Wireless Communications

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 Path Loss, Small-
Scale and Large-Scale Fading

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 Path Loss
n
 d 
PL(d )  
 do 

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Log-Normal Shadowing

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 Log-Normal Shadowing
• The surrounding environment clutter may vastly
differ at two different locations having the same
separation from the transmitter
 d 
PL(d )[dB]  PL(do )  10n log    X
 do 
• X  is a zero-mean Gaussian RV in dB with standard
deviation 

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 Small Scale Fading
• Fading is caused by interference between
two or more versions of the transmitted
signal which arrive at the receiver at
slightly different times.
• These waves combine at the receiver
antenna to give a resultant signal which
varies widely in amplitude & phase.

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The Wireless Fading Channel
 Wave propagation depends on the environment:
buildings, roads, trees and terrain.
 Each path will experience an attenuation, a time
delay and a possible frequency shift
 The superposition of all the signal paths produces
a distorted received signal.

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Wireless Channel

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 Wireless Channel
• For a mobile communication system, the signal
received by the mobile at any point in space may
consist of a large number of plane waves having
randomly distributed amplitudes, phases, and angles
of arrival.
• These multipath components combine vectorially at
the receiver antenna & can cause the signal received
by the mobile to distort or fade.
• Even when a mobile receiver is stationary, the
received signal may fade due to movement of the
surrounding objects in the radio channel.
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Wireless Channel

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 Fading Effects
• Rapid changes in signal strength over a
small travel distance or time interval
• Time dispersion (echoes) caused by
multipath propagation
• Random frequency modulation due to
varying Doppler shifts on different
multipath signals

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 Resolvable Paths
• A wideband signal with symbol duration Tc
can "resolve" the time dispersion of the
channel with a maximum delay spread of
Tdelay with an accuracy of about Tc. the
number of resolvable paths is

 Tdelay 
N  round   1
 Tc 

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 Fading Factors
• Multipath propagation
• Speed of mobile
• Speed of surrounding objects
• Transmission BW of the signal

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 Wireless Channel
• If objects in the radio channel are static &
motion is considered to be only due to that
of the mobile, then fading is purely a
spatial phenomenon.
• The spatial variations of the resulting
signal are seen as temporal variations by
the receiver as it moves through the
multipath field.

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 Wireless Channel
• Define h(τ;t) as the impulse response of
the time varying multipath radio channel.
• The impulse response h(τ;t) completely
characterizes the channel & is a function
of both t & τ.
• The variable t represents the time
variations due to motion, whereas τ
represents the multipath delay for a fixed
value of t.
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 Fading
• Fading is used to describe the rapid
fluctuations of the amplitude of a radio
signal over a short period of time or travel
distance, we can write h(τ;t)as
 j 2 fc t
h( , t )  Re{hb ( , t )e }
where hb ( , t ) is the low-pass complex
equivalent impulse response.

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Time-Varying Impulse Response

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 Example
x(t) imp. resp. at t=0 imp. resp. at t=1
1 0.7 0.4 0.5
0.3

0 1 0 0.5 1 1.5

• Calculate the output of the channel to the

input signal x(t)

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 Example
• The channel is a 2-path time varying channel

imp. resp. at t=0 imp. resp. at t=1

First path

Second path

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 Example
• The channel is a 2-path time varying channel

imp. resp. at t=0 imp. resp. at t=1

0.7
0.3
First path
0 1

0.4 0.6
Second path
0.5 1.5
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 Example
• O/P due to first path

0.7 0.3

0 1

• O/P due to second path

0.4 0.6

0.5 1.5
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 Example
0.9 0.8

0.7 0.5 0.5 0.6

0 0.5 1 1.5

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 Characteristics of Multipath
Fading Channels
Time dispersion parameters
Define

Ph ( )  Et h  ; t 
2

Ph ( )  delay power spectrum or multipath intensity profile
• Define the standard deviation of Ph ( ) as
the delay spread Tm

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 Delay Spread Tm
1/ 2
 

     av  Ph ( )d
2

Tm   0 
 




0
Ph ( )d 

• where


 P ( )d
h

 av  0


 P ( )d
0
h 24
Measured Impulse Responses

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Delay Power Spectrum

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 Delay Spread
• The delay spread defines the impulse response
width in the time domain. Define the coherence
B.W. 1
Bc 
5Tm
• Coherence BW is a statistical measure of the
range of frequencies over which the channel can
be considered flat.
• A flat channel passes all the spectral
components with approximately equal gain and
linear phase 27
 Coherence BW
• In other words, two sinusoids with
frequency separation greater than Bc are
affected quite differently by the channel

• Bc is the BW that we can send the signal

on without suffering from ISI

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 Correlation Coefficient
• Suppose X and Y are 2 complex RVs
• Their correlation Coefficient is

• This is the normalized covariance; it varies

between +1 and -1

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 WSS Uncorrelated Scattering
• Assumes that the path gains at different
delays are uncorrelated
• Assumes correlations between frequency
responses depend only on the frequency
difference Df

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 Correlation in Frequency
• We can view the freq. response of a
channel as a RP as a function of f
• We can ask, “what is the correlation
between responses at different
frequencies?”

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 Correlation Coefficient for a RP
• Consider 2 frequencies f1 and f2. The correlation
coefficient becomes

Because the phase

is uniformly
distributed [0,2],
mh=0 and we get 32
 Coherence BW
• The X% coherence bandwidth is that value
of Δf such that
Df=X/100
• If the 90% coherence bandwidth is 30KHz,
then responses for frequencies separated
by 30KHz or less will be nearly equal

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 Relation to Tm
• The 90% coherence bandwidth is
approximately
Bc,90=1/(50Tm)

• The 50% coherence bandwidth is

approximately
Bc,50=1/(5Tm)

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 Example
• Do you think the 90% coherence
bandwidth is > or < 100MHz?

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 Need for equalization
• If a transmitted signal’s bandwidth is
greater than the 50% coherence
bandwidth, then the channel is frequency
selective and an equalizer will be needed
in the receiver
• Flat-fading channels do not require
equalization

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 Bc and Tm
• Delay spread and coherence bandwidth
are inversely related and quantify the
effects of multipath delays
• They can be used to estimate the
maximum data rate that can be supported
without the use of an equalizer

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 Doppler Shift

v
Df  cos( )


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 Doppler Spread
• Tm and Bc don’t offer information about the time varying
nature of the channel caused by the motion of the mobile
• Doppler spread and coherence time are parameters which
describe the time varying nature of the channel
• Define Bd as the width of the Doppler spectrum. When a pure
sinusoid of freq. fc is transmitted, the received signal
spectrum or the Doppler spectrum will have components in
the range ( f c  Bd ) to ( f c  Bd )

• If the baseband signal B.W is much greater than Bd, the

effect of Doppler spread is negligible, this is slow fading

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Doppler spectrum

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 Coherence Time
• Define the coherence time Tc=1/Bd
• Coherence time is a measure of the time
deviation over which the channel impulse
response is essentially invariant
• If the symbol duration Ts is greater than Tc,
the channel will change during the
transmission of the baseband message

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 Types of Fading
Classification according to Tm
Flat fading
Bc>>Bs and Tm<<Ts
• The channel is flat over the signal BW
• Overtime, the received signal varies in
gain but the spectrum is preserved
X(f) channel(f)

Bs Bs
f f 42
 Types of Fading
Classification According to Tm
Frequency Selective Fading
Bc<Bs and Tm>Ts
• The channel delay spread Tm is greater
than Ts
• In this case, the channel introduces ISI,
viewed in the frequency domain as
different frequency components having
different gains
• An equalizer will be needed in this case 43
Frequency Selective Fading

channel(f)

X(f)

Bs Bs
f f

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 Types of Fading
Classification According to Bd
Fast fading
Bd>Bs and Tc<Ts
The channel impulse response changes
rapidly within the symbol duration
Channel gain (t)
x(t)

Ts
Ts t 45
t
 Types of Fading
Classification According to Bd
Slow fading
Bd<<Bs and Tc>>Ts
The channel impulse response changes at a
rate much slower than the transmitted
baseband signal
Channel gain(t) x(t)

Ts
t t 46
Measured impulse responses

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Typical RMS delay spreads

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Two independent fading issues

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Flat-fading (non-freq. Selective)

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Frequency selective fading

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Two independent fading issues

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Rayleigh fading

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Ricean and Rayleigh fading distributions

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