Universiti Malaysia Sarawak: Faculty of Engineering

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
KNS 1461
CIVIL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 2
LABORATORY REPORT
Code & Title S1 – Shear Force

Date of Experiment 25/02/2019
Lecturer Dr. Gaddafi bin Ismaili
Group 1H
Group Members Esther Lim Shin Yi (65910)
Mohamad Helmi Bin Mahmud (64857)
Muhammad Luqman Hakim Bin Amer
Saifude (64955)
Terry Emang Bilong (67922)
Vianney Jessica Jakeri (68001)
KNS1461 Civil Engineering Laboratory 2
Laboratory Report
Laboratory Report Writing

WK01 – CIVIL
Group No. : Group 1H Programme :
ENGINEERING
ESTHER LIM SHIN YI 65910
MOHAMAD HELMI BIN MAHMUD 64857
MUHAMMAD LUQMAN HAKIM BIN AMER
Name : Matric No. : 64955
SAIFUDE 67922
TERRY EMANG BILONG 68001
VIANNEY JESSICA JAKERI
Laboratory
: S1- Shear Force
Topic
Total
Criteria/ Weigh- Marks
CO PO n=4 n=3 n=2 n=1 n=0 Marks
Level tage (w) (n)
(n*w)
Introduction Introduction is Introduction is Some Very little No
complete and nearly complete, introductory background background
well-written; missing some information, information information
minor points. but still provided or
provides all provided.
2 4 missing some information is
necessary 3
major points. incorrect.
background
principles for the
experiment.
Experimental Clearly carrying Shows evidence Shows Student is No project

procedure out lab works of carrying out evidence of unfamiliar approaches
excellently. lab works carrying out with the lab /methods
Students appropriately. lab works, but works,
provided.
execute lab Students with some depending on
works with execute lab errors. partner for
2 4 correct works with Students help.
3
procedures, acceptable execute lab Incorrect
using procedures works, but not procedures
appropriate using necessarily cause
apparatus. appropriate with the ineffective
apparatus. appropriate investigation.
apparatus.
Results and All results are Almost all Some of the Incomplete or No results
Discussions : correctly results are results are incorrect and
Data presented and correctly correctly interpretation discussions
have been clearly presented and presented and of results
Handling and provided.
made. Student have been have been indicating a
Analysis
able to generate, clearly made. clearly made. lack of
create, analyse Student able to Student able to understanding
and evaluate generate, create generate and of results.
ideas and shows and analyse create ideas Students only
2 4 good ideas. but many are able to
understanding. misstated, generate 7
indicating a ideas.
lack of
understanding.
Conclusions 2 4 All important All important Conclusions Conclusions No 2
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conclusions have conclusions regarding missing or conclusions

been clearly made, have been major points missing the provided.
student shows good drawn, could are drawn, but important
understanding. be better many are points.
stated. misstated,
indicating a
lack of
understanding.
Appearance All sections are in All sections in Sections in Sections out Poor
and order, well- order, order, of order, formatting.
formatting formatted and formatting are formatting are sloppy
readable. generally well rough but formatting.
but can be readable. Poor
All grammar/spelling improved. Frequent grammar
correct and very Occasional grammar and writing
2 4 style.
well-written. Less grammar/spell and/or 2
grammar/spell ing errors, spelling
ing errors, generally errors,
mature, readable with writing style
readable style. some rough is rough and
spots in immature
writing style.
References All references were All references Some Most No

and reliable (e.g were references references references/
Citations journals) and apparently were not were not citations
relevant. reliable (e.g reliable (e.g reliable (e.g provided.
journals) and internet internet
Citation of relevant. content) and content) and
2 4
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done critically. Some citation
of references Some citation Most citation
was done of references of references
properly was not done was not done
properly. properly.
Σw= Σn= Σ ( n∗w )=

TOTAL
20
TOTAL MARKS
∑ m∗w ×100 %=¿
∑w
∑ ( n∗w ) x100 %=
4×∑ w
3
Laboratory Report
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page number
1. Introduction 5
2. Objectives 6
3. Apparatus& Materials 6
4. Procedure 7- 8
5. Results & Calculations 9- 14
6. Discussion 15- 16
7. Conclusion 17
8. References 17
1. INTRODUCTION
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In beam designing, shear force is one which is perpendicular to the

Longitudinal x- axis beam. The purpose of doing this experiment was to
determine the shear force at any section after a certain amount of load is applied to
the beam. Shear force was one of an important factor to be considered in
designing any structural component.
Shear Forces occurs when two parallel forces act out of alignment with
each other (Shear Force and Bending Moment, n.d.). In another words, shear force
is a force applied perpendicular to a surface, in opposition to an offset force acting
in the opposite direction (Shear Force, 2019). In a simple word, one part on the
surface is pushed in a direction while the other part is pushed in the opposite
direction. In this experiment, we need to find the shear force at a particular section
when it loaded with forces and compare it with theoretical calculation. The beam
is supported with two pivots.
Figure 1.0: Free body diagram of cut beam
In this experiment, two edges support was set up on the base of two
structural frames with an equal separation distance. The load of different masses
will be tested in this experiment. Shear force through the experiment is the
internal resistance created in the beam of cross sections. The loads with different
magnitudes are applied on the beam and shear force is calculated using equation
of equilibrium.
2. OBJECTIVES
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This experiment is to determine the shear force at particular section and to study
how to establish the shearing force
3. APPARATUS &MATERIALS
 Set of weight hangers.
 Beam
 Measuring tape
 Loads (5 N and 10 N)
 Spring gauge
Figure 3.0: Shear Force
apparatus
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Laboratory Report
Figure 3.1: 10N load Figure 3.2: 5N load
4. PROCEDURE
Case A
Experiment by using the distances of 5 cm, 60 cm and 80 cm from the left end
support.
1. The two supports were set up on the base of the structural test frame at a
distance of 90 cm from edge to edge.
2. The shear force apparatus was placed on the supports.
3. The beam was aligned horizontally by adjusting the screw of the spring gauge.
4. The weight hangers were placed 5 cm, 60 cm and 80 cm from the support.
5. The screw of the spring was adjusted to repeat the horizontal beam alignment.
6. The initial reading of the shear force is taken and recorded.
7. A set of loads; L1 = 5N, L2 = 5N, L3 = 5N was placed on each hanger.
8. The beam was aligned horizontally by adjusting the screw of the spring gauge.
9. The magnitude for the shear force obtained by the spring gauge is recorded.
10. The set of weights are being removed. Steps 7 until 9 are being repeated by
using different sets of loads (L1 = 5N, L2 = 10N, L3 = 5N and L1 = 5N, L2 = 10N,
L3 = 15N).
Case B
Experiment by using the distances of 10 cm, 55 cm and 75 cm from the left end
support.
3. The beam was aligned horizontally by adjusting the screw of the spring
gauge.
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Laboratory Report
4. The weight hangers were placed 10 cm, 55 cm and 75 cm from the

support.
5. The screw of the spring was adjusted to repeat the horizontal beam
alignment.
gauge.
9. The magnitude for the shear force obtained by the spring gauge is
recorded.
10. The set of weights are being removed. Steps 7 until 9 are being repeated
by using different sets of loads (L1 = 5N, L2 = 10N, L3 = 5N and L1 = 5N,
L2 = 10N, L3 = 15N)
Case C
Experiment by using the distances of 15 cm, 50cm and 70 cm from the left
support.
gauge.
4. The weight hangers were placed 15 cm, 50 cm and 70 cm from the
support.
5. The screw of the spring was adjusted to repeat the horizontal beam
alignment.
gauge.
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Laboratory Report
9. The magnitude for the shear force obtained by the spring gauge is
recorded.
10. The set of weights are being removed. Steps 7 until 9 are being repeated
by using different sets of loads (L1 = 5N, L2 = 10N, L3 = 5N and L1 = 5N,
L2 = 10N, L3 = 15N)
5. RESULTS & CALCULATIONS
Case A: Case B: Case C:
D1= 5 cm D1= 10 cm D1=15 cm
D2= 60 cm D2= 55 cm D2= 50 cm
D3= 80 cm D3= 75 cm D3= 70 cm
Load Position (N) Shear Force (N)

Balance
Case Ratio
Force (N)
W1 W2 W3 SE ST
Datum 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.40 0.00 0.00 0.00
A 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.30 1.90 1.94 1.00
B 5.00 10.00 5.00 6.20 3.80 4.17 1.00
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Laboratory Report
C 5.00 10.00 15.00 9.70 7.30 6.94 1.05
Table 5.0: Tabulation of data for shear force
Experimental value for shear force, SE:
SE = Balance force, x−¿Balance force at datum, y
y= 2.40 N
Case A Case B
x= 4.30 N x=6.20 N
SE1 = 4.30−¿2.40 = 1.90 N SE2 = 6.20 – 2.40 = 3.80 N
Case C
x = 9.70 N
SE3 = 9.70−¿2.40 = 7.30 N
Theoretical value of shear force, ST
 Assume all anticlockwise moment is positive while clockwise is

negative
 Assume all forces going up are positive
Case A
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Figure 5.0: Free body diagram of case A
∑MA = 0
−¿5(0.05)−¿ 5(0.60)−¿5(0.80) + By(0.90) = 0
By = 8.06 N
∑FY = 0
−¿5−¿ 5−¿5+Ay = 0
Ay = 6.94 N
Figure 5.1: Free body

diagram of internal forces for case A
∑Fy = 0
−¿5 + 6.94−¿V = 0
V = 1.94 N
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Ratio = SE1/ST
= 1.90/1.94
= 1.00
Case B
Figure 5.2:
Free body diagram of case B
∑MA=0
−¿5(0.10)−¿ 10(0.55)−¿5(0.75) + By(0.90) = 0
By = 10.83 N
∑Fy = 0
−¿5−¿ 10−¿5+10.83+AY = 0
Ay = 9.17 N
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Laboratory Report
Figure 5.3: Free body diagram of internal forces for case B
∑Fy = 0
−¿V + 9.17−¿ 5 = 0
V=4.17 N
Ratio = SE2/ST
= 3.80/4.17
= 1.00
Case C
Figure 5.4: Free body diagram of case C
∑MA = 0
−¿(0.15)5−10(0.50)−¿15(0.70) + By (0.90) = 0
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By = 18.06 N
∑Fy = 0
−¿5−¿ 10−¿15+18.06+Ay = 0
Ay = 11.94 N
Figure 5.5: Free body diagram of internal forces for case C
∑Fy = 0
11.94−¿5−¿V=0
V= 6.94 N
Ratio = SE3/ST
= 7.30/6.94
= 1.05
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6. DISCUSSION
3 cases of experiment have been conducted with different loadings and

different distances for each case. The shear force at any section of a beam
represents the tendency for the portion of the beam on one side of the section to
slide or shear laterally relative to the other portion. The theoretical value of shear
force, ST of each case is calculated using method of sections and equations of
equilibrium relating the relationship between shear, bending moment and load.
Shear force, V is calculated from the vertical equilibrium. Position sign
convention is also used, where one cut side has downwards shear force and anti-
clockwise moment while the other side has the opposite forces.
The theoretical shear calculated for case A, case B, and case C is 1.94 N, 4.17
N and 6.94 N respectively. The experimental value of shear force, S E is calculated
with the formula, S E=Balance force , x−Balance force at datum, y . The
experimental shear calculated for case A, case B and case C is 1.90 N, 3.80 N and
7.30 N. Then, the ratio of experimental shear by theoretical shear, SE/ST for 3 cases
is calculated. The ratio calculated for case A and case B is 1. The nearer the ratio
to 1, the more accurate the experiment is. This indicates that for case A and case
B, the experimental value gotten is accurate. However, for case C, the ratio is
1.05. Even though it is nearer to the ratio of 1, there is still an inaccuracy for the
experimental value in case C as the value of experimental shear and theoretical
differs much.
This is due to some errors during the experiments. Firstly, the apparatus was
a little old and faulty. There was a string on the apparatus to make sure that it is
parallel to the beam as the beam needs to be horizontal and straight before taking
the reading when there is load. But the string was almost broken because it was
used for many times, so it was hard to make sure if the beam was horizontal.
When the beam is not horizontal, it will affect the reading of the spring balance.
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Laboratory Report
This causes error for the experimental shear value. To avoid this error, a bubble
level can be used instead of a string, to make sure the beam is horizontal.
Next, one of the errors is parallax error. Parallax error occurs when a person’s
eye level is not the same as the reading from the spring balance. To avoid this
error, the experiment can be repeated two or three times to get several readings,
and the final reading will be the average of all readings. Moreover, bending
moment and load affects shear force. Therefore, the placing of loads will affect
the shear force. When placing the load onto the weight hanger, the speed of
placing the load was not considered so this affects the stability of the beam and
the reading of the spring balance. The loads need to be placed slowly so that the
beam will not be overloaded at one shot. Also, the zero error of the spring balance
was not considered. This is one of the causes of error in experimental shear value.
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7. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, there is a relationship between shear force and bending moment

and load. From the experiment, the experimental shear value for case A, case B
and case C is 1.90 N, 3.80 N and 7.30 N respectively while the theoretical shear
value calculated for case A, case B and case C is 1.94 N, 4.17 N and 6.94 N
respectively. The ratio of experimental shear by theoretical shear, S E/ST for case A
and case B is exactly 1 while for case C is 1.05. This is due to the errors that
occurred during the experiment. However, the experimental shear values are
generally close to their theoretical shear values. Therefore, this experiment is a
success and the objectives are achieved.
8. REFERENCES
An introduction to Shear Force and Bending Moment in beams. (n.d.). Retrieved

from Shear Force and Bending Moment:
https://www.codecogs.com/library/engineering/materials/shear-force-and-
bending-moment.php#sec11
Shear Force. (22 February, 2019). Retrieved from Designing buildings:

https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Shear_force
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Laboratory Report
KNS 1451
LABORATORY REPORT
Code & Title S2 - Bending Moment
Lecturer Gaddafi bin Ismaili
Group 1H
Mohammad Helmi bin Mahmud
(64857)
Muhammad Luqman Hakim bin Amer
Saifude (64955)
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Laboratory Report
WK01 –
Group No. : Group 1H Programme : CIVIL
ENGINEERING
SAIFUDE 67922
Laboratory
: S2- Bending Moment
Topic
Total
Level tage (w) (n)
(n*w)
necessary 3
background
principles for the
experiment.

provided.
3
apparatus.
Analysis able to generate, clearly made. clearly made. lack of
indicating a ideas.
lack of
understanding.

19
Laboratory Report
stated. misstated,
indicating a
lack of
understanding.
2 4 style.
spots in immature
writing style.

2 4
properly. properly.
Σw= Σn= Σ ( n∗w )=

TOTAL
20
TOTAL MARKS
∑ m∗w ×100 %=¿
∑w
∑ ( n∗w ) x100 %=
4×∑ w
TABLE OF CONTENTS
20
Laboratory Report
CONTENT PAGE
1. Introduction 22
2. Objective 23
3. Apparatus & Material 23-24
4. Procedure 25-26
5. Result& Calculations 27-32
6. Discussion 33-34
7. Conclusion 35
8. References 35
1. THEORY/INTRODUCTION:
When a beam is applied with forces through loading, internal stresses occurs
within the beam. In general, both normal and bending stresses occur. In order to
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find out the magnitude of these stresses at any section of the beam, the resultant
force and moment acting on the section must be obtained. These may be found by
applying the equation of static equilibrium.
Bending moments are rotational forces within the beam that cause bending.
At any point within a beam, the bending moment is the sum of each external force
multiplied by the distance that is perpendicular to the direction of the force (Green
Mechanics,2017). When a force is loaded onto a beam, internal stress and strain is
produced, causing it to displace from its original place, then that deforming of the
beam from its present axis is called bending moment (Roberts, n, d).
Bending moment at a section will be considered as positive if bending

moment to the left of the section is in clockwise direction and bending moment to
the right of the section is in anti-clockwise direction. Such type of bending
moment will also termed as sagging bending moment. In other words, bending
moment at a section will be considered as positive if the bending moment at that
section will tend to bend the beam in a curvature having concavity at the top
(Divedi, 2017).
Figure 1.0: Sign conventions for
In this experiment, load is applied to the center of the beam. One support
end is changing distance. The load of different mass is applied as the end of
support change and the reading on the dial indicator is taken.
2. OBJECTIVES
In this experiment, by applying the theory, the bending moment at aparticular

section is to be determined and then compared with the theoretical calculations.
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3. APPARATUS & MATERIALS:
 Bending Moment Apparatus

 Beam with cut section
 A load hanger
 A set of weights (5N and 10N)
Figure 2.1 Force gauge mounted on Bending Moment Apparatus
Figure 2.2 Bending Moment Apparatus
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Figure 2.3 Load Hanger
Figure 2.4 10 N Weight
Figure 2.5 5N Weight
4. PROCEDURE:
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For datum
1. The beam was placed on the supports.

2. The perpendicular distance was set as 150mm.
3. The balance force was recorded as R.
4. The bending moment at datum, y was calculated by using formula ME
=Bending Moment,x – Bending moment at datum,y.
For case A
5. The beam was placed on the supports.

7. The load hanger was placed at a specific location at L1=5cm, L2 =60cm and
L3 =80cm from the left beam.
8. The load was put on the hanger. W1 =5N , W2 =5N and W3 =5N
10. Bending moment,x was calculated using formula Mo =Fd
For case B
1. The beam was placed on the supports

3. The load hanger was placed at a specific location at L1=5cm, L2 =60cm
and L3 =80cm from the left beam.
6. Bending moment,x was calculated using formula Mo =Fd
For case C
1. The beam was placed on the supports

3. The load hanger was placed at a specific location at L1=5cm, L2 =60cm
and L3 =80 cm from the left beam.
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6. Bending moment, x was calculated using formula Mo =Fd
5. RESULT/ANALYSIS
Balance Bending moment (Nmm)

Case Load Position (N) Force
ME MT Ratio
(N)
Datum 0.00 0.00 0.00 18.00 2700.00 00.00 00.00 0.000
A 5.00 5.00 5.00 19.00 2850.00 150.00 444.00 0.338
B 5.00 10.00 5.00 22.00 3300.00 600.00 611.00 0.982
C 5.00 10.00 15.00 24.00 3600.00 900.00 722.00 1.25
Table 5.0: Tabulation of data of bending moment
Perpendicular distance: 150mm
Experimental value for bending moment, M E :
ME =Bending moment, x−¿ Bending moment at datum, y
y= 2700.00 Nmm
Case A
x =2850.00 Nmm
ME1 = 2850.00−¿2700.00 = 150.00 Nmm
Case B
x= 3300.00 Nmm
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ME2= 3300.00– 2700.00 = 600.00 Nmm
Case C
x = 3600.00 Nmm
ME3 = 3600.00−¿2700.00 = 900.00 Nmm
Theoretical value of bending moment, MT :
 Assume all anticlockwise moment is positive while clockwise is negative

 Assume all forces going up are positive
Case A
Figure 5.1:
Free body diagram of case A
∑MA = 0
−¿5(0.05)−¿ 5(0.60)−¿5(0.80) + By(0.90) = 0
By = 8.06 N
∑FY = 0
−¿5−¿ 5−¿5+ 8.06 + Ay = 0
Ay = 6.94 N
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5N
A V
Ay 5 cm
5 cm
Figure 5.2: Free body diagram of internal forces in the left side cut for case A
∑M = 0
−¿6.94(100) + 5(50) + M = 0
M= 444 Nmm
Ratio = ME1/MT
=150 /444
= 0.338
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Case B
10N
Figure 5.3: Free body diagram of case
∑MA=0
−¿5(0.05)−¿ 10(0.6)−¿5(0.80) + By(0.90) = 0
By = 11.39 N
∑Fy = 0
−¿5−¿ 10−¿5+11.39 + AY = 0
Ay = 8.61 N
5N
A V
Ay 5 cm 5 cm
Figure 5.4: Free body diagram of internal forces in the left side cut for case B
∑M = 0
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−¿8.61(100) + 5(50) + M = 0
M= 611 Nmm
Ratio = ME2/MT
= 600/ 611
= 0.982
Case C
10N 15N
Figure 5.5: Free body diagram of case C
∑MA = 0
−¿5(0.05)−1 0(0.60)−¿15(0.80) + By (0.90) = 0
By = 20.28N
∑Fy = 0
−¿5−¿ 10−¿15+ 20.28 +Ay = 0
Ay = 9.72N
5N
A V
30
M
Ay
Laboratory Report
Figure 5.4: Free body diagram of internal forces in the left side cut for case C
∑M = 0
−¿9.72(100) + 5(50) + M = 0
M= 722 Nmm
Ratio = ME3/MT
= 900/ 722
= 1.25
6. DISCUSSION
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Laboratory Report
The objective for this experiment is to determine the bending moment at

particular section and compare the experimental value with theoretical value.
Therefore, we had conducted this experiment to determine the bending moment.
In our experiment, we have three cases which are Case A, Case B and Case C. We
found out that different section of the beam have different value of bending
moment. Also, the amount of load effect the value of bending moment. There are
slightly difference value between the theoretical value and experimental value.
The theoretical value of bending moment, SX was determined by using the
section method or relationship between load, shear force and bending moment.
The theoretical bending moment that we calculated for case A, case B and case C
are 444.00 Nmm, 611.00 Nmm and 722.00 Nmm respectively.
Before applying the load, we had to make sure the bending moment
equipment was exactly horizontal by adjusting using the spring balance. Then we
recorded the reading on the spring balance as datum. The reason we took this
value was to calculate actual reading of bending moment by getting the difference
between the final and initial reading.
Firstly, we put 5N load at the three specific distances on the beam for case A.
Then, for case B, we added 5N load at the second hanger on the beam. For case C,
we added 5N load at the third hanger. The experimental value of bending moment
that we have obtained from case A, case B and case C are 150.00 N, 600.00 N and
900.00 N respectively. We found out that as more loads are added, the bending
moment will increase as the experimental value for case C recorded are the largest
value among the value for case A and case B.
Based on what we have learned about the strength of material, when a load is
applied to the beam, the beam would physically bend downwards. This situation
occurs due to the external loading applied. There are distribution of load
throughout the beam which makes the beam to bend. Plus, the equilibrium is
achieved, as there are also two other forces present other than bending moment
which are shear force and normal force. When external force is applied that causes
the beam to break apart is countered by the internal force that acts throughout the
beam. This is to prevent the beam from falling. Thus, we are able to determine the
factors of the bending moment.
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Laboratory Report
From this experiment, we have calculated the ratio to compare

experimental value and theoretical value of the bending moment. The ratio for
case A case B and case C are 0.338, 0.982 and 1.25 respectively. By calculating
this ratio, we were able to determine the accuracy. In general, the nearer the ratio
to 1, the higher the accuracy of the experimental value. In this experiment, the
three cases are not accurately have ratio to 1. According to the lab technician, this
is due to the faulty occur from the beam. Before we even started, we were
uncertain whether the beam was exactly horizontal or not. Also, it is probably due
to the the beam is not realigned after adding the next load. Furthermore, parallax
error also occurred when taking the reading of the spring balance. It is caused due
to the observer’s eye level not the same as the level of the spring balance. Other
than that, while we were tightening and losing the screw to adjust the horizontal
position of the beam, the hanger will move a little causing the distance to be
different. This causes some error in the experimental value. Thus, we made sure to
slowly tighten and loosen the screw and realign the beam when the hangers move.
Thus, a careful precaution should be handle whenever conducting an
experiment to prevent any errors.
7. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the experimental value of bending moment for case A, case B

and case C are 150.00 Nmm, 600.00 Nmm and 900.00 Nmm respectively. Based
on the experiment, we can conclude that the bending moment experiment in three
cases verify the theoretical calculation. This is due to there are difference between
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Laboratory Report
theoretical value and experimental value. These small degrees of deviation may
due to the error arise when conducting the experiment. Therefore, we should take
precautionary steps to reduce the error and improve our experimental result.
8. REFERENCES
Green Mechanics. (2017). Deflection of beams. Retrieved from

https://www.green-mechanic.com/2017/01/Deflection-of-Beam
Roberts, P. (n,d ). Shear force and bending moments: Introduction to bending of

beams. Retrieved from https://www.coursera.org/lecture/fe-exam/shear-force-
and-bending-moments-introduction-to-bending-of-beams-92qXw
Divedi, H. (2017). Sign convention for shear force and bending moment diagram.
Retrieved from http://www.hkdivedi.com/2017/03/sign-convention-for-shear-
force-and.html
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KNS 1461
LABORATORY REPORT
35
Laboratory Report
Code & Title S3 – Deflection of Beams

Group 1H
Saifude (64955)
WK01 – CIVIL
Group No. : Group 1H Programme :
ENGINEERING
SAIFUDE 67922
Laboratory
: S3- Deflection of Beams
Topic
Total
Level tage (w) (n)
(n*w)
necessary 3
background
principles for the
experiment.

provided.
2 4
correct works with Students help. 3
apparatus.
36
Laboratory Report
Analysis
indicating a ideas.
lack of
understanding.
Conclusions All important All important Conclusions Conclusions No

2 4 understanding. be better many are points.
2
stated. misstated,
indicating a
lack of
understanding.
2 4 style.
spots in immature
writing style.

2 4
properly. properly.
Σw= Σn= Σ ( n∗w )=

TOTAL
20
37
Laboratory Report
TOT
∑ ( n∗w ) x100 %=
∑ m∗w ×100 %=¿ 4×∑ w
AL MARKS ∑w
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents Page number
1. Introduction 40-42
2. Objectives 42
3. Apparatus& Materials 43
4. Procedure 44
5. Results 45-48
6. Calculations 49-52
7. Discussion 53-55
8. Conclusion 56
9. References 56
38
Laboratory Report
1. INTRODUCTION
Deflection of Beams
Deflection of beams is the vertical displacement of a point on a loaded

beam. The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its
deflection from its original unloaded position. The deflection is measured
from the original neutral surface of the beam to the neutral surface of the
deformed beam. The configuration assumed by the deformed neutral surface is
known as the elastic curve of the beam. (Vijay, 2018)
Figure 1.0: Elastic

With the theory of simple bending, stress, strain, dimension, curvature,
elasticity, are all related, under certain assumptions. For beams that are subjected
to several loads of different types, they create shear force, bending moment, slope
and deflection at any location by summing the effects due to each load acting
separately to the other loads.
39
Laboratory Report
Flexural or bending stress is caused by the bending moment. In the derivation

of flexure formula, the radius of curvature of a beam is given as
EI
ρ=
M
where E= modulus of elasticity of the beam
I= centroidal moment of inertia
M= bending moment
Figure 1.1: Simple supported

beam with a concentrated point load
Linear shafts and actuators are often secured at their ends, leaving their length
unsupported, much like a simply supported beam. (Collins, 2016). In this
experiment, a simple supported beam is used with a concentrated point load acting
in the middle. The concentrated point load at the center of the beam will induce
maximum deflection. The formula of maximum deflection in this condition is
derived as follows:
'' 1 1
EIy = Fx−F x− L
2 2 ( )
( )
2
'' 1 2 1 1
EIy = F x − F x− L + C1
4 2 2
( )
3
'' 1 3 1 1
EIy = F x − F x− L +C 1 x +C2
12 6 2
At x= 0, y= 0, therefore, C 2=0
At x=L, y= 0
40
Laboratory Report
( )
3
1 3 1 1
0= F L − F L− L +C 1 L
12 6 2
1 3 1 3
0= F L − F L +C 1 L
12 48
−1 2
C 1= FL
16
Thus,
1 3 1
6
1 3 1
2 16
2
(
EIy− F x − F x− L − F L x
12 )
1
Maximum deflection will occur at x= L (midspan)
2
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1
EI y max = F L − F L− L − F L L
12 2 6 2 2 16 2
1 3 1 3
EI y max = F L −0− F L
96 32
−F L3
y max =
48 EI
The negative sign indicates that the deflection is below the undeformed neutral
axis.
3
FL
Therefore, δ max =
48 EI
where F=load acting on beam

L= length of beam
E= modulus of elasticity of the beam
I= centroidal moment of inertia
41
Laboratory Report
2. OBJECTIVES
To determine the deflection of a loaded beam at particular point and compare the
deflection with the theoretical values.
3. APPARATUS & MATERIALS

 Load hanger
 Masses (5N and 10N)
 Ruler
 Dial Gauge
 Steel beam (3mm and 5mm)
Figure
42
Laboratory Report
Figure 3.2: 10N load

Figure 3.3: Dial Gauge
4. PROCEDURE
1. A beam with 3mm of thickness was placed on the knife edge supports with
a span of 900 mm.
2. The dial gauge was set up right in the middle of the beam as each side of
the beam must have equal length from support.
3. The dial gauge was adjusted to zero and the initial reading of deflection
without the load is recorded.
4. A load of 5 N was applied to the weight hanger in the mid span of the
beam.
5. The deflection of the beam was recorded through the reading of the dial
gauge.
6. Then, step 4 and 5 were repeated with load 10 N and 15 N.
7. Next, step 2 to 5 is repeated with different beam span which is 800 mm
and 600 mm.
8. The experiment is repeated with a beam of 5 mm thickness, but with 5N,
10N and 20N load.
9. All readings and data were tabulated.
43
Laboratory Report
5. RESULT / ANALYSIS
Thickness of beam = 3 mm
Table 5.0: Tabulation of data of deflection for thin beam
Dial Gauge Deflection (mm)

Length Reading
Load (N) Ratio
(mm) Experimental, Theoretical,
(±0.001 mm)
VE VT
0 1.54 0.00 0.00 0.00
5 8.26 6.72 6.75 1.00
900
10 15.24 13.70 13.50 1.01
15 23.45 21.91 20.25 1.08
0 6.26 0.00 0.00 0.00
5 11.14 4.88 4.74 1.03

800
10 16.07 9.81 9.48 1.03
15 20.71 14.45 14.22 1.02
44
Laboratory Report
Deflection (mm)
Dial Gauge
Length Reading
Load (N) Ratio
(mm)
(±0.001 mm) Experimental, Theoretical,
VE VT
0 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.00
5 2.65 2.18 2.00 1.09
600
10 4.77 4.30 4.00 1.08
15 6.88 6.41 6.00 1.07
45
Laboratory Report
Thickness of beam = 5 mm
Deflection (mm)
Dial Gauge
Length Reading
Load (N) Ratio
(mm)
VE VT
0 0.64 0.00 0.00 0.00
5 2.40 1.76 1.46 1.21
900
10 3.56 2.92 2.92 1.00
20 6.54 5.90 5.83 1.01
0 3.38 0.00 0.00 0.00
800 5 4.41 1.03 1.02 1.01
10 5.52 2.14 2.05 1.04
20 7.56 4.18 4.10 1.02
Table 5.1: Tabulation of data of deflection for thick beam
46
Laboratory Report
Deflection (mm)
Dial Gauge
Length Reading
Load (N) Ratio
(mm)
VE VT
0 3.39 0.00 0.00 0.00
5 3.85 0.46 0.43 1.07
600
10 4.30 0.91 0.86 1.06
20 5.15 1.76 1.73 1.02
6. CALCULATIONS
The general formula to count the deflection of beams in this experiment is:
3
FL
For thin beam, v=
48 EI
47
Laboratory Report
L=900 mm
900
x= = 2 = 450
x= 450 mm E = 200 × 103 b = 25 mm h = 3 mm
I=
=
= 56.25 mm4
Case 1 - Distance = 900 mm
P1 = 0 N, v= = 0 mm
P2 = 5 N, v= = 6.75 mm
P3 = 10 N, v= = 13.50 mm
P4 = 15 N, v= = 20.25 mm
P1 = 0 N, v= = 0 mm
48
Laboratory Report
P2 = 5 N, v= = 4.74 mm
P3 =10 N, v= = 9.48 mm
P4 = 15 N, v= = 14.22 mm
Case 3 - Distance= 600 mm
P1 = 0 N, v= = 0 mm
P2 = 5 N, v= = 2 mm
P3 = 10 N, v = = 4 mm
P4 = 15 N, v = = 6 mm
For thick beam,

L=900 mm
900
x= = 2 = 450
x= 450 mm E = 200 × 103 b = 25 mm h = 5 mm
49
Laboratory Report
I=
=
= 260.42 mm4
Case 1 - Distance= 900 mm
P1 = 0 N, v= = 0 mm
P2 = 5 N, v= = 1.46 mm
P3 = 10 N, v= = 2.92 mm
P4 = 20 N, v= = 5.83 mm
P1 = 0 N, v= = 0 mm
P2 = 5 N, v= = 1.02 mm
P3 = 10 N, v= = 2.05 mm
50
Laboratory Report
P4 = 20 N, v = 4.10 mm
P1 = 0 N, v= = 0 mm
P2 = 5 N, v= = 0.43 mm
P3 = 10 N, v= = 0.86 mm
P4 = 20 N, v= = 1.73 mm
7. DISCUSSION
51
Laboratory Report
Deflection (mm) against load (N) for thin beam

25
20
Deflection of beam (mm)
15
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Load (N)
Experimental value of 900mm Theoretical value of 900mm

Two different cross- sectional beams have been experimented with different beam
spans and different loadings to compare their deflections. The thinner beam has a
thickness of 3mm while the thicker beam has a thickness of 5mm. The theoretical
3
FL
value of deflection is calculated using the formula, v= , where F is the load
48 EI
exerted on the beam, L is the beam span, E is the modulus of elasticity and I is
centroidal moment of inertia. The ratio is calculated by the formula
Experiemtal value , V E
. The closer the ratio to 1, the more accurate the experiment
Theoretical value , V T
is. To compare the theoretical values and the experimental values obtained, two
graphs are plotted according to their deflections and loadings for each beam.
There are three colours each representing different beam span in the experiment.
Graph 7.0: Deflection (mm) against load (N) for thin beam
52
Laboratory Report
Deflection (mm) agaisnt load (N) for thick beam
6
Deflection of beam (mm)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Load (N)

Graph 7.1: Deflection (mm) against load (N) for thick beam
Both graphs above show that the deflection of beam correlates with the load
applied to it for both 3mm and 5mm thickness beams. From the deflection
formula, deflection is directly proportional to the loading. In both graphs, it can be
seen that the solid lines are slightly higher than the dotted lines. This means that
the experimental deflection is larger than the theoretical deflection. This is caused
by some errors during the experiment. It could be when the beam has yet to
recover from its previous load to its original position before the next load is
added. So unnecessary extra deflection is obtained.
Besides, it can be seen that the deflection values of the 900mm beam span are
the largest followed by 800mm and 600mm. This indicates that the longer the
beam span, the larger the deflection of the beam as deflection is directly
53
Laboratory Report
proportional to length. Furthermore, by comparing the values based on the

thickness of the beam, it can be seen that the deflection values are larger in the
thin beam. The largest deflection value of thin beam is in the range of 20 to 25mm
while the largest deflection value of the thick beam is only in the range 5 to 6mm.
This means that thin beam deflects more than thick beam. As thickness correlates
with the moment of inertia, the formula shows that deflection is inversely
proportional to the moment of inertia, I. The greater the value of I or the greater
the thickness of beam, the smaller the deflection. Nevertheless, both experimental
and theoretical values are quite similar to each other and both obey the deflection
formula.
There were errors that were needed to avoid during this experiment. These
errors caused the experimental values to run slightly from the theoretical values
and caused the difference in ratio compared to 1. Firstly, it could be the dial
gauge’s error where inaccurate readings were taken. To avoid this error,
experiments should be repeated to get consistent readings. Also, when taking the
initial reading, all the pointers in the dial gauge should be made sure that they are
pointing zero. Next, the loadings should be put slowly on the weight hanger to
avoid sudden overloading of the beam. This will affect the reading of the dial
gauge. In addition, there are also errors that can happen in the beam. The beam
will be deformed if it reaches its limit of proportionality. The readings of the
loadings exerted on the deformed beam will not be accurate anymore.
8. CONCLUSION
54
Laboratory Report
To conclude, the deflection of beam is directly proportional to the length of

beam and the load exerted on it, but is inversely proportional to the thickness of
beam. The larger the load applied to the beam, the more it deflects. The longer the
span of the beam, the more it deflects. The thicker the beam, the smaller the
deflection. The experimental deflection is higher than the theoretical deflection
due to errors. To reduce errors, the method of applying loads and the reading of
the dial gauge should be emphasized. The beam needs to be always made sure that
it is not deformed.
9. REFERENCES
Vijay, V. (2018). Deflection of beams study notes for mechanical engineering.

Retrieved from
7https://gradeup.co/deflection-of-beams-i-ae206f65-bea5-11e5-b01a-
53c804be557a
Collins, D. (2016). How to calculate beam deflection. Retrieved from

https://www.linearmotiontips.com/beam-deflection/
55
Laboratory Report

KNS 1461
LABORATORY REPORT
Code & Title S4 – Mechanical Properties of Materials
Group 1H

Saifude (64955)
56
Laboratory Report
WK01 –
Group No. : Group 1H Programme : CIVIL
ENGINEERING
SAIFUDE 67922
Laboratory
: S4- Mechanical Properties of Materials
Topic
Total
Level tage (w) (n)
(n*w)
necessary 3
background
principles for the
experiment.

provided.
3
apparatus.
Analysis
indicating a ideas.
lack of
understanding.

57
Laboratory Report

stated. misstated,
indicating a
lack of
understanding.
2 4 style.
spots in immature
writing style.

2 4
properly. properly.
Σw= Σn= Σ ( n∗w )=

TOTAL
20
TOTAL MARKS
∑ m∗w ×100 %=¿
∑w
∑ ( n∗w ) x100 %=
4×∑ w
TABLE OF CONTENTS
58
Laboratory Report
Content Page(s)
1. Introduction 61-62
2. Objectives 62
3. Apparatus and Materials 63
4. Procedure 64-65
5. Results 66
6. Calculations 67-68
7. Discussion 69-70
8. Conclusion 71
9. References 71
1. INTRODUCTION
Mechanical properties are subset of physic properties that are based on the
laws of mechanics which deal with energy, forces and effect on any steel.
Mechanical properties such as elasticity, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength
59
Laboratory Report
and ductility are part of material specifications which are obtained from tensile
testing. The properties are most often are expressed in units of stress and strain.
In these experiment, tensile test is conducted to understand the concept of

stress and strain on steel. Tensile strength of a material is the tension stress at
which a tested material will breaks or permanently deforms, changing its shape.
There are three stages of tensile strength which are yield strength, ultimate
strength and breaking strength.
Tensile test is conducted by placing a steel which its both ends are gripped by
the jaws of Universal Testing Machine (UTM). Dimension of steel such as cross-
sectional area and length are known to compare the initial observation with the
final result. During testing, the machine will stretch the test pieces by moving the
grips apart at constant rate while the measurement of load and grip separation are
observed. A particular cross sectional area of the steel will begins to decrease.
This deformation is known as necking which it is the point of the steel that subject
to the greatest stress (Lloyd Instruments Ltd.,2004).
From the tensile test, important properties of steel can be determined. The
elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and fracture strain are all
clearly exhibited in an accurately constructed stress strain curve.
Figure 1.0 Stress-Strain

Curve
Based on the stress-strain curve, there are several properties of tested steel
which can be determined such as yield strength, fracture strength, tensile strength,
toughness, ductility, modulus of elasticity, modulus of resilience and modulus of
toughness.
60
Laboratory Report
Yield strength of a steel can be defined as the stress level at which

deformation initiates. Fracture strength can be determined after necking at which
the plastic deformation is not uniform and the stress decreases accordingly until
fracture. For toughness, it is the ability of a metal to deform plastically and to
absorb energy in the process before fracture. Meanwhile, ductility is a
measurement of the behaviour of steel deforms plastically before fracture. The key
to toughness is a good combination of strength and ductility. A material with high
strength and high ductility will have more toughness than a material with low
strength and high ductility. Ductility can be described with the percent elongation
or percent reduction in area. Resilience is by considering the area under the stress-
strain curve in the elastic region, this area represents the stored elastic energy or
resilience (The University of Warwick, n.d).
2. OBJECTIVES
To determine the strength and several properties of ductile steel and to

observe the behaviour of a material under load and study the fracture.
3. APPARATUS AND MATERIALS

 Low carbon steel
 Vernier callipers
 Ruler
 Universal testing machine
61
Laboratory Report
Figure 3.0: Universal testing machine
Figure 3.1: Vernier

callipers
62
Laboratory Report
4. PROCEDURE
1. The steel was marked section by section with 5cm for each section as
shown in Figure 4.0.
2. The diameter of the steel was measured using vernier callipers on three
random parts of the steel. The readings were recorded.
3. Then, the steel was placed onto the universal testing machine.
4. The gauge length and lower end of the steel were measured using ruler.
5. The load was applied at a slow speed without stopping the machine
and observations are made.
6. When the steel was broke into half, the yield point, maximum and the
breaking load are recorded.
7. The broken steel was removed from the machine.
8. The location and the character of the fracture was observed and
recorded.
9. The diameter of the smallest section of steel, where it broke into half
was measured using vernier callipers.
10. The broken part was fit together and the gauge length of broken
fracture was measured.
Figure 4.0: Low carbon steel

marked
63
Laboratory Report
Figure 4.1: The marked steel is placed in the universal testing machine
Figure 4.2: The steel is broken into half
64
Laboratory Report
5. RESULT/ANALYSIS
Average diameter of steel = 11.29mm
Minimum diameter of steel after fracture = 6.95mm
Original gauge length = 20.00cm
Gauge length after rupture = 23.04cm
Figure 5.0: Graph of stress against strain.
65
Laboratory Report
6. CALCULATIONS
From the Stress- Strain graph in Figure 5.0
1. Elastic strength in tension
a. Proportional limit= 350.000 MPa

b. Yield point= 350.374 MPa
c. Yield strength for an offset of 0.2 percent= 350.374 MPa
Tensile strength = 466.650 MPa
2. Ductility
Lu−L0
a. Percentage elongation= ×100 %
L0
23.04−20.00
= ¿ ¿ ×100 %
20.00
= 15.20%
= 15%
L0= original gauge length, Lu= gauge length after rupture
A 0− A u
b. Percentage reduction of area= ×100 %
A0
( ) ( )
2 2
11.29 6.95
π −π
2 2
= ×100 %
( )
2
11.29
π
2
100.11−37.94
= ×100 %
100.11
= 62.10%
=62%
A0 = original cross- sectional area, Au = minimum cross- sectional area after
fracture
3. Modulus of elasticity, E
66
Laboratory Report
4. Modulus of resilience
The modulus of resilience is calculated by the area under the proportional limit.
1
σ ε
2 el el=
Where σ el= stress at elastic limit
ε el= strain at elastic limit
5. Modulus of toughness
The modulus of toughness is equal to the area under the graph. This area can be
calculated by the total number of squares multiply by area of the square. Total
number of squares is 69. Thus
6. Type and character of fracture
The specimen undergoes ductile fracture which is caused by extensive

deformation of plastic or called necking before reaching its breaking point. This
occurs due to the specimen that is made up of ductile materials.
67
Laboratory Report
7. DISCUSSION
From the stress against strain graph, it is found that the steel specimen tested
has a proportional limit of 350.000 MPa. Proportional limit is the highest stress at
which stress is directly proportional to strain and is a straight line in a stress-strain
diagram. Then, after the proportional limit, there is the yield point. The yield
point, alternatively called the elastic limit, marks the end of elastic behaviour and
the beginning of plastic behavior. The yield point recorded from the graph is
350.374 MPa, close to the proportional limit. At this point, the steel is deformed
and will not return to its original shape.
Next, there is the yield strength which is taken from an offset of 0.2%. Yield
strength is the stress at which a material has undergone some arbitrarily chosen
amount of permanent deformation, often 0.2 percent (Encyclopedia Britannica).
The yield strength for an offset to 0.2% is recorded 350.374 MPa in the graph. It
is the same as the yield point. This means that this steel specimen tested has a
well- defined yield point. The tensile strength of the steel is recorded 466.650
MPa. This is the ultimate tensile strength the steel can handle.
The percentage elongation of steel specimen calculated is only 15% where the
gauge length has a displacement of 3.04cm. The percentage reduction of area is
62% where the biggest diameter change in steel after rupture is 5.04mm. The
ductility of the steel is also the elongation in the graph which is 166.00%. The
modulus of elasticity, E calculated is 50.000 MPa. This indicates that the steel
specimen is not very elastic. The modulus of resilience of steel specimen
calculated is 14.000 MPa. Due to the fact that it is a low carbon steel, its value is
lower. Steels with higher carbon compound has higher value of modulus of
resilience. Also, the modulus of toughness calculated is 690.000 MPa. This
indicates that the steel absorbed a maximum of 690.000 MPa of strain energy.
There are errors that caused the values of be inaccurate. Firstly, there could be
error in the vernier calipers causing the readings of the diameter of steel to be
inaccurate. Before using, the vernier calipers should be checked to avoid zero
error. The diameter of the steel should be also measured at different parts of the
steel to get the average diameter. There could be errors when marking the steel
68
Laboratory Report
where the length for each supposed 5cm section may be different. Therefore it is
important to check the measurements before doing the markings.
As shown above Figure, stress- strain diagram is used to calculate the values
of the properties of steel instead of a load elongation diagram. This is because all
the information can be easily obtained from the stress- strain diagram to find out
the properties of steel as all the wanted values will be showed in the diagram.
Besides, the modulus of elasticity of a material theoretically depends on the slope
of the stress- strain. The stress- strain diagram also can be applied to any
dimensions or any types of materials.
The percentage of elongation is an indicator of ductility and to show the

ability of a material to be elongated in tension. The elongation is not uniform over
the entire gauge length and is the greatest at the center of the neck. The percent
elongation is also not an absolute measure of ductility. Therefore, it is necessary
to state the gauge length when reporting the percentage of elongation so that it
represents the percentage of elongation of a material accurately.
69
Laboratory Report
8. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the proportional limit is 350.000 MPa. The yield point and
the yield strength for an offset of 0.2 percent is 350.374 MPa. The tensile
strength of the steel is 466.650 MPa. For the measure of ductility, the
percentage elongation is 15% and the percentage reduction of area is 62%.
The modulus of elasticity is 50 MPa, the modulus of resilience is 14 MPa and
the modulus of toughness is 690 MPa. The steel specimen underwent ductile
fracture and it underwent necking before it reached its breaking point.
9. REFERENCES
Encyclopedia Britannica. (n,d). Yield point. Retrieved from

https://www.britannica.com/science/yield-point
Ltd. L.I., (2004, August 18), Testing mechanical properties - tensile strength,
impact strength, hardness and corrosion resistance,Retrieved from
https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2598
Some important mechanical properties (n.d), The university of warwick. Retrieved

from
https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/wmg/globalcontent/courses/ebm/mant/materials/
properties_of_materials/
70

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UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

Code & Title S1 – Shear Force

Laboratory Report Writing

Experimental Clearly carrying Shows evidence Shows Student is No project

Conclusions 2 4 All important All important Conclusions Conclusions No 2

conclusions have conclusions regarding missing or conclusions

References All references were All references Some Most No

Σw= Σn= Σ ( n∗w )=

Contents Page number

5. Results & Calculations 9- 14

In beam designing, shear force is one which is perpendicular to the

Figure 1.0: Free body diagram of cut beam

Figure 3.0: Shear Force

Figure 3.1: 10N load Figure 3.2: 5N load

4. The weight hangers were placed 10 cm, 55 cm and 75 cm from the

5. RESULTS & CALCULATIONS

Case A: Case B: Case C:

D1= 5 cm D1= 10 cm D1=15 cm

D2= 60 cm D2= 55 cm D2= 50 cm

D3= 80 cm D3= 75 cm D3= 70 cm

Load Position (N) Shear Force (N)

Datum 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.40 0.00 0.00 0.00

A 5.00 5.00 5.00 4.30 1.90 1.94 1.00

B 5.00 10.00 5.00 6.20 3.80 4.17 1.00

C 5.00 10.00 15.00 9.70 7.30 6.94 1.05

Table 5.0: Tabulation of data for shear force

Experimental value for shear force, SE:

SE = Balance force, x−¿Balance force at datum, y

SE1 = 4.30−¿2.40 = 1.90 N SE2 = 6.20 – 2.40 = 3.80 N

SE3 = 9.70−¿2.40 = 7.30 N

Theoretical value of shear force, ST

 Assume all anticlockwise moment is positive while clockwise is

Figure 5.0: Free body diagram of case A

−¿5(0.05)−¿ 5(0.60)−¿5(0.80) + By(0.90) = 0

Figure 5.1: Free body

−¿5(0.10)−¿ 10(0.55)−¿5(0.75) + By(0.90) = 0

Figure 5.3: Free body diagram of internal forces for case B

Figure 5.4: Free body diagram of case C

Figure 5.5: Free body diagram of internal forces for case C

3 cases of experiment have been conducted with different loadings and

In conclusion, there is a relationship between shear force and bending moment

An introduction to Shear Force and Bending Moment in beams. (n.d.). Retrieved

Shear Force. (22 February, 2019). Retrieved from Designing buildings: