Functions of hormones

Growth Hormone ADH Oxytocin Pancreatic hormones

(somatotropin) Antidiuretic hormone
“Vasopressin”

Growth ✓ Increase water ✓ Milk ejection = milk letting down by Insulin

✓ Physical reabsorption from suckling reflex ✓ CHO: decrease blood glucose level
▪ Bone: distal convoluted ✓ Uterine contraction: ✓ Lipid: lipogenesis
1. deposition of Ca, tubules ▪ has minor role during labor ✓ Protein: anabolism
Phosphate and protein ▪ major role after labor by causing ✓ Electrolytes: increase K uptake by body cells.
in bone ✓ VC leading to involution of uterus and decrease
2. proliferation of Glucagon
increased ABP post-partum hemorrhage.
epiphyseal cartilage. ✓ CHO: increase blood glucose level
and stoppage of ▪ potentiated by estrogen and inhibited
▪ Soft tissue. ✓ Lipid: lipolysis leading increased FFA in blood
bleeding in case by progesterone and catecholamines
✓ Mental and sexual ✓ Protein: anabolism
of hemorrhage ✓ Sexual intercourse: oxytocin causes
▪ No effect ✓ CNS: stimulate appetite center in CNS
uterine contraction leading to suction of
✓ CVS: stimulate cardiac contraction by increasing
Metabolism sperm upward in uterus and sensation of
CAMP
orgasm.
✓ Kidney: natriuresis = increase Na excretion by
✓ CHO: ✓ Help movement of sperm in male sex
kidney.
▪ increase blood glucose level organ toward penis
✓ Lipid: ✓ Stimulate contraction of apocrine sweat Somatostatin
▪ increase FFA in blood gland for sexual attraction between ✓ Anterior pituitary: inhibit release of growth
✓ Protein: animals. hormone
▪ protein anabolism, helped by ✓ Pancreas: inhibit insulin and glucagon release
insulin. from pancreas
✓ Electrolytes: ✓ GIT: inhibit all GIT functions.
▪ increase electrolytes in blood Pancreatic polypeptides
by increasing their absorption
✓ Inhibit release of other pancreatic hormones.
from GIT and kidney
 Thyroid hormones
❖ At level of cell
▪ Increase amino acid uptake by cell
▪ Stimulate Na-K pump
▪ Stimulate protein synthesis by
stimulating DNA and mRNA
▪ Stimulate mitochondria for ATP
synthesis
▪ Stimulate lysosomes.
❖ At level of body:
▪ Growth: stimulate physical , mental
( by stimulation of myelination of
nerve fibers leading to decrease
relax time) and sexual growth.
▪ Metabolism: increase glucose and
O2 consumption for formation of
ATP
▪ CHO: increase blood glucose
▪ Lipid: lipolysis leading to increased
FFA in blood
▪ Protein = skeletal ms:
✓ in normal level: protein
anabolism
✓ while in high level: protein
catabolism and ms breakdown
and weakness
Mineralocorticoid =
Aldosterone
▪ Na reabsorption from DCT
▪ K secretion from DCT in case
of hyperkalemia
▪ H secretion from DCT in case
of acidosis in blood
▪ Na reabsorption and K or H
secretion in any secretion in
body as saliva, milk, sweat.
Glucocorticoid = cortisol
• CHO: increase blood glucose level
• Lipid: lipolysis leading to increased FFA in
blood
• Protein:
✓ In liver: - In normal dose: anabolism
- In high dose: catabolism
✓ In other tissues: protein catabolism
• Antiallergy:
✓ Decrease histamine release from
mast cell and Basophil.
✓ Has no effect on antigen-antibody
complex or already Histamines
• Anti-inflammatory:
✓ Inhibit migration of immune cell to
site of inflammation
✓ Inhibit release of interleukin 1 from
immune cell Leading to inhibition of b. decrease insulin and glucagon by
fever
• Anti-stress: see later
• Blood vessel: Cortisol increases synthesis • Smooth MS: bronchodilatation,
and vascular Reactivity of blood vessels
to catecholamines
Catecholamines
• CNS: decrease reflex time , increase
alertness by stimulation of reticular
activating system.
• CVS: increase all cardiac properties
, VD of coronary artery
• Blood vessel: VC of all blood vessel
except blood vessel of liver,
skeletal MS and coronary artery
• Liver: decrease clotting time by
stimulating formation of clotting
factors 1,2,5
• Respiration: initially, it cause
adrenaline apnea by reflex
inhibition of respiration center
followed by stimulation of
respiration by direct stimulation of
respiratory center
• Pancreas:
a. increase insulin and glucagon by
stimulation of beta receptor
stimulation of alpha receptor
c. net result: increase glucagon and
decrease insulin
mydriasis
• Skin: pale, moist skin with erected
hair
▪ Vitamins: • Blood cells: • Kidney: decrease Na and water loss
✓ convert carotene to vit A ✓ Increase RBCs and neutrophil in urine by VC of renal vessels and
✓ stimulate clearance of vitamin ✓ Decrease basophil , eosinophil , stimulation of rennin angiotensin
leading to increase need for lymphocytes system
vitamins ✓ Involution of lymphoid tissue in • Muscle: orbelli phenomenon: better
✓ stimulate metabolism and puberty contraction and no fatigue by VD
clearance of other drugs as • Gastric effect: Increase HCL and decrease of skeletal MS blood vessels and
digitalis mucous increasing ATP
▪ CVS: increase force of contraction • Permissive: Increase activity of
– increase SBP by increasing COP catecholamine and Glucagon.
and decrease DBP by causing VD • Renal: cortisol stimulate ADH and
by the effect of metabolites leading aldosterone in case dehydration , while
to increased pulse pressure which is inhibit them in case of overhydration.
called water hammer pulse
▪ Blood: increase erythropoietin
hormone which cause osteoporosis,
increase 2,3 DPG which cause shift
to RT of O2 dissociation curve.
▪ Respiration: increase rate of
respiration.
▪ GIT: increase GIT motility and
appetite
▪ Gonad: normal level of thyroxine
maintains gonadal function

Growth hormone
▪ Hypothalamus: GHRH:
- stimulate GH, while GHIH
(somatostatin) decrease GH
release.
▪ Feedback.
▪ Others:
Stimulator
✓ Decreased blood glucose,
FFA, increased blood amino
acids as arginine
✓ Stress, starvation, sleep
✓ Exercise, estrogen and
dopamine
Inhibitor
• Increased blood glucose,
FFA, decreased amino acid
• Obesity, cortisol, increased
GH and IGF
Control of hormones
ADH
▪ Hyper osmolarity:
- more than 300 m. osmol/l,
leading to increased ADH
secretion
▪ Hypovolemia
▪ Others:
Stimulators
✓ Increased temperature
✓ Barbiturate, beta agonist
✓ Opiates (morphine)
✓ Nicotine
✓ Estrogen
✓ Sulphonyurea
Inhibitors
• Alpha agonist, PGs
• Hypercalcemia, increased K
efflux
• Cortisol, chronic water
loading, cold weather
Insulin Glucagon
Stimulators Stimulators
✓ CHO: increased blood glucose ✓ Decreased blood glucose
✓ Lipid: increased FFA ✓ Decreased blood FFA
✓ Protein: increase blood amino ✓ Increased blood amino acids
acid ✓ Growth hormone
✓ Glucagon: increases insulin by
direct paracrine stimulation of Inhibitors
beta cell of pancreas, and • ‫العكس‬
indirectly by increasing blood • Somatostatin and pancreatic
glucose polypeptides
✓ GIT hormones: see GIT
✓ Vagus
✓ Beta agonist
✓ Ca
✓K
✓ Sulphonyl urea
Inhibitors
• Pancreatic polypeptides,
somatostatin
• Alpha agonist, PGs
• Diazoxide and phenytoin drugs
• Hypoglycemia, exercise
 Thyroid hormone
 Iodine:
✓ Iodine deficiency leads to
decreased thyroid hormone
formation.
✓ Excess iodine leads to
inhibition of enzymes leading
to decrease hormones
formation. Called wolf chaikoff
effect
 Stress: as cold weather leads to
increased thyroid hormone
 Pregnancy: HCG has TSH activity
leading to increased thyroid
hormones formation
 Antithyroid agents= goitrogen:
thiouracil present in cabbage,
prevent iodide uptake by thyroid
gland leading to decreased thyroid
hormone formation which by
negative feedback leads to
increased TSH causing goiter
 Age: thyroid hormone formation
decreases in old age
Cortisol
▪ Cortisol formation stimulated in
stress conditions as exercise,
hypoglycemia, cold weather, shock
▪ Hypothalamus release CRH to
stimulate release of ACTH from
ant pituitary
▪ Ant pituitary release ACTH to
stimulate adrenal cortex to release
cortisol
▪ Cortisol is the only adrenal cortical
hormone which has negative
feedback effect.
▪ Cortisol secretion is irregular
pulsatile more in the morning
controlled by suprachiasmatic
nucleus (biological clock =
circadian rhythm)
Aldosterone
▪ Rennin angiotensin system:
decreased ECF volume leads to
renal ischemia which leads to
activation of RAS and formation
of aldosterone
▪ Hyperkalemia and acidosis
▪ Hyponatremia
▪ ACTH: has minor role in formation
of aldosterone
Catecholamines
▪ Controlled by adrenaline secretory
center (ASC) in medulla oblongata
▪ Reticulospinal tract arise from ASC
to T5:T9 of spinal cord to
stimulate sympathetic
preganglionic fibers (greater
splanchnic nerve) which pass to
adrenal medulla to stimulate
adrenaline secretion
▪ Adrenaline secretion during rest is
basal
▪ ASC is affected by:
✓ Hypothalamus,
chemoreceptor, cortisol:
➢ stimulate adrenaline
secretion
✓ Baroreceptor in aortic arch
and volume receptor in RT
atrium:
➢ inhibit adrenaline
secretion.
 TSH:
✓ Increase size of thyroid gland
✓ Stimulate thyroid hormone
production by thyroid gland
✓ Increased level of thyroid
hormones leads to decreased
TSH by negative feedback on
pituitary more than
hypothalamus

 TSI= thyroid stimulating hormone =

LATS= long acting thyroid
stimulator:
✓ Produced by lymphocyte and
has TSH activity leading to
increased size of thyroid gland
and increase thyroid hormone
formation
✓ No negative feedback between
thyroid hormones and TSI
 Disorder of hormones
GH ADH
Dwarfism Gigantism Acromegaly Diabetes insipidus
Decreased GH Increased GH secretion Increased GH Diabetes insipidus Syndrome of inappropriate ADH
secretion in in children before fusion secretion in adult secretion
Cause children before of epiphysis due to after fusion of Cause - Central cause: decreased - Increased ADH secretion due to:
fusion of tumor in somatotrpoes epiphysis due to ADH secretion. ✓ Trauma
- Nephrogenic cause: defect ✓ CNS dse
epiphysis tumor in
in receptor in kidney with Ectopic ADH secretion from lung
somatotropes normal blood level of ADH tumor
Growth:
- Physical -Decreased with -Increased with tall -Coarse features as Manifestation ▪ Polyurea with low specific ▪ Increased water reabsorption
short stature stature (symmetric prognathism, gravity. leading to decreased Na
growth, height = span) enlarged hand and ▪ Polydipsia. concentration in blood resulting in
foot, kyphosis Anorexia and loss of weight headache, dizziness
-Sub mentality due to loss of water-soluble ▪ Increased blood volume leads to
- Mental -No effect -Sub mentality vitamins in urine. stimulation of RT atrial ANP
-Hypogonadism due to secretion
- Sexual -No effect pressure of tumor on -Hypogonadism due Treatment - Central type: give ADH ANP causes Na and water excretion
gonadotrpoes ……. - Peripheral type: not given
ADH
Decrease BMR Increase BMR and Increase BMR and Insulin
Metabolism and blood blood glucose blood glucose Diabetes mellitus
glucose
Blurring of vision and The same as Manifestation:
Vision headache due to gigantism ▪ Hyperglycemia
pressure of tumor on ▪ Glucosuria
optic chiasma ▪ Polyurea
Gynecomastia, ▪ Polydipsia
galactorrhea,
▪ Increased triglyceride in blood with lipolysis
hirsutism due to
Others lactogenic effect of ▪ Formation of ketone bodies which cause blood acidosis
GH. ▪ Mobilization of protein from ms to be used as source of energy leading to
asthenia and loss of weight.
 Thyroid hormone Adrenal cortical hormones
Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism (thyrotoxicosis) Hyperaldosteronism Cushing syndrome Addison dse
Causes - May be: - Caused by excess thyroid hormone Causes - May be: - May be: - Damage of adrenal
▪ 1ry hypothyroidism due to lesion in due to: ▪ 1ry (cons syndrome): ▪ 1ry: due to tumor in cortex by autoimmune dse,
thyroid gland. ▪ Tumor in thyroid gland due to tumor in adrenal adrenal cortex TB and tumor leading to
▪ 2ry hypothyroidism due to lesion in ▪ Tumor in pituitary gland cortex ▪ 2ry due to tumor in decreased cortisol,
pituitary gland. ▪ Graves dse ▪ 2ry due to liver, heart pituitary gland. aldosterone and androgen
- May occur in: and renal dse. ▪ exogenous cortisol
▪ Infant so called cretinism
▪ Adult so called myxedema Manifestation ▪ Hypernatremia, ▪ Exaggerated ▪ Decreased BMR
hypervolemia, mineralocorticoid ▪ Decreased blood
growth: ▪ In cretinism: there is decreased all ▪ Increased mental processes as hypertension and edema activity: as aldosterone glucose
▪ physical types of growth insomnia and tremors ▪ Hypokalemia leasing to ▪ Exaggerated ▪ Anemia
▪ In myxedema: decreased mental ms weakness, periodic androgenic effect: ▪ Abdominal pain
▪ Mental process as slow thinking, slow ▪ Ms weakness paralysis, nephropathy acne, amenorrhea and ▪ Addison crisis: on
reflexes and low concentration. and ECG changes hirsutism exposure to stress, there
▪ Ms weakness (as prominent u wave) ▪ Mental changes: is exaggerated
▪ Impotence in male and ▪ Sexual disturbance as impotence in ▪ Metabolic alkalosis due insomnia, euphoria and condition leading to
oligomenorrhea in female male and polymenorhea in female to H excretion leading to psychosis. shock
▪ Sexual tetany. ▪ Lipid: ▪ Deficient aldosterone
1- thin limb leading to
▪ Appetite ▪ Decreased appetite ▪ Increased appetite 1. 2-moon face hyponatremia,
▪ Bradycardia ▪ Bradycardia ▪ Tachycardia 2. 3-bufflo hump hyperkalemia with
▪ BMR ▪ Decreased BMR: leading to weight ▪ Increased BMR: leading to weight 3. 4-truncal obesity metabolic acidosis.
gain and intolerance (increased loss and intolerance (increased ▪ CHO: hyperglycemia ▪ Dark pigmentation of
sensitivity to cold weather) sensitivity to hot weather) ▪ Protein: protein skin: due to decreased
▪ Constipation ▪ Diarrhea catabolism leading to cortisol which leads to
▪ Constipation ms weakness, bruises, increased ACTH by
stria and osteoporosis. negative feedback
▪ Skin ▪ Skin: ▪ Skin: ▪ Polycythemia (ACTH has MSH activity)
▪ Eye 1. Dry scaly brittle hair due to Warm moist with fine silky hair. ▪ Peptic ulcer
▪ Face decreased vit A. ▪ Eye:
2. Yellowish due to 1. Staring look due to widening of
hypercarotenemia. palpebral fissure due to retraction
3. Pale due to anemia and pressure of upper eye lid
of myxomatous tissue on blood 2. Infrequent blinking Catecholamines
vessels. 3. Lid lag: delay in downward
movement of upper eye lid when
Pheochromocytoma
4. Cold: due to decreased BMR. ▪ Cause: increased catecholamine secretion by tumor in adrenal medulla
▪ Face: following a falling object.
▪ Manifestation:
❖ Dull uninterested with puffy eye 4. Failure of convergence 1- headache 2-blured vision
lid, thick lip and macroglossia (all due to sympathetic overactivity) 3-chest pain 4-palpitation with tachycardia
5. Exophthalamus: due to 5-hyperglycemia 6-hypertention
accumulation of inflammatory cell 7-pale moist skin
and exophthalamus producing ▪ Diagnosis: by finding venyl mandilic acid which is the metabolite of catecholamines in urine
substance behind eye.
 Additions Thyroid hormones:
Mechanism of growth hormone action
▪ Pituitary gland release growth hormone which has: T4 (thyroxine) T3
✓ Direct effect on CHO, lipid and electrolytes ▪ Tetraiodothyronine ▪ tri-iodothyronine
✓ Indirect effect on protein anabolism and growth ▪ contain tyrosine+ 4 atoms ▪ contain tyrosine+ 3 atoms
▪ Growth hormone stimulate liver and other tissues to release of iodine of iodine.
somatomedins (insulin like growth factor), then somatomedin ▪ represent 90% of thyroid ▪ represent 10% of thyroid
stimulate protein anabolism and growth hormones hormones
▪ There are two types of somatomedin: 1 in adult, 2 in fetus ▪ long half life = 7 days ▪ short half life = 1 day
▪ Structure of somatomedin is similar to insulin. ▪ less potent . ▪ more potent

Pancreatic hormones (present in tail of pancreas which represent 1% of pancreas): Goiter:

▪ Insulin released by beta cell
Def : Enlargement of thyroid gland with increased or decreased thyroid gland
▪ Glucagon released by alpha cell, also secreted from GIT in the form
activity
of glicentin (glucagon like peptides) Causes:
▪ Somatostatin released by D cell ▪ Goitrogen
▪ Pancreatic polypeptide released by F cell ▪ Graves dse
▪ Iodine deficiency
Mechanism of some hormones : ▪ Physiological goiter in pregnancy
▪ ADH and glucagon: by increasing CAMP ▪ Nodular goiter in stress.
▪ Oxytocin: by increasing Ca inside cell
Adrenal cortex formed of :
Nature of hormones : 1. Zona glomerulosa: outer part, secrete aldosterone which has 90% of
✓ All hormones are polypeptide except: mineralocorticoid activity.
▪ Thyroid hormones and catecholamine are amino acid hormone, formed 2. Zona fasciculata: middle part, secrete cortisol, and corticosterone (less
of tyrosine or phenylalanine active than cortisol)
▪ Adrenal cortical hormones are steroid hormones, formed from 3. Zona reticularis: inner part, secrete androgen
cholesterol, mainly bound to plasma protein to globulin mainly
which is called transcortin. Difference between 1ry and 2ryhyperaldosteronism :
❖ In 1ry hyperaldosteronism: low rennin , mild edema due to :
▪ Heart: secrete ANP to excrete Na followed by water excretion
Insulin is formed with C peptide :
C peptide is equimolar to insulin and measure endogenous insulin secretion. ▪ Kidney: increase GFR (which is called aldosterone escape phenomenon)
❖ In 2ry hyperaldosteronism: there is high rennin , sever edema
Adrenal medulla which is called modified sympathetic
ganglia, formed of two types of cells:
▪ Cells that secrete epinephrine: 80%
▪ Cells that secrete norepinephrine: 20%
Control of catecholamine secretion:
▪ Adrenaline secretory center (ASC) in medulla release
reticulospinal tract which reach spinal cord (T5-T9)
▪ From spinal cord, preganglionic sympathetic fibers (called
greater splanchnic nerve) arise to reach adrenal medulla to
stimulate it to release catecholamines.
▪ ASC is affected by:
a. Hypothalamus, cortisol and chemoreceptor: stimulate ASC
b. Baroreceptor in blood vessels and right atrium: inhibit ASC
Effect of hormones on CHO:
▪ Growth hormone, glucagon, catecholamines: Increase blood
glucose by:
 Decrease glucose uptake by cell
 Stimulate gluconeogenesis
 Stimulate glycogenolysis and inhibit glycogenesis
▪ Insulin: Decrease blood glucose by ‫العكس‬
▪ Cortisol: net result is increase blood glucose by:
 Increase blood glucose by: decrease glucose uptake by cell,
stimulate gluconeogenesis
 Decrease blood glucose by stimulating glycogenesis.
▪ Thyroid hormones: net result is increased blood glucose by:
 Increase blood glucose by increasing glucose absorption from
GIT, stimulate gluconeogenesis, stimulate glycogenolysis
 Decrease blood glucose by increasing glucose uptake by cell
Effect of hormones on lipid :
▪ Insulin: cause lipogenesis through:
✓ Stimulate lipoprotein lipase in blood which convert lipoprotein to FA
which pass to adipose tissue for lipogenesis.
✓ Inhibit lipolysis in adipose tissue
✓ Convert glucose and protein to fat
▪ Growth hormone , glucagon , cortisol , catecholamine and thyroxine
✓ Stimulate lipolysis leasing to release of FA to blood
✓ FA used as source of energy for ms during stress
Effect of hormones on protein:
▪ Growth hormone, insulin, thyroid hormone in normal dose , cortisol in
normal dose in liver : stimulate protein anabolism by :
 Increase amino acid uptake by cell
 Convert DNA to MRNA to protein
 Decrease protein catabolism
▪ Normal dose of cortisol in other tissues , excess thyroxine : Stimulate
protein catabolism
Hypothalamus and pituitary gland:
▪ Hypothalamus control anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) by
hypothalamo- hypophyseal portal circulation by releasing stimulatory
and inhibitory factors
▪ Hypothalamus control posterior pituitary (neuro-hypophysis) through:
Posterior pituitary hormones as ADH and oxytocin are formed in
hypothalamus:
ADH: formed in supraoptic nucleus then bound to neurophysin 2
Oxytocin: formed in paraventricular nucleus then bound to neurophysin 1
- After formation in hypothalamus they pass through hypothalamo –
hypophyseal tract to be stored in herring body which is swelling at end of
tract.
Anterior pituitary formed: Feedback:
▪ Acidophil: two types: somatotropes that release GH, mammotrpoe
that release prolactin Negative feedback Positive feedback
▪ Basophil: that release TSH, FSH and LH, ACTH, MSH ▪ Most common ▪ Less common
Def ▪ Gland A stimulate gland B. ▪ Gland A stimulate gland B
Anterior pituitary control through its trophic hormones: ▪ When hormone B is ▪ When hormone B is
✓ Thyroid, adrenal cortex and gonads and not control pancreas, increased it inhibit gland A. increased, it stimulates
parathyroid and adrenal medulla. gland A

Hypothalamus release both stimulatory and inhibitory factors for - Types: - Types:
GH, prolactin and MSH Types & ▪ Ultrashort: ▪ Occurs only during
Significance ✓ between hormones and ovulation and labor
Hypothalamus release only releasing factors for ACTH, FSH AND its own secreting gland
LH, TSH ▪ Short: - Significance:
✓ between pituitary and ▪ Amplify biological activity
hypothalamus of hormone
▪ Long:
✓ between gland and
pituitary or gland and
hypothalamus.

- Significance:
▪ Maintain hormonal
blood level constant