Communication

DefinitionS
– from the Latin word communis which means common
– “It is an exchange of fact, ideas, or opinions, or emotions by two or more persons.” (Newman and
Summer, 1977)
– “It is the sum of all the things one person does when he wants to create understanding in the
mind of another. It is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of
telling, listening, and understanding.” (Louis Allen, 1958)
– “It is the intentional transmission of information by means of some established signalling-
system.” (Lyons, 1977)
– or simply the sending and receiving of information

THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

ITS BASIC COMPONENTS
Sender
• This is the person responsible for
encoding an intended message
into meaningful verbal and
nonverbal symbols.
Channel
• The channel of communication
is the medium through which
the message is conveyed from
the sender to the receiver (i.e.
writing, speaking, video, or
audio).
Receiver
• This is the person who decodes
or interprets the meaning of the
message in order to understand
it.
Feedback
• This reverses the communication
process and conveys the
receiver’s response back to the
sender.
THE NOISE
– it is anything that impedes the communication
of a message.
External
• comes from the environment and
keeps the message from being
heard or understood.
Internal
• occurs in the minds and bodies
of the sender-receivers.
Semantic
• caused by people’s emotional
reactions to words, refers to
when a speaker and a listener
have different interpretations of
the meanings of certain words.
IN OTHER WORDS:
1. The sender translates (encodes) information
into words, symbols, or pictures, and passes it
to the receiver through some medium (channel).
2. The receiver then receives the message,
retranslates (decodes) it into a message
that is hopefully the same as what the sender
intended.
THE MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
THE EARLIER MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
ARISTOTLE'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

SENDER OR SPEAKER MESSAGE RECEIVER OR LISTENER

SHANNON-WEAVER'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Information
Source Transmitter Reception Destination
SENDER ENCODER CHANNEL DECODER RECEIVER

NOISE
FEEDBACK

SCHRAMM'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Field of experience Field of experience

SOURCE Encoder SIGNAL Decoder DESTI-
NATION

MESSAGE
Encoder Decoder
k
ac

k
ac
db

db

Interpreter Interpreter
Fee

Fee

Decoder Encoder
MESSAGE
THE MODERN MODELS OF COMMUNICATION by Adler and Rodman (2011) from their
book Understanding Human Communication
LINEAR MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
– Communication has occurred when a SENDER CHANNEL RECEIVER
message has been sent or received.
Key Features Pros Cons
• One way communication • Good at audience • Communication is not
• Used for mass persuasion and propaganda continuous as no concept of
communication setting feedback
• Senders send message and • Intentional results • No way to know if
receivers only receive communication was effective
• No feedback
• Concept noise
INTERACTIVE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION SENDER CHANNEL RECEIVER
– Communication is a two-way process RECEIVER CHANNEL SENDER
where there is a conversation loop.
Key Features Pros Cons
• Used for new • Feedback even in mass • Feedback can take a very
communications like internet communication long time
• Slower feedbacks in turns • New communication • Sender and receiver might
• Concept of field of channels not know who the other
experience person is
• Known as convergence model
• Communication becomes
linear if receiver does not
respond
TRANSACTIONAL MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
– We cannot NOT communicate. In a SENDER/ CHANNEL RECEIVER/
dialogue, roles are often switched between RECEIVER SENDER
communicators.
Key Features Pros Cons
• Used for interpersonal • Simultaneous and instant • Encourages non-verbal
communication feedback communication
• Senders and receivers • No discrimination between • More noise due to
interchange roles sender and receiver communicators talking at
• Sim ultaneous feedback the same time
• Context of environment and
noise
• Feedback is taken as a new
message
 TYPES AND ELEMENTS OF
Communication
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
SPEAKER
– also known as the sender, he/she chooses his/her purpose, crafts the message accordingly,
and decides how to deliver it
– source of information
RECEIVER
– also known as the listener or audience, they are the ones who receive the message.
– it is said that even if the Speaker is great and the message is beautiful, if there is no Listener
or the Listener is not paying attention, then communication fails.
– they are the ones who respond and give feedback
MESSAGE
– the message is made up of the ideas and feeling that sender-receivers want to share. This is
what needs to be delivered or imparted to somebody else
– the message to be sent is based on WHY the speaker wants to say it, WHAT the speaker
wants to say, and HOW the Speaker wants to say it.
– all our communication messages are made up of two kinds of symbols: verbal and nonverbal.
– id eas and feelings can be communicated only if they are represented by symbols. A symbol is
something that stands for something else (e.g., roses express love).
CHANNEL
– the means by which the message is sent. The five senses are the channels we usually use.
– the channel is the route traveled by a message.
– we are familiar with the channels of radio, television, CDs, newspapers, and magazines in the
mass media.
– other channels communicate nonverbal messages. For example, when a person goes to apply
for a job, she uses several nonverbal signals to send out a positive message: a firm handshake
(touch), appropriate clothing (sight), and respectful voice (sound). The senses are the
channels through which the speaker is sending a message.
CONTEXT
– refers to the interrelated conditions of communication which affect how people understand
the message. It is classified into five types:
• Physical context
• Social context
• Psychological context
• Cultural context
• Cultural context
NOISE
– also called interference
– can be external (a physical sound) or internal (a mental disturbance)
 4 Kinds of Noise
• Physiological noise
• Physical Noise
• Psychological Noise
• Semantic Noise
FEEDBACK
– the interaction or response of the listener
2 Kinds of Feedback
• Positive Feedback
• Negative Feedback
RESPONSE
– the result of monitoring by the Speaker of the Listener’s Response
– feedback is vital to communication because it lets the participants see whether ideas and
feelings have been shared in the way they were intended.
SETTING
– the environment in which the communication occurs
– has 2 components: the physical location and psychological setting
– formal settings lend themselves to formal presentations. An auditorium, for example, is good
for giving speeches and presentations, but not very good for conversation.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
– involves the use of language and words for the purpose of passing on the intended message
– communication in the form of spoken words only
– can be in the spoken or the written form
Written Communication
• involves any kind of exchange of information in the written form. For example, emails,
texts, letters, reports, SMS, posts on social media platforms, documents, handbooks,
posters, flyers, etc.
Oral Communication
• employs the spoken word, either direct or indirect as a communication channel. This
verbal communication could be made in a channel that passed information in only one
form i.e. sound.
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
– messages are relayed without the transmission of words
– messages are wordless
– mainly aids verbal communication by supplementing it with gestures, body language, symbols,
and expressions
Paralanguage
• The “how” of saying something. It is NOT about what is said.
• Ex. Saying “I love you” with an angry tone is a contradictory message.
Symbols
• The use of things to convey a message or feeling.
• Ex. Giving flowers symbolizes love, appreciation, belongingness, etc.
 Colors
• The use of colors based on the meaning of each color.
Chronemics
• The language of time
• The use of time as a basis on daily routines
• “Body Clock”
Proxemics
• The language of space
• The use of space to show importance, power, or position
• Ex. The CEO has the biggest office in the build ing.
Haptics
• The language of touch
• The use of touch to express what cannot be said.
Gestures
• The most often used type of Non-verbal communication.
• Examples:
◦ Emphasizing – “YES!” (fist pounding the table)
◦ Regulating – “shhhh” (forefinger in front of the lips)
◦ Illustrating – “this large” (hands set apart)
◦ Emblems – clenched fist upraised

Facial Expression
• The configuration of eyes, eyebrows, lips, cheeks, nose, and forehead to show how the
person feels.
• Assists the Listener in understanding the message better.
Posture and Appearance
• The way one carries and dresses oneself.
• How one stands or sits in Communicative Situations tells the people around how one
sees oneself as a Speaker, one’s attitude toward the Message, and how one looks at
the Listener.

Intercultural
CULTURE
Communication
– is a unique combination of rituals, relig ious beliefs, ways of thinking, and ways of behaving that
unify a group of people

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
– is a form of communication that aims to share information across different cultures and social
groups
– is used to describe the wide range of communication processes and problems that naturally
appear within an organization or social context made up of individuals from different relig ious,
social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds
INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE
– enables a communicator to understand and interact with other cultures by apply ing attitudes
and values, and understanding interaction skills
– entails acceptance of and respect for one’s cultural identity and open-mindedness and
sensitivity to others

4 BASIC BEHAVIORS OF INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCE

DISPLAY OF RESPECT
• Respect simply means seeing the value of other cultures regardless of their difference
from your own culture.
• When you engage in communication, always respond without judgment, and avoid actions
that may be easily interpreted negatively.
ORIENTATION OF KNOWLEDGE
• Considering the context behind a person’s message is another essential behavior. The
orientation of the communicator’s knowledge is not always the same.
• When this orientation varies, it may result in misunderstanding. Thus, you must determine
the context which shapes the person’s thinking and behavior.
EMPATHY
• You empathize when you put yourself in another person’s shoes and try to feel how they
feel. Empathy aids in build ing trust and establishing connections with people from other
cultures.
• It is essential for effective communication so that you can see the perspective of the
other person and know why they think the way they do
TOLERANCE OF AMBIGUITY
• Tolerance refers to openness to differences, while ambiguity means confusion. In
intercultural communication, difficulty and conflict are inevitable. However, to show
intercultural competence, tolerance for ambiguity is encouraged to avoid hostility and
anger.
• It is a way of showing that you are respectful, accepting, and appreciative of the diversity
and difference of your culture and that of others.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURES
INDIVIDUALISTIC VS. COLLECTIVIST
INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES
• Value individual freedom; place “I”
before “We”
• Value independence
• Value directness and clarity
• Examples: USA, Australia, Great
Britain
COLLECTIVIST CULTURES
• Value the group over the individual;
place “We” before “I”
• Value commitment to family, tribe,
and clan
• Value cooperation over competition
• Examples: Venezuela, Mexico, Taiwan,
Thailand, Philippines
 MONOCHRONIC VS. POLYCHRONIC
MONOCHRONIC/ON-TIME CULTURES
• Compartmentalize time
• Say they can waste or save time
• Separate work and social time, task
and relational time
• Examples: North America, Northern
Europe, Japan, Korea
POLYCHRONIC/SOMETIMES CULTURES
• Factor in time as one element of a larger
context
• Value social relationships and time
considerations together
• Orchestrate family and social
responsibilities and task dimensions
• Examples: Latin America, Middle East,
Africa, France, Philippines

UNCERTAINTY-ACCEPTING VS. UNCERTAINTY-REJECTING

UNCERTAINTY-ACCEPTING CULTURES UNCERTAINTY-REJECTING CULTURES
• Are willing to take risks • Are threatened by ideas and people from
• Avoid rules, seek flexibility, and reject outside
hierarchy • Establish formal rules for behavior; prefer
• Value individual opinion, general stability, hierarchy, and structure
principles, and common sense • Embrace written rules, regulations, and
• Examples: Denmark, Great Britain, rituals
Germany, and the USA • Examples: Japan, Indonesia, France, Spain,
Greece, Argentina

BARRIERS TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

ETHNOCENTRISM
– the belief that your own group or culture is superior to other groups/cultures. In
ethnocentrism, you use your own culture as the measure that others are expected to
meet; cultural relativism is the belief that another culture should be judged by its own
context rather than measured against your culture.
STEREOTYPING
– a generalization about some group of people that oversimplifies their culture.
PREJUDICE
– a negative attitude toward a group of people just because they are who they are.
 FUNCTIONS OF
Communication
FUNCTIONS
– refer to how people use language for different purposes
– also refers to how language is affected by different times, places, and situations used to control
the behavior of people and regulate the nature and amount of activities people engage in.
REGULATION AND CONTROL
• Means being able to use language, gestures, and emotions to manage individual or group
activities
• Example: A parent telling a child not to misbehave and a traffic officer signaling the stop
and go of vehicles
SOCIAL INTERACTION
• Is the most obvious and most often used
• Is by which we exchange ideas and information with one another, or even just to enjoy each
other’s company
• Example: Greeting teachers, catching up with friends
MOTIVATION
• The formation of specific goals, feedback on progress toward the goals, and reinforcement
of desired behavior all stimulate motivation and require communication
• Example: Assuring a friend that she can achieve her goals, encouraging a nervous friend
about to participate in a contest
INFORMATION
• Provides the information that one needs to make decisions by transmitting the data to
id entify and evaluate the alternative choices
• Example: NDRRMC gives the public data about current geographical news, fault lines, and
proper safety measures for when earthquakes hit
EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION
• Provides a release for the emotional expression of feelings and for the fulfillment of social
needs (appealing to the listener’s feelings)
• Example: Venting out to a friend about a problem, a man proposes to his long-time
girlfriend
TYPES OF

Speech Contexts
CHARACTERISTICS OF SPEECH CONTEXT
• Number of communicators • Relationship of the • Immediacy of exchange
• Physical proximity communicators • Context
TYPES OF SPEECH CONTEXTS
INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
– an internal dialog with oneself. The person communicates to himself/herself, often with the
purpose of clarifying something and analyzing ideas.
– is commonly known as engaging in “self-talk”.
Examples
• Daydreaming,
• Sense-making
• Making personal journals
• Writing entries in a diary
• Analyzing which part of the test was too difficult
• Reflecting on the essence of Christmas
INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
A. DYADIC COMMUNICATION
– involves two participants who may share their roles as speaker and receiver alternately.
Examples
• Job interview
• Talking to a friend over the telephone or in person
• Conversation with a priest
B. SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION
– involves 3-15 participants, with a common goal to shared ideas and arrive at a decision.
Examples
• Discussion-groups
• Panel
• Board meetings
• Brainstorming with groupmates
PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
– involves a large group, with a speaker engaging in a public dialog with an audience.
– is usually formal, with a speech often well-prepared.
Examples
• State of the Nation Address
• Political campaigns
• Protest rallies
MASS COMMUNICATION
– involves professional communicators using technology to disseminate information.
– is carried out through the use of mass media technology.
Examples
• News reports through television by broadcasters
• News reports printed via newspapers
 TYPE OF NUMBER OF PHYSICAL RELATIONSHIP OF THE IMMEDIACY OF CONTEXT
SPEECH COMMUNICATORS PROXIMITY COMMUNICATORS EXCHANGE
CONTEXT
Intrapersonal 1 Close Personal Real-Time Face-to-face
Dyadic 2 Close Personal or Impersonal Real-Time or Face-to-face
Delayed or Mediated
Small Group 3-10 or 5-15 Close Personal or Impersonal Real-Time Face-to-face
or Mediated
Public Large Group Distant Impersonal Real-Time Face-to-face
Mass Large Group Distant Impersonal Real-Time or Mediated
Taped-Delay