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Physics
Sankalp
NEET Formula Handbook

Chapter‐1 Basic Mathematics
Cosine law
formulae used in Physics cos 𝐴 , cos 𝐵
Quadratic Equation 𝐶
√
, cos
Roots of 𝑎𝑥 𝑏𝑥 𝑐 0 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥
Sum of roots 𝑥 𝑥 ; Product of roots 𝑥 𝑥
Binomial Approximation
If x << 1, then 1 𝑋 1 𝑛𝑥 & 1 𝑋 1 𝑛𝑥
Logarithm
Log mn=log m+log n
log m/n = log m – log n
log mn = n log m
log 𝑚 2.303 log 𝑚
log 2 = 0.3010

Componendo And Dividendo Law
𝑝 𝑎 𝑝 𝑞 𝑎 𝑏
𝐼𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 Approximation for small 𝜽
𝑞 𝑏 𝑝 𝑞 𝑎 𝑏 • sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃
Arithmetic Progression‐Ap Formula • cos 𝜃 ≈ 1
A, a+d, a + 2d, a + 3d, …, a + (n ‐ ) d, here d = common • tan 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 ≈ sin 𝜃
difference Differentiation
Sum of n terms 𝑆 2𝑎 𝑛 1 𝑑
• 𝑦 𝑥 → 𝑛𝑥
NOTES
• 𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑥 →
(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 … +_ n =
• y=sin x→ cos 𝑥
(ii) 1 2 3 … 𝑛
Geometrical Progression‐Gp Formula • y=cos x→ sin 𝑥
A, ar, 𝑎𝑟 , … here, r = common ratio • 𝑦 𝑒 → 𝛼𝑒

• y = uv → 𝑢 𝑣 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒
Sum of n terms 𝑆
• y=f (g(x)) → (Chain rule)
Sum of ∞ terms 𝑆 =
Trigonometry • 𝑦 𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⇒ 0
• 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 360° ⇒ 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 57.3°
• 𝑦 ⇒ 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑒
• cosec 𝜃
Integration
• sec 𝜃
• 𝑋 𝑑𝑥 𝐶, 𝑛 1
• cot 𝜃 • 𝑑𝑥 ℓ𝑛𝑥 𝐶
• sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 1
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝐶
• 1 tan 𝜃 sec 𝜃
•1 cot 𝜃 cosec 𝜃 • 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥𝑑𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝐶
• sin 𝐴 𝐵 cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
• 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝐶
• cos 𝐴 𝐵 cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
𝛼𝑥 𝛽
tan 𝐴 𝐵 • αx β 𝑑𝑥
∓ 𝛼 𝑛 1
• sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A Maxima and Minima of a Function y = f(x)
• cos 2A = cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴 1 2 sin 𝐴
2 cos 𝐴 1 • For maximum value 0& 𝑣𝑒
• tan 2A = • For maximum value 0& 𝑣𝑒
Sine law Average of a Varying Quantity
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If y = f(x) then < y > = 𝑦
Formulae for calculation of Area
• Area of a square = 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
• Area of rectangle = length × breadth
• Area of a triangle = ½ × base × height
• Area of a trapezoid = ½ × (distance between parallel
sides) × (sum of parallel sides)
• Area enclosed by a circle = 𝜋 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
• Surface area of a sphere = 4𝜋 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
• Area of a parallelogram = base × height
• Area of curved surface of cylinder = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑙 (r = radius
and l = length)
• Area of whole surface of cylinder = 2𝜋𝑟 (r + l) (l =
length)
• Area of ellipse = 𝜋 ab (a & b are semi major and semi Chapter 2‐ Units and Measurement
minor axis respectively).
• Surface area of a cube = 6(side)2 System of Units: A complete set of units both
Volume of Geometrical Figures fundamental and derived for all kinds of physical
• Volume of a sphere = 𝜋 𝑟 (r = radius) quantities is called system of units.
• Volume of a cylinder = 𝜋 𝑟 𝑙 (r = radius and l = length) S. MKS CGS FPS
• Volume of a cone = 𝜋 𝑟 ℎ (r = radius and h = height) No.
Some Basic Plots 1. Length (m) Length (cm) Length (ft.)
• Straight Line 2. Mass (kg) Mass (g) Mass(pound)
y = mx + c (where m is the slope of the line and c is the y 3. Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)
intercept)
Unit : The reference standard used for the measurement
of a physical quantity is called a unit.
Fundamental Quantities: The physical quantities which
do not depend on any other physical quantities for their
measurements are known as fundamental quantities.
Derived Quantities: The physical quantities which
depends on one or more fundamental quantities for
• Parabola their measurements are known as derived quantities.
y = 𝑎𝑥
Parallax Method: The method used to measure large
distances are called Parallax Method.
Distance of an object by parallax method, 𝐷

Dimensional Analysis: The dimensions of a physical
quantity are the powers to which fundamental units
must be raised in order to obtain the unit of the given
physical quantity.

• Exponential function
y = 𝑒
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Application of Dimensional Analysis Error of Division
• To check the dimensional consistency of a given 𝑍
physical relationship.
• To derive relationship between various physical ∴
quantities.
Error in case of raised power
• To convert units of a physical quantity from one
system to another Z
Error: The difference between the true value and ∴ 𝑝⋅ 𝑞⋅ 𝑟⋅
measured value of physical quantity is called error.
Error Analysis:
𝑎 , 𝑎 , 𝑎 , … … 𝑎 values obtained in measurement. Chapter‐3 Scalars and Vector
⋯…..
𝑎mean
Vector Quantity‐ A physical quantity which requires
|Δ𝑎 | 𝑎 𝑎mean magnitude and a particular direction for its complete
|Δ𝑎 | 𝑎 𝑎mean
expression.
|Δ𝑎 | 𝑎 𝑎mean
| | | | ⋯…..| | ⃗
Δ𝑎mean Unit vectors: 𝐴
Relative error mean Scalar Quantity: A physical quantity which can be
mean
completely described by its magnitude only is known as
Percentage error mean
100 scalar quantity.
mean
Parallel Vector: Those vectors which have the same

Types of Errors‐
directions are called as parallel vectors.
Absolute error: The magnitude of the difference
Equal Vector: Vectors which have equal magnitude and
between the individual measurement and the true value
same direction are called equal vectors.
of the quantity is called absolute error.
Anti‐parallel Vectors: Those vectors which have the
Mean absolute error: The arithmetic mean of all the
opposite directions are called as Antiparallel vectors.
absolute errors is called mean absolute error.
Opposite Vectors: Vectors have equal magnitude but
Relative error: The ratio of mean absolute error in the
opposite directions are called as opposite vectors.
measurement of a physical quantity to its most probable
value is called relative error. Unit Vectors: Vectors whose magnitude is one is called a
unit vector
Percentage error: The relative error multiplied by 100 is
called the percentage error Law of Triangle:
Combination of Errors: 𝑅⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗
Error of sum or difference
Z 𝐴 𝐵
Δ𝑍 Δ𝐴 Δ𝐵

Error of product Law of Polygon:
If some vectors are represented by sides of a polygon in
𝑍 𝐴𝐵 same order, then their resultant vector is represented by

the closing side of polygon in the opposite order.
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𝑅⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐶⃗ 𝐷⃗ 𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
𝐴
𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾
𝐴
cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 cos 𝛾 1
sin 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛽 sin 𝛾 2
Dot Product:
Law of Parallelogram:
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗ 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram which are directed away from their
common point then their sum (i.e. resultant vector) is
given by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing away
through that common point
𝑅⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗

𝑅 𝐴 𝐵 2𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 Key points
1) If Q = 0, 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗ 𝐴𝐵
If Q = 90, 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗ 0
If Q = 180, 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗ 𝐴𝐵
2) Angle between two vectors
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗
cos 𝜃
𝐴𝐵
3) It is commutative
Cases
1) If 𝜃 = 0, R = A + B 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗ 𝐵⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗
4) It is Distributive
2) If 𝜃 = 90, R = √𝐴 𝐵
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗ 𝐶⃗ 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗ 𝐵⃗ ∙ 𝐶⃗
3) If 𝜃 = 180, R = A – B
Subtraction of vectors: 5) It is associative
𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐶⃗ 𝐷⃗ 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐶⃗ 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐷⃗ 𝐵⃗ ∙ 𝐶⃗ 𝐵⃗ ∙ 𝐷⃗
𝑅 𝐴 𝐵 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
6) In case of orthogonal vectors
𝑖 ∙ 𝑗 𝑗 ∙ 𝑘 𝑘 ∙ 𝑖 0
7) Scalar product of a vector by itself
𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐴⃗ 𝐴
8) In case of unit vector
𝑖 ∙ 𝑖 𝑗 ∙ 𝑗 𝑘 ∙ 𝑘 1
9) In terms of components

𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗ 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
Resolution of vectors 10) Projection of vector
⃗∙ ⃗
a) Two dimensions Projection of 𝐵⃗ on to 𝐴⃗ 𝐵 cos 𝜃
⃗∙ ⃗
Projection of 𝐴⃗ on to 𝐵⃗ 𝐴 cos 𝜃
Cross product:
𝐶⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗
𝐶 𝐶⃗ 𝐴𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃

b) Three dimensions
𝐴⃗ 𝐴 𝑖 𝐴 𝑗 𝐴 𝑘
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
cos 𝛼

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Key points
1) If 𝜃 0, 𝐶⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 0 Chapter 4‐ Motion in a Straight Line
If 𝜃 90, 𝐶 ⃗ ⃗
𝐴 𝐵 ⃗ 𝐴𝐵 Speed : The rate of change of position of an object with
If 𝜃 180, 𝐶⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 0 time in any direction is called its speed. It is equal to
2) Angle between the vectors distance travelled per unit time.
𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ Speed=
sin 𝜃
𝐴𝐵 Velocity : The rate of change of position of object with
3) It is anti‐commutative time in a given direction is called velocity. It is equal to
𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐴⃗ displacement per unit time
4) It is distributive
𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐶⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝐶⃗ Velocity=
5) It is associative
⃗
𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐶⃗ 𝐷⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝐶⃗ 𝐴⃗ 𝐷⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐶⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐷⃗ Velocity=
6) Incase of orthogonal vector Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity of an object
i × j =k with time is called acceleration. In S.I unit, it is the
j × k = i change in velocity in one second
k × i = j Acceleration=
j × I = –k ⃗
k ×j = –i 6) 𝑎⃗
i×k = –j
7) Vector product of a vector by itself Average velocity:
𝐴⃗ 𝐴⃗ 0 Average velocity is called at the ratio of total
8) Incase of unit vector displacement to the total time interval of the body.
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⋯.. ⃗
𝑖 ∙ 𝑖 𝑗 ∙ 𝑗 𝑘 ∙ 𝑘 0 Average velocity =
⋯
9) In terms of components
8) 𝑣 𝑢 𝑎𝑡
𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐴 𝑖 𝐴 𝑗 𝐴 𝑘 ∙ 𝐵⃗ 𝑖 𝐵 𝑗 𝐵 𝑘
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
9) 𝑣 𝑣 2𝑎𝑠
⃗
𝐴 𝐵 ⃗ 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 10) 𝑠 𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑡
𝐵 𝐵 𝐵 11) 𝑆 𝑢 2𝑛 1
𝑖𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝑗𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 12) 𝑣 𝑉 𝑉
𝑘𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 13) 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
10) If two vectors are parallel
14) Relative velocity =
𝐴⃗ 𝐴 𝑖 𝐴 𝑗 𝐴 𝑘
For motion under gravity
𝐵⃗ 𝐵 𝑖 𝐵 𝑗 𝐵 𝑘
I) V=u– gt
Then II) 𝑣 𝑢 2𝑔𝑠
11) 𝐴⃗, 𝐵⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶⃗ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗ 𝐶⃗ 0 III) 𝑠 𝑢𝑡 𝑔𝑡
⃗ ⃗
12) Angle between 𝐴 𝐵 and (𝐴 𝐵 and (𝐴 𝐵⃗ is
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
IV) 𝑠 2𝑛 1
90°.
Displacement–Time Graph
13) Formulae to find area
i) If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are two sides of triangle
then its area = 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗
ii) If 𝐴⃗ and 𝑏⃗ are two adjacent sides of parallelogram
then its area 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ I)
iii) If 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are diagonals of a parallelogram then its
area = 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗

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III)
II)

Relative Velocity Graphs
III)
I)
𝑣 𝑣
Relative velocity is zero

IV)
II)

Velocity–Time Graph
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣𝑒

I)
III)
Object moving with constant velocity

Chapter 5 Motion in a plane
II)
Projectile
A projectile is the name given to anybody which since

thrown its space with some initial velocity moves
thereafter under the effect of gravity alone, without
being propelled by any engine or fuel. The path followed
is called trajectory.
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Assumptions used in projectile motion:
7 𝑇 2
a) There is no air resistance on the projectile.
8 𝑦 𝑥tan 𝜃 1
b) The effect due to earth’s curvature is negligible.
c) The effect due to rotation of earth is zero. d) 9 𝑦 𝑥tan 𝜃
Acceleration due to gravity is constant in all points of HORIZONTAL PROJECTILE
motion.
10 𝑡
1 Δ𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗
2 Δ𝑟⃗ Δ𝑥𝚤ˆ Δ𝑦𝚥ˆ 11 𝑇
3 𝑣⃗ 𝑣 𝚤ˆ 𝑣 𝚥ˆ
12 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
⃗
4 𝑣⃗
⃗
13 𝑣 2𝑔ℎ
5 𝑣⃗
∆ → 14 𝑣 𝑔𝑡
⃗
6 𝑎⃗
∆ → 15 𝑅 𝑣
7 Speed |𝑣| 𝑣 𝑣 16 tan 𝛽

8 𝑎⃗ 𝑎 𝚤ˆ 𝑎 𝚥ˆ

9 𝑎

10 𝑎 GRAPHS
11 𝑎⃗ 𝚤ˆ 𝚥ˆ
12 𝑣⃗ 𝑣⃗ 𝑎⃗𝑡
13 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ Δ𝑟⃗
⃗ ⃗
14 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑡
1)
15 𝑣 𝑣 2𝑎⃗ ⋅ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗
16 𝑚 tan 𝜃

ANGULAR PROJECTILE
1 𝑅
⋅
2 𝑅 2)
3 𝑇
4 𝑡
5 𝐻
6 𝐻
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• 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃 (Unit →radian)
• Average angular velocity
𝜔 𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 → 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
• Instantaneous angular velocity
dθ
𝜔 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 → 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
3) dt

4) • For uniform angular velocity 𝜔 2𝜋𝑓 𝑜𝑟 2𝜋𝑛
• Angular displacement 𝜃 𝜔𝑡
• Relation between 𝜔 (uniform) and v 𝜔
• In vector from velocity 𝑣⃗ 𝑤⃗ 𝑟⃗
• Acceleration
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
𝑎⃗ 𝜔⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗
𝑤⃗
𝛼⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝑤⃗ 𝑣⃗ 𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗
• Tangential acceleration: 𝑎 𝛼𝑟
• Centripetal acceleration:
𝑣
𝑎 𝜔𝑣 𝜔 𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑎⃗ 𝜔 𝑟 𝑟̂
𝑟
• Magnitude of net acceleration:
5)
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
Banking of Road
The process of raising outer edge of road over its inner

edge through certain angle is called as Banking of road.
Chapter 6‐ Circular Motion Horizontal curve road
Circular Motion 𝑉 𝜇 tan 𝜃
When a particle moves in a plane such that its distance Banked road
from a fixed (or moving) point remains constant then its
motion is called as circular motion with respect to that 𝑟𝑔 𝜇 tan 𝜃
𝑉
fixed point. That fixed point is called center and the 1 𝜇 tan 𝜃
distance is called radius of circular path.
Radius Vector If 𝜇 0
The vector joining the centre of the circle and the center 𝑉
tan 𝜃
of the particle performing circular motion is called radius 𝑟𝑔
vector. It has constant magnitude and variable direction. Pendulum in a car
It is directed outwards. 𝑉
tan 𝜃
𝑟𝑔
Time Period (T)

It is time taken by particle to complete one revolution.

𝑇 Maximum/Minimum Speed in Circular Motion
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• On unbanked road: 𝑣 𝜇 𝑅𝑔

• On banked road: 𝑣 𝑅𝑔

𝑉

𝑣 𝑉 𝑉

where ϕ = angle of friction = tan 𝜇 ; 𝜃 angle of

banking.

• Bending of cyclist: tan 𝜃

Conical Pendulum

Vertical circular Motion

Change in vector quantities
Change in velocity Δ𝑉 2𝑉 sin
0
Change in radial vector Δ𝑉 2𝑟 sin
2
Change in momentum ΔP 2𝑚𝑣 sin

Death Well

Motion of a Charged particle in a magnetic field Hemispherical Vessel

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Force: Force is a push or pull which tries or change the
state of rest or uniform motion of a body.
⃗ ⃗
𝐹⃗ 𝑚 𝑚𝑎⃗
𝑝⃗ 𝑚𝑉⃗
𝐼 𝐹𝑡 𝑚𝑉 𝑚𝑢
𝐼 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑡
Area under F‐t graph
Inverted Cone Will give impulse.

Weight (w)
It is a field force. It is the force with which a body is
pulled towards the centre of the earth due to gravity. It
has the magnitude mg, where m is the mass of the body
and g is the acceleration due to gravity
W = mg
5) 𝐹 𝑚𝑎
Law of conservation of momentum
𝑚 𝑢 𝑚 𝑣
Reaction of road on car Motion for connected bodies
1) car on a concave bridge i) For two bodies
𝐹
𝑎
𝑚 𝑚

𝑚 𝐹
𝑇
𝑚 𝑚

ii) For three bodies

2) Car on a convex bridge 𝑎

𝑚 𝐹
𝑇
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

𝑚 𝑚 𝐹
𝑇
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
Rope on a horizontal surface

Motion of a block on frictionless hemisphere

Chapter 7‐ Newtons Laws of Motion
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Pulleys Apparent weight
Case ‐1 i) Lift is stable: N = Mg
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 ii) Lift moving up
𝑇 𝑚𝑔 N= M (g + a)
𝑎 0 iii) Lift moving down
Case ‐ II N = M(g – a)
𝑚 𝑚
𝑚 𝑚 Rocket propulsion
𝑎 𝑔
𝑚 𝑚 𝑉 𝑑𝑚
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 ∙
𝑚 𝑑𝑡
2𝑚 𝑚 Thrust on rocket = ma = 𝑉 ∙
𝑇 𝑔
𝑚 𝑚 If gravitational force is considered acceleration

Of rocket ∙ 𝑔
Case – III
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑚
𝑎 𝑚 𝑚 𝑡
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑑𝑡

Friction
Friction is defined as the resistance offered by the
surfaces that are in contact when they move past each
other.
Friction force is of two types
Kinetic Friction
𝑓 𝜇 𝑁
The proportionality constant 𝜇 is called the coefficient of
kinetic friction and its value depends on the nature of
the two surfaces in contact.
Static Friction
Case IV It exists between the two surfaces when there is
𝑚 𝑔
𝑎 tendency of relative motion but no relative motion along
𝑚 𝑚 the two contact surfaces.
This means static friction is a variable and self‐adjusting
𝑚 𝑚
𝑇 𝑔 force. However, it has a maximum value called limiting
𝑚 𝑚
friction.

𝑓 𝜇 𝑁
Case ‐ V
𝑚 𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 0 𝑓 𝑓
𝑎
𝑚 𝑚

𝑇 g

Case ‐ VI

𝑎 g Angle of Friction
It is the angle which the resultant ofo the force of
𝑇 g limiting friction and the normal reaction (N) makes with
the direction of N.

Tension in lift wire
i) Lift is stable: T = mg
ii) Lift moving up: T = m (g + a)
iii) Lift moving down: T = m(g – a)
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Angle of Repose or Angle of Sliding Work Done by Variable Force
It is the minimum angle of inclination of a plane with the
𝑊 𝑑𝑊 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗
horizontal, such that a body placed on it, just begins to
slide down. Area under the force and displacement curve gives work
If angle of repose is a and coefficient of limiting friction done.
is 𝜇 , then Relation Between Momentum and Kinetic Energy
𝜇 tan 𝛼 𝑃
𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 2𝑚 𝑘; 𝑃 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
2𝑚
Potential Energy

Conservative Forces
𝑑𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝐹⃗ 𝑟̂ 𝐹⃗ ı̂ ȷ̂ 𝑘
𝑑𝑟 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Pseudo Force
When an observer is on an accelerating frame of Equilibrium Conditions
reference, the observer will measure acceleration on Stable Equilibrium
another mass without any external force. 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝐹 𝜕 𝑈
If 𝑎 is acceleration of observer and he measures the 𝐹 𝑟 0; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
pseudo force 𝐹 on rest mass m, the magnitude of Unstable Equilibrium
pseudo = 𝑎 and its direction is opposite to direction of 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝐹 𝜕 𝑈
ovserver. 𝐹 𝑟 0; 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 0; 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
0
Neutral Equilibrium
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝐹 𝜕 𝑈
𝐹 𝑟 0; 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 0; 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑟
0
Work‐Energy Theorem

Chapter 8 – Work, Power and Energy

Work Done by Constant Force Law Of Conservation of Mechanical Energy
𝑊 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑆⃗ If the net external force acting on a system is zero, then
Work Done by Multiple Forces the mechanical energy is conserved.
𝑘 𝑈 𝐾 𝑈
Power
The average power delivered by an agent is given by
𝑊
𝑃
𝑡
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𝑑𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑆⃗ 𝑑𝑆⃗ Condition for pendulum motion (oscillating condition)
𝑃 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑣⃗ 𝑢 2𝑔𝑅 (in between A to B)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Circular Motion in Vertical Plane Velocity can be zero but T never be zero between A and
B.
Because T is given by T = mg cos 𝜃 .

Chapter 9‐ Centre of Mass and Collision
Centre of Mass
Is a point where whole mass of a body is supposed
to be concentrated is called centre of mass.

Condition to complete vertical circle
Centre Of Mass of a System Of ‘n’ Discrete Particle
𝑢 5𝑔𝑅
If u 5𝑔𝑅 = then Tension at C is equal to 0 and tension
at A is equal to 6 mg.
Velocity at B 𝑉 3𝑔𝑅
Velocity at C 𝑉 𝑔𝑅 Centre Of Mass of a Continuous Mass Distribution

From A to B : T = mg cos 𝜃

Centre Of Mass of Some Common Systems
A system of two‐point masses 𝑚 𝑟 𝑚 𝑟 .
The center of mass lies closer to the heavier mass.

From B to C: T = 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 Rectangular plate

A triangular plate at the centroid
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A circular cone (hollow)

A semi‐circular ring

A semi‐circular disk Motion Of Centre of Mass and Conservation of
Momentum
Velocity of Centre of Mass of System

Acceleration of Centre of Mass of System

A hemispherical shell

A solid hemisphere

Impulse of a force F on a body is defined as:
𝐽 𝐹⃗ 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑃⃗ Δ𝑃 (Area under the Force vs
time curve gives the impulse)
𝐽⃗ Δ𝑃⃗ (Impulse‐ momentum theorem)
Principle of Conservation of linear momentum

A circular cone (solid)

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Coefficient Of Restitution (e)

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹 𝑑𝑡
𝑒
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐹 𝑑𝑡
If the above body is rigid
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡

𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑉 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑃𝑚 𝑐 𝑢 𝑢 𝑃𝑚 𝑒 𝑢 𝑢
𝑉 , 𝑉 , 𝑉 = relative velocity of point B with respect to point A.
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚

(a) E=1 Impulse of Reformation = Impulse of
Deformation
Velocity of separation = Velocity of approach
Kinetic Energy may be conserved
Elastic collision.
(b) 0 < e < I Impulse of Reformation < Impulse of
Deformation
Velocity of separation < Velocity of approach Kinetic
Energy is not conserved Inelastic collision.
Variable Mass System
If a mass is added or ejected from a system, at rate 𝜇
kg/s and relative velocity Moment Of Inertia (I)
𝑉 (w.r.t. the system), then the force exerted by this
mass on the system has Moment of Inertia is defined as the capability of system
magnitude 𝜇 | 𝑉 |. to oppose the change produced in the rotational motion
Thrust Force (𝑭𝒕 ) of a body.
𝑑𝑚
𝐹 𝑣 Moment of Inertia is a scalar (positive quantity).
𝑑𝑡
Rocket Propulsion
If the gravity is ignored and the initial velocity of the 𝐼 𝑚 𝑟 +𝑚 𝑟 + ….
rocket u=0 = I1+ I2+ I3+ …
𝑚
𝑣 𝑣 ln
𝑚 SI unit of Moment of Inertia is Kgm2.

Moment of Inertia of
Chapter 10‐ Rigid Body Dynamics
Rigid Body A single particle
I = mr2
where m = mass of the particle
r = perpendicular distance of the particle from the axis
about which moment of Inertia is to be calculated
For a continuous object
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Object Moment of Inertia
𝐼 𝑑𝐼 𝑟 𝑑𝑚
where, dI = moment of inertia of a small element 2
𝑀𝑅 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
dm = mass of a small element 5
r = perpendicular distance of the particle from the axis
Solid Sphere
Two Important Theorems on Moment Of Inertia
Perpendicular Axis Theorem 2
𝑀𝑅 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
3
Only applicable to plane lamina (that means for 2‐D
objects only)
Hollow Sphere
IZ = IX + IY (when object is in x – y plane).
MR2 (Uniform or
Non‐Uniform)
Ring
o 𝑀𝑅
r
2

Parallel Axis Theorem Disc Sector of Disc
(Applicable to any type of object):
o MR2 (uniform or
r non‐uniform)
Hollow Part of hollow

cylinder cylinder
𝑀𝑅
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
2

2+
I = Icm + Md Solid cylinder
List of some useful formula:
𝑀𝑅
3

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Radius Of Gyration (k)
𝑀𝑅
12

2𝑀ℓ
/ 3 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚

𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝑀𝑘
𝑀𝑎
𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
12 𝐼
𝑘
𝑀
Torque

Square Plate
𝜏⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝐹⃗
𝑀𝑎
6
Square Plate
𝐼

𝑀 𝑎 𝑏
/12 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑠 𝑃⃗ 𝑀𝑣⃗ 𝐹⃗ 𝑀𝑎⃗
net external force acting on the body has two parts
tangential and centripetal.
Rectangular Plate
𝐹 𝑚𝑎 𝑚 𝑚𝜔 𝑟
𝐹 𝑚𝑎 𝑚𝑎 𝑚𝑎 𝑟
Rotational Equilibrium
𝑀 𝑎 𝑏
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜
12 For transitional equilibrium.
Σ𝐹 0
and
Σ𝐹 0

Cuboid

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The condition of rotational equilibrium is
Στ⃗ 0
Angular Momentum 𝑳⃗
Angular Momentum of a Particle about a Point

Pure Rolling (or Rolling without Slipping) on Stationary
Surface
Condition: 𝑣 𝑅𝜔
In accelerated motion 𝑎 𝑅𝛼
If 𝑣 𝑅𝜔 then rolling with forward slipping.
If 𝑣 𝑅𝜔 then rolling with backward slipping.
Total kinetic energy in pure rolling

Angular momentum of a rigid body rotating about 1 1  v2  1 2  k2 
K total  Mvcm
2
 (Mk 2 )  cm2   Mv cm  1  2 
fixed axis: 2 2 R  2  R 
LH IH ω Dynamics:
     
LH = angular momentum of object about axis H.  cm  Icm , Fext  Macm , Psystem  Mvcm
IH = Moment of Inertia of rigid object about axis H.

𝜔 = angular velocity of the object.
1 1
Total K.E.  Mvcm
2
 Icm  2
Conservation of Angular Momentum 2 2
Angular momentum of a particle or a system remains Pure rolling motion on an inclined plane
constant if 𝜏 0 about that point or axis of rotation.
g sin
𝐿 𝐿 ⇒ 𝐼𝑤 𝐼𝑤 Acceleration a 
1  k 2 / R2
Relation between Torque and Angular Momentum tan
Minimum frictional coefficient min 
𝑑𝐿 1  R2 / k2
𝜏
𝑑𝑡
Angular momentum about axis O = 𝐿⃗ about C.M. + 𝐿⃗
Torque is change in angular momentum of C.M. about O
Impulse Of Torque    
LO  LCM  rCM  MvCM
𝜏𝑑𝑡 𝛥𝐽
ΔJ = Change in angular momentum.
Rolling Motion
Total kinetic energy 𝑀𝑣 𝐼 𝜔
Total angular momentum = 𝑀𝑣 𝑅 𝐼 𝜔
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Gravitational Field due to Solid Sphere
𝐺𝑀
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑅
𝑟
𝐺𝑀
𝑂𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐸 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑅
𝑅
𝐺𝑀𝑟
𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑅
𝑅

Acceleration due to gravity
Chapter 11‐ Gravitation Acceleration produced in body due to gravity or
Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation gravitational pull is called as acceleration due to gravity
Law states that every particle on planet or universe 𝐺 (on the surface of earth)
attract every other partial by a force which is directly 𝐺𝑀
𝐴𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ, 𝑔
proportional to product of their masses and inversely 𝑅 ℎ
proportional to square of distance between them. 2ℎ
𝐼𝑓 ℎ ≪ 𝑅; 𝑔 𝑔 1
𝑅
𝐺𝑀 𝑅 𝑑 𝑑
𝐴𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑑, 𝑔 𝑔 1
Force of attraction between two‐point masses 𝐹 𝑅 𝑅
Effect of rotation on g : g’ 𝑔 𝜔 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜆 where 𝜆 is
angle of latitude.
here G = 6.67 × 10 𝑁𝑚 /𝑘𝑔
Directed along the line joining the point masses. Gravitational potential
• It is a conservative force ⇒ mechanical energy will be Gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field
conserved. of a body is defined as amount of work done required to
• It is a central force ⇒ angular momentum will be bring a mass from infinity to that point per unit mass
conserved. Due to a point mass at a distance r is 𝑉
Gravitational Field due to Spherical Shell
𝐺𝑀 Gravitational potential due to spherical shell
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑅 Outside the shell 𝑉 , 𝑟 𝑅
𝑟
Inside/on the surface of the shell 𝑉 ,𝑟 𝑅
𝐺𝑀
𝑂𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐸 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑅
𝑟

𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑅

Potential due to a solid sphere
Outside Region 𝐺𝑀
𝑉 , 𝑟 𝑅
𝑟
On the surface 𝐺𝑀
𝑉 , 𝑟 𝑅
𝑅
Direction always towards the centre of the sphere, Inside Region 𝐺𝑀 3𝑅 𝑟
𝑉 ,𝑟 𝑅
radially inwards. 2𝑅
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Chapter 12 Properties of Matter
Internal restorng force Res
Stress
Area of cross section
There are three types of stress: ‐
Longitudinal Stress
(a) Tensile Stress:

Potential on the axis 𝐺𝑀
𝑉
of a thin ring at a √𝑅 𝑥
distance x from the
centre
Escape velocity from (b) Compressive Stress:
2𝐺𝑀
a planet of mass M 𝑉
and radius R 𝑅
Orbital velocity
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀
satellite (orbital 𝑉
radius r) 𝑟 𝑅 𝐻

For nearby satellite
𝐺𝑀 𝑉
𝑉
√2 𝑅 Volume Stress
Here 𝑉 𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒.
Time Period of Satellite
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟 /

𝑇 Tangential Stress or Shear Stress
𝑣 √𝐺𝑀
Energies of a Satellite
Potential energy 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑈
𝑟
Kinetic energy 1 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐾 𝑚𝑣
2 2𝑟
Mechanical energy 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐸 𝑈 𝐾 Strain
2𝑟
Binding energy 𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐵𝐸 𝐸 Change in Size of the body
2𝑟 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Original size of the body

1.
Kepler’s laws
• 1st Law of orbitals Path of a planet is elliptical with the
sun at one of the focuses. Change in length of the body L
Longitudinal strain  
⃗ ⃗ initial length of the body L
• 2nd Law of areas Areal velocity 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
• 3 Law of periods:𝑇 𝛼 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 𝛼
rd
𝛼 2.
mean radius For
Circular orbits 𝑇 𝛼 𝑅 Change in volume of the body V
Volume strain  
original volume of the body V

ℓ ℓ
3. 𝑆 𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛: 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜙 or 𝜙
displacement of upper face

displacement between two faces
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Volume stress A P
K  
Volume strain V V
 
V V
1 1
Compressibility C  
Bulk modulus K
shearing stress (Etangential ) / A
Modulus of rigidity   
shearing strain 
Stress – Strain Curve lateral strain
Poisson’s ratio ( ) 
Longitudinal strain
Work done in stretching wire
1
W = × stress × strain × volume:
2
1 F  1
W =    A×= F×
2 A  2

Rod is rigidly fixed at the ends, between walls
Hooke’s Law
Stress is directly proportional to the strain within the

limit of the elasticity.
Stress α strain
Young’s modulus of elasticity Thermal strain = 𝛼Δ𝜃
Longitudinal stress FL Thermal stress = Y 𝛼Δ𝜃

𝑌
Longitudinal strain ℓ
Thermal tension = 𝑌 𝛼𝐴Δ𝜃
If L is the length of wire, r is radius and ℓ is the increase
in length of the wire by suspending a weight Mg at its Effect of Temperature on elasticity
one end, then young’s modulus of elasticity of the When temperature is increased then due to weakness of
(Mg/ r2 ) MgL inter molecular force the elastic properties in general
material of wire Y   2
( /L) r  decrease i.e, elastic constant decreases. Plastic
properties increase with temperature.
Increment in Length due to Own Weight
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity Chapter 13 Fluid Mechanics
Density
MgL  gL2
   Density 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
2AY 2Y
Volumetric stress F/A P Specific weight= 𝜌𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 𝑠
K  
Volumetric strain  V   V 
   
 V   V  Relative density
°
(Unitless)
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity Pressure 𝑁𝑚
Variation of pressure with depth
Pressure is same at two points at the same horizontal
level 𝑃 and 𝑃 The
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difference of pressure between two points separated by Based on the conservation of energy
a depth h is
𝑃 𝑃 ℎ𝜌𝑔
Pressure in case of accelerating fluid
Liquid placed in elevator: When elevator accelerates
upward with acceleration 𝑎 then pressure in the
fluid, at depth h may be given by, 𝑃 ℎ𝜌 𝑔 𝑎

Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy per unit volume
𝑣 𝜌𝑣

Potential Energy
Steady and Unsteady Flow : Steady flow is defined as Potential energy per unit volume
that type
𝑔ℎ 𝜌𝑔ℎ
of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity,
pressure and
density at a point do not change with time. Pressure Energy
Streamline Flow : In steady flow all the particles passing Pressure energy per unit volume 𝑃
through a Rate of flow
given point follow the same path and hence a unique Volume of water flowing per second 𝑄 𝐴 𝑣 𝐴 𝑣
line of flow. This Velocity of efflux 𝑉 2𝑔ℎ
line or path is called a streamline.
Horizontal range R 2 ℎ 𝐻 ℎ
Laminar and Turbulent Flow : Laminar flow is the flow in
which
the fluid particles move along well‐defined streamlines
which are
straight and parallel.
Compressible and Incompressible Flow : In
compressible flow
the density of fluid varies from point to point i.e, the

density is not
constant for the fluid whereas in incompressible flow
the density of the Chapter 14 Surface Tension
fluid remains constant throughout.
Rotational and Irrotational Flow : Rotational flow is the Surface tension is basically a property of liquid. The
flow liquid surface
in which the fluid particles while flowing along path‐lines behaves like a stretched elastic membrane which has a
also rotate natural tendency
about their own axis, In irrotational flow particles do not to contract and tends to have a minimum surface area.
rotate about This property of
their axis. liquid is called surface tension. It arises due to
Equation of continuity intermolecular forces
𝐴 𝑣 𝐴 𝑣 Based on conservation of mass in a liquid.
Bernoulli’s theorem Intermolecular forces
1 (a) Cohesive Force
𝑃 𝜌𝑣 𝜌𝑔ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
2
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The force acting between the molecules of same Liquid drop 𝑊 4𝜋𝑟 𝑇
substance is called cohesive force. Soap bubble 𝑊 8𝜋𝑟 𝑇
(b) Adhesive Force Splitting of bigger drop into smaller droplets 𝑅 𝑛 /
The force acting between different types of molecules or Work done = Change in surface energy =
molecules of different substances is called adhesive 4𝜋𝑅 𝑇 𝑛 / 𝑟
force. Excess pressure 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
• Intermolecular forces are different from the
gravitational forces and do not obey the inverse‐square In liquid drop 𝑃
law

• The distance up to which these forces are effective, is
called‐molecular range, This distance is nearly 10–9 m. In soap bubble 𝑃
Within this limit this increase very rapidly as the distance
decrease. Angle of Contact 𝜽𝒄
• Molecular range depends on the nature of the The angle enclosed between the tangent plane at the
substance. liquid surface and the
Properties of surface tension tangent plane at the solid surface at the point of contact
• Surface tension is a scalar quantity. inside the liquid is
• It acts tangential to liquid surface. defined as the angle of contact.
• Surface tension is always produced due to cohesive The angle of contact depends on the nature of the solid
force. and liquid in contact.
• More is the cohesive force, more is the surface Angle of contact 𝜃 < 90º ⇒ concave shape, Liquid rise up
tension. in capillary
• When surface area of liquid is increased, molecules Angle of contact 𝜃 > 90º ⇒ convex shape, Liquid falls
from the interior of the liquid rise to the surface. For down in capillary
this, work is done against the downward cohesive force. Angle of contact 𝜃 = 90º ⇒ plane shape, Liquid neither
Dependency of surface Tension rise nor falls
On Cohesive Force: Those factors which increase the Capillary rise
cohesive force

between molecules increase the surface tension and
When two soap bubbles are in contact then
those which decrease the
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
cohesive force between molecules decreases the surface
tension. radius of curvature of the common surface.
(a) On mixing detergent in water its surface tension When two soap bubbles are combined to form
decreases. a new bubble then radius of new bubble.
(b) Surface tension of water is more than (alcohol + 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
water) mixture. VISCOSITY
On Temperature Newton’s law of viscosity 𝐹 𝜂𝐴
On increasing temperature surface tension decreases. At
critical temperature SI UNITS of 𝜂:
and boiling point it becomes zero. CGS UNITS : dyne–𝑠/𝑐𝑚 or poise (1 decapoise = 10
On Contamination poise)
The dust particles on the liquid surface decreases its Dependency of viscosity of fluids On Temperature of
surface tension. Fluid
Definition of surface tension (a) Since cohesive forces decrease with increase in
The force acting per unit length of an imaginary line temperature as increase in K.E. Therefore, with the rise
drawn on the free liquid in temperature, the viscosity.
surface at right angles to the line and in the plane of (b) The viscosity of gases is the result of diffusion of gas
liquid surface, is difined molecules from one moving layer to another moving
as surface tension. layer. Now with increase in temperature, the rate of
For floating needle 2𝑇 ℓ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑚𝑔 diffusion increasers. So, the viscosity also increases.
Work = Surface energy 𝑇Δ𝐴
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Thus, the viscosity of gases increases with the rise of rate of diffusion r ∝
temperature.
Hand Book (Physics) 70
On Pressure of Fluid
The viscosity of liquid increases with the increase of 𝜌 is density
pressure and the viscosity of gases is practically
independent of pressure. 𝑟 𝜌

𝑟 𝜌
On Nature of Fluid
Dalton’s law: P = P1 + P2 + P3 ......
Piseuille’s formula 𝑑𝑉 𝜋𝑝𝑟
𝑄 P = Total pressure
𝑑𝑡 8𝜂𝐿
Viscous force 𝐹 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣
P1, P2, P3 .... = Pressure exerted by each component
Terminal 2𝑟 𝜌 𝜎 𝑔
𝑉 ⇒ 𝑉 𝛼𝑟 present in the mixture.
9 𝜂
Reynolds number 𝜌𝑉𝑑 Ideal gas equation: PV = nRT = kBNT
𝑅
𝜂
𝑅 1000 laminar 𝑅 2000 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 n = number of moles
flow, N = number of molecules

R = universal gas constant
Chapter 15 Kinetic Theory of Gases kB = Boltzmann’s constant
Boyle’s law: If m and T are constant Ideal gas equation:
V ∝ a) PV = nRT
P1V1 = P2V2 b) 𝑃
Charles’s law: If m and P are constant
c) 𝑃
V ∝ T
d) PV = NKT
𝑉 𝑉
Real gas equation
𝑇 𝑇
Gay‐Lussac’s law: If m and V are constant 𝑛 𝑎
𝑃 𝑉 𝑛𝑏 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑉
P ∝ T
where a, b are Vander Waal’s constants
𝑃 𝑃

𝑇 𝑇 Pressure exerted by a gas
Avogadro’s law: If P, V and T are same 2
𝑃 𝑒
3
N1 = N2
where e is translational KE per unit volume of gas.
where, N1 and N2 are the number of molecules
and 𝑃 𝜌𝑣 ; 𝜌 = Density of gas
V ∝ n (no. of molecules of gas)
𝑉 𝑉 R.M.S. speed

𝑛 𝑛
Graham’s law: If P and T are constant
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R
3𝑅𝑇 3𝑃 3𝐾𝑇 c) C p  Cv 
𝑣 M
𝑀 𝜌 𝜇
(If Cp & Cv are gram specific heat capacities)
Average speed
Cp
d) 
8𝑅𝑇 8𝑃 8𝐾𝑇 Cv
𝑣
𝜋𝑀 𝜋𝜌 𝜋𝜇
2
e)   1 
Most probable speed f
R R
2𝑅𝑇 2𝑃 2𝐾𝑇 f) Cv  ; Cp 
𝑣    
𝑀 𝜌 𝜇
Degree of freedom (f) (Excluding vibrational energies)
In a given gas sample 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
i) Monoatomic = 3, (3 Translational)
8
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 √3: : √2 ii) Diatomic (or) polylinear = 5, (3 Translational + 2
𝜋 Rotational)
Translational K.E. of a gas, iii) Poly non‐linear = 6, (3 Translational + 3 Rotational)
K.E.T = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 For a mixture of gases
Energy per molecule per degree of freedom is n1C p1  n2C p2  .....

C p(mix .) 
n1  n2  .....
𝐾𝑇
n1Cv1  n2Cv2  .....
Energy per mole per degree of freedom is Cv (mix .) 
n1  n2  .....
1
𝑅𝑇 C p(mix )
2  mix 
Cv (mix )
Internal energy (U)
Absolute temperature of mixture,
For one molecule = 𝐾𝑇
f1n1T1  f2 n2T2  .....
For n moles of gas = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 Tmix 
f1n1  f2 n2  .....
Change in internal energy of a gas sample is, Heat energy supplied to a gas
f ab Q = mCab 𝛥T or Q = nCmolar 𝛥T
U  nRT  nCv T
2
Cab = gram sp. heat capacity
For a given gas,
Cmolar = molar sp. heat capacity
R
a) Cv  f
2 Chapter 16 Thermodynamics
b) Cp – Cv = R Heat (  )
It is the energy which is transferred from a system to
(If Cp & Cv are molar specific heat capacities) surroundings (or) vice versa due to temperature
difference between system and surroundings.
 It is a macroscopic quantity.
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 Path dependent. c) F.L.T.     𝑢𝑡𝜔
Work d) Work done by the gas   𝑃 Δ𝑉 𝜂𝑅 Δ𝑇
Work is the energy that is transmitted from one system Isochoric (Isometric) process
to other by a force moving its points of application. Thermodynamic process in which volume of the system
 It is a macroscopic quantity. remains constant throughout.
 Path dependent. a) Condition: v = constant throughout
Internal energy b) State equation = constant ⇒
The total kinetic energy of gas and gas molecule.
C) F.L.T.⇒ 𝜃 Δ𝑢; ∵ 𝜔 0)
u  T
d) Work done by the gas    0; ( v = constant)
Carnot’s theorem
∵ 𝑣 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
It states that no heat engine can have efficiency greater
Adiabatic process
than Carnot’s engine working between same hot and
If system is completely isolated from surroundings so
cold reservoir.
that no heat flows ‘in’ or ‘out’, then any change that the
Reversible process
system undergoes is called an adiabatic process.
A process which can proud in opposite direction in such

a way, that the system passes through the same states
a) Condition    0
as in the direct process and finally the system and
surroundings acquire the initial conditions. b) State equation PV 𝑃𝑉 constant
Irreversible process 𝑇𝑉 = constant
The process which cannot be traced back in the opposite 𝑃 𝑇 = constant
direction. c) F.L.T. u    0 ;∵ 𝜃 0
First law of thermodynamics d) work done by the gas
𝑃𝑉 𝑃𝑉 𝜂𝑅 𝑇 𝑇
𝜃 Δ𝑢 𝜔 𝜔
𝜃 𝑛𝑐Δ ⇒ het energy supplied to gas. 𝛾 1 𝛾 1
Cyclic process
Δ𝑢 𝑛𝐺Δ ⇒ change in internal energy of gas.
The process in which the initial and final states of gas
𝜔 𝜌𝑑𝑉 ⇒ work done by the gas. after traversing a cycle are same.
Second laws of thermodynamics a) Initial and final states are same.
It states that it is impossible for a self‐acting machine b) u  0
unaided by any external agency, to transfer heat from a c) Work done by gas = Area inside cycle.
body at lower temperature to a body at higher = +ve for clockwise cycle and –ve for anti‐ clockwise
temperature. It is decided from this law that, the cycle.
efficiency of any heat engine can never be 100%. d) 𝜃 𝜔; 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
e) 𝜂
Isothermal process Molar specific heat capacity for a polytropic process with
A thermodynamic process in which the temperature of state equation 𝑃𝑉 = constant is
the system remains constant throughout.
given by 𝐶 𝐶
a) condition T = constant throughout
Area covered by P‐V graph with volume axis gives work
b) State equation 𝑝𝑣 constant
done by the gas.
𝑃𝑉 𝑃 𝑉
c) F.L.T. ⇒ Δ𝑢 𝑛𝑐 Δ𝑇 0; ∵ Δ 0
∴ 𝜃 𝜔
d) Work done by the gas 𝜔 𝜂𝑅𝑇 𝐼𝑛
𝑃
𝜂𝑅𝑇 𝐼𝑛
𝑃 9) Bulk modulus of gas 𝐵 𝑃
Iso‐baric process 𝐵 𝛾
A process taking place at constant pressure throughout. Heat engine
a) Condition p = constant throughout It is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical
b) State equation = constant. energy.
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Efficiency of heat engine
/
efficiency ⇒𝜂
/
𝜔 𝜃
∴𝜂 1
𝜃 𝜃
For Carnot engine ‘’ is
maximum is given by
𝜃 𝜃 𝑇
𝜂 1 1 1
𝜃 𝜃 𝑇
Adiabatic process:

Iso‐thermal and Adiabatic comparison:

Comparison of mono, di and polyatomic gases for
Refrigerator adiabatic process
Refrigerator is a heat engine running in backward
direction i.e., working substance takes heat from cold
body and gives out to hotter body with the help of
external agency.

Refrigerator Co‐efficient of performance more   more slope 𝛾 𝛾 𝛾
𝛽 ⇒𝛽  1  monoatomic   
2  diatomic gas   
3  polyatomic gas  𝛾
What does the slope of P‐V graph give
a) for isothermal process graph
𝑑𝑃 𝑃
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒
𝑑𝑉 𝑉

12) Relation between " ” and "” b) for adiabatic graph
1 𝜂 𝑑𝑃 𝑃
𝛽 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝛾
𝜂 𝑑𝑉 𝑉
Iso‐choric process:
GRAPHS
Iso‐thermal process:

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Iso‐baric process: Water equivalent of a body is the mass of water having
the same heat capacity as a given body
Latent heat
The amount of heat required to change the state of unit
mass of a substance at a constant temperature is called
latent heat.
Thermal conductivity is a measure of the ability of a

substance to conduct heat through it.
Carnot’s cycle:
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 (Temperature of hot reservoir) Black body
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 (Temperature of cold reservoir) A body which absorbs all the radiation falling on it is
𝑇
𝜂 1 caused black body.
𝑇
Emissive power
Emissive is the energy radiated per unit area per unit
time per unit solid angle along the normal to the area.

1  2  isothermal expansion Absorptive power
2  3  adiabatic expansion Absorptive power is a fraction of the incident radiation
3  4  isothermal compression that is absorbed by the body.
4  1  adiabatic compression
Formulae

1)
Chapter 17 Thermal Properties of
t t  t0
Matter t  100C
t100  t0
Definitions‐
C 0 F  32 K  273.15
2)  
Temperature 100  0 212  32 373.15  273.15
It is defined as degree of coldness or hotness of a body l  l0
and it is measured by thermometer. 3) Liquid thermometer: t   100C
l100  l0
Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
V  V0
4) Gas thermometer: t   100C
If two bodies x and y are in equilibrium and x and z are in V100  V0
equilibrium then y and z are in equilibrium.
P  P0
Heat t  100C
P100  P0
is energy in transit which is transferred from one body to
R  R0
other due to temperature difference between them. 5) Resistance thermometer: t   100C
R100  R0
Heat Capacity
6) Thermal expansion
The heat required to raise the temperature of body by
1°C is called heat capacity. a) Linear expansion L2 = L1[1 + 𝛼Δ𝜃 ]
Water equivalent b) Area expansion A2 = A1[1 + 𝛽Δ𝜃 ]
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c) Volume expansion V2 = V1[1+ 𝛾Δ𝜃 ] GRAPHS
d) pendulum clock time period 1) Heating Curve

1
𝑇 𝑇 1 ∝ 𝛥𝜃
2
e) Density 𝜌 𝜌 1 𝛾𝛥𝜃
7) Thermal stress 𝜎 𝛾𝛥𝜃
8) Δ𝑉 𝑉𝛾 𝛥𝜃 where γ 𝛾 𝛾
9) W = JQ 2)
10) 𝜃 𝑚𝑠Δ𝜃, 𝜃 𝑛𝑐Δ𝜃, 𝜃 𝑚𝐿
11) Heat lost = Heat gained
While solving problems, when temperature change is

involved, use 𝜃 𝑚𝑠Δ𝜃 or 𝑛𝑐Δ𝜃, when state change is
involved, use 𝜃 𝑚𝐿
 KA(1  2 )
12) 
t L
Chapter 18 Simple Harmonic Motion
d d
 KA F = –kx
dt dx
General equation of S.H.M. is x = A sin 𝜔𝑡 𝜙 ; 𝜔𝑡
 L
    iR 𝜙 is phase of the motion and f is initial phase of the
t KA motion.
13) Keq
2
  2 f
1 1 1 T
a) Series   .....
K eq K1 K2
Time period (T)
b) Parallel Keq = K1 + K2 + K3 ….
2 m
T   2
U  k
14) E 
At 
15) 𝑢 𝜎𝐴𝑇

16) Rate of cooling 𝑇 𝑇
Speed: 𝑣 𝜔 √𝐴 𝑥
Newtons law 𝐾 𝑇 𝑇 Acceleration: 𝑎 – 𝜔 𝑥
4𝑒𝜎𝐴𝑇 Kinetic Energy (KE):

𝐾
𝑚𝑠 1 2 1 1
mv  m 2 (A2  x2 )  k(A2  x2 )
17) Wien’s law 𝜆 𝑇 𝑏 = constant 2 2 2
b = 0.288 cm‐k Potential Energy (PE): 𝐾𝑥
Total Mechanical Energy (TME)
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= K.E. + P.E. = 𝑘 𝐴 𝑥 𝐾𝑥 𝐾𝐴 Superposition of two SHM s along the same direction
(Which is constant) x1 = A1 sin 𝜔𝑡
SPRING‐MASS SYSTEM and x2 = A2 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝜃
1. If equation of resultant SHM is taken as x = A sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜙
A  A12  A22  2A1 A2 cos
A2 sin
and tan 
A1  A2 cos 
m m1m2
2. T  2 , where   is known as
k (m1  m2 )
“reduced mass”.

Chapter 19 Waves
Types of Waves

1) On The Basis of Medium:
Combination Of Springs
i) Mechanical Waves: Required medium for their
Series Combination: 1/KS = 1/K1 + 1/K2
propagation ex.: Waves on string, and spring etc.
Parallel combination: KP = K1 + K2
ii) Non‐mechanical Waves: Do not require medium for
  their propagation ex.: Light, radio waves, X‐rays etc.
Simple pendulum: T  2  2 (in
g geff 2) On The Basis of Vibration Of Particle:
accelerating Reference Frame); geff is net acceleration
i) Transverse waves: Particle of medium vibrates in a
due to pseudo force and gravitational force.
direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation
Compound Pendulum/Physical Pendulum of waves ex.: movement of string of sitar
TIME PERIOD (T): ii) Longitudinal waves: Particles of medium vibrate in

the direction of wave motion. ex.: sound wave travel
I through air.
T  2
mg
3) On The Basis Of Energy Propagation:
where, I = Icm 𝑚ℓ ; ℓ is distance between point of
i) Progressive wave: These waves propagate energy in
suspension and centre of mass.
medium. Ex. : Sound wave
Torsional Pendulum
ii) Stationary wave : Energy is not propagated by these
I waves. ex.: waves in a string, waves in organ pipes.
Time period (T) : T  2 where, C = Torsional
C 4) Amplitude : Maximum displacement from mean
constant position.
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5) Wavelength : It is equal to the distance travelled by YP
v Y = 1.41 for air
the wave during the time in which any particle of 
medium completes one vibration.
YRT
6) Angular wave number : Number of wavelengths in v
the distance 2𝜋 . M
7) Wave velocity (v) : It is the distance travelled by the Equation of plane progressive wave
disturbance in one time period. 𝑦 𝑥 𝑡 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑥 𝜙 (General equation)
Formulae where 𝜙 = Initial phase
Wave velocity (v) 𝜔 = Wave number
  A = amplitude
v  f  
T k
Various Form
Intensity of wave (I)
i) y  A sin(t  kv), Let   0
I  2 2 f 2 A2 v
 2 
ii) y  A sin  t  x
Energy density   
2 2 f 2a2 v  2 2 
Energy density  iii) y  A sin  t  x
V  T  
Velocity of transverse wave
t x
y  A sin 2   
T T  
v (in stretched string)
 Particle velocity


v (in solid) VP = –v × slope of wave at that point.

Interference of sound waves
Velocity of sound wave
When two waves of same frequency, same velocity
Elasticity of medium moves in same direction.
v
Density of medium
𝑦 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡
E
v 𝑦 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝜙

Y after superposition.
v (in solids)

Anet  A12  A22  2A1 A2 cos
B
v (in liquid and gas long medium) Intensity (I)  I1  I2  2 I1I2 cos 

Newton’s formula Constructive interference
Phase difference 𝜙 0° or 2𝑛𝜋
P
v
 Path difference 𝜂𝜆 (even multiple of )
Laplace correction: Resultant amplitude,
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𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
1 T
Resultant intensity h2 
 
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 2 𝐼𝐼
1 T
𝐼 𝐼 h2   2n2
l 

iii) Third harmonic or second over tone.
Destructive interference
1 T
h3 
Phase difference, 𝜙 180° 𝑜𝑟 2𝑛 1 𝜋  
𝜂 1, 2, 3, … ..
1 T
Path difference 2𝑛 1 (odd multiple of h3   3n1
2l 
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 14) Standing wave in organ pipe:
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 2 𝐼𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 Closed organ pipe {Vs = Velocity of sound} Resonance
frequency
Stationary wave
Vs
equation, y  2
A 
 sin
kx cos t f1  [fundamental frequency 1st harmonic]
Amplitude of wave
4l
Node: The points where amplitude is minimum
Distance between two successive nodes is
Antinode: The points of maximum amplitude.

Distance between two successive antinodes is . 3Vs
f2  [3rd harmonic or 1st over tone]
4l

Stenting wave can string frequency of vibration =
frequency of wave l
v 1 T 5Vs
  f3  [5th harmonic or 2nd overtone]
   4l
i) Fundamental frequency or first harmonic
1 T 1 T
n1  
  2l 

ii) Second harmonic or first overtone:

Open organ pipe
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   
Vs F  F1  F2  F3  ........
f1  [fundamental frequency or 1st harmonic]
2l
Electric Field
Intensity (Vector
Quantity)
In the surrounding region of a charge there exist a

physical property due to which other charges

experience a force. The direction of electric field is
2Vs direction of force experienced by a positively charged
f2  [2nd harmonic or 1st overtone]
2l particle and magnitude of the field (electric field
intensity) is the force experienced by a unit charge.

 F
E  unit is N/C or V/m.
q

Electric field due to charge Q
Beat frequency 
 F 1 Q
Beat frequency = No. of beats per second E  L im  rˆ
q0  0 q0 4 0 r2
= Difference in frequency of two source
Null point for two charges
|𝑛 𝑛 |
Doppler effect

apparent frequency
⇒ Null point near Q2
 v  v0 
fapp    factual Q 1r
 v  vsource  x ;x  distance of null point from Q1
Q1  Q2
Chapter – 20 Electrostatics charge
Electric Charge (+) for like charges
Charge of a material body is that property due to which (–) for unlike charges
it interacts with other charges. There are two kinds of Equilibrium of three‐point charges
charges‐ positive and negative. SI unit is coulomb.
Charge is quantized and additive.
Coulomb’s law

 1 q1q2 (i) Two charges must be of like nature.
Force between two charges F  rˆ r 
4 0r r2
(ii) Third charge should be of unlike nature.
dielectric constant
Q1 Q 1Q 2
x r and q 
 
2
Q1  Q2 Q1  Q2
Principle of Superposition
Equilibrium of suspended point charge system
Force on a point charge due to many charges is given by
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For equilibrium position • Electric dipole moment p = qd
kQ 2 Fe kQ 2 • Torque on dipole placed in uniform electric field 𝜏⃗
Tcos 𝜃 = mg & Tsin 𝜃 = Fe   tan   2 𝑝⃗ 𝐸⃗
x2 mg x mg
• Work done in rotating dipole placed in uniform electric
2 2
T  (Fe )  (mg) field
𝑊 𝜏𝑑𝜃 𝑃𝐸 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 – cos 𝜃
• Potential energy of dipole placed in an uniform field U
= 𝑝⃗. 𝐸⃗
• At a point which is at a distance r from dipole midpoint
and making angle 𝜃 with dipole axis.
Potential 𝑉
√
Electric field 𝐸
If whole set up is taken into an artificial satellite (geff ≃
0) Direction tan 𝛼 tan 𝜃
Electric potential difference Δ𝑉
Electric potential
𝑉 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑⃗𝑟

It is the work done against the field to take a unit
⃗
positive charge from infinity (reference point) to the • Electric field at axial point (or End‐on) 𝐸⃗ of
given point
dipole
• For point charge: 𝑉 𝐾 • Electric field at equatorial position (Broad‐on) of
⃗
• For several point charges: 𝑉 𝐾∑ dipole 𝐸⃗
Equipotential Surface and Equipotential Region
Relation between 𝑬⃗ & 𝑽
In an electric field the locus of points of equal potential
𝐸⃗ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑉 ∇V, E ; 𝐸⃗ 𝚤̂ 𝚥̂ is called an equipotential surface. An equipotential
𝑘, 𝑉 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑⃗𝑟 surface and the electric field line meet at right angles.
The region where E = 0, Potential of the whole region
Electric potential energy of two charges must remain constant as no work is done in
displacement of charge in it. It is called as equipotential
1 q1q2
U region like conducting bodies.
4 0 r
Electric flux : 𝝓 𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗
Electric dipole
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∑𝒒
Gauss's Law : ∮ 𝑬⃗. 𝒅𝒔⃗ (Applicable only on closed For 𝑟 𝑅∶𝐸 ,𝑉
𝝐𝟎
surface)
Net flux emerging out of a closed surface is
𝜙 ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝐴⃗ where qen = net charge enclosed by
the closed surface.

φ does not depend on the
For 𝑟 𝑅∶𝐸 ,𝑉
(i) Shape and size of the closed surface
(ii) The charges located outside the closed surface.
For a conducting sphere

3 𝐾𝑞
𝑉 𝑉 1.5𝑉surface
2 𝑅
For a conducting/non conducting spherical shell


For 𝑟 𝑅∶𝐸 0, 𝑉
For 𝑅∶𝐸 0, 𝑉
For a charged circular ring

For a non‐conducting sphere

1 𝑞𝑥 𝑞
𝐸 /
, 𝑉 /

4𝜋𝜖 𝑥 𝑅 4𝜋𝜖 𝑥 𝑅

Electric field will be maximum at 𝑥
√
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For a charged long conducting cylinder (vii) Lines of force per unit area normal to the area at a
point represents magnitude of intensity, crowded lines
• For 𝑟 𝑅: 𝐸 represent strong field while distant lines weak field.
• For r < R : E = 0 (viii) Tangent to the line of force at a point in an electric
field gives the direction of Electric Field.
Chapter 21 Capacitance
Capacitor & Capacitance
A capacitor consists of two conductors carrying charges
of equal magnitude and opposite sign. The capacitance C
of any capacitor is the ratio of the charge
Q on either conductor to the potential difference V
between them 𝑐

The capacitance depends only on the geometry of the
conductors.
Capacitance of an Isolated Spherical Conductor
Electric field intensity at a point near a charged
𝝈 𝐶 4𝜋 𝜖 𝜖 in a medium C = 4𝜋 𝜖 R in air.
conductor 𝑬 This sphere is at infinite distance from all the
𝝐𝟎
conductors.
𝝈𝟐
Mechanical pressure on a charged conductor 𝑷 Spherical Capacitor
𝟐𝝐𝟎
It consists of two concentric spherical shells as shown in
For non‐conducting infinite sheet of surface charged figure. Here capacitance of region between the two
𝝈 shells is
density 𝑬
𝟐𝝐𝟎
𝐶 and that outside the shell is 𝐶 . We have 𝐶
For conducting infinite sheet of surface charge density and 𝐶 4𝜋 𝜖 𝑏.
𝝈
𝑬
𝝐𝟎
𝝐𝟎
Energy density in electric field 𝑼 𝑬𝟐
𝟐
Electric lines of force

Electric lines of electrostatic field have following Parallel Plate Capacitor
properties. (i) Uniform Di‐Electric Medium
If two parallel plates each of area A & separated by a
(i) Imaginary distance d are charged with equal & opposite charge Q,
(ii) Can never cross each other then the system is called a parallel plate capacitor & its
capacitance is given by, 𝐶 in a medium, 𝐶
(iii) Can never be closed loops
with air as medium.
(iv) The number of lines originating or terminating on a This result is only valid when the electric field between
charge is proportional to the magnitude of charge. plates of capacitor is constant.

(v) Lines of force ends or starts normally at the surface (ii) Medium Partly Air : 𝐶
of a conductor.
(vi) If there is no electric field there will be no lines of
force.
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(ii) Capacitors in Parallel
When one plate of each capacitor is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery & the other plate of each
capacitor is connected to the negative terminals of the
When a di‐electric slab of thickness t & relative battery, then the capacitors are said to be parallel
permittivity 𝜖 is introduced between the plates of an air connection. The capacitors have the same potential
capacitor, then the distance between the plates is difference V, but the charge on each one is different (if
effectively reduced by 𝑡 irrespective of the the capacitors are unequal). 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
position of the di‐electric slab. 𝐶 ………. 𝐶 .

(iii) Composite Medium

Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
Capacitance C, Charge Q & potential difference V; then
energy stored is
1 1 1𝑄
𝑈 𝐶𝑉 𝑄𝑉
Cylindrical Capacitor 2 2 2 𝐶
This energy is stored in the electrostatic field set up in
It consists of two co‐axial cylinders of radii a & b, the
the di‐electric medium between the conducting plates of
outer conductor is earthed. The di‐electric constant of
the capacitor.
the medium filled in the space between the cylinders is

𝜖 .
Due to charge flow always some amount of heat is
The capacitance per unit length is 𝐶 produced when a switch is closed in a circuit which can
ℓ
be obtained by energy conservation as
Heat = Work done by battery – Energy absorbed by
capacitor
Work done by battery to charge a capacitor
𝑊 𝐶𝑉 𝑄𝑉 𝑄 /𝐶

Attractive force between capacitor plate:
𝐹 𝜎𝐴
/
Combination of Capacitors Charging of a capacitor: 𝑞 𝑞 1 𝑒 where 𝐶𝑉
(i) Capacitors in Series
(ii) In this arrangement all the capacitors when
uncharged get the same charge Q but the
potential difference across each will differ (if
the capacitance are unequal)

/
Discharging of a capacitor: 𝑞 𝑞 𝑒
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𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟏
𝑰
𝑹
Electrical Power
P= VI

Chapter 22 Current Electricity

Electric Current Kirchhoff's Laws
𝐼 and instantaneous current
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (Junction law)
𝑳𝒊𝒎 Δ𝑞 𝑑𝑞
𝑖 . Σ𝐼 Σ𝐼
Δ𝑡 → 0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (Loop law)
Electric Current in A Conductor Σ 𝐼𝑅 Σ 𝐸𝑀𝐹 0"

Since R and ℓ are known, therefore, the value of X can
be calculated.

heating effect of electric current
When a current is passed through a resistor, energy is
wasted in overcoming the resistances of the wire. This
energy is converted into heat

𝑉
Current Density 𝑤 𝑉𝑙𝑡 𝐼 𝑅𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑙 𝑅
𝐽⃗ 𝑛⃗ Joules Law Of Electrical Heating
𝑑𝑠
The heat generated (in joules) when a current of I
Electrical Resistance ampere flows through a resistance of R ohm for T
𝑒𝐸 𝑛𝑒 𝜏 second is given by:
𝐼 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑉 𝑛𝑒𝐴 𝜏 𝐴𝐸 𝐼 𝑅𝑇
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝐻 𝐼 𝑅𝑇 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
4.2
If variable current passes through the conductor, then
𝐸 𝑠𝑜 𝐼 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉/𝑅 ⇒ we use for heat produced in resistance from time 0 to T
ℓ ℓ ℓ
𝑉 𝐼𝑅 is; ℎ 𝐼 𝑅𝑑𝑡.
𝜌 is called resistivity (it is also called specific resistance) Unit of Electrical Energy Consumption
and 1 unit of electrical energy = kilowatt hour = 1 kWh = 3.6
𝜌 , 𝜎 is called conductivity. Therefore, x 10 joules.
current in conductors is proportional to potential Series combination of Bulbs
difference applied across its ends. This is
Ohm's Law.
Units:
𝑅 → 𝑜ℎ𝑚 Ω 𝑚
Also called siemens, 𝜎 → Ω 𝑚
Dependence of Resistance on Temperature
𝑅 𝑅 1 𝛼 𝜃 . Chapter 23 Alternating Current
Electric current in resistance
AC And DC Current
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A current that changes its direction periodically is called
alternating current (AC). If a current maintains its
direction constant it is called direct current (DC).

Root Mean Square Value
Root Mean Square Value of a function, from 𝑡 to 𝑡 , is
defined as
𝑓 𝑑𝑡
𝑓 .
𝑡 𝑡
Power Consumed Or Supplied In An Ac Circuit

𝐼 leads by 𝑉 by /2 Diagrammatically
Average power consumed in a cycle =
(phasor diagram) it is represented as
𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜃
Since 𝜙 90°, 𝑃 𝑉 𝐼 cos 𝜙 0

𝑉 𝐼
. . 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 𝑉 𝐼 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃.
√2 √2 Chapter 24 Magnetic Effect Of Electric
Here cos 𝜙 s called power factor.
Current
SOME DEFINITIONS Definitions
The factor cos  is called Power factor. Biot‐Savart Law
𝐼 sin  is called wattless current. According to this law, the magnitude of magnetic field 𝐵⃗
Impedance Z is defined as Z = is
L is called inductive reactance and is denoted by 𝑋 . I) Directly proportional to current I through the
conductors.
is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by 𝑋 .
II) Directly proportional to length of conductor.
III) Directly proportional to sin 
Purely Resistive Circuit IV) Inversely proportional to square of the distance of
point ‘p’ from current element.
𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵 ∝
𝑟
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐵
4𝜋 𝑟
Tesla
One tesla is the amount of magnetic field in which when
a charge of 1 coulomb moves with velocity of 1 m/s in a

Purely Capacitive Circuit direction perpendicular to magnetic field, experiences a
force of a 1 N.
Right hand thumb rule
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If we hold the straight conductor in the grip of our right A very low resistance connected in parallel to
hand in such a way that the extended thumb points in galvanometer to convert it into ammeter.
the direction of thumb current, then the direction of Radial magnetic field
finger curl will give the direction of magnetic field. A magnetic field which always remain perpendicular to
Maxwell’s cork screw rule plane of coil . It is achieved by inserting soft iron core
If a right‐handed screw be rotated along the wire so that between moving coil galvanometer. Concave shaped
it advanced in the direction of current, when the magnets are used to achieve this.
direction in which the thumb rotated give the direction
magnetic field. FORMULAE
Clock rule 1) 𝑑𝐵
This rule gives the polarity of any face of the coil in
2) Magnetic field due to long straight conductor
anticlockwise direction it behavers like a north pole, if 𝜇 𝐼
the current flows in clockwise direction, it behaves like 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
4𝜋 𝑎
south pole.
Ampere’s circuital law
3) Infinitely long conductor : 𝐵
It states that the line integral of the magnetic field 𝐵⃗
around any closed circuit is equal to 𝜇 times the total 4) Circular loop centre : 𝐵
current threading or passing through this closed circuit. 5) Axis of ring : 𝐵
/
Lorentz force
6) Solenoid interior : 𝐵 𝜇 𝑛𝑙
The total force experienced by a charged particle moving
in a region where both electric and magnetic field is 7) Solenoid end : 𝐵 𝜇 𝑛𝑙
present is called Lorentz force. 8) Force on moving charge in magnetic field
Cyclotron 𝐹 𝐵 𝑞𝑣 sin 0
It is device used to accelerate charged particles like, 𝐹⃗ 𝑞 𝑣⃗ 𝐵⃗
protons, deuterons and alpha particles to very high 9) 𝑟 ⇒ ∴𝑇
speeds. Its working based on principle that charged
particle can be accelerated to very high energies by 10) K.E.
making it pass through the moderate electric field a 11) Pitch 𝑣
number of times. This can be done with the help of 12) Force current carrying wire
perpendicular magnetic field which throws the charged 𝐹⃗ 𝐼 𝑙⃗ 𝐵⃗ ∴ 𝐹 𝐵𝐼𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
particle in circular path. 13 Force per unit length
Ampere 𝜇 𝐼𝐼
𝑓
One ampere is that value of steady current. Which on 2𝜋 𝑟
flowing in each of two parallel infinitely long conductors 14 Force on wire of length ‘L’
of negligible cross‐section placed in vacuum at distance 𝜇 𝐼𝐼 𝐿
𝑓
of 1 m apart from each other, attracts or repel each 2𝜋 𝑟
other with a force of 2 × 10 N between per meter of 15 𝜏 𝑁 𝐼 𝐵𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
their length. 𝜏 𝑀𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Principle of moving coil galvanometer 𝜏 𝑀⃗ 𝐵⃗
A current carrying coil placed in a magnetic field 16 In M.C.G.
experiences a current dependent torque, which tends to 𝑘
𝐼 𝜙
rotate the coil and produces angular deflection. 𝑁𝐵𝐴
Sensitivity of galvanometer Figure of merit G
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive it is shows large Current sensitivity 𝐼
scale deflection even when a small current is passed
through it or a small voltage is applied across it. Voltage sensitivity 𝑉
Current sensitivity 17) Conversion to ammeter
It is the deflection produced per unit current applied in 𝑆 , A
galvanometer. 𝐼𝑆
Shunt 𝐼
𝐺 𝑆
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18) Conversion to voltmeter additional magnetic field produced by magnetization of
𝑅 𝐺, 𝐼 𝑉 𝐺 𝑅 material, and is called magnetic induction B.
Magnetizing field intensity
Chapter 25 Magnetism and Matter The ability of magnetizing field to magnetize a material
Definitions medium is called magnetizing field intensity. Its
Magnetic field: The space around a magnet in which its magnitude may be defiled as number of amperes turns
influence can be felt. flowing round the unit length of solenoid required to
Uniform magnetic field: A magnetic field is said to be produce given magnetic field.
uniform if it has same magnitude and direction at all Intensity of magnetization (I)
points of that region. The magnetic moment developed per unit volume of
Magnetic poles (m): The regions of apparently material when placed in magnetizing field is called
concentrated magnetic strength in a magnet where intensity of magnetization.
magnetic attraction is maximum. Intensity of magnetization may also be defined as the
Magnetic axis: The line passing the poles of magnet is pole strength developed per unit cross section of
called the magnetic axis of magnet. material.
Magnetic length: The distance between two poles of a Intensity of magnetization as a function of H/T
magnet is called magnetic length.
Coulomb’s law of magnetic force: The law states that
the force of attraction or repulsion between two
magnetic poles is directly proportional to their pole
strength and inversely proportional to square of distance
them.
𝐹
Unit pole strength: Unit magnetic pole strength may be
defined as that pole strength which when placed in
vacuum at a distance of 1 meter apart from identical Magnetic permeability: The magnetic permeability of a
pole, repels it from a force of 10 newton. material is defied at the ratio of its magnetic induction B
Magnetic dipole: An arrangement of equal and opposite to magnetic intensity H.
magnetic poles separated by a certain distance called a Relative permeability: It is defined as the ratio of
magnetic dipole. permeability of the medium to the permeability of free
Magnetic dipole moment (M): The magnetic dipole space.
moment of a magnetic dipole is defined as the product Magnetic Susceptibility: It is defiled as the ratio of
of its pole strength and its magnetic length. S.I. unit of intensity of magnetization to the magnetic field intensity
magnetic dipole moment is 𝐴𝑚 . H.
Magnetic dipole moment: 𝑀 𝑞 2𝑙 Diamagnetic materials: These are those substances
Magnetic field lines: Magnetic field lines may be defined which develop feeble magnetization in the opposite
as the curve, the tangent to which at any point gives the direction of magnetizing field. Such substance is free to
direction of magnetic field at that point. It may also be repelled by magnets and tend to move from stronger to
defined at the path along which a unit magnetic pole weaker parts of field.
would tend to move if free to do so. 𝜒 𝑇 graph for diamagnetic material
Bohr Magneton: It is defined as the magnetic moment
associated with an electron due to its orbital motion in
the first orbit of hydrogen atom.
Magnetizing field (H): When a magnetic material is
placed in magnetic field a magnetism induced in it. The
magnetic field that in vacuum and induced magnetism is
called magnetizing field.
Magnetic Induction (B): The total magnetic field inside a
magnetic material is the sum of equal magnetic field and

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Magnetic flux 𝜙 𝐵⃗. 𝐴⃗ 𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Paramagnetic material: These are those substances • When 𝐵⃗ is variable
which develop feeble magnetization in the direction of
Magnetic flux 𝜙 𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝐴⃗ 𝐵 cos 𝜃𝑑𝐴
magnetizing field. Such substances are freely attracted

by magnets and tend to move from weaker to a strong
2) Faraday’s first law: Wherever the number of
magnetic field.
magnetic lines of force (magnetic flux) passing through a
𝜒 𝑇 graph for paramagnetic material
a coil changes an emf called induced emf is produced in
the circuit. This induced emf exists as long as the change
of flux continues.
3) Faraday’s second law: The magnitude of induced emf
is directly proportional to rate of change of magnetic
flux.
4) Lenz’s law: The direction of induced current is such
that it tends to oppose the cause of its creations.

5) Fleming’s right‐hand rule: According to this rule if we
Ferromagnetic substance: There are those materials stretch thumb and first two fingers of our right hand in
which develop strong magnetization in the direction of three mutually perpendicular directions such that the
magnetizing field. They are attracted by magnets and first finger points in direction of magnetic field and
tend to move from weaker to stronger part. thumb shows the direction of motion of conductor, than
central finger points in the direction of induced current.
Hysteresis curve for soft iron core 6) Eddy currents: Eddy currents are the induced current
set up inside the body of conductor wherever the
magnetic flux linked with it changes.
7) Inductance: It is the inherent property of all the coils
by virtue of which they oppose any change in the
strength of current flowing through the coil. Its S.I. unit
is Henry (H).
8) Mutual inductance: Wherever there is change in
current flowing in one coil, an induced emf appears in
neighbouring coil. This property is called as mutual
inductance. Its SI unit is also Henry (H).
Hysteresis curve for ferromagnetic material L= 𝜇 𝜇 𝑁 𝐴 /𝑙 𝐿 → self inductance of a
coil
• 𝜙 𝑀𝐼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 𝑀 M (Mutual inductance)
• Mutual inductance M = 𝜇 𝜇 𝑁 𝑁 𝐴 /𝑙

9) Motional E.M.F.: The emf induced across the ends of
a conductor due to its motion in magnetic field is called
motional e.m.f. Its magnitude is same as given by
Faraday’s second law.
Methods of generating induced em.f.:
i) Changing the magnetic field
ii) Changing the area in magnetic field
Chapter 26 Electromagnetic Induction iii) Changing the relative orientation of 𝐵⃗ & 𝐴⃗
10) Sparking: When the break of a circuit is very quick,
1) Magnetic flux (): It is the number of magnetic field
the circuit is switched off, a large self‐induced emf is set
lines passing through a surface perpendicularly. Its S.I.
up in the circuit in the same direction as original emf. It
unit is weber (Wb). Its CGS unit is maxwell. 1 weber =
creates a big spark across the switch.
10 maxwell.
11) Coefficient of coupling: Coefficient of coupling of
When 𝐵⃗ is uniform two coils gives us a measure of manner in which two
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coils are coupled together. It relates their coefficient of These gigahertz range waves are produced by klystron
self‐inductance to mutual inductance. and magnetron diodes. They are used in radar and
12) Electromagnetic damping: When the coil of microwave ovens.
galvanometer oscillates between magnetic field, an 7) Infrared waves:
induced current sets up in coil which opposes it’s These are emitted by atoms and molecules of hot
motion. This phenomenon is called electromagnetic bodies. These are used in physical therapy.
damping. 8) Visible rays:
That part of electromagnetic waves which can be
Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Waves detected by human eye and its wavelength ranges from
400 to 700 nanometre.
DEFINITIONS
9) Ultraviolet rays:
1) Displacement current:
These are produced by special lamps and very hot
It is the current which comes into existence, in addition
bodies like sun. It is harmful for humans. It’s wavelength
to conduction current, whenever the electric field and
ranges from 400 nm to 0.6 nm.
hence flux changes with time.
10) X‐rays:
2) Property of continuity:
These are produced by fast moving electrons when they
The sum of conduction current and displacement
strike metal target.
current remains continuous along any closed path while,
Wavelength varies from 10 nm to 10 nm.
conduction current and displacement current might not
11) Gamma rays:
be individually continuous.
These are produced by nuclear reaction and radioactive
3) Maxwell’s equation:
nuclei. Wavelength ranges from 10 m to 10 m.
1) Gauss’s law of electrostatics:

The electric flux through a closed surface is times the • Four Maxwell’s Equations
total charge contained inside the surface. 1
. ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ 2.
2) Gauss’s law of magnetism: 3. ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ 𝜙 𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗
The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is 4. ∮ 𝐵⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ 𝜇 𝐼 𝐼 𝜇 𝐼 𝜀
always zero.
• Displacement current
𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗ 0 𝐼 𝜀 𝜃 𝜀
∮ ⃗. ⃗

3) Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction: • 𝐸 𝐸 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑥 and 𝐵 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑘𝑥
This law states that emf produced in any coil is directly
• 𝐶 ;𝑐
proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux.
4) Modified Ampere’s Law: • 𝑐
This states that line integral of magnetic field around any • Average intensity of wave 𝐼 = average energy density
closed circuit is equal to 𝜇 times the sum of conduction (speed of light) of
current and displacement current. 𝐸 𝐵 𝐸 𝑐𝐵
4) Electromagnetic wave: 𝐼 𝑈 .𝐶
2𝜇 2𝑐𝜇 2𝜇
An electromagnetic wave is a wave radiated by an
accelerated charge and which propagates through space • Instantaneous energy density 𝑢 𝜀 𝐸
as coupled electric and magnetic fields, oscillating
𝜀 𝐸
perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
propagation of the wave. • Average energy density 𝑢 𝜀 𝐸
5) Radio waves:
These are produced by accelerated charges in
conducting wires. Frequency ranges from 500 KHz to • Energy = (momentum). c or U = Pc
1000 MHz. • Radiation pressure (when the wave is
6) Microwaves:
completely absorbed)
2 (when the wave is completely reflected)
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• Intensity of wave from a source at a distance r from it b) If = odd then
is proportional to (for a point source) i) n = m –1, if object is at angle bisector
(for a line source) ii) n = m, if object is not at angle bisector
For a plane source intensity is constant 7 independent of
r. 3) Height of plane mirror
i) To see complete image in a plane mirror
Height of mirror
Chapter 28 Ray Optics
1) Reflection:
Ray of light after indenting on boundary separating two
media comes back into the same media then it is called
as reflection of light.
2) Refraction:
The bending of light ray passing from one medium to
other medium is called refraction. ii) To see complete wall behind himself
3) Optically rare medium: Height of mirror
A medium in which velocity of light is more is called 4) Object time and image time
optically rarer medium. i) If object time is in hour
4) Optically denser medium:  Image time = 12h – Object time
A medium is which velocity of light is less is called ii) If object time is in hour and minute
optically denser medium.  Image time 11h60m – Object time
5) Optical path: iii) If object time is in hour, minute and second
The distance travelled by light in vacuum in the same  Image time = 11h59m60s – object time
time in which it travels a given path length in a medium 5) Object and image velocity
is called optical path. i) Velocity of object (𝑣 ) = velocity of image (𝑣 )
6) Critical Angle: ii) 𝑣 = 2𝑣 if mirror moves towards stationary object
The angle of incidence at which refracted angle is 90° 6. Rotation of mirror: ‐
when light travels from denser to rarer medium is called
If plant mirror rotated by an angle  keeping incident ray
critical angle.
constant, then reflected ray rotated by an angle 2
7) Total internal reflection:
Law of reflection
When angle of incidence is greater than critical angle
i  r
then the ray come back in the same medium after
II) Spherical Mirror:
reflection is called as total internal reflection
1) General equation
Dispersion:
𝑅
When white light incident on prism then it splitted into 𝑓
2
its own component is called dispersion of light. 1 1 1
Reflection
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
I) Plane Mirror: 2) Magnification
i) Object distance = Image distance i) Transverse magnification
1) Deviation ℎ 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓 𝑣
𝑚
ℎ 𝑢 𝑓 𝑢 𝑓
ii) Longitudinal magnification
𝑣 𝑣
𝑚
𝑢 𝑢
If object is small
𝑣
2) Image formed by two mirrors 𝑚
360 𝑢
𝑀 𝑀 iii) Areal magnification
𝜃 M = 𝑚
a) If = even than n = m – 1
3) Velocity o image
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𝑣
𝑣 𝑚 𝑣 .𝑣
𝑢
4) Newton’s formula
𝑓 𝑥 𝑥
Refraction
I) Shell’s Law and Law of Refraction
i) Absolute refractive index
If comparison with vacuum viii) Optical path:
𝐸𝑥: 𝜇 4/3′ 𝜇 Optical path = x
ii) Relative refractive index II) Total internal reflection
1
1𝜇 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐
𝜇
iii) Snell’s Law
1𝜇

Height (h) = 𝑟 𝜇 1

iv)  = i – r, Light travels from rarer to denser
 = r – i, Light travels from denser to rarer
v) Apparent Depth: Observer in rarer medium
𝜇 , h=Actual height
H' = Apparent height
Shift ℎ 1
Observer in denser medium III) Refraction through spherical surface
𝜇 𝑣 𝜇 𝜇
ℎ
𝜇 𝑣 𝑣 𝑅
ℎ
Shift ℎ 𝜇 1
vi) Equivalent refractive index:
Observer in a rarer medium.
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝜇
ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
𝜇 𝜇 𝜇 IV) Lens
i) Lens formula
1 1 1

𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
ii) Magnification:
Transverse magnification
ℎ 𝑓 𝑓 𝑣
vii) Lateral shift: 𝑚
𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑟 ℎ 𝑓 𝑢 𝑓
Longitudinal magnification
cos 𝑟 𝑣
𝑚
𝑢
Areal magnification 𝑚 𝑚
iii) Lens maker’s formula
1 𝜇 1 1
1
𝑓 𝜇 𝑅 𝑅
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Refractive index of lens = 𝜇
Refractive index of surrounding medium = 𝜇
If 𝜇 =  and 𝜇 = 1 (air)
Then 𝜇 1

vi) Focus xi) Refractive index of surrounding greater than lens
f = – ive

v) Cutting of lens xii) Focal length depends on medium
1
𝑓∞
𝜆
xiii) Newton’s formula
𝑓 𝑥 𝑥
xiv) Displacement method

vi) Combination of Lens ℎ ℎ ℎ
VI) Prism

i) General Equation

vii) Silvering of lens
1 2 1

𝑓 𝑓 𝑓

Plane convex lens 𝐴 𝑟 𝑟
𝑅 𝑖 𝑒 𝐴 𝛿
𝑓
2𝜇 𝜇 sin 𝑖

Convex lens 𝜇 sin 𝑟
𝑅 ii) Minimum Deviation
𝑓
2 2𝜇 1 i = e ,  = 𝛿 , 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝐴
∴𝑟
viii) Power of lens 2
1 𝛿 2𝑖 𝐴
𝑃 𝐴 𝛿
𝑓 𝑚 sin
ix) No. of images 2
𝜇
𝐴
No. of images = No. of material sin
2
iii) Condition for grazing emergence
𝑖 sin 𝜇 1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 cos 𝐴

x) Refractive index of medium is same as that of
surrounding
𝑓 ∞
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• Magnifying power when image is formed at D : M =
1 + D/f
• When image is formed at infinity M = D/f
For Compound microscope
• When image is formed at infinity𝑀
• Magnifying power when final image is formed at D,

v) Dispersive power () M 1
• Tube length L =𝑣 |𝑢 |
• When final images is formed at infinity M
and L 𝑣 𝑓
Astronomical Telescope : 𝑀
• Magnifying power when final image is formed at D:
M 1

vi) Deviation without dispersion • Tube length : 𝐿 𝑓 |𝑢 |
𝜃 𝜃 • When final images is formed at infinity M
𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 𝛿 and L = 𝑣 𝑓
𝐴 𝜇 𝜇 𝐴 𝜇 𝜇
Astronomical Telescope : M
• Magnifying power when final image is formed at D:
𝑀 1
• Tube length: L =𝑓 |𝑢 |
• When final image is formed at infinity: 𝑀 and L
= 𝑓 𝑓
Limit of resolution for microscope:
.

vii) Dispersion without deviation
y = 𝛿 Limit of resolution for telescope:
.
A ( 𝜇 1) = A’ ( 𝜇 1)

Chapter 29 Wave optics
Huygen's Wave Theory
• Each point source of light is a center of disturbance
from which waves are emitted in all directions. The locus
of all the particles of the medium oscillating in the same
V) Defects in eyes phase at a given instant is called a wavefront.
i) Myopia or short sightedness • Each point on a wave front is a source of new
V   disturbance, called secondary wavelets. These wavelets
v = f = shifted for point are spherical and travel with speed of light in that
ii) Hypermetropia or for sightedness medium.
V = D = 25 cm • The forward envelope of the secondary wavelets at
v = shifted near point any instant gives the position of the new wavefront.
1 1 1 • In homogeneous medium, the wave front is always

𝑓 𝑣 𝑢 perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Optical Instruments
For Simple microscope
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• If a transparent sheet of refractive index m and
thickness t is introduced in one of the paths of
interfering waves, optical path will become ′𝜇𝑡′
instead of 't'. Entire fringe pattern shifts by
𝜇 1 𝑡
towards the side in which the thin sheet is introduced
without any change in fringe width.
𝜃
𝐼 4𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠
2
Diffraction
• In Fraunhofer diffraction
For minima 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛𝜆
Coherent Sources
For maxima 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2𝑛 1
Two sources are coherent if and only if they produce
waves of same frequency (and hence wavelength) and Linear width of central maxima 𝑊
have a constant initial phase difference. Angular width of central maxima 𝑤
Incoherent Sources
Two sources are said to be incoherent if they have Polarization
different frequency and initial phase difference varies Brewster's law
with time. 𝜇 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 ⇒ 𝜃 tan 𝜇
Interference: YDSE 𝜃 → polarization or Brewster’s angle
• Resultant intensity for coherent sources Here reflecting and refracting rays are perpendicular to
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼 cos 𝜃 each other.
Malus law
• Resultant intensity for incoherent sources
𝐼 𝐼 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝐼 → Maximum intensity of polarized light.
• Intensity ∝ width of slit ∝ (amplitude)2

Chapter 30 Dual Nature of Radiation &
Matter

• Distance of nth bright fringe 𝑦
Threshold frequency 𝒗𝟎
Path difference 𝑛𝜆 The minimum frequency of incident radiation required
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ....
to eject the electron from metal surface.
If incident frequency 𝑣 𝑣 ⇒ No photoelectric effect.
Threshold wavelength 𝝀𝟎
The maximum wavelength of incident radiation required
to eject the electron from metal surface.
If incident wavelength 𝜆 𝜆 ⇒ No photoelectric effect
Photo‐electric effect

• Distance of 𝑚 dark fringe The photo‐electric effect is the emission of electrons
2𝑚 1 𝜆𝐷 from metal surface. These electrons are called photo
𝑦 electrons. Photo electric effect occurs when light strikes
2𝑑
Path difference = (2m + 1) where m = 0, 1, 2, 3,.. a metal surface.
• Fringe width 𝛽 Einstein's photoelectric equation
• Angular fringe width
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𝐸 𝑊 𝐾 Matter waves (De Broglie waves)
ℏv ℏ𝑣 𝐾 According to De Broglie a moving material particle
𝐾 ℏ 𝑣 𝑣 sometimes acts as a wave and sometimes as a particle.
The wave associated with moving particle is called
were, 𝐸 Energy of photon, 𝐾 Maximum kinetic matter wave or De Broglie wave.
energy of emitted electron Intensity:
Energy of photon:
𝐸 𝑃
𝐼
ℏ𝑐 𝐴𝑡 𝐴
𝐸 ℏ𝑣
𝜆
12400 de‐Broglie wavelength
𝐸 in eV
𝜆 Å ℏ ℏ ℏ 1 1 1
𝜆 ⇒𝜆∝ ∝ ∝
𝑝 𝑚𝑣 √2𝑚𝐸 𝑝 𝑣 √𝐸

Work functions 𝑾𝟎
de‐Broglie wavelength associated with the charged
The minimum energy of incident radiation, required to
particles
eject the electrons from metallic surface is known as
work function. 12.27 ℏ
𝜆electron ∣ By 𝜆
√𝑉 2𝑚𝑞𝑉
Work function 𝑊
0.286
𝜆protann
𝑊 ℏv
ℏ
√𝑉
0.202
𝜆Deutron
√𝑉
0.101
Photon 𝜆 particle
According to Einstein's quantum theory, light propagates √𝑉
in the form of packets of energy, each packet being de‐Broglie associated with uncharged particles
called photon.
0.286
mass of photon 𝜆neutron
𝐸 in eV)
Rest mass of photon is zero. But its effective mass is
30.86
given by 𝜆thermal neutron
√𝑇
𝐸 ℏv ℏ Bragg's law:
𝑚 2𝑑sin 𝜃 𝑛𝜆
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐𝜆
𝐷sin 𝜙 𝑛𝜆 ∣ 𝐷 Interatomic distance
Momentum of photon

𝐸 ℏv ℏ Davisson–Germer experiment
𝑝 𝑚𝑐 This experiment performed to verify the wave nature of
𝑐 𝑐 𝜆
electron and concluded that electron exhibit wave
Number of emitted photons: nature also, thus supporting the hypothesis given by de‐
Number of emitted photons emitted per second from a Broglie regarding wave particle duality of matter
source of monochromatic radiation of wavelength 𝜆 and
power 𝑃 is given by Chapter 31 Atoms
Bohr’s postulates
𝑃 𝑃 a) Electron revolves around the nucleus in circular orbit.
𝑛
𝐸 ℏ𝑣 b) The orbit of the e – around the nucleus can take one
some special values of radius, that orbit is called as

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stationary orbit. e – does not radiate energy from this Series arises due to transition of e – from different
orbit. outer orbit to first Bohr’s orbit is called Lyman series
c) The energy of the atom has a definite value in a given
stationary orbit (e – can jump from one orbit to n 1, n 2,3, … for Lyman series
another).
d) In stationary orbit, the angular momentum of e – Balmer series
about the nucleus is an integral multiple of h/2.
Bohr’s Model of H‐Atom Postulates Series arises due to transition of e – from different
(a) outer orbits to second orbit is called Balmer series.
𝑛 2, 𝑛 3,4, … for Balmer series
(b) mvr
(c) E E hv Paschen series
Series arises due to transition of e – from different
Hydrogen spectrum outer orbit to third orbit is called as Paschen series.

Hydrogen gas enclosed in a flask and heated to high
𝑛 3, 𝑛 4,5, … for Paschen series
temperature; it emits radiation. If these radiations are
passed through prism and thus, we get hydrogen Brackett series
spectrum. The most important feature in this spectrum
is that any some sharply defined wavelength exist in the The Brackett series is the set of emission lines from
radiation (656.3 nm or 486.1 nm). atomic hydrogen gas, due to electrons descending from
an electron shell of number n greater than 4 down to
Quantized energy level that of n = 4, or the analogous absorption lines when
absorbed electromagnetic radiation (EMR) makes
Energy of e – in hydrogen atom in 1st, 2nd and 3rd orbit
electrons do the opposite.
called quantized energy level.
n 4, n 5,6, … for Brackett series

Radius of nth orbit, 𝑟 Pfund series
Orbital speed, v Pfund series is displayed when electron transition takes
place from higher energy states (nh=6,7,8,9, 10…) to nl=5
. energy state.
Energy of nth orbit, 𝐸 eV
Total Energy Kinetic Energy 𝑛 5, 𝑛 6,7, … for Pfund series
Potential Energy 2 Total Energy
Rydberg's constant Chapter32‐ Nuclei
Radius of nucleus
1 1 1
R /
𝜆 n n 𝑅 𝑅 𝐴

me
R Isotopes: The atoms of an element, which have the
8𝜀 h c
same atomic number but different mass numbers, are
Ground state called isotopes
The state of an atom with the lowest energy (–13.6 eV) Isotones: The atoms whose nuclei have same number of
is called its ground state. neutrons are called isotones.
Binding energy isobars: The atoms which have same mass number but
The minimum amount of energy required to separate e different atomic numbers, are called isobars
– from atom is called binding energy. Atomic mass unit
Lyman series It is defined as (1/12) th of mass of one 6C12 atom.
1 a.m.u. = 1.660565 × 10–27 kg
Energy equivalent of atomic mass unit
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According to Einstein’s mass‐energy equivalence 𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑁
∝ 𝑁 or 𝜆𝑁
reaction, the energy equivalent of mass m is given by E = 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
mc2
.
or, 𝑁 𝑁𝑒
Mass defect (m): The difference between the sum of
masses of nucleons constituting a nucleus and the rest Law of radioactivity decay
mass of nucleus is known as mass defect.
Nuclear density 𝑑𝑁
𝜆𝑁
𝑑𝑡
Mass of nucleus 𝑁 𝑁𝑒
𝜌 2.97 10 kg/m
Volume of nucleus
𝐸 𝑚𝑐
Mass defect Δ𝑚 : Half‐life 𝒕𝟏/𝟐
Δ𝑚 𝑍 𝐴 𝑍 𝑚 𝑀 Time interval in which the number of atoms reduces to
Binding energy Δ𝑚 931.5 in Mev) half of its initial value is called half‐life.
𝑍𝑚 𝐴 𝑍 𝑚 𝑀 931.5
0.693
𝑡 /
𝜆
1
Binding energy: The energy equivalent to the mass 𝑡avg.
defect of the nucleus. 𝜆
Binding energy per nucleon: It is the average energy
Mean life or average life
required to extract one nucleon from the nucleus.
Average time for which the nuclei of the atoms of
Binding energy per nucleon:
radioactive substance exist, known as mean life or
Binding energy
average life
𝐴 Activity of radioactive substance
Mass defect
Packing fraction It is defined as the number of disintegrations takes
Radioactivity: The spontaneous transformation of an place in the given sample per second.
element into another with the emission of some Activity of radioactive substance 𝑨 :
particles is called radioactivity.
Laws of radioactivity decay: (i) When a radioactive 𝑑𝑁
atom disintegrates, ‐ particle (nucleus of helium) then 𝐴
𝑑𝑡
its atomic number decreases by 2 units and atomic mass
𝐴 𝜆𝑁 𝑒
decreases by 4 units. 𝐴 𝐴 𝑒 , where 𝜆𝑁 𝐴
‐deay
𝑋 ⟶ 𝑌
Nuclear fission
(ii) The emission of 𝛽 ‐particle by radioactive atom The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two or
results in a daughter atom, whose atomic number is 1 more than two nuclei with liberation of energy is called
unit more but mass number is same as that of the nuclear fission.
parents’ atom.
Nuclear fusion
A‐decay In nuclear fusion two or more than two lighter nuclei
𝑋 ⟶ 𝑌 combine to form a single heavy nucleus

Because of 𝛾‐emission, there will no change in atomic
number and atomic mass.
Chapter 33‐ Semiconductor and
(iv) According to radioactive decay law, the rate of Digital Electronics
disintegration at any time 𝑡 is directly proportional to Energy Band Gap
the number of atoms present at that time 𝑡. (Eg ) (Forbidden Energy Gap) The gap between the top
of valence band and bottom of conduction band is called
the energy band gap.
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Conductors: Solids in which conduction band and  Forward current ⇒ Diffusion current
valence band overlap i.e., band gap is zero.
 Reverse current ⇒ Drift current
Insulators: Solids in which band gap is greater than 3 eV.
Semi‐Conductors: Solids in which band gap is less than 3  Reverse resistance ∞
eV.
In 𝒑 𝒏 junction diode
Hole: The vacancy in valence orbit of semiconductor
atom with the effective positive electronic charge is  In forward bias acts as closed switch
called a hole. It behaves as an apparent free particle
 In reverse bias acts as open switch
with effective positive charge.
Zener Voltage (VZ )
Intrinsic Semi‐Conductor: Pure semi‐conductors are The reverse voltage point at which the voltage across
known as intrinsic semi‐conductor. zener diode becomes stable and reverse current rises
For intrinsic semiconductor, sharply is called the zener voltage (VZ ).
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 Zener diode as voltage regulator
Extrinsic Semi‐Conductor: Impure semi‐conductors i.e.,
semi‐conductor obtained after doping is known as
extrinsic semi‐conductor.
For extrinsic semiconductor,
𝑛 ⋅𝑛 ≃𝑛
Doping 𝑉in 𝑉 𝑉 𝐼 𝐼 𝑅

The process of adding impurities to intrinsic semi‐ 𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
conductor in order to rise its conducting levels is known Rectifier
as doping.
A device (or) circuit which converts A.C. voltage to D.C.
n–Type Semiconductor voltage.
The extrinsic semiconductor obtained after adding
pentavalent impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor is Half wave rectifier
known as n‐type semiconductor.
In 𝑛‐type semiconductor,
𝑛 ≫𝑛
Electrons: Majority carriers
Holes: Minority carriers
Full wave rectifier
p–Type Semiconductor
The extrinsic semiconductor obtained after adding
trivalent impurities to an intrinsic semiconductor is
known as p‐type semiconductor.
In 𝑝‐type semiconductor,
𝑛 ≫𝑛 Transistor: It is a three terminal semiconductor device
which can be used as an electronic switch (or) an
Holes: Majority carriers amplifier.
Electrons: Minority carriers
In 𝒑 𝒏 junction diode
#SankalpSelectionKa
Physics Sankalp

Emitter: Region in a transistor which supplies majority /
Power gain 𝛽
/
charge carries for current flow.
Base: Region in a transistor which acts as a link between Logic Gates: Logic gates are the building blocks of digital
electronics, which work in accordance with some logical
the emitter and collector.
relationship between i/p and o/p voltages.

Collector: It is the region in a transistor, which collects
Truth Table: In logic gates, the relation between the
majority of charge carriers.
possible values of i/p and corresponding o/p voltages
are expressed in the form of a table called truth table
In a transistor (CE ‐ Configuration)
OR gate‐
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝐼 𝐼
𝛼 ;𝛽
𝐼 𝐼
1 1
1
𝛼 𝛽
AND Gate
In a transistor (CE‐configuration)
𝐼 𝐼 𝐼
𝐼 𝐼
𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽
𝐼 𝐼
NOT gate
1 1
1
𝛼 𝛽
Amplifier
NOR gate
Device which enhances the amplitude of input signal
voltage. Transistor in active region acts as an amplifier
Transistor as an amplifier (CE ‐ Configuration)
𝐼
𝛽
𝐼 NAND gate
Δ𝐼
𝛽
Δ𝐼
Constant
Δ𝐼 𝛽
𝑔 ⇒𝑔
Δ𝑉 𝑅/
Δ𝑉 / 𝑅 /
𝐴 ⇒𝐴 𝛽
Δ𝑉 / 𝑅/
Boolean algebra
𝐴 𝑔 𝑅 / 1 ‐ High voltage signal
0 ‐ Low voltage signal
Power Gain
𝐴, 𝐵 ‐ Imputs ⇒ Can take value 0 (or) 1 .
It is the ratio of output power to input power for a
 1 1 10 0 0
transistor operating in active region
1 0 00 1 1
0 0 01 1 1
#SankalpSelectionKa
Physics Sankalp

 A A A If A 1 The amplitude modulated signal consists of three
A A A 𝐴‾ 0 frequencies 𝜔 , 𝜔 𝜔 and 𝜔 𝜔 . Here 𝜔 𝜔
1 A 1 If A 0 and 𝜔 𝜔 are known as upper side band and lower
0 A 0 side band respectively.
0 A A 𝐴‾ 1 Height of the half wave antenna is equal to .
De‐morgan's law Height of the quarter wave antenna is equal to .
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴‾ ⋅ 𝐵‾
In amplitude modulation P P 1
𝐴𝐵 𝐴‾ 𝐵‾
Maximum modulated frequency that can be detected by
Chapter 34‐ communication system diode detector f
Communication is the act of transmission and reception
of information.
• Two basic modes of communication are point to point
and broadcast.
• Noise refers to the unwanted signals that tends to
disturb the transmission and processing of message
signal in a communication system.
• Attenuation is the loss of strength of a signal while
propagating through a medium.
• Amplification is the process of increasing the
amplitude (and consequently the strength) of a signal
using an electronic circuit called amplifier.
• Range is the largest distance between a source and
destination up to which the signal is received with
sufficient strength.
• Band‐width refers to the frequency range over which
an equipment operates or the portion of the spectrum
occupied by signal.
The maximum line of sight distance d between the two
antennas having height ℎ and ℎ , above the earth, is
given by
d 2Rh 2Rh
Modulation At the transmitter, information contained in
the low frequency message, is superimposed on a high
frequency wave. This process is known as modulation.
Three types of modulation are amplitude modulation
(AM), frequency modulation (FM) and pulse modulation
(PM).
Modulation index 𝜇 where A and A are the

amplitudes of modulating signal and carrier wave.
De‐modulation is the reverse process of modulation.
This is the process of extraction of information from the
carrier wave.
In practice 𝜇 1 to avoid distortion.
#SankalpSelectionKa

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