Chapter 1

Types of data

1. Exhaustive – Includes all possible answers

2. Mutually exclusive – Allows only one answer

3. Qualitative data – Variables not in a numerical form

4. Quantitative data – Numerical data

 Chapter 2
Non-maleficence

-> No harm to participants

Respect for person

-> People independent and autonomous individuals, especially “vulnerable populations”

Assent

-> IRB requires a written agreement to participate in the research, especially for children.

Beneficence

-> Increase the benefit of participants and limit potential harm.

Justice

-> To treat all participants with the same level of respect, especially when it comes to recruiting.

Deception

-> No false or misleading information

Debriefing

-> Full information after the study

 Chapter 3

Qualitative Traditions

Ethnography

-> Study of culture using qualitative field research.

participant observation

-> Researcher becomes a participant in the culture or context being observed.

Phenomenology

-> People’s subjective experiences and interpretations of the world.

Meaning units

-> A small segment of a transcript or other text that captures a concept

Field research

-> Researcher goes into the field to observe the phenomenon in its natural state.

Group interview

-> Administered to respondents in a group setting. A focus group is a structured form of group
interview.

Case study

-> An intensive study of a specific individual or specific context.

The most significant change study

-> Asking participants to describe the most significant change they have
experienced/observed due to the program.
 Chapter 4
Data initials

“N” -> Is the number of cases in the sampling frame.

“n” -> Is the number of cases in the sample.

“NCn” -> Is the number of combinations (subsets) of n from N.

“f = n/N” -> is the sampling fraction.

Nonprobability sampling (not random)

➢ Model instance sampling (non-prob; not random) -> most typical case
➢ Quota sampling (non-prob; not random) -> sampling till achieving a specific number.
➢ Heterogeneity sampling (non-prob; not random) -> for diversity and variety
➢ Respondent-driven sampling (non-prob; not random) -> snowball sampling +
statistical system

Probability sampling

➢ Stratified random sampling -> dividing a population into homogenous groups

➢ Systematic random sampling -> Strong sample frame
➢ Cluster random sampling -> Geographical sampling

External validity

1. Sampling model -> Identify your population

2. Proximal similarity -> degree to which another context is similar

Gradient of similarity -> Dimesons which can be related to other contexts.

 Chapter 5
Inter-rater or inter-observer reliability

-> Is used to assess the degree to which different raters/observers give consistent estimates
of the same phenomenon.

Test-retest reliability

-> Is used to assess the consistency of observation from one time to another.

Parallel-forms reliability

-> Is used to assess the consistency of the results of two tests constructed in the same way
from the same content domain.

Internal consistency reliability

-> Is used to assess the consistency of results across items within a test.

concurrent validity

-> Difference between groups when there should be a difference

Convergent validity

-> Similarities to the model, where it should be similar to

Discriminant validity

-> Operationalization is different to similar studies, even it should not be

Interrater or interobserver reliability -> different observers have the same outcome of phenomena

Social threats to construct validity (3)

a) Hypothesis guessing
b) Evaluation apprehension (fear)
c) Researchers’ expectancies (communicate goal)
 Chapter 6
Item analysis

-> Scale or test of items to determine their properties especially to select final items

Scales (4)

a. Sequential-numerical (1-5 rating)

b. Dichotomous response scale (yes/no)
c. Interval response scale (the difference is meaningful)
d. Semantic differential (indirect questions)

Thurstone scaling -> Text statements with a scale from 1 to 7

Liker scaling -> Test statements with a scale from 1 to 5

Guttmann scaling -> Respondents agree to each statement to an extent

Structure of research (hourglass)

1. Broad question

2. Narrow down, operationalize

3. Observe

3. Analyze

2. Conclude

1. Generalize back to question

 Chapter 8
testing threat

-> Pretest affects how participants do the posttest

instrumentation threat

-> Instruments of pre/post-test differ

Regression threat regression artifact; regression to the mean

-> Nonrandom sample, two measurements that are imperfectly correlated and it will affect the post-
test.

selection threat or selection bias

-> Any factor other than the program that leads to pretest differences between groups.

selection-history threat

-> A threat to internal validity that results from any other event that occurs between the pretest and

posttest that the groups experience differently.

Compensatory rivalry

-> Developing competitive behavior because of the reward of the other group

Resentful demoralization

-> Groups know what another group is getting and are giving up

Compensatory equalization treatment

-> Third party gives smt. to the treatment group and influences the program effect.

Quasi experiment

- NO random assignment

- YES control group/multiple measures

Nonexperimental

- NO random assignment

- NO control group/multiple measures

 Chapter 10
Nonequivalent-groups design (NEGD) -> no random assignment

proxy-pretest design

-> Pretest measure is constructed form preexisting data

Chapter 11
Random selection (internal)

-> How to draw sample from population

Random assignment (external)

-> putting sample into groups

Chapter 12
t-value -> ration of mean and variability it accepts or rejects the null hypothesis
 Practice
Chapter 2

30- B-C

30. Katherine is aware that some potential participants may have cognitive impairments and she
considers excluding them solely on that basis. At the same time, she is aware that participants may,
themselves, benefit from participating in the study, since they will live in at research hospital during
the study and will have access to numerous resources while hospitalized. If Katherine decides to
exclude persons with cognitive impairments, she is also denying these individuals access to other
services, and this bothers her. In terms of the principles in the Belmont Report, she is struggling with
issues related to ____.

a. respect for persons

b. beneficence

c. justice

d. voluntariness

Chapter 3

6-A-D

Objectivity is to quantitative research as ____ is to qualitative research.

a. credibility

b. transferability

c. dependability

d. confirmability

24-B-C

Michelle is a health psychologist who has come to recognize that the phenomenon of parents who
refuse to vaccinate their children cannot be accounted for by any of the prevailing approaches to
health decision-making. She works with a group of parents, and through repeated observation and
subsequent refinement of her ideas, develops an approach that can account for both decisions to
vaccinate and decisions to not vaccinate. This approach is best termed ____.

a. ethnography

b. phenomenology

c. grounded theory

d. participatory action research

30- C-A

Lincoln wants to learn more about issues related to underage drinking on campus, and arranges for a
series of meetings in which the topic will be discussed. Specific categories of individuals (e.g.,
underage vs. of-age, living on vs. off campus, etc.) are invited to the meetings, which are recorded
while the individuals discuss questions related to underage drinking. The recordings are later
analyzed by trained raters. Lincoln’s approach is best described as a(n) ____.

a. focus group

b. direct observation

c. unstructured interview

d. case study

36-A-D

Aisha is interested in individuals with severe persistent mental illness who train their own psychiatric
service dogs. She has identified a group of individuals who are training their own psychiatric service
dogs, and they meet regularly to, exchange tips, and discuss their experiences. Aisha asks them what
the single most remarkable change they have noticed in themselves as a result of training their own
service dogs. Aisha is best described as using the ____ approach.

a. focus group

b. participant observation

c. unstructured interview

d. most significant change

Chapter 4

1- C-D

In sampling notation, ƒ = n/N refers to ____.

a. the number of cases in the sampling frame

b. the number of cases in the sample

c. the number of possible subsets

d. the sampling fraction

36-C-B

The best estimate of a population parameter is the ____.

a. standard error

b. sample statistic

c. sample parameter

d. standard statistic

Chapter 5
1- B-C
Hannah has developed a scale for assessing social interaction among children with moderate to
severe developmental disabilities. Because it is in the early stages, she has many dozens of potential
items and decides to create two versions of the test from among her many items and then have
individual observers score the same children using the two different versions. Hannah is assessing
____ reliability.

a. inter-rater

b. test-retest

c. parallel-forms

d. internal consistency

36-A-D

The consistency of results across items within a test is referred to as ____ reliability.

a. inter-rater

b. test-retest

c. parallel-forms

d. internal consistency

Chapter 6
24-C-B

Test makers use ____ to attempt to control factors that are irrelevant to the construct being
measured.

a. validation

b. standardization

c. factor analysis

d. item analysis

Chapter 7
12-D-A

If a survey has very long response categories, a(n) ____ is preferable.

a. group questionnaire

b. phone interview

c. focus group

d. personal interview
18-B-C

If needs for personnel and facilities must be minimized, a(n) ____ is preferable.

a. personal interview

b. phone interview

c. group questionnaire

d. drop-off survey

24-C-D

Carolyn is a community activist who works with at-risk teens. She finds out that her group is available
for a large

grant, but only if she can document certain needs. She wants to survey school personnel as well as
personnel at drop-in centers to gather the needed information. Given her need to rapidly gather
information, Carolyn’s best choice for methodology is a(n) ____.

a. personal interview

b. drop-off survey

c. group questionnaire

d. phone interview

Chapter 8
12- A-B

When an effect occurs when the proposed cause occurs, but the effect does not occur when the
proposed cause has not occurred, ____ has been demonstrated.

a. temporal precedence

b. covariation

c. plausibility

d. causality

24-B-D

What social threat to internal validity occurs when the control group is given a program or treatment
(usually by a well-meaning third party) designed to make up for the treatment the program group
receives?

a. diffusion of treatment

b. compensatory rivalry

c. resentful demoralization
d. compensatory equalization

36-B-C

Wanda is conducting a study of social behaviors among children who are considered to be at high risk
because one or both of their parents is in prison. Two observers rate the children’s social skills,
perform an intervention that consists of structured socialization opportunities, and then rate the
children’s social skills again. Unfortunately, neither of her original observers are available after the
intervention, so she has to use two new observers. As a result, Wanda has a(n)

a. history

b. mortality

c. instrumentation

d. regression

Chapter 9

36-B-D

a. null case

b. main effect

c. intervention

d. crossover

Chapter 10
24-D-C

It is possible to mitigate the non-equivalency of groups in the NEGD by ____.

a. introducing at least two covariates

b. randomly assigning subjects to groups

c. choosing the treatment and control groups to be as similar to each other as possible

d. using as many measurement opportunities as possible

30-X-B

What design is shown in the accompanying figure?

a. double pretest

b. switching replications

c. nonequivalent dependent variables

d. regression point displacement

6- A- B

In the archived proxy-pretest design, the pretest is based on ____.

a. standardized test norms

b. pre-existing records for study participants

c. expected averages

d. informant recollections

Chapter 11

Chapter 12
24-A-B

In the equation yi = β0 + β1zi + ei, zi is 0 if the ____.

a. ith unit is in the treatment group

b. ith unit is in the comparison group

c. ith unit residual is greater than the mean residual

d. ith unit residual is less than equal to the mean residual

30-A-B

The general statistical analysis that enables us to model relationships in data and test for treatment
effects is ____.

a. ANOVA

b. regression
c. ANCOVA

d. Pearson’s correlation

36-B-A

A statistical estimate of the standard deviation one would obtain from the distribution of an infinite
number of estimates of the difference between the means of two groups is the ____.

a. standard error of the difference

b. estimated error

c. regression coefficient

d. correction factor