LEARNING OUTCOMES

BERNOULLI EQUATION (HEAD FORM) & HEAD LOSSES

Acquire the concept of Bernoulli equation in head form. Understand the major and minor losses in
piping system and calculate the total head loss in a fluid transportation system.
 BERNOULLI EQUATION (HEAD FORM)
Definitions

Bernoulli equation can be expressed in terms of heads:

Pressure head: height of a fluid column that
produces the static pressure, 𝑃.
Velocity head
Total head
Velocity head: elevation needed for a fluid to reach
𝑃 𝑢!
+ + 𝑧 = 𝐻 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑚𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒) the velocity 𝑢 during frictionless free fall.
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Elevation head
Elevation head: potential energy of the flow due to
Pressure head
its elevation.

“ The sum of pressure, velocity and elevation heads along a Applications:

streamline is constant during steady flow when the compressibility
Used to relate the three terms (𝑃, 𝑢 and 𝑧) with
and frictional effects are negligible.”
head loss and minor losses.
 LOSSES IN PIPING SYSTEM
Mathematical expressions

For viscous flows in pipe system, losses of energy occurs due to

frictions between fluid and pipe walls and in pipe fittings (valve, Due to the losses, the total head is not constant
elbows, exit etc.). from Point 1 to Point 2:

𝑃" 𝑢"! 𝑃! 𝑢!!

+ + 𝑧" ≠ + + 𝑧!
1 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

The relation of Bernoulli equation between

Energy input to 𝑧" − 𝑧!
the two points:
transport the fluid
from point 1 to point 2
𝑃" 𝑢"! 𝑃! 𝑢!!
+ + 𝑧" > + + 𝑧!
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
2
Part of energy supplied at the inlet
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝟏 > 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝟐 (pump) is lost as the fluid travels
in the piping system
ENERGY AND HEAD LOSS 1

𝑧! − 𝑧"
Types of hydraulic losses:

1. Head loss due to frictions in pipe. 2

(Major head loss)

Bernoulli equation
2. Head loss through pipe fittings.
(Minor head loss)
𝑃" 𝑢"! 𝑃! 𝑢!!
+ + 𝑧" > + + 𝑧!
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Total head loss:

ℎ# = ℎ#,%&%' + ℎ#,(&)*+ 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝟏 = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝟐 + 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔

𝑃" 𝑢"! 𝑃! 𝑢!!

+ + 𝑧" = + + 𝑧! + ℎ#
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
PRESSURE DROP

Major head loss of head is due to the friction with the pipe
wall. This causes the loss of energy (flow driving force) due to Mathematical expression
the associated pressure drop, ∆𝑃.

The energy loss is written as head to represent the equivalent Pressure drop due to head loss:
column height in the relation to pressure drop based on the
∆𝑃# = 𝜌𝑔ℎ,*--
hydrostatic pressure concept:
∆𝑃#
ℎ,*-- =
∆𝑃# = 𝜌𝑔ℎ,*-- 𝜌𝑔

Additional height of the fluid that needs

to be raised by a pump to overcome the
frictional losses in the pipe.
MAJOR HEAD LOSS
Friction factor

Pipe head loss (major head loss) is expressed in terms

of friction factor: Friction factor is governed by the wall shear stress, 𝜏/ :

Darcy - Weisbach 8𝜏/

∆𝑃# 𝐿 𝑢! 𝑓=
ℎ# = Equation 𝜌𝑢!
=𝑓
𝜌𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔
Due to the different nature of laminar and turbulent flow,
𝑓 = Darcy friction factor the wall shear stress varies and the formula for friction
factor, 𝑓 for both flow regime differs.
𝐿 = pipe length

The estimation of friction factor for laminar flow (highly

Pump power to overcome pipe head loss:
ordered) can be done using a simple and straightforward
formula while it is more complex for turbulent flow due to
𝑊̇ %.(%,# = 𝑉∆𝑃
̇ # = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
̇ #
its complexity (highly-disordered with rotational flow)
FRICTION FACTOR FOR
Other pipe’s cross sections
LAMINAR FLOW

𝑎/𝑏 𝑓
The friction factor for laminar flow is only a function 1 56.92/𝑅𝑒
Rectangle: 2 62.20/𝑅𝑒
of the Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒. 3 68.36/𝑅𝑒
𝑎 4 72.92/𝑅𝑒
6 78.80/𝑅𝑒
For a circular pipe, 𝑓 can be determined from: 8 82.32/𝑅𝑒
𝑏 ∞ 96.00/𝑅𝑒

Circular pipe, laminar: 𝑎/𝑏 𝑓

Ellipse: 1 64.00/𝑅𝑒
2 67.28/𝑅𝑒
𝑏
4 72.96/𝑅𝑒
𝑓 = 64/𝑅𝑒 8 76.60/𝑅𝑒
16 78.16/𝑅𝑒
𝑎
𝜌𝑢𝐷1
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜃 𝑓
𝜇
𝐷 Isosceles 10° 50.80/𝑅𝑒
triangle: 𝜃 30° 52.28/𝑅𝑒
60° 53.32/𝑅𝑒
90° 52.60/𝑅𝑒
120° 50.96/𝑅𝑒
FRICTION FACTOR FOR
TURBULENT FLOW Roughness 𝜖 depends on the material of the pipe and
has a single dimension of length 𝐿 .

The friction factor for turbulent flow is a function of the Reynolds number,
𝑅𝑒 and the pipe roughness 𝜀 . The latter is commonly expressed as a
Friction factor chart
dimensionless number called relative roughness, ε/𝐷.

The correlation of 𝑓 for turbulent flow was initially proposed by Cyril F.

A chart called Moody chart was introduced that
Colebrook 1939:
presents the friction factor, 𝑓 as a function of
Implicit equation - requires Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒 and relative roughness,
1 𝜀 ⁄𝐷 2.51 iterations to solve for 𝑓.
= −2.0 log +
𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒 𝑓 𝜖/𝐷 over a wide range.

Moody chart is commonly

An approximate explicit relation for 𝑓 was proposed by S.E. Halland in used today.
1983: Available in the supporting document

!.!
1 6.9 𝜀 ⁄𝐷
= −1.8 log +
𝑓 𝑅𝑒 3.7
MOODY CHART
Moody chart

How to determine 𝒇 from a Moody chart:

Step 1: Determine the relative roughness 𝜀 ⁄𝐷

Roughness 𝜀 for common pipe materials are given in a

table in Moody diagram. Select the line that represent the
𝜀 ⁄𝐷 in the Moody diagram. 1
3

Step 2: Determine the Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒

Calculate the Reynolds number and determine the point

at which is crossed with 𝜀 ⁄𝐷 line.

Step 3: Determine the friction factor, 𝑓

Read the 𝑓 associated with point the crossed point. 2
 Determine pipe head loss
and pump power

EXAMPLE 1

Water at 15℃ with 𝜌 = 999 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚5 and 𝜇 = 1.138×

1065 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚 g 𝑠 is flowing steadily in a 5-cm diameter
5 𝑐𝑚 6 𝐿⁄𝑠
horizontal pipe made of stainless steel at a rate of 6 𝐿⁄𝑠 as
shown in the figure. Determine the pressure drop, the pipe
head loss and the required pumping power input for flow
60 𝑚
over a 60-m-long section of the pipe.
SOLUTION Velocity:

𝐿 𝑚5
𝑢 = 𝑉̇ ⁄𝐴7 = 6 g / 𝜋0.025! 𝑚! = 3.06 𝑚/𝑠
𝑠 1000𝐿

Reynolds number:
5 𝑐𝑚 6 𝐿⁄𝑠

999 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚5 3.06 𝑚/𝑠 0.05 𝑚

𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑢𝐷 j𝜇 = = 134,300
60 𝑚 1.138×1065 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚 g 𝑠

The flow is turbulent.

Assumptions:

Flow is steady and compressible.

Friction factor, 𝒇:
Entrance effect is negligible. Hence flow is fully Roughness for stainless steel:
developed. From Moody Diagram:
𝜀 = 0.002 𝑚𝑚
𝑓 = 0.0175
No fittings involved (bend, valve etc.)
𝜀 ⁄𝐷 = 0.002 𝑚𝑚⁄50 𝑚𝑚 = 0.0004
No work devices involved such as pump/turbine.
SOLUTION
Pipe head loss:

Pressure drop (loss) due to pipe frictions: ∆𝑃# 98220 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚𝑠 !

ℎ# = = = 10 𝑚
𝜌𝑔 999 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚5 9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 !
∆𝑃# 𝐿 𝑢!
=𝑓
𝜌𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔

𝐿 𝜌𝑢! Pump power required to overcome the

∆𝑃# = 𝑓
𝐷 2
pipe head loss:

60𝑚 999 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚5 3.06 𝑚/𝑠 !

= 0.0175 𝑚5
0.05𝑚 2 𝑊̇ %.(% ̇
= 𝑉∆𝑃 = 0.006 98220 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚𝑠 !
𝑠

= 98220 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚𝑠 ! = 98220 𝑃𝑎 = 98.22 𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 589.32 𝑊

ENERGY AND HEAD LOSS Pipe components head loss (minor):

ℎ#,%&'() = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

Depends on number of pipe

1 fittings/components, types ( valve, bend,
tee, inlet and outlet) and diameter.

𝑧! − 𝑧"

Pipe head loss (major):

𝐿 𝑢! 2
ℎ#,%&%' =𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
Depends on the flow regime, Reynolds Total head loss
number, pipe smoothness or material
ℎ# = ℎ#,%&%' + ℎ#,(&)*+
(turbulent), pipe length, pipe diameter and
velocity.
MINOR LOSSES Mathematical expressions

Fluid in a typical piping system passes through various components Minor losses are expressed in terms of loss
such as valves, bends, elbows, tees, expansion, contractions, inlets coefficient, 𝐾# :
and exits in addition to the long straight pipe section.
ℎ#,(&)*+
These components interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid and causes 𝐾# =
𝑢!⁄ 2𝑔
additional head losses due to the separation and mixing that they
Another approach to to calculate the minor losses
induced.
from equivalent length 𝐿'8.&9 . The minor losses is

These are not the function of pipe accounted by adding the 𝐿'8.&9 to the total pipe
length. Hence, in a typical long section length.
pipes, they are considered as minor
losses.
𝐷
𝐿'8.&9 = 𝐾
𝑓 #

𝐿 + 𝐿'8.&9 𝑢!
ℎ#,:*:;, =𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
LOSS COEFFICIENT, 𝑲𝑳 Entrance and Exits

Loss coefficient, 𝐾# in a piping system Reentrant Sharp-edged Rounded

can be divided into three categories: 𝐾# = 0.80 𝐾# = 0.50 𝐾# = 0.03 − 𝑤𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
Entrance & exit, Bends & branches and 𝐾# = 0.12 − 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
Valves.

Higher loss coefficient for design with

more difficulty for the fluid to flow into
the entrance (changing original
directions) – more head/energy loss. 𝐾# = 1.0 𝐾# = 1.0 𝐾# = 1.0

Various exits shares similar loss

coefficient value.
LOSS COEFFICIENT, 𝑲𝑳 Bends, connectors and branches

Higher loss coefficient for the

design where it becomes more
difficult for the fluid to flow
through the bends/ branches/
connectors (changing original
directions) – more head/ energy
loss.

The loss coefficient varies for

flanged and screwed/threaded
connection.
LOSS COEFFICIENT, 𝑲𝑳

Valves

The loss coefficient for valve

depends on its types and the degree
Gate valve Globe valve of opening.

Head loss increase for smaller

openings – higher obstruction to
Angle valve flow.

Disk-type gate valve Swing-check valve

TOTAL HEAD LOSS

Mathematical expression
In a fluid transportation system, the pipe sections can be
from the combination of different materials (stainless steel,
brass etc.) and pipe diameter. Thus, the friction factor Total head loss:

which depends on the material roughness and the velocity

ℎ#,:*:;, = ℎ#,%&%' + ℎ#,(&)*+
varies for different pipe sections:

𝐿& 𝑢& ! 𝑢< !

ℎ#,:*:;, = m 𝑓& + m 𝐾#,<
𝐷& 2𝑔 2𝑔
& <

For piping system with pipe sections made of

𝑧! − 𝑧"
similar material with constant diameter:

𝐿 𝑢! 𝑢!
ℎ#,:*:;, =𝑓 + m 𝐾#
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔
 Component 𝑲𝑳
Sharp entrance 0.5
Open globe valve 6.9
Determine total head loss
12-in bend 0.25
Screwed regular 90o elbow 0.95
EXAMPLE 2 Half-open gate valve 2.7
Sharp exit 1.0

Water 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚5 , 𝜇 = 0.001 𝑃𝑎. 𝑠 is

pumped between two reservoirs at 0.2 𝑓𝑡 5⁄𝑠 through
a piping system with 400 ft of 2-in-diameter pipe as
shown in the figure. The relative roughness of the pipe
is given as 𝜀 ⁄𝐷 = 0.001. Determine the total head
loss in the piping system.
 SOLUTION

Lengths:

0.305𝑚
𝐿 = 400 𝑓𝑡× = 122 𝑚
𝑓𝑡

0.0254𝑚
𝐷 = 2 𝑖𝑛 × = 0.051 𝑚
𝑖𝑛

Assumptions: Volumetric Flowrate:

Steady and incompressible flow. 0.3055𝑚5

𝑉̇ = 0.2 𝑓𝑡 5⁄𝑠 × 5 = 0.006 𝑚5⁄𝑠
𝑓𝑡
Height different between two points remain constant.

Velocity:
Formula:
𝑉̇ 0.006 𝑚5⁄𝑠
𝐿 𝑢! 𝑢!
𝑢=
𝐴7
= ! = 3 𝑚⁄𝑠
ℎ#,:*:;, =𝑓 + m 𝐾# 0.051
𝜋 2
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔
 SOLUTION

Minor loss/Pipe components:

Component 𝑲𝑳
Sharp entrance 0.5
Open globe valve 6.9
12-in bend 0.25
Screwed regular 90o elbow 0.95
Half-open gate valve 2.7
Major/Pipe Head loss: Sharp exit 1.0

(1000 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚+ ) 3 𝑚⁄𝑠 0.051 𝑚

𝑅𝑒 = Sum of loss coefficient from each pipe
0.001 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚𝑠
components:
𝑅𝑒 = 153000
a 𝐾# = 0.5 + 6.9 + 0.25 + 0.95 + 2.7 + 1.0
𝜀 ⁄𝐷 = 0.001 From Moody diagram:
= 12.3
𝑓 ≈ 0.022
 SOLUTION

Total head loss:

𝐿 𝑢/ 𝑢/
ℎ#,,(,-. = 𝑓 + a 𝐾#
𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑢/ 𝑓𝐿
= + a 𝐾#
2𝑔 𝐷

3 𝑚⁄𝑠 / 0.022 122 𝑚

= + 12.3
2 9.81 𝑚⁄𝑠 / 0.051 𝑚

= 9.93 𝑚

This is the total head loss due to pipe friction and piping system components
that need to be overcome by the pump. In other words, the pump need to
provide extra energy equivalent to the total head loss.
 NEXT CHAPTER

Determination of pump power for a fluid

transportation system.

Concept of fluid movers – pumps.

Design of fluid transportation

system.