Summary of the General Equations Used in Thermodynamics

Conservation of Mass – Rate Basis Conservation of Mass – Integrated Basis Cons. of Momentum & Heat Transfer
dmCV d
  m exit   m inlet  0 [kg/s] mCV   mexit   minlet  0 [kg] F   mV 
From the force balance and
definition of work, one should
dt exit inlet exit inlet dt
be able to derive KE, PE, and
dmCV d
  d  mCV  t     d  mass within the control
W   F  ds pressure measurement
volume is a function of time (hydrostatics) & buoyancy eqns.
dt dt  
t2 Understand
W
V    V 
W   1W2   W  dt conduction (x),
t2 t2

m in   in Vin dAin   in dA in min     in Vin dAin  dt     in dAin  dt dt

v 
t1  Ain
  v  radiation (e), and
Ain Ain in  t1  Ain in  t1
convection (c)
t2
V Q
   V  Q   1Q2   Q  dt Q x   Ac
dT
t2 t2
m ex   ex Vex dA ex   ex dA ex mex     ex Vex dA ex  dt     ex dA ex  dt dt
v    v  t1 dx
Aex Aex ex t1  Aex  t1  Aex ex 
Q e   As  Tb4  Ts4  Q c  hc As  Tb  T f 
Common simplifications: density is uniform Common simplifications: density is uniform within
within control volume, flow is one-dimensional control volume, flow is one-dimensional entering (in)
m 1 F 
(1-D) entering (in) and exiting (ex), properties of and exiting (ex), properties of these flows are uniform   lim   p  lim  normal 
these flows are uniform with time with time 
 v A A
 A 

Conservation of Energy – Rate Basis

d   W    V  h  1 V 2  gz   dA     V  h  1 V 2  gz   dA 
dt 
 eCV d   QCV CV  
in  A
2    2  [W]
 in ex  A  ex
where e is the specific energy including KE and PE (e = u + ½V2 + gz) and h is the specific enthalpy (h = u + pv)
Common simplifications: density and energy are uniform within the control volume; internal energy, flow work, kinetic energy, and potential energy are the only
important parameters of interest; flow is one-dimensional entering and exiting

Conservation of Energy – Integrated Basis

t2
  t2
 
 2e2d    1e1d   1Q2  1W2       V  h  12 V  gz   dA  dt       V  h  12 V  gz   dA  dt
2 2
[J]
2 1 t1 in A  in t1 ex A  ex
Common simplifications: density and energy are uniform within the control volume; internal energy, flow work,
kinetic energy, and potential energy are the only important parameters of interest; flow is one-dimensional Real Gas Model
entering and exiting or
pv  ZRT pv  ZRT
Conservation of Entropy – Rate Basis  u   h 
cv    cp   
d  q       T v  T  p
dt 
 sCV d   dA  
  T b s in  A
  VsdA       Vsd A    CV [W/K] Tds  du  pdv
As  in ex  A ex k  c p cv
Tds  dh  vdp
Common simplifications: density & entropy uniform within CV, flow is 1-D, uniform heat transfer at boundaries
Common simplifications: ideal gas
(Z = 1), internal energy/enthalpy only a
Conservation of Entropy – Integrated Basis
function of temperature, constant
t2
  q   t2
  t2
  specific heats (see properties sheet)
 2 s2d        dAs  dt       VsdA  dt       VsdA  dt  1 2 [J/K]
  1s1d 
 A  T b  t in  A  t ex  A 

2  1 t 1  s  1 in 1 ex Boundary Work & Polytropic
2
Common simplifications: density & entropy uniform within CV, flow is 1-D, uniform heat transfer at boundaries
1W2   pd  p n  constant
• As presented, the equations given are for open systems; hence, one 1
Cycles & Efficiencies
should be able to simplify for closed systems quite readily p2 2  p11 n1
Wcycle • Moreover, one should be able to simplify for steady-state or a W2 

  Q   W
1
1 n
 Qin constant mass control volume appropriately
2
• I would highly suggest learning how to write the governing equations W2  p11 ln n=1
1
1
using the common simplifications indicated in each section
  
Q in Q out
• The simplified equations for nozzles, diffusers,
Wcycle Wcycle turbines, compressors, pumps, heat exchangers, Work Through Entropy
and throttling devices (i.e., valves) can all be  WCV 
ex
1
 Q  KE Liquid    vdp  Vin2  Vex2   g  zin  zex 
  T b   cycle nozzle  determined from these equations using the  m  2
appropriate assumptions  int rev in
KEs
• Apply the general real gas model equation to tables Polytropic
n  pex vex  pin vin 
& hand calculations (ideal gas/constant specific W m  n1
W
t  CV c / p 
 WCV s heats)
Gas
CV int rev

n 1

W  CV s W CV
• Consider how the equations change under dynamic
incompressibility for a gas, or a liquid/solid W CV m 
p 
  pin vin ln  ex  n=1
 pin 
int rev
 Summary of the Properties
Common Phase Diagrams Superheated
x0 vapor (real gas)
Compressed/
Saturated

Compressed
Subcooled
vapor line
Melting  line x 1
 Freezing

Vaporization 
 Condensation vapor dome
(liquid-vapor)
Sublimation 
Deposition

The first question you need to ask yourself is where are we on these diagrams? Is it a superheated vapor (real gas), saturated vapor, two-phase (vapor-liquid),
saturated liquid, compressed/subcooled liquid, two-phase (liquid-solid), or solid? Moreover, if it is a gas, is it an ideal gas? What about variable properties or
constant properties? Then, this specifies where you need to find the information below (curve-fits, tables) for your working fluid or what equation(s) to utilize.

Ideal Gas Enthalpy: h  u  pv Curve-fits? No. Tables of u, h, and s0? Yes. How about constant specific heats? Yes.
Equation of State: pv  RT
Joule found internal energy/enthalpy are only function of du  cv dT  u  cv T
temperature. Variable specific heats? Yes. Curve-fits? Yes.
dh  c p dT  h  c p T
cv T   fn  T  c p T   cv T   R
T2 R kR
cv  cp 
T2
u T2   u  T1    cv  T  dT h  T2   h  T1    c p  T  dT k 1 k 1
T1 T1
T2
dT v Isentropic process? Yes. Use T2 v
s2  T2 , v2   s1  T1 , v1    cv  T   R ln 2 relative pressures? Maybe.
Recall Dr. D’s use
s2  T2 , v2   s1  T1 , v1   cv ln  R ln 2
T v1 of this equation
T1
with the tables
T1 v1
T2 and the standard
s2 T2 , p2   s1  T1 , p1    c p  T 
dT p p
 R ln 2   s 0  T2   s 0  T1    R ln 2
T2 p
state of entropy s2  T2 , p2   s1  T1 , p1   c p ln  R ln 2
T1
T p1 p1 (s0 = 0, p0 = 1atm) T1 p1

Real Gas/Superheated Vapor Find u, h, v, and s? Superheated vapor tables! Compressed/Subcooled Liquid
Find u, h, v, and s? Tables!
Equation of State: pv  ZRT
Equation for Z? Yes, use it.
No, use compressibility chart for Z
employing reduced parameters

v pR  p pc
vR 
RTc pc
TR  T Tc
Two-Phase Liquid-Vapor No table provided or available? Make
approximately compressed assumption
Pressure and temperature are not
with two-phase table:
independent; need other variable
(quality) and can use two-phase tables u T , p   u f  T 
(similar for solid-liquid & solid-gas)
mvapor v T , p   v f  T 
x
mliquid  mvapor psat Tsat vf vg uf ug hf hg sf sg
h T , p   h f T   v f T   p  psat T  

v  1  x  v f  xvg u  1  x  u f  xug h  1  x  h f  xhg s  1  x  s f  xsg s T , p   s f  T 

Solids (Incompressible)  h  du Variable specific heats – curve fits given? Yes – use them!
Variable  or constant specific heats?     c p  cv  c No, but is there a table? Yes? Use it!
 T p dT
T2

u  T2   u  T1    c  T  dT  
constant
specific heats
 u  cT
T1
T2 p2 p2

h  p2 , T2   h  p1 , T1    c T  dT  v  dp 
constant
specific heats
 h  cT  v  dp
T1 p1 p1
T2
dT T
s2  T2   s1  T1    c  T  constant
  s  c ln 2
specific heats
T1
T T1
 More Diagrams, Psychrometric, Mixture Properties
Temperature-Entropy and Enthalpy-Entropy Diagrams Psychrometric Chart & Moist Air Parameters

Relative humidity Humidity ratio

p m pv
0%    v  100%   v  0.622
pg ma  p  pv 

General Mass and Moles Information Determining Mixture Properties for Ideal Gases Intensive properties
j j
Relationship between moles (n)
mi  ni M i Extensive properties cv   X i cv ,i T  cv   Yi cv,i T 
and mass (m) of each species (i): i 1 i 1
j j j j

Mass fraction (Y): U   ni ui  T    mi ui T  c p   X i c p ,i  T  c p   Yi c p ,i  T 

i 1 i 1
i 1 i 1
Yi  mi m  i   Ci  j j Partial
j
u   X i ui T 
j
u   Yi ui T 
Mole fraction (X):
H   ni hi  T    mi hi T  pressures! i 1 i 1
i 1 i 1 j j
h   X i hi T  h   Yi hi T 
X i  ni n  i   Ci  j j
S   ni si  pi , T    mi si  pi , T 
i 1 i 1
j j
Sum of fractions over total number of species (j): i 1 i 1 s   X i si  pi , T  s   Yi si  pi , T 
i 1 i 1
j j

Y   X
i 1
i
i 1
i 1

Total mass and moles:

j j
m   mi n   ni
i 1 i 1

Mixture molecular weight (M):

j
M   XiMi
i 1

Conversion between mole and mass fractions:

Yi M i
XiMi Xi 
Yi  j

M  Yi 1
i Mi 
Dalton’s mixture model:

ni RT j j
pi 

p X
i 1
i
i 1
i p p