasyon sa mga
kabataan.
 This chapter contains the online teaching
demonstration documentations. Unfortunately, my
cooperating teacher had no video regarding the online
demonstration. Therefore, youtube was my only resort. I
chose 1 video and it was a video of ma’am Mary Ann in
her English lesson 2. I observed how she hadles th class
virtually. The children were all listening and behaving the
way she asked them before the formal class discussion.
Also, this chapter contains lesson plans for different
subject which I will be rating.
Moreover, this chapter offers me opportunity to learn
new strategies, techniques, and methods in online
teaching and making of lesson plan.
 Observation of Online Teaching Demonstration of Cooperating
Teachers
 Lesson Plan with ICT integration

Republic of the Philippines

MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Bachelor of Elementary Education Department

BANGHAY-ARALIN SA FILIPINO V

Ikalawang Markahan

Paaralan: Mindanao State University-General Santos City

Guro: Kate Nyssa B. Balicucos

Oras na Ilalaan: 50 Minuto

Linggo: 8
Mga Estratehiyang Ginamit:

✓ Multimedia Approach (PowerPoint and Video presentation)

✓ Iguhit Mo, Huhulaan ko!
✓ Guess and Raise the Image!
✓ Inquiry-based Approach
✓ Listening Breaks
✓ Travel History Book
✓ Differentiated Instruction
✓ Multimedia-Hyperlink
✓ Gulong ng Pangalan
✓ Image Picker Wheel
✓ Flash and Guess
Integrasyon: Values Education, MAPEH, Literacy and Numeracy

I. Layunin

A. Pamantayang Naipamamalas ang kakayahan at tatas sa

Pangnilalaman pagsasalita sa pagpapahayag ng sariling ideya,
kaisipan, karanasan at damdamin.
B. Pamantayan sa Nakagagawa ng isang travelogue o kuwento na
Pagganap maibabahagi sa iba.

C. Mga kasanayan sa Nagagamit ang pang-uri sa paglalarawan ng

Pagkatuto magagandang tanawin sa pamayanan.

F5WG-IIh-4.3

D. Mga Layunin Pagkatapos ng 50-minuto, ang mga mag-aaral ay

inaasahang:
1. Nakapaglalarawan ng magagandang tanawin sa
sariling pamayanan.
2. Natutukoy ang kahalagahan ng pang-uri na
panlarawan sa pang-araw-araw na gawain at mga
pangyayari sa paligid.
3. Nakagagawa ng sariling Digital Travel History Book.

II. Paksang Aralin Paggamit ng Pang-uri sa Paglalarawan ng

Magagandang Tanawin na Makikita sa Iyong
Pamayanan.

III. Mga Sanggunian K-12 Curriculum Guide

K-12 Learner’s Material V
Teacher’s Guide Grade V
YouTube
Google
Kagamitang Panturo: Laptop
Speaker
Mga larawan
IV. Pamamaraan

A. Panimulang Gawain Multimedia Approach (PowerPoint Prresentatiion) (5

Minuto)
▪ Panalangin
▪ Pagbati Naaalala Mo Pa Ba Ako?
▪ Pagtsek ng
Panuto: Buuin ang mga magkahalong letra.
atendans
Pagkatapos mabuo ang mga letra, basahing mabuti
▪ Balik-aral sa
ang bawat pangungusap na ipapakita at sabihin
nakaraang aralin
ang pang-uri mula sa mga nabasa. Itaas ang “raise
o pansimulang
hand” emoji kung nais sumagot.
bagong aralin
 UAGNIRP
Sagot: Pang-uri
Mga Pangungusap:

1. Si Joana ay may mahabang buhok.

2. Kulay puti ang suot na facemask ni Boyet.

3. Bumili si tatay ng tatlong dalandan.

4. Hugis puso ang ibinigay na lobo saakin ni ate.

5. Sariwa ang mga tilapya na galing sa Lake Sebu.

B. Paghahabi sa layunin Multimedia Approach (PowerPoint Presentation)

ng aralin
Paglalapag ng mga pamantayan at batas sa klase:

1. Pulutin ang mga basurang nakikita at itapon ito sa

tamang lalagyan.
2. Ayusin ang upuan at umupo ng matuwid.
3. Ipasa ang mga gawain sa itinakdang oras.
4. Ugaliing maging magaling sa bawat gawain.
5. Makilahok sa mga gawain sa klase.
6. Maging magalang, masunurin, at matapat.

Flash and Guess!

Magpakita ng mga larawang tumutukoy sa pang-uri
naglalarawan.

Inquiry-based Approach

Pagkatapos ng gawain, itanong sa mga mag-aaral

ang sumusunod:

1. Ano ang inyong naobserbahan sa mga larawan o

gawaing ating isinagawa?
2. Pamilyar ba sa inyo ang mga larawan?

3. Ano kaya ang tawag sa mga salitang may

salungguhit?
C. Pag-uugnay ng mga Multimedia -Hyperlink (5 minutes)
halimbawa sa bagong
Panuto: Panoorin ang mga bidyu na mula sa
aralin
YouTube. Ilista ang pangalan at ang mga katangian,
hugis, kulay, at iba pang maaaring ilarawan sa mga
lugar.
Unang bidyu:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6V5RoquVbWw
Pangalawang bidyu:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F_Pi1XheeRA
Sagutin ang mga katanungan:
1. Ano-ano ang mga lugar na pinakita sa dalawang
bidyu?
2. Paano mo ilalarawan ang bawat lugar na iyong
nailista?

D. Pagtatalakay ng Multimedia Approach (PowerPoint Presentation) (10

bagong konsepto at Minuto)
paglalahad ng bagong
Pagtatalakay at pagbibigay-diin sa konsepto ng
kasanayan
pang-uri na panlarawan.

Pang-uri na panlarawan
✓ Naglalarawan sa isang tao, bagay, hayop,
lugar, pangyayari at iba pa.
✓ Naglalarawan sa katangian ng pangngalan o
panghalip tulad ng hugis, kulay, amoy, sukat,
ugali, lasa, tunog, damdamin, katangian,
kayarian, at iba pa.

Halimbawa:
1. Ang mga tilapya sa Lake Sebu ay sariwa at
masarap.

2. Ang Lake Sebu ay mayroong labinsiyam na

baranggay.
 3. Napapalibutan ng mga matataas na bundok ang
Lake Holon.
4. Malawak ang taniman ng pinya sa Polomolok.

5. Kulay puti ang buhangin sa mga karagatan na

makikita sa Sarangani Province.

E. Paglilinang sa Differentiated Instruction (15 minuto)

Kabihasnan
Hahatiin ang klase sa apat na pangkat. Ang bawat
pangkat ay may kalakip na gawain na kinakailangan
nilang gawin at tapusin sa loob ng dalawanpung
minute (20 minutes).

Ang bawat grupo ay inaatasang pumili ng lider at

tagapag-ulat. Maaaring gumawa ng sariling
pangalan ang bawat pangkat. Ang bawat pangkat
ay bibigyan ng rubrik bilang basehan ng kanilang
gawain at pagmamarka na siyang ipapaliwanag din
ng guro.

Unang Pangkat: (Mga Advertiser)

Sanggunian: Google.com

1. Susulat ng tatlong linyang advertisement patungkol

sa napiling lugar mula sa magagandang pook
pasyalan o destinasyon sa South Cotabato.
2. Kinakailangang magtaglay ng mga pang-uri na
naglalarawan sa lugar na napili.
3. Bibigyan ng limang minuto ang pangkat upang
gawin ang gawaing iniatas.
4. Ang advertisement ay maaaring magtagal ng 2-3
minuto.
5. Kinakailangang ang lahat ng miyembro ay kasali.

6. Ililista ng lider ang mga pang-uring naglalarawan

na makikita sa kanilang gawain.

Rubrik sa Pagmamarka (25 Puntos)

Pamantayan 5 4 3 2 1
Kaalaman sa
paksa.
Ang lahat ng
miyembro ay
nakiisa sa
gawain.
Pagkamalikhain.
Organisasyon
ng ideya.
Kabuuang
epekto sa
manonood.
Breakout room #1: https://meet.google.com/cxe-yyii-
cvv

Ikalawang Pangkat: (Mga Tagapagtanghal)

Sanggunian: Google.com

1. Ang pangkat na ito pipili ng kanilang gagawin. Sila

ay maaaring gumawa ng tula, awitin, o rap.
2. Ang kanilang mapipiling gawain ay kinakailangan
naka pokus sa mga destininasyon sa South Cotabato.
3, Kinakailgngan na ang nilalaman ay nakapokus sa
paglalarawan ng mga lugar.
4. Kinakailangang 3-5 linya ang mabubuo ng
pangkat.
5. Bibigyan ng limang minuto ang pangkat upang
gawin ang gawaing iniatas.

6. Ililista ng lider ang mga pang-uring naglalarawan

na makikita sa kanilang gawain.

Rubrik sa Pagmamarka (25 Puntos)

Pamantayan 5 4 3 2 1
Kaalaman sa
paksa.
Ang lahat ng
miyembro ay
nakiisa sa
gawain.
Pagkamalikhain.
Organisasyon
ng ideya.
Kabuuang
epekto sa
manonood.
Breakout room #2: https://meet.google.com/zzg-
heio-qou

Ikatlong Pangkat: Mga Puzzle Masters

1. Ang pangkat na ito ay bibigyan ng crossword

puzzle.
 2. May sampung pang-uring panlarawan sa loob ng
puzzle. Ang mga nakikitang salita ay bibilugan ng
mga miyembro ng pangat.

3. Ililista ng mga lider ang mga pang-uring

naglalarawan na nakita at gagamitin nila yun sa mga
pangungusap.

4. Ang mga pang-uri na panlarawan ay kailangang

gamitin upang mailarawan ang magagandang
tanawin na makikita sa kanilang pamayanan.
4. Bibigyan ng limang minuto ang pangkat upang
gawin ang gawaing iniatas.
Rubrik sa Pagmamarka (25 Puntos)

Pamantayan
Kaangkupan ng
ideya sa
paksang
ibinigay. (10
Puntos)

Ang lahat ng
miyembro ay
nakiisa sa
gawain. (10
Puntos)
Natapos sa
takdang oras. (5
puntos)

Breakout room #3: https://meet.google.com/yta-

vnsv-ypb

F. Paglalapat ng aralin Gulong ng Pangalan

sa pang araw-araw na
buhay
 https://wheelofnames.com/
Gamit ang “wheel of names”-isang online tool para
sa patas na pagpili ng pangalan, papaikutin ng guro
ang gulong. Kung sinong pangalan ang siyang
natuunan ng puntero ay siyang sasagot sa mga
katanungan na ibibigay ng guro.
Panuto: Pipili ng numero mula 1 hanggang 5 ang
mag-aaral na napili. Ang numerong napili ng mag-
aaral ay may kaakibat na larawan ng lugar na
kaniyang bibigyan ng paglalarawan gamit ang
“image picker wheel”

https://pickerwheel.com/tools/random-image-
generator/

G. Paglalahat ng Aralin Listening Breaks (Question and Answer) (5 minuto)

1. Batay sa napag-usapan natin, para sa’yo ano ang
pang-uri na panlarawan? Magbigay ng isang
halimbawa.
2. Paano mo nabibigyan ng halaga ang paggamit
ng pang-uring panlarawan?
 Paglalagom

Ito ay naglalarawan sa katangian ng pangngalan o

panghalip tulad ng hugis, kulay, amoy, sukat, ugali,
lasa, tunog, damdamin, katangian, kayarian, at iba
pa.

Halimbawa: Hugis tatsulok ang mga bulubunduking

nakapalibot sa Lake Holon.

Sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng mga salitang

naglalarawan sa aking pamayanan sa pang araw-
araw na pamumuhay. Mas madaling matukoy o
makilala ang isang lugar sa pamamagitan ng
paggamit ng mga pang-uri na panlarawan.

H. Pagtataya ng Aralin Pagtataya

Matamis Malalaki

Tatsulok Makukulay
Malulusog

Panuto: Kumuha ng isang pirasong papel. Piliin sa

kahon ang angkop na pang-uring naglalarawan.
Isulat ang sagot bago ang numero.
__________1. Masyadong_____ ang manggang nabili
ni nanay sa Tupi.

__________2. Hugis________ang mga bundok sa South

Cotabato.
___________3. Ang Lake Sebu ay kilala sa _______ na
tilapya.
___________4. _______ ang mga tuna sa Gensan.
 ___________5. ________ ang mga bulaklak na makikita
sa Tupi.

I. Karagdagang Gawain Travel History Book

Para sa Takdang Aralin

Mag-iisip ang mag-aaral ng kaniyang paboritong

napuntahan na destinasyon sa kanilang lugar o
saang mang lugar sa South Cotabato. Gagawan
niya ito ng isang aklat na naglalaman ng mga
larawan ng lugar. Ilalarawan ng mag-aaral ang lugar
gamit ang mga pang-uri na nagalalarawan.
Maaaring kumuha ng mga litrato sa internet.

Ibabahagi ang gawain sa klase sa susunod na

pagkikita.

Inihanda ni:

Bb. Kate Nyssa B. Balicucos

Mag-aaral

Ipinasa kay:

Bb. Honey Jane Diamante

Guro
Documentation Online Teaching Demonstration
 In this chapter, I have observed that children are very much interested
in activities with ICT integration. They feel amazed about it. They enjoy every
single part of the lesson.
But there also disadvantages. Some children are not able to join the
flow of the class because of their internet connection. Parents are beside
them, scolding them if they answered the question wrongly. They easily get
distracted by things around them. However, there are still good sides of
online learning. They can review the lesson if they will miss it.
But for me, it is better if there is a face-to-face learning. In that way,
learners will be guided appropriately. They will not think about the
environment, the noise, and even their parents scolding them. Still, it is better
if classes are being integrated with technology. Because technology makes
the learning more fun, engaging, and productive.
 In this chapter, we will discover about classroom rules and routines
before and during the pandemic. This will give us idea how teachers handle
the teaching-learning process.
Several samples of lesson plans will also be presented. With this we can
compare how lesson plans differ from each other.
Moreover, techniques, methods, varied activities, and learning styles
will also be observed in this chapter.
 Classroom Routines Practiced Not Practiced
1. Movement into classroom.
2. Transition in classroom activities.
3. Movement out of the classroom.

Classroom Rules
Before Pandemic

• Red Flag rule: When the flag is being raised, it means silence.
• Value time. Come to school on time.
• Always wear appropriate and comfortable clothing.
• Behave and be well prepared always.
• Refrain writing on the walls and desk
• Maintain cleanliness inside and outside the classroom.
• Be polite when asking favors from others.
• Be honest.
• Respect your teachers, classmates, and other people.
• Take good care of your books, desks, and other school materials and
facilities.
• Avoid talking when class time.
• Raise your hand without causing any noise when you wanted to clarify or
ask something.
• Always pray. Never forget to seek for God’s guidance and enlightenment.
During Pandemic

Modular House Rules During Pandemic

• Find a quiet and comfortable place to study.
• Turn off your microphone when someone is speaking or when it is not your
turn yet to speak.
• Turn on your camera when being asked.
• Inform your teacher ahead of time when you are experiencing
connectivity issues.
• Check your internet connection and your devices before the start of the
online class.
• Be prompt. Be in your online class 10-15 minutes before the class begins.
• Dress appropriately.
• Pay attention while your teacher or classmate is speaking.
• Participate actively.
• Eat healthy food.
• Take your vitamins regularly.
• Exercise regularly.
• Wash your hands with soap before and after eating or touching
something.
• Wear your mask every time you go out.
• Normalize sanitizing your hands using alcohol.
• Avoid crowded places.
 In this chapter, I have observed that children are very much interested
in activities with ICT integration. They feel amazed about it. They enjoy every
single part of the lesson.
But there also disadvantages. Some children are not able to join the
flow of the class because of their internet connection. Parents are beside
them, scolding them if they answered the question wrongly. They easily get
distracted by things around them. However, there are still good sides of
online learning. They can review the lesson if they will miss it.
But for me, it is better if there is a face-to-face learning. In that way,
learners will be guided appropriately. They will not think about the
environment, the noise, and even their parents scolding them. Still, it is better
if classes are being integrated with technology. Because technology makes
the learning more fun, engaging, and productive.
 In this chapter, we will discover about several samples of lesson plans
will also be presented. With this we can compare how lesson plans differ
from each other.
Moreover, techniques, methods, varied activities, and learning styles
will also be observed in this chapter which can be useful in teaching and
doing my future lesson plans.
 GRADE 1 Grade
DAILY School: Level: I
LESSON LOG Learning
Teacher: Area: EsP

Quarter: 1st QUARTER

I. Layunin 1. Naisasagawa nang may katapatan ang mga kilos

na nagpapakita ng disiplina sa sarili sa iba’t-ibang
sitwasyon.
2. Nagmamano o humahalik bilang pagbati

A. Pamantayang Naipamamalas ang o pag-unawa sa kahalagahan

Pangnilalaman ng wastong pakikitungo sa ibang kasapi ng pamilya
at kapuwa tulad ng pagkilos at pagsasalita ng may
paggalang at pagsasabi ng katotohanan para sa
kabutihan ng nakararami.

B. Pamantayan sa Naisasabuhay ang wastong pakikitungo sa ibang

Pagganap kasapi ng pamilya at kapuwa sa lahat ng
pagkakataon.

C. Mga kasanayan sa Nakapagpapakita ng pagmamahal at paggalang

Pagkatuto: Isulat ang sa mga magulang
code ng bawat
EsP1P-IIa-b-1
kasanayan

II. Nilalaman Katangian ng Pamilya

Malaki at Maliit na Pamilya

Kagamitang Panturo Larawan ng maliit at malaking mag-anak

A. Sanggunian Gabay ng kurikulum ng k-12 pah.10

1. Mga pahina sa T.G pah.

Gabay ng Guro
2. Mga pahina sa
Kagamitang Pang-Mag-
aaral
3. Mga pahina sa
Teksbuk

4. Karagdagang
Kagamitan mula sa
portal ng Learning
Code.

B. Iba pang Kagamitang

Panturo

III. Pamamaraan

A. Balik-aral sa Ipabasa ang Tandaan:

nakaraang aralin at/o
Ang tao ay may kakayahang magbasa at magsulat.
pagsisimula ng bagong
Ang pagbabasa at pagsusulat ay mga paraan
aralin
upang mragdagan ang kaalaman.

B. Paghahabi sa layunin Alamin

ng aralin
Ipakita ang larawan ng isang batang nagmamano

C. Pag-uugnay ng mga Ano ang ginagawa ng bata?

halimbawa sa bagong
Bakit kaya niya ito ginagawa?
aralin
Ginagawa mo din ba to?

D. Pagtatalakay ng Paano niyo binabati ang inyong magulang kung

bagong konsepto at dumarating kayo sa bahay?
paglalahad ng bagong
kasanayan #1

E. Pagtatalakay ng Iparinig ang maikling kuwento:

bagong konsepto at
“Mano po, Itay, mano po, Inay,” pagbati ni Mae
paglalahad ng bagong
pagdating niya galing paaralan. “Kaawaan ka ng
kasanayan #2
Diyos. Magpakabait ka sana,” halos sabay na wika
ng kaniyang ama at ina. Pagkaumaga bago siya
pumasok sa paaralan ay humahalik naman siya sa
kanila habang nagpapaalam.

F. Paglinang sa Ano ang ginagawa ni Mae pagdating niya mula sa

Kabihasnan (Tungo sa paaralan?
Formative Assessment)
 Ano ang sagot sa kaniya ng kaniyang mga
magulang?
Bago siya umalis ng bahay, ano naman ang
ginagawa niya?
Mabuti baa ng kaugali ang gingawa ni Mae?

G. Paglalapat ng aralin Paano mo ipapakita ang iyong paggalang sa iyong

sa pang-araw-araw na magulang?
buhay

H. Paglalahat ng Aralin Tandaan:

Ang pagmamano o paghalik ay magalang na
paraan ng pagbati na dapat nating ugaliin.

I. Pagtataya ng Aralin Lutasin:

A. Dumalaw kayo sa lolo at lola mo sa probinsiya.

Sabik na sabik sila na makita kayo. Paano mo sila
babatiin upang ipakita na nasasabik din kayo sa
kanila?
B. Nasa handaan kayo. Nakita mo doon ang tita
mo. Ano ang gagawin mo?

J. Karagdagang gawain Isaulo ang tula.

para sa takdang aralin
Humanda sa pagtula sa harap ng klase bukas.
at remediation
Mga magulang ay batiin.

Sa Umaga pagkagising.
Ang pagpapaalam
At paghalik sa kamay

Tanda ng batang
Tunay na magalang
 GRADE 1 FATIMA CENTRAL Grade
DAILY School: ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Level: I
LESSON LOG Learning Mother
Teacher: CELEVIC C. CORNITO Area: Tongue

Quarter: 1st QUARTER

I. Layunin 1. Nasasabi na ang kalinisan ay kagandahan.

2. Naibibigay ang kahulugan ng mga salita sa tulong

ng mga ilustrasyon, larawan, at pakitang-kilos.

3. Naipapakita ang kagustuhan sa kwento sa

pamamagitan ng masusing pakikinig.
4. Nakapahihinuha tungkol sa kwento sa
pamamagitan ng nalalaman ayon sa tauhan, lugar,
at pangyayari.

5. Natutukoy ang mga mahahalagang pangyayari

sa kuwento.

A. Pamantayang The learner…

Pangnilalaman
demonstrates basic knowledge and skills to listen,
read, and write for specific purposes.

B. Pamantayan sa The learner…

Pagganap
listens, reads, and writes for specific purpose.

C. Mga kasanayan sa Give meanings of words through: a. realia b. picture

Pagkatuto: Isulat ang clues c. actions or gestures.
code ng bawat
MT1VCD-Ib-i-2.1
kasanayan
Participate actively during story reading by making
comments and asking questions.

MT1OL-Ie-i-5.1
Talk about pictures presented using appropriate local
terminologies with ease and confidence. Animals-
Common Objects-Musical Instruments-
Family/people.
 MT1OL-Ic-i-1.2

II. Nilalaman Talasalitaan

Pag-unawa sa Binasa

Pagbigkas na Wika

Kagamitang Panturo Tsart ng mga salita at larawan na makikita sa

kuwento, totoong bagay na nagsisimula ang tawag
sa letrang /Bb/Uu/

A. Sanggunian Gabay ng kurikulum ng k-12 pah.28

1. Mga pahina sa pah.140-143

Gabay ng Guro
2. Mga pahina sa
Kagamitang Pang-Mag-
aaral

3. Mga pahina sa
Teksbuk

4. Karagdagang
Kagamitan mula sa
portal ng Learning
Code.

B. Iba pang Kagamitang

Panturo

III. Pamamaraan

A. Balik-aral sa Isulat ang nawawalang tunog ng bawat larawan

nakaraang aralin at/o
1. -_kra
pagsisimula ng bagong
aralin 2. -_lise
3. -_to
4. -_kis

5. -_roplano
B. Paghahabi sa layunin Paghahawan ng balakid:
ng aralin
natutuwa
bulaklak

nagulat
parke-larawan
naglalaro-pagsasakilos

C. Pag-uugnay ng mga Saan mo nais maglaro?

halimbawa sa bagong
Sa malinis o maruming bakuran? Bakit?
aralin

D. Pagtatalakay ng Bakit kaya nagbago si Jose?

bagong konsepto at
paglalahad ng bagong
kasanayan #1

E. Pagtatalakay ng Kuwento:
bagong konsepto at
“Bakit Nagbago si Jose”
paglalahad ng bagong
kasanayan #2 Takot maligo si Jose. Ayaw niyang maglinis ng
kaniyang katawan. Isang araw, namasyal siya sa
parke. Nais niyang sumali sa mga batang naglalaro.
Lumapit si Jose sa mga bata ngunit lumayo sila kay
Jose. Pag-uwi sa bahay, tinanong siya ng kaniyang
nanay kung bakit siya malungkot. Pinayuhan siya ng
kaniyang nanay na dapat ay laging malinis siya.

F. Paglinang sa Sinu-sino ang mga tauhan sa kuwento?

Kabihasnan (Tungo sa
Saan nagana pang kuwento?
Formative Assessment)
Ano ang kinatatakutang gawin ni Jose?
Bakit siya nagbago?

G. Paglalapat ng aralin Pangkatang Gawain

sa pang-araw-araw na
Pangkat 1 (Katawan Ko):
buhay
Iguhit ang katawan ng isang batang babae o lalake.
Pangkat 2 (Kumilos Tayo):
 Ipakita o isakilos ang tamang paglilinis ng katawan.
Pangkat 3 (Umawit Tayo):
Umawit ng awitin ukol sa paglilinis ng katawan.

Halimbawa: Maghilamos ka na sana

At hugasan pati paa
Suklayi ang iyong buhok

At humanda sa pagpasok
Ang ngipin ay linisin

Ang kuko ay gupitin

Ang damit at ayusin
Nang gumanda sa paningin.

Pangkat 4 (Iingatan Ko):

Magsabi ang bawat bata sa pangkat ng tamang
pag-iingat

H. Paglalahat ng Aralin Ano ang aral sa ating kuwento?

I. Pagtataya ng Aralin Ikahon ang tamang sagot.

1. Si Jose ay takot (lumangoy, maligo, umakyat ng

puno).
2. Isang araw namasyal si Jose sa (mall, parke, zoo).
3. Gusto niyang (makipag-away, makipaglaro,
makipag-asaran) sa mga bata sa parke.

4. Lumapit si Jose sa mga bata (lumayo, yumakap,

nagtakbuhan) ang mga bata kay Jose.
5. Ang (guro, lola, ina)ni Jose ang nagpayo sa
kaniya na maging malinis palagi.

J. Karagdagang gawain Buuin ang tugma;

para sa takdang aralin
Ang kalinisan ay _________________________
at remediation
 GRADE 1 FATIMA CENTRAL Grade
DAILY School: ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Level: I
LESSON LOG Learning Araling
Teacher: CELEVIC C. CORNITO Area: Panlipunan

Quarter: 1st QUARTER

I. Layunin 1. Nasasabi na ang bawat pamilya ay may katangi-

tanging katangian.

A. Pamantayang Ang mag-aaral ay…

Pangnilalaman
Naipamamalas ang pag-unawa at pagpapahalaga
sasariling pamilya at kasapi nito at bahaging
ginagampanan ng bawat isa.

B. Pamantayan sa Ang mag-aaral ay…

Pagganap
buong pagmamalaking nakapagsasaad ng kwento
ng sariling pamilya at bahaging ginagampanan
bawat kasapi nito sa malikhaing pamamaraan.

C. Mga kasanayan sa Nailalarawan ang bawat kasapi ng sariling pamilya

Pagkatuto: Isulat ang sa pamamagitan ng likhang sining.
code ng bawat
AP1PAM-IIa-2
kasanayan

II. Nilalaman Pagkilala sa mga kasapi ng Pamilya

Kagamitang Panturo Larawan ng iba pang kasapi ng pamilya.

A. Sanggunian Gabay ng kurikulum ng k-12 pah.15

1. Mga pahina sa
Gabay ng Guro
2. Mga pahina sa pah.84
Kagamitang Pang-Mag-
aaral
3. Mga pahina sa
Teksbuk

4. Karagdagang
Kagamitan mula sa
portal ng Learning
Code.

B. Iba pang Kagamitang

Panturo

III. Pamamaraan

A. Balik-aral sa Tama o Mali

nakaraang aralin at/o
Ang mag-anak na walang anak ay kabilang sa
pagsisimula ng bagong
malaking pamilya. ________
aralin
Si mang Ben ay may isang anak. Maliit lamang ang
kaniyang pamilya. ________

B. Paghahabi sa layunin Ano ang mga katangi-tanging katangian ng isang

ng aralin pamilya?

C. Pag-uugnay ng mga Ano ang pagkakaiba ng maliit sa malaking pamilya?

halimbawa sa bagong
aralin

D. Pagtatalakay ng Ipakita sa pisara ang isang bar graph na

bagong konsepto at nagpapakita ng bilang ng kasapi ng pamilya. Sa
paglalahad ng bagong bawat bar nakasulat ang kasapi ng pamilya ng
kasanayan #1 bawat mag-aaral.

E. Pagtatalakay ng Ipaliwanag na ang bar graph ay isang uri ng graph

bagong konsepto at na gumagamit ng mga bar upang ipakita ang bilang
paglalahad ng bagong o dami ng mga bagay.
kasanayan #2
5

4
3

2
1
 0
Allen Rod Miki Angel Beatrice Mga mag-aaral

F. Paglinang sa Ilana ng kasapi ng mag-anak ni Miki? Beatrice? Sinu-

Kabihasnan (Tungo sa sinong mag-aaral ang may magkasindami ng
Formative Assessment) kasapi?

G. Paglalapat ng aralin Pangkatang Gawain

sa pang-araw-araw na
Gamit ang mga ginupit na parisukat na gagamitin
buhay
bilang bar, hayaang igawa ng mga bata ng bar
graph ang mga datos sa ibaba.
Bilang ng kasapi 12345678910
Mga Pamilya: Santos-7; Ligon-3; Lopez-5; Giron-4

H. Paglalahat ng Aralin Tandaan:

Ikaw ay bahagi ng isang pamilya. May iba’t-ibang

kasaping bumubuo sa iyong pamilya. May
pamilyang maraming kasapi. May pamilya rinh kaunti
ang kasapi.

I. Pagtataya ng Aralin Saguting: Tama o Mali

_____1. Ang bar graph ay nagpapakita ng bilang o
dami ng kasapi ng mag-anak.

_____2. Lahat ng pamilya ay kaunti ang kasapi.

_____3. May malaking mag-anak at may maliit na
mag-anak sa isang pamayanan.
_____4. Ang bawat bata ay kabilang sa isang mag-
anak.

_____5. Pare pareho ang bilang ng mga kasapi ng

mag-anak.

J. Karagdagang gawain Igawa ng bar graph:

para sa takdang aralin
Bilang ng Hugis na nakita ni Ben 2 4 6 8 10
at remediation
Mga hugis:
Tatsulok-2
 Bilog-10
Parisukat-6
Parihaba-4

Biluhaba-8

GRADE 1 FATIMA CENTRAL Grade

DAILY School: ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Level: I
LESSON LOG Learning
Teacher: CELEVIC C. CORNITO Area: Mathematics

Quarter: 1st QUARTER

I. Layunin 1. To read and write the ordinal numbers 1st, 2nd, 3rd,
up to 10th

A. Pamantayang The learner…

Pangnilalaman
demonstrates understanding of whole numbers up to
100, ordinal numbers up to 10th, money up to Php 100
and fractions ½ and 1/4.

B. Pamantayan sa The learner…

Pagganap
is able to recognize, represent, and order whole
numbers up to 100 and money up to Php 100 in
various forms and contexts.

C. Mga kasanayan sa Identifies the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, up to 10th object in a given
Pagkatuto: Isulat ang set from a given point of reference.
code ng bawat
M1NS-Ii-16.1
kasanayan

II. Nilalaman Ordinal Numbers 1st, 2nd, 3rd, up to 10th.

Kagamitang Panturo

A. Sanggunian Gabay ng kurikulum ng k-12 pah.11

1. Mga pahina sa pah.105-107
Gabay ng Guro
2. Mga pahina sa
Kagamitang Pang-Mag-
aaral

3. Mga pahina sa
Teksbuk

4. Karagdagang
Kagamitan mula sa
portal ng Learning
Code.

B. Iba pang Kagamitang

Panturo

III. Pamamaraan

A. Balik-aral sa Isulat ang nawawalang bilang upang maiaayos sa

nakaraang aralin at/o paparaming paraan.
pagsisimula ng bagong
34 36 38 ____
aralin
77 78 ____ 80

B. Paghahabi sa layunin Ipakita ang larawan

ng aralin
Tanong:
Ano ang napansin mo sa mga kasuotan ng mga
bata?

Ilan lahat sila?

Sinu-sino sila?

C. Pag-uugnay ng mga Ang klase ng baitang I-Mabini ay may isang

halimbawa sa bagong programa. Sampung bata ang nakasuot ng kanilang
aralin paboritong kasuotan para sa programa. Isa-isa silang
tatayo sa harap ng klase.

Pang-ilan si Marlon?
Bea? (Panglima)
Jona? (Pangpito)
 Jane? (Pangsampu)

D. Pagtatalakay ng Ipagawa ang Pagsasanay isa sa LM 121

bagong konsepto at
paglalahad ng bagong
kasanayan #1

E. Pagtatalakay ng
bagong konsepto at
paglalahad ng bagong
kasanayan #2

F. Paglinang sa Pagawa ang Gawain sa LM pah. 122-123

Kabihasnan (Tungo sa
Formative Assessment)

G. Paglalapat ng aralin Ano ang napansin mo sa ilalim ng kanilang

sa pang-araw-araw na pangalan?
buhay
(Nagsisimula sa bilang mula isa-10)

H. Paglalahat ng Aralin Ano ang tawag sa mga bilang na ito?

(Ordinal Numbers)

I. Pagtataya ng Aralin Insert picture

J. Karagdagang gawain LM pah.125-126

para sa takdang aralin
at remediation

GRADE 1 FATIMA CENTRAL Grade

DAILY School: ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Level: I
LESSON LOG Learning
Teacher: CELEVIC C. CORNITO Area: Music

Quarter: 1st QUARTER

I. Layunin 1. Naibibigay ang kahulugan ng tunog.

 2. Nasasabi ang pagkakaiba ng tunog na gawa ng
Diyos sa tunog na gawa ng tao.

A. Pamantayang The learner…

Pangnilalaman
demonstrates basic understanding of sound, silence,
and rhythm.

B. Pamantayan sa The learner…

Pagganap
responds appropriately to the pulse of the sounds
heard and performs with accuracy the rhythmic
patterns.

C. Mga kasanayan sa Performs simple ostinato patterns on other sound

Pagkatuto: Isulat ang sources including body parts.
code ng bawat
MU1RH-If-g-7
kasanayan

II. Nilalaman

Kagamitang Panturo Larawan ng mga nakakalikha ng tunog.

A. Sanggunian

1. Mga pahina sa
Gabay ng Guro
2. Mga pahina sa
Kagamitang Pang-Mag-
aaral

3. Mga pahina sa
Teksbuk

4. Karagdagang
Kagamitan mula sa
portal ng Learning
Code.

B. Iba pang Kagamitang

Panturo

III. Pamamaraan
A. Balik-aral sa Atasan ang piling bata upang isagawa ang sayaw
nakaraang aralin at/o na pinag-araln noong Biyernes.
pagsisimula ng bagong
aralin

B. Paghahabi sa layunin Paganahin ang iyong imahinasyon. Isipin mo na

ng aralin nakatira ka sa isang mundo na walang kang naririnig
na kahit na anong tunog?

C. Pag-uugnay ng mga Ano kaya ang mararamdaman mo?

halimbawa sa bagong
Maging masaya ka kaya? Bakit?
aralin

D. Pagtatalakay ng Ipakita ang mga larawan ng kampana, bulkan,

bagong konsepto at radio, ibon, tambol, helicopter, kulog.
paglalahad ng bagong
kasanayan #1

E. Pagtatalakay ng Ipabigay sa mga bata ang tunog ng bawat larawan.

bagong konsepto at
paglalahad ng bagong
kasanayan #2

F. Paglinang sa Ano ang nalilikha ng bawat bagay sa larawan?

Kabihasnan (Tungo sa
Sino ang may gawa ng mga bagay sa unang hanay
Formative Assessment)
ng mga larawan? Ikalawang hanay?

G. Paglalapat ng aralin Magsabi ng Hep-hep kung gawa ng Diyos ang tunog

sa pang-araw-araw na at hurrey kung gawa ng tao ang tunog.
buhay
-Pagsabog ng bomba.

-Pagtilaok ng manok.

H. Paglalahat ng Aralin Tandaan:

Ang tunog ay kahit na anong bagay na ating
naririnig. Maaaring ito ay likha ng Diyos tulad ng putok
ng bulkan, huni ng ibon at kulog o kaya’y likha ng tao
tulad ng tambol, radio, atbp.

I. Pagtataya ng Aralin Sumulat ng 4 na bagay na nakagagawa ng tunog.

Iguhit ang mga ito sa angkop na kahon.
Tunog na:
 Likha ng Diyos Likha ng Tao
1. 1.
2. 2.

3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.

J. Karagdagang gawain Gumuhit ng tig-isang halimbawa ng mga bagay na

para sa takdang aralin nakakagwa ng tunog na gawa ng:
at remediation
Diyos Tao

GRADE 1 FATIMA CENTRAL Grade

DAILY School: ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Level: I
LESSON LOG Learning
Teacher: CELEVIC C. CORNITO Area: Health
2nd
Quarter: QUARTER

I. Layunin 1. Mailalarawan ang tamang pangangalaga sa mata, tainga

at ilong upang maiwasan ang mga karamdaman.
2. Naipapakita ang tamang pangangalaga sa sariling
pandama
H2PH-lla-e-6

A. The learner…
Pamantayang
demonstrates understanding of the proper ways of taking care
Pangnilalaman
of the sense organs.

B. Pamantayan The learner…

sa Pagganap
consistently practices good health habits and hygiene for the
sense organs.
C. Mga Describes ways of caring for the eyes, ears, nose, hair and skin
kasanayan sa in order to avoid common childhood health conditions.
Pagkatuto:
H2PH-lla-e-6
Isulat ang
code ng
bawat
kasanayan

II. Nilalaman Pangangalaga sa mga Pandama

(Mata, Tainga at Ilong)

Kagamitang
Panturo

A. Sanggunian

1. Mga pahina Health (MAPEH) SLM Q2 Module 7

sa Gabay ng
Guro
2. Mga pahina Health (MAPEH) SLM Q2 Module 7
sa Kagamitang
Pang-Mag-
aaral

3. Mga pahina
sa Teksbuk

4.
Karagdagang
Kagamitan
mula sa portal
ng Learning
Code.

B. Iba pang Pictures and worksheets from Google, Power point

Kagamitang presentation
Panturo

III.
Pamamaraan

A. Balik-aral sa Panimulang Gawain

nakaraang
aralin at/o • Panalangin
pagsisimula ng • Pagbati
bagong aralin • Pagbasa ng Layunin
• Pagbibigay ng Alituntunin
Anu-ano ang dapat natin gawing kapag nandito
tayo sa silid-aralan? Bakit natin sundin ang mga
panuntunan?
• Pagsasanay

Kilalanin ang bahagi ng katawan at idilkit ang

mga tamang salita nito ayon sa larawan.

______1. ________2.

________3.

Paglinang na Gawain

1. Balik-aral

Pumili ng mga masustansyang pagkain. Ilagay

ang mga ito sa pinggan.

B. Paghahabi Ipaawit at ikilos ang “Limang Pandama”
sa layunin ng
Awiting Pambata at itanong ang mga ito:
aralin
1. Ano ang nakikita ninyo sa video?
2. Anu- ano ang mga pandama na nasa video?
3. Anu-ano ang mga gamit ng mga pandama?
4.Alam niyo ba kung papaano ninyo aalagaan ang
inyong pandama?

C. Pag-uugnay Huwaran si An-An

ng mga
Isinulat ni Jayette A. Guerra
halimbawa sa
bagong aralin

Si An-An ay isang batang huwaran.

Malusog ang mga mata, ilong, at tainga.

Alagaan ang mga pandama at maging magandang

halimbawa kagaya niya.

D. Hikayatin ang mga mag-aaral na aktibong makibahagi sa

Pagtatalakay malayang talakayan. Itanong ang mga sumusunod:
ng bagong
1. Sino ang bata sa tula?
konsepto at
paglalahad ng 2. Ano ang kalagayan ng kanyang mata, ilong at tainga?
bagong
3. Bakit siya isang magandang halimbawa?
kasanayan #1
4. Sa inyong palagay, dapat ba nating tularan si An-An?
Bakit?
• Tanungin ang mga bata kung paano aalagaan ang mga
mata,
tainga at ilong.

• Ipakita at ipabasa ang mga tamang paraan sa

pangangalaga
ng mga mata, tainga at ilong.

Pangangalaga sa mga Mata

1. Kumain ng masustansyang pagkain.

2. Huwag kusutin ang mga mata.
3. Manood ng malayo mula sa telebisyon.
4. Magbasa nang may sapat na liowanag.
5. Ipahinga ang mata kapag ito ay pagod na.

Pangangalaga sa mga Tainga

1. Linisin ng malambot na bagay ang

tainga.

2. Magsalita ng mahinahon.
3. Iwasan ang malalakas na tunog.

Pangangalaga sa Ilong

1. Panatilihin itong malinis.

2. Iwasang huminga ng malakas.

3. Takpan ng panyo ang ilong sakaling

sisinghot ng mga bagay na may
matapang na amoy.
 • Sakaling makaramdam ng hindi maganda, magpatingin
kaagad sa
Doktor.

E.
Pagtatalakay
Iguhit/Idikit sa patlang ang kung ang ipinapakita sa
ng bagong
larawan ay nakakabuti at kung hindi.
konsepto at
paglalahad ng
bagong
kasanayan #2
____1. _____2. ______3.

_______4. _______5.

F. Paglinang sa Isulat ang TAMA kung wasto ang pangangalaga ng pandama

Kabihasnan na binabanggit sa ibaba at MALI naman kung hindi wasto.
(Tungo sa
Formative
Assessment) _______1. Gumamit ng pantakip sa tainga kapag may
naririnig na malakas na tunog.

_______2. Gumamit ng shades bilang pananggalang sa init ng

araw o sinag ng araw.
_______3. Manood ng malapitan mula sa telebisyon

_______4. Sundutin ng matigas na bagay ang ilong.

_______5. Kumain ng masustansyang pagkain.

G. Paglalapat Paglalapat:
ng aralin sa
pang-araw- • Sa panahon ngayon dahil may pandemya, paano natin
araw na buhay inaalagaan
ang ating mga sarili?

Iguhit/Idikit ang masayang mukha kung tama

na gawain sa panahon ng pandemya
at malungkot naman na mukha
kung mali na gawain.

1. 2.

3. 4. 5.

H. Paglalahat Paglalahat:
ng Aralin
• Ilang pandama ang tinalakay natin ngayon?

• Anu-ano ang mga ito?

• Paano nyo ito pangangalagaan?

Tandaan:
Ang araw-araw na pangangalaga sa ating mga
pandama ay

malaki ang maitutulong upang manatili tayong malusog at

malayo sa sakit.

I. Pagtataya Lagyan ng tsek ang mga gawaing nagpapakita ng

ng Aralin pangangalaga sa
 mga pandama at ekis kung hindi.

____1. _____2. _____3.

______4. _____5.

J. Gumawa ng sariling talaan ng iyong mga pandama at isulat

Karagdagang kung paano mo sila pinangangalagaan.
gawain para
sa takdang
aralin at
remediation

GRADE 1 FATIMA CENTRAL Grade

DAILY School: ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Level: I
LESSON LOG Learning
Teacher: CELEVIC C. CORNITO Area: Filipino
3rd
Quarter: QUARTER

I. Layunin 1.Nakatutukoy ng bagay, tao, hayop, pangyayari o lugar.

2.Nakatutukoy ng mga salitang naglalarawan sa bagay, tao,

hayop, pangyayari o lugar.
3.Nakapaglalarawan ng bagay, tao, hayop, pangyayar o
lugar.

A. The learner…
Pamantayang
demonstrates understanding of the proper ways of taking care
Pangnilalaman
of the sense organs.
B. Pamantayan The learner…
sa Pagganap
consistently practices good health habits and hygiene for the
sense organs.

C. Mga Nakapaglalarawan ng mga bagay, tao, hayop, pangyayari,

kasanayan sa at lugar.
Pagkatuto:
F1WG-IIIc-d-4
Isulat ang
code ng
bawat
kasanayan

II. Nilalaman Paglalarawan ng mga Bagay, Tao, Hayop,

Pangyayari, at Lugar

Kagamitang
Panturo

A. Sanggunian

1. Mga pahina MELC

sa Gabay ng
Guro
2. Mga pahina Fiipino – Unang Baitang
sa Kagamitang
Self-Learning Module
Pang-Mag-
aaral Ikatlong Markahan – Modyul 8: Paglalarawan ng mga Bagay,
Tao, Hayop, Pangyayari, at Lugar
3. Mga pahina
sa Teksbuk

4.
Karagdagang
Kagamitan
mula sa portal
ng Learning
Code.

B. Iba pang Pictures and worksheets from Google, Power point

Kagamitang presentation
Panturo
III.
Pamamaraan

A. Balik-aral sa Subukin!
nakaraang
Panuto: Piliin ang tamang salitang naglalarawan sa mga
aralin at/o
pagsisimula ng sumusunod na pangngalan. Isulat ang letra ng tamang sagot
bagong aralin sa
bawat patlang.
A. mabagal
B. masaya

C. bago
D. maalaga
E. maraming paninda

___________1. nanay
___________ 2. pista

___________ 3. damit
___________ 4. pagong
___________ 5. palengke

Balikan:

Panuto: Tukuyin ang kasarian ng bawat pangngalan.

Isulat ang PL kung ito ay panlalaki, PB kung pambabae,
DT kung di-tiyak at WK kung walang kasarian.

__________1. prinsesa
__________ 2. aklat
__________ 3. doktor

__________ 4. tatay
__________ 5. guro
B. Paghahabi Panuto: Basahin at unawain mong mabuti ang
sa layunin ng
maikling kuwento at sagutin ang mga sumusunod na tanong.
aralin
Kaarawan ni Ninya

(Myra P. Ballera)
Araw ng Sabado. Abalang-abala si Aling Nilda sa
paghahanda ng mga pagkain dahil kaarawan ng

kanyang mabait na anak na si Ninya.

Nagluto siya ng masasarap na ulam. Naghanda rin siya ng
iba’t-ibang klase ng prutas tulad ng hinog na saging,
mapulang pakwan at matamis na papaya. May makukulay
na mga lobo at kulay

rosas na cake ang inilagay sa itaas ng mahabang mesa.

Masayang-masaya si Ninya dahil dumalo sa kanyang
kaarawan ang kanyang mga mababait na kaibigan.
Tanong:
1. Ano ang pamagat ng kuwento?

2. Bakit sa tingin ninyo abalang- abala si Aling Nilda sa

paghahanda ng mga pagkain?
3.Paano inilarawan ng tagapagsulat ang kaarawan ni Ninya?

4.Ano-ano kaya ang mga salitang naglalarawan na makikita

sa kwento?

5. Bakit mo nasabing ang mga salitang ito ay mga salitang

naglalarawan?
6. Ano sa palagay ninyo mga bata ang magiging leksyon natin
ngayong araw?
-Pagpakita at pagbasa sa layunin ng aralin.

C. Pag-uugnay Tanong:
ng mga
- Ano- ano ang mga sallita na nakasulat sa hanay A at hanay
halimbawa sa
B.
bagong aralin
 - Tukuyin natin ang mga sumusunod na pangngalan galing sa
kuwentong binasa at salitang naglalarawan dito.

Pangngalan Salitang Naglalarawan

anak mabait

kaarawan masaya

ulam masarap

lobo makukulay

mesa mahaba

D. Panuto: Ilarawan mo. Hanapin sa hanay B ang mga salitang

Pagtatalakay naglalarawan sa hanay A
ng bagong
Hanay A Hanay B
konsepto at
paglalahad ng 1. malaki
bagong
kasanayan #1

2. malamig

3. maingay

4. matapang

5. mabilis

E. Panuto:
Pagtatalakay
Sundin ang mga panuto at sagutin ng tama ang mga
ng bagong
sumusunod na gawain. Alam kong kayang kaya niyo itong
konsepto at
gawin mga bata.
paglalahad ng
bagong Rubrik sa Paggawa:
kasanayan #2
Kalinisan - 20%
Nasagot ng tama ang gawain-50%
Nasagot ng tama ang mga tanong napapaloob sa bawat
gawain. 30%

Gawain 1: Iguhit sa loob ng kahon ang inilalarawan sa bawat

numero.
1. pulang mansanas

2. itim na pusa

3. tatlong lobo

4.Limang bulaklak

5.dilaw na lapis

Gawain 2.
Panuto: Basahin ang pangungusap at bilugan ang salitang
naglalarawan.

1. Malinis ang plasa Heneral Santos

2. Malaki ang isdang Tuna.
3. Si Melay ay magaling umarte.
4. Kulay berde ang mga tanim.
5. Masaya ang araw ng Pasko.

Gawain 3

Panuto: Ayusin ang mga titik para mabuo ang sagot sa

mga bugtong.

1. Malambot na ginagamit sa pagtulog.

 nan-u
2. Bilog na maaring pinagpasahan at patalbogtalbog.
bloa

3. Kulay pula maiinit at nakasusunog.

apyo

4. Dalawang batong itim malayo ang nararating.

atam

5. Butot, balat na malapad kay galing kung lumipad.

Lagorangsa

Gawain 4
Panuto:
Tingnan ang mga bagay na nasa loob ng kahon at
isulat kung tama o mali ang paglalarawan.
______1. Matigas ang bayabas.

______2. Matamis ang tsokolate.

______3. Lima ang krayola.
______4. Kulay itim ang mansanas.

______5. Mabango ang alcohol.

Gawain 5

Pagdugtong- dugtungin ang puzzle at ilarawan ito.

Gawain 6
Pagpakita ng mga gawain. (Output Presentation)

Paalala:
May respeto sa gawain at sagot ng iba.

Mga tanong sa bawat gawain.

Gawain 1.
Ano ang salitang itim, pula at dilaw? Mga salitang
naglalarawan ayon sa______.
 Ano naman ang salitang tatlo at lima? Mga salitang
naglalarawan ayon sa _______.
Gawain 2.

Anong pangngalan ang inilalarawan na malinis? Ano

itong Heneral Santos?
Gawain 3.

Paano ninyo nahanap ang mga sagot sa gawain 3?

Gawain 4.

Bakit mali ang sagot mo sa bilang apat?

Gawain 5.
Tama ba ang nabuong puzzle at paglalarawan nito?
Patunayan
Pagbibigay ng puntos o gantimpala sa mga ginawa ng
bata.

F. Paglinang sa Paano mo ilalarawan ang covid 19.

Kabihasnan
Ano-ano ang mga dapat gawin para hindi tayo matamaan
(Tungo sa
ng Covid 19.
Formative
Assessment) Ilarawan ang mga gagamitin nating panangga sa covid 19.

G. Paglalapat Tanong:
ng aralin sa
Ano ulit ang tawag sa mga salitang naglalarawan?
pang-araw-
araw na buhay

H. Paglalahat Tandaan
ng Aralin
Salitang Naglalarawan o Pang-uri- mga salitang ginagamit sa
paglalarawan sa ngalan ng bagay, tao, hayop,

pangyayari, at lugar. Pwedeng gamitin ang anyo, hugis, kulay,

bilang, lasa at laki sa paglalarawan ng mga Pangngalan.

I. Pagtataya Panuto: Pagdugtungin ng linya ang tamang salitang

ng Aralin naglalarawan sa mga sumusunod na pangngalan.

1. mabangis A. gulay
 2. malaki B. leon
3. masustansya C. bahay
4. maganda D. Pasko

5. masaya E. dalaga

J. Panuto: Sumulat ng isang salitang naglalarawan sa mga

Karagdagang
sumusunod na pangngalan.
gawain para
sa takdang 1. dagat
aralin at
2. baka
remediation
3. tatay
4. Pista

5. lapis

Strengths and Weaknesses Matrix

Lesson Plan Strengths
Filipino -Gives opportunity to all
learners to participate.
-The objectives were
met.
-The examples given are
contextualized.
-Timely and relevant.
Health -Objectives were met.
-Learners can express
their opinions freely.
Weaknesses
The individual needs of
the learners are not met.
-The objectives did not
encourage higher order
thinking skill.
Not totally engaging.
Proper cleaning of eyes,
ears, and nose shall be
demonstrated.

Music The objectives is Some of the examples

measurable. are not available. So
learners need to
imagine things.

Not totally engaging.

 EsP The objective is clear Some situations in the
and measurable. lesson are not that
particular. Most of them
are confusing.
Mother Tongue Can easily be Too many objectives.
understood. Does not encourage
Contextualized. higher order thinking
skills.
Araling Panlipunan Meausable and Does not provide more
attainable objective. concrete examples.
Contextualized.
 In this chapter, I have observed that it is tiring and time-consuming
when making a lesson plan. You need to think and come up with activities
which will engage and encourage your learners.
As a teacher, you need to be sensitive with the topic you present in
class and you should also be considerate with the activities you ask your
learners. Because not everyone can do such things.
Moreover, as a teacher you need to consider the needs of your
learners. You need to prepare several activities to make sure everyone is
having fun.
 In this second to the last chapter, we will have a short review about the
examples of assessment of, as, and for learning. Each assessment have five
examples.
Learning and knowing the difference of of assessment of, for, and as
learning will enable us to assess the learners quickly and appropriately. We
will be able to know which part of the lesson the child scores the lowest
which will be given an intervention, And of which part of lesson does the
chile score the highest to offer ways for development, enhancement, and
improvement.
 Assessment for Learning

EDUKASYON SA PAGPAPAKATAO 1
Summative Test No.2

Name: ___________________________________________ Date: ___________ Score:

_______
Panuto A: Isulat ang OPO kung nagpapakita ng gawaing nakapagpapalusog ng
katawan at HINDI PO kung hindi sa inyong kwadernong panggawain.

_____1. Paborito ni Ana ang sitaw, kalabasa at okra na ulamin.

_____2. Ako ay naliligo isang beses isang linggo.
_____3. Mahilig manood ng teleserye si Sita. Palagi siyang natutulog ng alas dose
ng gabi.
_____4. Sinisiguro ni Lisa na nakakainom siya ng walong basong tubig o higit pa
sa isang araw.
_____5. Tuwing umaga, madalas magkasamang magjogging sina Yayo at mga
kaibigan sa plasa.

Panuto B: Isulat sa kwadernong panggawain ang TAMA kung ang pangungusap

ay nagpapahayag ng mabuting gawain na nagpapalusog at tumutulong
sa paglinang ng sariling kakayahan at HINDI TAMA hindi.

_____6. Paglilinis ng sarili araw-araw.

_____7. Pagkain ng gulay at prutas.
_____8. Madalas na pag inom ng softdrinks at iba pang may artipisyal na flavor
na mga inumin.
_____9. Pag-ehersisyo dalawang beses sa isang linggo.
_____10. Pag-iwas sa pagpupuyat.

II. Panuto: Iguhit ang masayang mukha ( ☺ ) kapag ang gawain ay nakabubuti
sa katawan at malungkot na mukha ( ☹ ) kapag ito ay nakasasama sa
kalusugan. Gawin ito sa sa inyong kwadernong panggawain.

_____11. Magsipilyo ng ngipin pagkatapos kumain.

_____12. Hayaang marumi ang kamay kapag kakain.
_____13. Uminom ng gatas araw-araw upang buto ay tumibay.
_____14. Ugaliing manood ng telebisyon hanggang hatinggabi.
_____15. Lumabas lagi ng bahay upang mahawaan sa mga taong maysakit.
 MTB-MLE 1
Summative Test No.2

Name: ___________________________________________ Date: ___________ Score:

_______
I. Panuto: Pagsamahin ang pantig at isulat sa patlang ang nabuong salita. Gawin
ito sa kalakip na sanayang papel.

II. Panuto: Basahin ang mga sumusunod na salita. Hanapin at bilugan ang
salitang may magkaparehong tunog sa unang salita. Gawin ito sa
kalakip na sanayang papel.

6. manika - pitaka pito

7. masaya - malungkot malaya
8. maliit - malaki punit
9. bahay - palay ino
 MATH 1
Summative Test No. 2

Name: ___________________________________________ Date: ___________ Score:

_______
I. Panuto: Isulat ang titik ng tamang sagot sa activity sheet.

II. Panuto: Basahin ang mga sumusunod na bilang at isulat ang kanyang simbolo
sa activity sheet.

6. Apat napu’t lima

7. limampu’t tatlo
8. anim napu’t walo
9. pitumpu’t dalawa
10. siyam napu

IKALAWANG LAGUMANG PAGSUSULIT SA FILIPINO 1

(Ikalawang Markahan)
Pangalan: ___________________________________________ Petsa: ___________ Iskor:
_______
Panuto: Isulat sa patlang ang B kapag pangbabae, L kapag panlalaki at
DT kapag di –tiyak ang mga sumusunod na kasarian.
1. guro ___________________ 5. ninang _____________
2. lola ____________________ 6. sundalo ____________
3. ninong __________________ 7. abogado ___________
4. pulis ____________________

Panuto: Salungguhitan ang tamang sagot sa loob ng panaklong.

8. ( Ang mga , Ang ) bulaklak ay magaganda.

9. ( Ang mga , Ang ) kendi na bigay ni Nona ay masarap.

10. ( Ang mga , Ang ) saging ay pasalubong ni Kuya Lito.

11. ( Si , Sina ) Pepe ay bumili ng puto sa talipapa.

12. ( Si , Sina ) Dina , Mila at Hana ay nakaupo sa sopa.
13. ( Si , Sina ) Donato at Lope ay magkapatid.

Panuto: Masdan ang larawan at gumawa ng pangungusap gamit ang loob

at labas.

14.

_______________________________
 15. ______________________________________________

Ikalawang Mahabang Pagsusulit

Ikalawang Kwarter
MAPEH 1

Pangalan:_____________________________ Petsa: __________ Iskor: ______

I. Lagyan ng mahaba at maikling guhit ang pangalawang linya ng awit na “Tulog

Na” upang maipakita ang mahaba at maikling tunog.

Tulog na, tulog na

Tayo ay magpahinga.

II. Gumuhit ng isang tanawin sa paligid gamit ang manipis at makapal na linya
at kulayan ito.

III. Bilugan ang mga payak na laro, ekisan ang hindi.

IV. Iguhit ang kung tamang gawi ang ipinakikita sa pag-ubo at pagbahing,
kung mali.
Assessment as Learning
Assessment of Learning
 It is of great advantage for a teacher who knows how
to distinguish assessment of, for, and as learning. Honestly, I
struggle in identifying what is the example of assessment of,
for, and as learning from the modules considering that the
content of the modules is confusing.
It is indeed a hard time and time-consuminng when
making assessments. Teachers should also consider if the
assessments they are making are beneficial, worthwhile,
and contextualized.
Also, in making assessment, one of the considerations
is the ability and individual needs of the learners. We need
to be careful and sensitive in mentioning cultures, names,
practices, and other related to other cultural identity.
Lastly, when giving assessments we should stuck in mind
that the assessments we give to learners will be part of their
life-long learning.
 In this last and final chapter of this portfolio, we
will embark the Philosophies of Education. These
philosophies of education have been part of our lives
since our first years in this college.
These Philosophies of Education serve as our
guiding principle in teaching and learning process.
These philosophies enable us to know what kind of
teacher or learner a certain person is based on
his/her actions, likes and dislikes, and many more.
Also, in this chapter we will be introduced to
several teaching behavior of teachers. Through these
philosophies, it will be easier for us to distinguish what
kind or type of teacher we could be, and by which
we can choose whoever we want to be as a teacher
but also considering our learners.
Philosophies of Description Teaching Behavior
Education
1. Essentialism This philosophy of Might be authoritative.
education believes that In this, teacher values
every human or things the subject content.
has his/her or its own
characteristics which
serve as the symbolism of
their existence.
2. Perennialism One of the best Perennialists are more
examples of this focused on the
philosophy is the principles. They
teaching we have form emphasized that learners
our elders. Teachings will gain more
which are timeless. knowledge through
reading and indulge in
historical views and
writings.
3. Progressivism This focuses on Teachers who are
enhancing and progressivists discourage
improving your interests. focusing on the
This believes that learner curriculum. Progressivists
could easily learn he/she allot more time to the
pursue what his/her likes child. This includes
are. This best describes exploration.
the ‘learning by doing”
4. Reconstructionism This states that we need Educators in this
to be constant in philosophy give
restructuring civilizations importance to social
to have a well-organized reforms. They teach
and systematized children about the real
government and social world problems and
networks. issues and guide them
how to resolve those.
5. Existentialism It emphasizes learners’ Teachers encourage
sense of autonomy in learners to stand on their
constructing and making own by improving and
their own decisions in life. developing their
independence. They
believe that learners are
the ones who create
their future.
6. Pragmatism This focuses on the idea One of the best
that education should examples of great
prioritize life and growth. educators who are
pragmatists is John
Dewey. Teachers teach
learners about life skills.
7. Rationalism This gives emphasis to the Rationalists educators
viewpoint as the most believe that humans are
vital and best source of easy to absorb ideas
knowledge. because we human are
instrically logical in
nature.
8. Utilitarianism This idea believes that Teachers in this
through helping or philosophy train learners
assisting the mass or to be great contributors
learners they are doing of change and peace.
great or better actions.
9. Empiricism This philosophy believes Teacher generate
that one’s ability to knowledge about the
understand the world is real scenario in the
rooted from his world.
experiences.
10. Behaviorism This theory states that Teachers give
behaviors are learned importance to
and taught through the reinforcement and
interaction or punishment. This is to
connection of an buttress constructive
individual to his responses and eradicate
environment. the undesirable ones.
11. Constructivism This theory believes that Teachers serve as
learners uphold a cycle facilitators in this
of engendering and philosophy. They believe
rebuilding innovative to the the capability of
illustrations of the world learners in producing
around them. their own knowledge.
 My Philosophy of Teaching

In my more than three years in this institution and

department, I have observed a lot about learners’ capability,
their weakest and strongest points. Varied teaching styles,
techniques, and methods were introduced in addressing
every learner’s need.
Therefore, I believe that learners learn in a different way.
Learners have distinct characteristics which seek for an
individualized needs and interventions.
I believe that I should teach learners in accordance eith
their needs. Through knowing their weaknesses and strengths.
Learning process is risky. You might jeopardize your learners if
you cannot distinguish what your learners needs.
I believe that by believing to you learners thay they will
gonna learn will also bring motivation to them to become
better individuals. To break the shell from their comfort zones
and to build path which they will take in pursuit of their
dreams and goals in life. You need to make them feel they
are included, accepted, loved, needed, and important.
 In last and final chapter of this portfolio, I have made a
lot of realizations. What you attract is what you can get. If
you attract excellence, you will gain excellence. If you
attract negativity, negavity will run towards you.
Just like in teaching, if you believe you can contribute
to the betterment of your learners, you can be. If and only
if you will have that willingness within you to help. Teachers
have different ways of teaching their learners. What
matters the most is how your techniques help the learners
in becoming the persons they want need to be. That is to
become successful, productive, and who can contribute
to the betterment of this world.
I believe that every one of us have hidden flame inside
us which is to help, to seek help, and to contribute to the
ever changing and innovating world. It is just that we need
people to light that flame. By that, we should trust one
another and believe that every one of us had our own
uniqueness.