@ILB[JQEBW _@[@
@ILB[JQEBW
AJK]H@[ ]F GJ[G]IB
 

GJ[G]FNM[MFGJ@ Z GJ[G]IB
 

 
Gjrgufnmrmfgj`
 Gjrgufnmrmfgj`. I` gjrgufnmrmfgj` ms uf` iåfm` pi`f` y gmrr`a` nbre`a` pbr tbabs ibs puftbs
qum sm mfgumftr`f ` jlu`i ajst`fgj` am uf puftb B a`ab. Mi puftb B sm ii`e` gmftrb am i`
gjrgufnmrmfgj` y i` ajst`fgj` mftrm mi gmftrb y gu`iqujmr` am ibs puftbs am i`
i ` gjrgufnmrmfgj` sm
ii`e` r`ajb.
 

Gårguib
 Mi gårguib ms mi iul`r lmbeêtrjgb am ibs puftbs qum sm c`ii`f mf uf` gjmrt` gjrgufnmrmfgj`. _br ib
 
t`ftb mi gårguib ms i` supmrgjm qum mstà gbftmfja` pbr i` gjrgufnmrmfgj`, ejmftr`s qum mst` ms mi
pmråemtrb ami gårguib.
 

@ILB[JQEBW _@[@ LMFM[@GJBF AM

GÅ[G]IB
 Mi gårguib ms uf gbepbfmftm euy nrmgumftmemftm utjijz`ab mf ajkuhbs y lràg`s, eugcbs
p`qumtms y lràgbs jfgiuymf uf prbgmajejmftb p`r` lmfmr`r gårguibs gbepimtbs b `rgbs
gjrgui`rms. @sjejseb, mf bg`sjbfms c`y ajspbfjkim uf` nufgj÷f lmfêrjg` mf i`s kjkijbtmg`s
lràg`s p`r` ebstr`r ajvmrsbs tjpbs am gurv`s, jfgiuymfab gårguibs y mijpsms.

 I` nbre` ami gårguib ms sjeji`r mf gu`iqujmr gu`ar`ftm. _br t`ftb sj amtmrejf`ebs i`

pbsjgjbfms am i`s gurv`s

smlufab gu`ar`ftm mf mi
ami pi`fb prjemr gu`ar`ftm,
j bksmrv`fab pbamebs
qum `ek`s lmfmr`r
smggjbfms i` smggj÷f
sm`f sjeêtrjg`s
sjeêtrj gjrgui`r
g`s gbf ami
rmspmgtb
`i mhm y. Z i`s smggjbfms gjrgui`rms am ibs gu`ar`ftms tmrgmrb y gu`rtb sm pumamf bktmfmr `
p`rtjr am i`s smggjbfms am ibs abs prjemrbs gu`ar`ftms gbfsjamr`fab i` sjemtrå` gbf rrmspmgtb
mspmgtb
`i mhm y.
 


_rbpjma`ams am ibs gårguibs
Ibs gårguibs sbf jfv`rj`ftms ` gu`iqujmr rbt`gj÷f gbf mi mhm mf mi gmftrb am mstm gårguib. Wbib
i`s rmgt`s qum gbftmfl` mi gmftrb ami gårguib pumam smr mi mhm am sjemtrå` am mstm.
 ]f gjrguib sm amfm gbeb mi gbfhuftb am puftbs qum sm mfgumftr`f ` uf` ajst`fgj`
amtmrejf`a` r gbf rmspmgtb ` uf` pbsjgj÷f gmftr`i
gmftr`i (x, y).
y) .
 

@ilbrjteb kàsjgb
  
 Wm pbarå` utjijz`r uf` mgu`gj÷f p`r` g`igui`r i` pbsjgj÷f am ibs puftbs am uf` gjrgufnmrmfgj`
p`s`fab
p`s`fa b ` ib i`rlb ami mhm am i`s x mf p`sbs ufjt`
ufjt`rjbs
rjbs am r`+ rr,, y g`igui`r ibs v`ibrms
gbrrmspbfajmftms am y mf g`a` pbsjgj÷f gbeb8

 y5

 ]f eêtbab p`r` ajkuh`r mi gårguib ms `prbvmgc`r i` sjemtrå` am ibs gu`ar`ftms, ajkuh`fab sbib ufb y
tr`z`fab ibs puftbs sjeêtrjgbs mf ibs ameàs gu`ar`ftms. _`r` mstm `ilbrjteb kàsjgb, sm eumstr` `
gbftjfu`gj÷f8
 

  x (x , y)

  ? 0?? 0? (?,0?)
  0 :: :.:= (0,0?)
  ; :> :.3? (;,0?)
  7 :0 :.=1 (7,0?)
  1 31 :.0< (1,:)
  = <= 3.>> (=,:)
  > >1 3 (>,3)
  < =0 <. 0 1 (<,<)
  3 7> > (3,>)
  : 0: 1.7> (:,1)
  0? ? ? (0?,?)
 

Mi rmsuit`ab am mstb sm eumstr` mf i` nlur` sjlujmftm8

 

@ilbrjteb ami puftb emajb p`r`


lmfmr`gj÷f am gårguibs
]f` gjrgufnmrmfgj` sm amfm gbeb uf gbfhuftb am puftbs qum sm mfgumftr`f, mf su tbt`ija`a, ` uf`
  
ajst`fgj` amtmrejf`a` r am uf` pbsjgj÷f gmftr`i. Ms pbsjkim rmaugjr mi gàiguib `i gbfsjamr`r i` sjemtrå`
am i`s gjrgufnmrmfgj`s, i` nbre` am i` gjrgufnmrmfgj` ms sjeji`r mftrm gu`ar`ftms y sjeêtrjg` mftrm
bgt`ftms.

 _`r` `pijg`r mi eêtbab ami puftb emajb, amfjebs uf` nufgj÷f am gjrgufnmrmfgj` gbeb
  (x, y)5+ -

 Mftbfgms8


 (x, y) 9? sj ( x , y) mstà amftrb am i` nrbftmr` am i` gjrgufnmrmfgj`
  (x, y) 5? sj ( x , y) mstà mf i` nrbftmr` am i` gjrgufnmrmfgj`.
   (x, y) 6? sj ( x , y) mstà numr` am i` nrbftmr` am i` gjrgufnmrmfgj`.

 Ibs p`ràemtrbs am amgjsj÷f sugmsjvbs sm bktjmfmf `i utjijz`r gàiguibs jfgrmemft`ims.

 

 Wm g`ptur`f mi r`ajb
r`a jb r y mi gmftrb am i`
 Gjrgufnmrmfgj` (xg, y g).
 * Wm bktjmfm mi prjemr puftb am i` gjrgufnmrmfgj` gmftr`a` mf brjlmf (x g, y g) gbeb (?, r).
 * Wm g`igui` mi v`ibr jfjgj`i ami p`ràemtrb am amgjsj÷f gbeb p ?5=/1 - r.
 _`r` d5? c`st` x65y jfgrmemft` d
   Wj pd 9 ?
 * Wjlujmftm puftb am i` gjrgufnmrmfgj` gbf gmftrb (?,?) ms (x d+0, y d).
 * pd+05pd+;xd+0+0.
  Wjfb
 * Wjlujmftm puftb am i` gjrgufnmrmfgj` gbf gmftrb (?,?) ms (x d+0, y d-0).
 *pd+05pd+;xd+0+0-;y dd+0
+0.
 Abfam ;xd+05;xd+; y ;y d+0d+05;y d-;
  
 * Wm amtmrejf`f ibs puftbs am sjemtrå` p`r` ibs btrbs sjmtm bgt`ftms.
 * Wm eumvm g`a` pbsjgj÷f ami pjxmi g`igui`a` (x, y) ` i` tr`ymgtbrj` gjrgui`r gmftr`a` mf
(xg, y g)
  Z tr`z`ebs ibs v`ibrms am i`s gbbramf`a`s8 x5x + x g , y5y + y g.
 

L[@GJ@W