Natnael Sitota Sinta

CHAPTER THREE
CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF HYDROPOWER DEVELOPMENT
Contents

 Layout of hydropower development

 Classification and classification basis
 Site selection, layouts and capacity determination
 Storage and pondage
 Reservoir (storage) capacity determination
 Hydropower development cycles

Layouts of Hydropower plant

 The three basic elements are necessary in order to generate power from water:

 Means of creating head, structure for water storage and/or diversion like a dam or a
barrage (weir).
 A conduit to convey water, head race and tail race
 A power station

 To provide these functions, the following components are used:

 Dam/Diversion structures  Control equipment’s (regulating structures) (gates, valves)

 Reservoir/Pondage  Power house (turbine and generator)
 Intake structure  Draft tube
 Headraces(Tunnel/Canal)  Tailrace channel/tunnel
 Fore bay/Surge chamber  Channel crossings
 Settling basin  Penstock supports and anchors
 Penstock or pressure shaft  Switch yard
 In High and medium head development, there could be two types of power scheme layout:
1. Concentrated fall schemes
2. Diversion schemes
 In the concentrated fall type projects,

 The powerhouse would be built at the toe the dam.

 Water is conveyed to the turbines via penstocks laid under, or by passing, the dam.

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 In the diversion type of layout,

 The diversion could be using a canal (Open flow diversion system) and a penstock.
 The diversion tunnel and a penstock (Pressure Diversion System)
 It consists of a long system of water conduits.
Classification and classification basis

 Hydropower plants exhibits a great deal of variety and could be classified on the basis of:

 The hydraulic features of the plant  Location & topographical features

 Purpose of development  Plant Capacity
 Operation in meeting the demand  Operating head
(operating features)
 Based on storage and pondage  Construction Features (layout)
 Classification based on Hydraulic features
1. Conventional Hydro-plants
 Use normally available hydraulic energy of the flow of the river.
 Run-of river plant, diversion plant, storage plant
2. Pumped storage plants
 Use the concept of recycling the same water.
 Water is pumped back into the reservoir when there are periods of low power
demand.
 Normally used with areas with a shortage of water, where natural annual run-off
is insufficient to justify a conventional hydroelectric installation
 It generates energy for peak load, and at off-peak periods water is pumped back
for future use.
 A pumped storage plant is an economical addition to a system which increases the
load factor and provides additional capacity to meet the peak load.
 It has a function of indirect energy storage
3. Unconventional Hydro-plants
 Tidal power plant
Use the tidal energy of the sea water.
Very few have been constructed due to structural complication.
Essentially work on the principle that there is a rise in sea water during high
tide period and a fall during the ebb period

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 Wave power plant

 Depression power plant
Hydropower generated by diverting an ample source of water in the natural
depression
Water level in the depression is controlled by evaporation.
 Classification based on storage or pondage.
1. ROR (Runoff River) plants
 Do not regulate the hydrograph of the river by one or more seasons.
 Utilize minimum flow in a river having no appreciable pondage on its U/s.
2. PROR (Peaking Runoff River Plants)
 ROR plants with pondage that can regulate weekly/daily hydrograph to run the
plant under full capacity.
3. Storage plants
 Those plants which regulate the hydrograph of river by one or more seasons.
 Include a dam/reservoir to store water and release when needed during dry
seasons.
 Reduce dependence on variability of inflow.
4. Pumped storage plant
 Plants having water reservoir at U/s as well as D/s of powerhouse, which collects
water in U/s reservoir by pumping water from D/s reservoir using cheaper energy.
Both reservoirs in a single river
Two reservoirs on two separate rivers close to each other and flowing at
different elevations
Higher reservoir on artificially constructed pool and the lower reservoir on
natural river
The lower reservoir in a natural lake while the higher is on artificially created
reservoir
 Classification based on actual operation in meeting demand (Basis of operation )
1. Isolated plant (Off-grid) (SCS):
 Operating independently
 Not connected in grid system

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 Mini and small hydropower scheme serving small community

2. Interconnected in to grids (ICS):
 Plant operating as part of the interconnected grid system
 In this system, a power station may be distinguished as a base load plant or peak
load plant.
3. Base-load developments:
 When the energy from a hydropower plant is used to meet all or part of the
sustained and essentially constant portion of the electrical load or firm power
requirements.
4. Peak-load development:
 Peak demands for electric power occur daily, weekly, and seasonally. Plants in
which the electrical production capacity is relatively high and the volume of water
discharged through the units can be changed readily are used to meet peak
demands.
 Storage of the water supply is necessary.
 Classification based on plant capacity
1. According to Mossonyi
 Midget (Micro) plant up to 100 KW
 Low (Mini) capacity < 1000KW
 Medium capacity < 10,000KW
 High capacity > 10,000KW
2. According to Present day classification
 Micro hydropower < 5 MW
 Medium plant 5 to 100 MW
 High Capacity 101 to 1,000 MW
 Super plant above 1,000 MW
 Classification based on operating head
1. Low head plants < 15m
2. Medium head plants 15-50m
3. High head plants 50-250m
4. Very high head plants > 250m

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 Classification based on construction feature (layouts)

1. Run-off-river plants (low to medium head plants)
 The normal flow of the river is not distributed
 There is no significant storage
 A weir or barrage is built across a river & the low head created is used to generate
power. It also acts as a controlled spilling device.
 The power house is normally in the main course of the river
 Preferred in perennial rivers with moderate to high discharge, flat slope, with
low sediment and stable reach of a river.

Water enters the power house through an intake structure incorporating some or all of the
following.

 Entrance flume separated by piers and walls for each machine unit
 The appurtenances of the entrance structure are the sill, fine rack or screen and
gate
 Turbine chamber: scroll case with turbine
 Concrete or steel draft tube
 Power house building

Additional structures are

 Deflector or skimmer walls

 Forebay
 Service bridge
 River training walls
 Sediment trap and flushing sluices, where necessary

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2. Valley dam plants (Medium to high head plants)

 Dominant feature is the dam to maintain creates the required storage (to balance
seasonal fluctuations) and necessary head for the power house.
 Water stored during high-flow periods to augment the water available during the
low-flow periods, thus supplying the demand for energy in a more efficient
manner.
 No diversion of water away from the main river is involved
 Power house is located at the toe of the dam
Sometimes the power house is not immediately at the toe of the dam but at
some distance downstream
The arrangement however, needs longer conveyances system with consequent
losses.
This arrangement is more expensive than the more general dam-and power
house together arrangement (due to longer conveyance with consequent losses)
and is used only when it offers some special advantages such as extra head
due to advantageous topographical conditions
 Water flows through the penstock embedded in the dam or diverted in to a
cannel/tunnel system to deliver flow to the power house.
 There are different arrangements of the power house location vis-a-visa spillway
location. If the spillway is in the central portion of the dam, then the power house
may be located on one of the banks or as twin power house, one on each bank.

Important components of a valley dam plant

 The dam with its appurtenance structures like spillway, energy dissipation
arrangements etc.
 The intake with racks, stop logs, gates & ancillaries
 The penstock conveying water to the turbine with inlet valve & anchorage
 The main power house with its components

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3. Diversion Canal Plants

 The distinguishing feature is the presence of power canal that diverts the water
from the main stream channel.
 The power house is provided at suitable location along the stretch of the canal
 The water often flowing through the turbine is brought back to the main stream
very shortly through tailrace tunnel or channel.
 Diversion canal plants are generally low head or medium head plants.
 They don't have storage.
 Pondage requirement is met through a pool called forebay located just upstream
of the power house.
 Further, due to economic considerations discharges of such plants have to be
moderate.
 Ways of developing required head
 The flatter slopes of power canal and the absence of meander, by reducing length,
helps in providing head.
 If the river has a natural fall, diverting the water from upstream side of the fall &
locating the power house at the downstream side of the fall provide the required head.
 In inter-basin diversion, water may be diverted from a higher level river to a lower
river through a diversion canal to the power house located at the lower river.

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 Main structures of the diversion canal plant:

1. Diversion weir with its appurtenant structures.
2. Diversion canal intake with its ancillary works such as sills, trash racks, skimmer wall,
sluice, settling basin, disiltting basin, disilting canal, and silt exclusion arrangement is
needed in some sediment laden streams.
3. Bridges and culverts of the canal.
4. Forebay & its appurtenant structures

4. Diversion high head plants

 The features of such a plant is development of high head resulting from the
diversion of water, which could be achieved by:
Diverting the river water through a system of canals and tunnels to a
downstream point of the same river.
Diverting the water through canals and tunnels to a point on another river
which is at much lower level.
 There may be two situation concerning storage situation:
A diversion weir to create pondage (and no storage). Here like run-off plant
the power production is governed by the natural flow in the river.
Storage may be provided on the main river at the point of diversion. This
situation is advantageous since the fluctuation in reservoir level does not
materially affect the head and the power output can be adjusted by the
controlled flow release from the reservoir. e.g. Fincha & Melka Wakana
power plants

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 When storage provided on the main river at the point of diversion

 This advantage is not available to the valley dam plant in which the power house
is built on the downstream face of the dam.
 Under such cases, a change in reservoir level also changes the head
proportionately.
 If the length of the pressure tunnel is considerable, a surge tank may be provided
upstream of the power station, which may smoothen the fluctuation of flow
demand.
 This purpose was served in the canal plants by the forebay.
 Canals follow the contours of the terrain and thus may not have the shortest route from
the intake to the power house.
 Tunnels, however, can make through their way by the shortest distance and thus create
enormous heads apart from enabling to divert water of one basin to other
 Main Components of high head diversion plants:
 Storage or diversion weir with appurtenant structures
 Canal/tunnel
 Head race either open cut or tunnel.
 Forebay/surge tank
 Penstock
 Power house
 Tail race
 High head diversion canal plants are more or less similar to the low head diversion canal
plants.
 The main point of difference is, however, the elaborate conveyance system for the high
head plants(diversion tunnel plants)
 In the diversion tunnel type plant:
 The dam replaces a diversion weir
 Tunnels are used for head race
 Reservoir intake is used instead of canal intake and
 A surge tank is employed in place of forebay

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5. Pumped storage plants

 Can be pure pumped storage scheme and mixed Pumped Storage scheme.
 Pure pumped storage plant: is a closed cycle plant with the volume of water
flowing to the lower reservoir being equal to the volume pumped to the higher
reservoir in one cycle of operation.
In such a system, same water is circulated again and again and thus except for
make-up quantity of water for seepage and evaporation losses, the plant does
not need any fresh water flow.
 Mixed pumped storage plant: the total generation in one cycle is greater than
the total pumping during that period. In mixed type of plants, the higher reservoir
has to be necessarily on a natural stream so as to provide greater flow during
generation.
 The most important basis of pumped storage plant is the relative arrangements of
turbines and pumps; Relative arrangements of turbines and pumps in pumped
storage plant
Four units: Complete pump and motor units and separate but complete
turbine and generator units
Three units: Multistage pump and turbine with common motor/generator.
In this case Pump and turbine were directly coupled to the generator/motor
and generator and turbine are permanently locked together.
 In this case, when the turbine runs, the unit operates as a generator and
when the pump is operated the same unit operates as a motor
Two units: A single stage pump/turbine and common motor/generator in
which units have reversible directions for operation
 This arrangement is called reversible pump-turbine installation.
 The modern trend is to use only a two-unit installation namely, a generator
which operates as a motor coupled to a turbine which in turn also operates
as a pump when rotating in reverse direction
 Application Situation of pumped storage power plant.
Short term peaking
Weekly peaking

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Seasonal peaking
 Short term peaking
This involves turbine operating for a few hours each day
 To meet daily peaks
 The recovery pumping during the early morning hours when energy loads
are lowest and cheap dump power is available
 Weekly peaking
This requires operating turbines in generating mode to meet several peak
loads during the workweek.
Refilling the upper reservoir to a degree each day but gradually drawing down
the upper reservoir during the week.
Major recovery pumping during the weekend when loads are low
This requires relatively large reservoirs.
 Seasonal peaking
Seasonal peaking would require very large upper reservoir storage
To provide longer generator operating during seasonal peaks
The recovery pumping would take large blocks of dump power

Site selection, layouts and capacity determination

Site selection

 The selection of hydroelectric plants location depends on the following factors:

 Availability of water: Water energy may be available in the form of either potential
energy of kinetic energy. To extract the potential energy, a reservoir or pondage is
required whereas to extract the kinetic run-of-river project is used. In all the cases, a
huge amount of water is required. Normally water is collected in reservoir during rain
and used for electricity production throughout the year. Hilly areas are most suitable
for hydroelectric power plants. Availability of water depends on the available
catchment area, average annual rainfall. The river run-off data for many years should
be available to estimate the power potential. The data should include the average flow,
minimum and maximum flows and their periods. The estimation should take into
account of evaporation and seepage losses.

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 Storage of water: When the kinetic energy of water is low it is preferable to have the
reservoirs to collect the water for use of electricity production. The output of a
hydraulic plant will not be uniform if the available water is not uniform. The wide
variation of rainfall during the year makes it necessary to have the reservoirs. The
storage capacity of water is calculated by mass curve. The capacity of a plant is based
on the water energy available taking into account the losses due to evaporations and
percolation. Storage arrangements require topographical and geological investigations
so that natural foundations can be used to the best advantage. The storage reservoir
may be located near the power plant or some distance away from it.
 Head of Water: The availability of head depends on the topography of the area. High
head means high potential energy. An increase in effective head reduces the quantity
of water to be stored and handled by penstock, screens and turbines and therefore the
capital cost of plant is reduced. The level of water in the reservoir for a proposed
plant should always be within limits throughout the year to maintain a constant head.
To get a most economical and effective head, it is necessary to consider all possible
factors which affect it and do a detail study.
 Distance from power stations to the load centers: Most of the time the electric
power generated in hydroelectric power plant has to be used at some considerable
distance from the site of plant. The routes of transmission line and distance have to be
carefully considered to make the power generation economically viable. The cost of
erection of transmission line and its maintenance will depend on the route selected
and the length of the line.
 Accessibility of site: Good access to the site is a desirable factor. This factor is very
important if the generated power is to be utilized at or near the plant site. The
transport facility must also be given due consideration. Construction of hydro power
project involves transport of huge amount of building materials, earth moving
equipment, electro mechanical equipment. The site should be such that it is possible
to construct new roads/railways lines if not already existing.
 Geological investigation: Geological investigations are needed to see that the
foundation rock for the dam and other structures is firm, stable, impervious and

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strong enough to withstand water thrust and other stresses. The area should be free
from earthquake.
 Sedimentation: The capacity of storage reservoir is reduced due to gradual
deposition of silt. Silt may also cause damage to the turbine blades. Silting from
forest cover areas is negligible. Regions subject to violent storms and not protected by
vegetation contribute lots of sill to the run off. Sometime this factor alone may render
an otherwise suitable site unsuitable.
 Environmental Effects: Hydro projects submerge huge areas. This may involve
forest, fertile lands, and villages. The site selected should ensure safe and pleasing
surroundings, avoid health hazards and preserve important cultural and historic
aspects of the area.

Plant Capacity determination

 Plant capacity: It is the capacity of the plant with respect to available, head, discharge,
and efficiency.
 Installed capacity (Economical plant capacity): The plant capacity, which is
economically viable.
 It is also defined as the maximum power, which can be developed by all generators of
the plant at the plant at the normal head and with full flow.
 For selection of installed capacity, benefits from the project with different possible
installed capacitates are evaluated
 Optimum installed capacity is selected after carrying out incremental analysis for the
most attractive alternative and also considering the system load factor (LF)
 In addition, cost of generation from alternate sources such as wind energy, geothermal
turbines, and hydro are worked out.
 The least cost of energy from among these options is adopted for evaluating the benefits
of the installation
 Turbine selection and plant capacity determination require that rather detail information
has been determined on head and possible plant discharge. In theoretical sense, the
energy output, E, can be expressed mathematically as plant output or annual energy in a
functional relation as:

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Where: H = net effective head

Q = plant discharge
TW = tail water elevation
D = diameter of runner
N = generator speed
HS = turbine setting elevation above tail water
Pmax = maximum output expected or desired at plant
 It is seen that there are numerous parameters that can be varied to achieve the best selection.
The usual practice is to base selection on the annual energy output of the plant and the least
cost of that energy for the particular Methods of Fixing Installed Capacity of a Hydropower
Plant scale of hydropower installation. Thus one must recognize that determination of plant
capacity requires analyses that vary the different parameters in equation above while
applying economic analysis.

Selection of Most Economical Units

 An economic analysis must be done in order to justify the optimum installation.

Most cost and Benefit approach

 The installed capacity is determined by equating the marginal cost and benefits for that
project, while determining the fixed cost of the project is assumed to be constant.

Let: Analyze marginal benefit and cost for 1Kw installation. Assuming Y% of the duration
corresponds to the best installed capacity for 1Kw power generation then

 Energy price = BirrE/Mwh

 Variable cost = BirrVcost/Kw (the variable cost
is electromechanical installation cost, the civil
cost is not included in the variable cost because
it is fixed cost)
 O & M = certain percent of variable cost
 Economic life of plant = N years

Now analyzing by the marginal benefit and cost approach

 Total energy generated

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[ ]

[ ]

 Marginal benefit

 The electromechanical equipment is installed at the time of construction so converted it

into annual cost and annual operation and maintenance cost is added in it. The civil
component cost in hydropower is fixed cost so it is Not included in marginal cost

[ ]

 Operation and maintenance cost is generally considered as certain percentage of variable

cost

 Marginal cost

[ ]

 Now equating marginal cost and benefit, the value of “Y” can be obtained.
 The power corresponding to Y% of tie in power duration curve is the best installed
capacity of the project.

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A step by-step process for this procedure is presented in a flow diagram of Figure below

1. Obtain river flow data for each percent of time, 0%

through 100%  The plant discharge will be less than the full

2. Determine headwater elevation at each flow

gate capacity discharge due to the fact that the
characteristics by flow duration curve. On Run-of river rising tail water caused by high river discharges
plants this is often constant
will decrease the head available through the
3. Determine tail water elevation at each flow turbines and penstocks.
characteristics by the flow duration curve
 To calculate the plant discharge, the following

4. Estimate head loss through hydro systems. This will formula is used
vary with penstock and draft tube
𝐻𝐼
𝑄𝑖 𝑄𝐶
5. Compute a net head for each of the flows 𝐻𝐶
characterized. Note: as river flows increase, tail water
rises and reduces net head
Where
6. Estimate plant efficiency. This can be made Qi = plant discharge at the percent exceedance
constant for pre-feasibility level design
QC = plant discharge at design full gate capacity
7. Choose a wheel or plant capacity flow. This full-gate Hi = net head at the percent exceedance being
flow will be limited by runner diameter and selected
penstock size studied
HC = net head at the percent exceedance at which
8. Compute plant discharge at all flow values for each
exceedence percentage. Note: at river flows greater flow in the river is at full design gate magnitude
than plant capacity the plant discharge may be less
than depending on the net head

9. Compute power output at each percent time under

investigation

10. Compute annual energy output for given plant

capacity. Repeat this for four to five plant capacities.

11. Estimate the annual plant costs for each of the

plant capacities investigated, using estimating curves.

12. With annual energy output calculate plant benefits

based on average expected value of power, Birr/KWh

13. Plot a curve or develop table to show where

maximum net benefit is obtained

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Reservoir (storage) capacity determination

 A river does not carry the same quantity of water through the year.
 In general, we observe high flow in summer and low flow in winter and on the other hand,
the water demand is high in winter and low in summer.
 A water supply, irrigation, or hydropower project drawing water directly from a river
may, therefore, be unable to satisfy the demands of it consumers during low flows.
 Therefore, the regulation of the stream flow is required to meet the demands. This
regulation is possible by constructing reservoirs in the stream.

 Reservoirs: are man-made structures that created to store water during times of excess
flow and supply if from storage when the demand exceeds the inflow.
 When the total supply of water (ΣS) is sufficient to meet the total demand (ΣD) during a
specified period of time, the water storage is required when S<D
 Characteristics of reservoir: Storage zones 1. Active storage.
2. Inactive storage.
3. Live storage.
4. Dead storage.
5. Flood storage.
6. Reservoir capacity: gross capacity of
reservoir.
7. Retention water level; top water level; normal
top water level; full supply level; normal
water level.
8. Flood surcharge; surcharge
9. Maximum water level; top of joint use (part
of reservoir capacity including both surcharge
and the empty part of active storage, assigned
to flood control or conservation depending on
the time of year.
10. Minim operation level; top of inactive storage
11. Freeboard

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 The capacity of the reservoir is very important since the main function of the
reservoir is the storage of the water.
 The desired yield, which is the amount of water delivered from a reservoir to meet
downstream requirements, must be available most of the time.
 For an ideal reservoir site:
Suitable dam site
Adequate capacity with small submergence of land and other properties
Sufficient impervious and sound formation (bed and side) (reservoir basin should
be water tight)
Deep and narrow valley (less evaporation, low cost of expropriation)
The cost of real estate for the reservoir (Road and dwelling location) must be as
small as possible
Tributary areas which are unusually productive of sediment should be avoided is
possible
The quality of stored water must be satisfactory for its intended use
The reservoir banks and adjacent hill slope should be stable, unstable banks will
contribute large amount of soil material to the reservoir
 After the determination of location of a reservoir, a special topographic map (1:5000
scaled) of the reservoir area is obtained with suitable contour intervals and
Elevation - Area Curve, and
Elevation – Storage Curve are obtained

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 Reservoir capacity determination

 Reservoir capacity is depend on the inflow & demand
 The yield of a reservoir is defined as the quantity of water, which is supplied for a
certain duration. The duration may change with the purpose of the reservoir.
A few years - Large reservoirs
Month
Week
Day
Hour
 The yield is a function of
The inflow, and
The capacity of the reservoir

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 Safe Yield (Firm Yield): The amount of water that is supplied for a critical period. It
is a guaranteed amount during this critical period.
 Critical Period: The duration of lowest flow observed in the records of the stream.
Depending upon the length of the flow critical period may change so the safe
yield.
 Yield is not calculated certainly. The probability must be used.
 During the periods of high flow there will be extra available water, more than the safe
yield which is called secondary yield.
 Average Yield: The arithmetic average of the safe and secondary yields over a long
period.
There is a risk involved for a reservoir.
The amount of risk depends on the purpose of the reservoir.
 Target Yield: The yield determined based on the estimated demands for a reservoir.
 For the determination of reservoir capacity, the critical period must be determined
first.
 A long period of observed flow is required.
 When short period of observed flows or no observations area available stochastic
methods are used to generate synthetic flows that has the same statistical properties
such as mean, variance, correlations etc.
 The required capacity for a reservoir can be determined by the following methods:
Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple diagram method)
1. Determination of reservoir capacity for a known yield
2. Determination of yield from a known reservoir capacity
Sequent Peak Analysis
Operation Study
Other Approaches (Stochastic Methods and Optimization Analysis etc…)
1. Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple Diagram Method, 1883)
 One of the most widely used methods. Used to determine active storage capacity.
 Inflow hydrograph for stream at the dam site has been plotted.
 If the flow is the daily or monthly discharge then the area under the curve up to a certain
time will be the volume of runoff for that period.

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 Mass curve is continuously raising curve, as it is the plot of the accumulated inflow.
 Period of no inflow would be represented by the horizontal lines on the mass inflow
curve. If there is high rate of flow the curve rise steeply. Thus relatively dry periods
are indicated as concave depressions on the mass curve.
 The slope of the mass curve at any time is a measure of the inflow rate at that time (gives
the discharge at that time on the hydrograph)
 Assumptions:
 Demand is constant, constant rate of withdrawal, which the mass curve of demand
will be a straight line having a slope equal to the demand rate
 The year repeats itself continuously

S p m

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Required storage capacity of the reservoir

is the vertical difference a + b

 Determination of capacity for a known Yield

 The mass curve of inflow and the demand line can be used to determine the required
storage capacity.
 Demand line lines drawn tangent to the high
points A1, A2, A3 … of the mass curve,
which are parallel to the demand line,
represents the rate of withdrawal from the
reservoir.
 Assuming the reservoir to be full whenever
the demand line intersects the mass curve
(points F1, F2…), the maximum departure
from tangents (B1C1, B2C2….) between the
two curves represents the reservoir capacity
just required to satisfy the demand.
 The vertical distance between the
successive tangents A1B1, and A2B2, etc.
represents the water wasted over the
spillway.
 The reservoir would be empty at points C1
and C2

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Note: It may also be noted that a demand line (the plotted tangents), when extended forward,
must intersects the mass curve. If it does not, the reservoirs will no refill

Note: When the demand curve is not a straight line, then the two mass curves are superimposed
over each other in such a way that their origin and axis coincide. The larger ordinate between the
two, gives the required storage capacity.

 Determination of yield for a know

 Fixing the demand for a given reservoir capacity, may also be done with the help of
mass curve of inflow
 The value of known reservoir capacity is
placed vertically in all the low points in the
mass curve.
 The tangents are drawn to the high points
(A1, A2, A3…) of the mass inflow curve in
such a way that the maximum departure from
the mass curve is equal to the reservoir
capacity.
 The points B1, B2, and B3 are determined in
such a way that their maximum departure
from the curve is equal to the know reservoir
capacity.
 The slopes of the lines so drawn represent
the demand rate which can be obtained for
those critical periods with this capacity
during different periods.
 The minimum value of these slopes will
represent the withdrawal rate, which can
certainly be obtained from the given
reservoir, and will, thus, represent its firm
yield.
 The mass curve gives results if ΣD < ΣS during the period of record.
 In the mass curve analysis, the reservoir is assumed to be full at the beginning of the dry
period, and storage required to pass the dry period is estimated.
 If the mass curve contains only one ridge point, and if there is no well-defined
subsequent trough point, it may become necessary to repeat the given data for one more
cycle to arrive at the desired storage determination.

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 The graphical approach is quite satisfactory if the reservoir releases are constant during
the period of analysis. Also, the demand rate is usually not a straight line, since the
demand (out flow) generally becomes non-uniform due to seasonal variations in the
demand.
 When reservoir releases vary, the sequent-peak analysis is recommended.
2. Fixation of Reservoir Capacity Analytically using Sequent Peak Analysis
 Sequent Peak Analysis is more suitable when the data of long observation periods or long
generated data are used, or when the demand is not constant
 Find the maximum cumulative deficit over an adjacent sequence of deficit periods and
determine the maximum of these cumulative deficits.
 Inflow sequence is assumed to repeat and the analysis is carried out over two cycles,
when necessary.
 Two cycles are required in case the critical period lies toward the end of an inflow,
sequence.
 How much minimum storage is required that corresponds to the maximum deficit that
occurs.  Differences between inflows (S) and demands
(D) are calculated and their summations
obtained.
 Σ(S-D) values are plotted against time as
shown in the figure.
 On this plot the first peak value and next larger
peak (sequent peak) are determined.
 The storage required between these two points
is the difference between the first peak and the
lowest point in this period.
 This process is repeated for all the peaks in the
record period as shown in the figure also. The
maximum of the storage values is the required
capacity.

 If the record period or generated data sequence is very long, the graphical solution may
be time consuming
 In that case and analytical solution procedure may be applied for the analysis and it can
be solved easily using a computer

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 In this way, the required storage Vt at the end of a period t can be expressed as:-

𝑲 𝑹𝒕 𝑸𝒕 𝒊𝒇 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝑲𝒕 { 𝒕
𝟎 𝑶𝒕𝐡𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆

 At the beginning of the analysis, initially Kt-1 is set to zero and calculations continue to
find Kt values for up to twice the length of the record period.
 The maximum of all the calculated values of Kt is the required storage capacity.

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HYDROPOWER PROJECT DEVELOPMENT

 Hydropower is a mature technology – make use of the experience

 Use proven design solutions, study operating projects with similar head and design flow.
 Hydropower plant design is unique and depends primarily on site specific features and
also such as topography, geology, hydro- meteorology etc.
 Thus no practice can be generalized in case of hydropower civil design and presented as
best practice.
 The planning is very important component for the optimum development of a
hydroelectric project in a river basin.
 A river valley can offer many sites potentially attractive to the planners of hydroelectric
development
 Investigations at these sites can help identify the optimum dimensions of dam, reservoir
and powerhouse that could give the most economical scheme.
 Process of selecting the best option depends upon the judgment and experience of
decision makers.
 Hydropower project forms an integral part of overall development of water resources of
the river basin
 The hydro schemes also form part of the complex integrated power generation system
with diverse power generation resources
 In the planning of hydro development and deciding on installed capacity etc., these two
inter-connections with the water resources developments of the river basin and with
power system are to be kept in view
 In the overall basin context, the impact of operation of upstream projects, constraints
imposed by the downstream projects, irrigation diversions downstream, flood moderation
etc. are to be considered

Principal parameters necessary in making hydro- power studies are water discharge (Q) and
hydraulic head (H).

 The measurement and analyses of these parameters are primarily hydrologic problems.
 Thus determination of the potential head for a proposed hydropower plant is a surveying
problem that identifies elevations of water surfaces as they are expected to exist during

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operation of the hydro plant. Good contour maps may be sufficient to determine the value
for the hydraulic head.

Assessment of hydropower resources (WHY)

 Mitigating project risks through sound assessment and analysis

 Key Challenge: (Small) hydro power development involves a number of risks which
deter developers and investors. Key challenges(risks):-
 Hydrological Risks
 Construction Risk
 Risk of Design Flaws
 Social and Environmental risk
 Political Risk
 Detailed site assessment, appropriate analysis and project preparation leads to a vast
mitigation of these risks.
 Most risks can be identified and their potential impact can be quantified in risk and
sensitivity analyses

Assessment of hydropower resources (WHEN)

 Right timing reduces the risk of needless cost and conflict

 Site-surveying and data collection:
 Should be conducted if an initial technical projects assessment (desk-study) comes to
the conclusion that a site is potentially attractive.
 Should only be conducted, if there is a realistic chance that a potential project can be
funded and implemented (Particularly for rural electrification projects: Avoid raising
expectations among local population that cannot possibly be fulfilled later!)
 Should be conducted during times with potentially lowest stream flows

Required data and filed survey:

 During site investigations data is collected which is very critical for successful technical
and financial planning

Hydrological Analysis  FDC (project optimization and design flow)

 Flood Flows(Technical safety of Project Components)

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 Head available for power generation

Topographical Mapping  Optimum position and alignment for structures
 Distance for transmission
 Accessibility
Geological Analysis  Stability of structures( the degree to which these investigations
are conducted depend on types and dimension of structure)
Social and  Identify demand (off-grid electrification)
Environmental Studies  To identify potential risk/ conflicts and means for mitigation
 Feasibility to fulfill obligation of legislation, donors and lenders

 Neglect in any of these assessments leads to flaws in optimization and design, eventually
reflected in the project’s feasibility

 Very critical information during project planning and optimization are the available flow
and head.

Design Discharge Q Net Head Hn

d

Very critical value, based on complex hydrological analysis Very critical value, but relatively easy to determine
easy to determine with topographic survey.
 Too high Q : HPP oversized, expected annual
d
generation not achieved, revenue stream smaller  Wrong Hn: leads to mismatch of turbine
(strong impact).
than required, financial viability critical.
 Too low Qd: HPP dimensioned too small, more
attractive development solution possible.
 Wrong Qd: not matching peak efficiency point of
installed turbine. development cycles:
Hydropower

 Planning,
 Implementation and
 Operation and Maintenance

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Major steps involved in the planning of hydropower project

 Project formulation and layout

 Site identification
 Hydrological study (flow duration, flood conditions, dry/wet year conditions)
 Basic topographical overview (possible head, access conditions, existing roads)
 Preliminary assessment of slope stability and sediment loads
 Basic project layout with first approximation of electricity generation
 Engineering design and layout optimization
 Pre-design of hydraulic structures with cost estimations
 Evaluation of layout alternatives
 Optimization of sizing
 Assessment of power and energy benefits
 Definition of project layout
 Detailed field investigations
 Preparation of detailed project report

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The HPP planning from initial assessment to detailed engineering design

should follow a proven a proven approach

 Project development should be conducted in a stepwise approach:

 Desk-study
 Initial site assessment/reconnaissance visit
 Pre-feasibility study
 Feasibility study
 Detailed engineering design and tender document
 Implementation (Tendering, Contracting, Construction, Testing and Commissioning,
Operation and Maintenance).

Suitable methods for head measurements and topographic survey:

Site reconnaissance Pre-feasibility and feasibility Detailed design Only micro hydro
 Altimeter  Theodolite, total station
 Additional topographic  Clinometer/hypsometer
 Hypsometer  Stereoscopic aerials, and compass
survey of specific areas,
triangulation and control
if required
point survey
The studies to be carried out:

 Resources studies:
 Preparation/updating of resources inventories
 Preparation/updating of resources rankings
 Site specific studies:
1. Reconnaissance studies
2. Pre-feasibility studies
3. Feasibility studies
4. Definite plan or design studies

Resources studies:

 The main purpose of resource inventory investigation is to identify, register and

catalogue the hydropower resource existing in river basins; areas; districts and provinces.
 Flow data and data on topography are sufficient to establish the production and
generating capability of a site.

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 The identified project sites are ranked according to size, cost, electric demand, etc.
 Preparation of resources inventories and their updating is a continuous process and
should not be stopped at any time.

Site specific studies:

Project investigation, planning and design are normally organized in several consecutive studies
which are listed here in increasing order of detail, importance and reliability

1. Reconnaissance studies
 Are made to find potential energy sources and to estimate the energy available in
streams, and may not be too site specific
 This study uses contour maps or digital elevation models to determine heads available
in streams and water flow can be estimated using parametric curves of the flow
duration in the streams
 Some site specific resource studies may use mean annual runoff or a characteristics
such as the 95% of time flow available for energy development
 The details and data requirements of these studies are regional in nature.
 Accuracy of these data as a requirement is less.
 Carried out for specific purpose such as: to establish the available potential in a
district.
 They are concerned with project selection from inventories of resources.
 The main objectives may be such as:
 Find potential energy sources and Estimate energy available in a stream
 Assessment of demand or define electric power need.
 Selection of candidate projects from the resources inventories which will meet the
electric power demand.
 Investigation of candidate projects & project alternatives to the best technical
level.
 Technical ranking of candidate projects should be prepared and well recorded.
 Estimation of preliminary cost and implementation schedule
 Selection of a suitable project from the list of investigated candidate projects.
 May not be site specific

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 Main activity to be done:

 Data collection
Infrastructure information Geology and geotechnical engineering
Power market and demand forecast Environmental studies
Hydrology Socio-economic set up
Topography
 Field work: the following issues should be recorded properly;
Terrain features such as location and placement of structures
Infrastructures such as access to the project, transmission lines,
Settlement and resettlement issue
Availability of construction material
Environmental issues such as diversion of flow from one catchment to the
other, deforestation, etc.
Multipurpose uses
Diversion of flow during construction of Headwork and/or coffer dams
In case of reservoir and tunnel projects special attention shall be given to the
geological and geotechnical properties.
Appraisal of discharge available
Study of existing and future water uses like drinking, irrigation, etc.
Verification of estimated head
Powerhouse type, location and equipment
 Office studies.
Power demand forecast
Flow regulation
Head
Environmental constraints
 Final reconnaissance report.
Any reconnaissance report must conclude with a statement on the viability
and sustainability of the project under consideration.
Data requirement for feasibility study should be indicated

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2. Pre-feasibility study (Preliminary design):

 In this (phase) study one or more project alternatives are proposed and studied before
selection.
 The main purpose of pre-feasibility is to:
 Establish demand for the project.
 Formulate a plan for developing this project
 Assess if the project is technically, economically and environmentally acceptable
 Make recommendation for future action
 Define the limits of the project
 Ascertain local interest in and the desire for the project
 The following aspects are to be investigated during pre-feasibility study:
 Hydrology study:
Source, extent, amount, occurrence and variability of water.
Present, past and future needs of water
Include opportunities for control and development of water.
Quality of water in terms of its physical and chemical properties
Sediment quality and quantity
Existing water rights should be recognized for each and every stakeholder.
 Power studies: considers a balance b/n power supply & demand.
 Layout Planning: a comprehensive layout plan will be prepared and should be
supplemented with sufficient number of drawings, which will be used for
preparation of the bill of quantities.
 Geology and foundation engineering
 Seismic studies
 Environmental studies
 Estimation of cost
 Economic and financial studies
 Future investigation plan
 Pre-feasibility report: A clear statement should be made in respect of technical,
economic and environmental feasibility of the project. It should give clear
indication whether or not to study the project in more detail

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3. Feasibility study:
 Are carried out to determine the technical, economical and environmental viability of
a project.
 This phase of investigation consists of a detailed study which is directed towards the
ultimate permission, financing, final design and construction of the project under
investigation.
 Made to formulate a specific project.
 Assess the desirability of implementing hydropower development.
 Presents the project layout as a result of the evaluation of design alternatives
 Calculates the average annual electricity generation and the revenues
 Gives information how the budgetary investment cost was determined
 Evaluates the economic and financial profitability and its sensitivity against in the
assumptions
 Assesses the environmental and social impacts
 The main part of feasibility studies include
 Data collection
Distribution Topography
Power market Geology
Tariffs, Socioeconomic data Seismic
Population Environment
Income Meteorology
Hydrology Infrastructure
 Project feasibility estimation:
Power and energy estimation Seismic studies
Power system studies Construction materials
Water resources studies Existing infrastructure
Geology and foundation conditions
 Layout optimization:
Project layout Auxiliary equipment
Sediment & control measures Transmission planning
Number and size of units
 Environmental studies:
Assessment of environmental disturbance and their mitigation measures

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 Project feasibility estimation:

Intake structure and sediment excluder Dimensioning and preparation of
Headrace and tailrace specification for hydro turbine and
Powerhouse electromechanical equipment
Construction facilities
 Estimation of project cost:
Project cost Construction planning and budgeting
Operation, maintenance and replacement Contingencies and other costs
Environmental cost
 Economical and financial analysis
 Future steps to be taken for the project implementation
 Feasibility Report
Detailed study of hydrology, which includes water availability studies, flood
studies and collection of historical hydrological data and meteorological data.
The installed capacity of the project along with design head and the design
discharge for the project
Fixation of location of the dam and the powerhouse
Fixing of the height of the dam above riverbed
Fixing the preliminary layout of the water conductor system.
Fixing the type of the power house
Working out the design energy for the project
Evaluation of infrastructure works likely to be involved
To work out the knowledge of civil design, electrical design, hydrology,
geology, construction and cost engineering is very important to arrive at a
good feasibility report
4. Definite plan or design studies:
 Made before final design and initiation of construction of final design and initiation
of construction
 Required daily or at least monthly flow data and usually require operational studies to
determine energy output and economics over critical periods of low in the supplying
river

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Implementation phase:
 Project implementation is a multidisciplinary job which include:
 Approval and appropriation of funds
 Pre-qualification and hiring of consultants
 Detailed design
 Preparation of tender/contract documents
 Pre-qualification of contractors
 Preparation of construction design and engineering design
 Preparation of operation manual
 Construction supervision
 Construction of civil works
 Supply and erection of equipment
 Testing, commissioning and commercial operation
 Preparation of completion report

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