5 Design Process 2021

Corso: «Timber Engineering»
DESIGN PROCESS IN
TIMBER ENGINEERING
Massimo FRAGIACOMO*
*Professor of Structural Engineering, University of
L’Aquila, Italy, Email: massimo.fragiacomo@univaq.it
Design process in timber eng.
Outline:
• Objective
• Introduction: use of wood in construction
• Advantages and disadvantages of wood as
structural material
• Ultimate Limit State (design actions and
strengths)
• Serviceability Limit State (design deflections and
limits)
• Tables for preliminary design

OBJECTIVE:
To review the design process of a timber

structure according to the Eurocode 5,
with regard to both:
• strength limit state (including
buckling)
• serviceability limit state
Use of wood in construction:
• Structural
material
• Finishing (flooring,
cladding)

Use of wood in construction:
• Thermal and acoustic
insulation
• Doors and windows
• Furniture
• etc.
Some advantages of wood over

other materials:
• Aesthetical appearance and pleasant smell
• Sustainability
• Hygroscopicity
• Thermal insulation
• Tensile, compression and bending strength
• High strength‐to‐weight ratio
• Speed of erection

Aesthetical appearance
and pleasant smell:
• Often preferred by architects and clients to
decorate a flat/house
• The wood is pleasing to smell
Sustainability:
• Material regeneration over 25 to 50 years
rotation cycles
• Reduced CO2 emissions
• Reduced embodied energy Design process in timber eng.
Hygroscopicity:
• Wood breaths, meaning that it can absorb excessive air humidity
and return it later to the environment, acting as a sort of reservoir
to reduce the humidity fluctuations and ensure a dry environment
• This effect is very important to ensure a healthy indoor condition
(no mould, etc.) and the well being in a timber building

Thermal insulation:
• Wood has excellent thermal insulation properties, which contribute
to reduce the primary energy consumption of the building
• Due to this properties, wood appears as a dry and warm material
when touching it
• Appropriate thermal mass can be obtained in massive timber
structures (e.g. Xlam system), which is important to reduce the
environmental thermal fluctuations in summer and wintertime
TENSILE AND COMPRESSION

STRENGTH:
• Due to the high tensile and compression
strength, unlike other materials such as concrete
and masonry, timber can be used for beams,
columns, truss systems without the need of
coupling it with other materials

BEAMS:
HIGH STRENGTH-TO-WEIGHT
RATIO:
PROPERTY TIMBER STEEL CONCRETE
Permissible stress (compr.) adm [MPa] 10 160 10
Unit weight m [daN/m3] 500 7850 2400
Ratio m /adm 50 50 240
Elastic modulus [GPa] 10 210 30
Tensile strength Yes Yes No
Ductility No Yes No
Time dependent behaviour Yes No Yes
Hygroscopic behaviour Yes No No
Isotropy No Yes Yes
Omogeneity No Yes Yes
Combustibility Yes No No
RATIO:
REMARK: Suppose we want to design a

column subjected to a vertical load P=1000 kN.
Formula Unit Timber Steel Concrete
Area A=P/adm cm2 33x33=1000 7.9x7.9=62.5 33x33=1000
Weight W=Am daN/m 50 49 240
Timber and concrete columns have an area

16 times larger than steel columns (hence
they are bulkier than steel structures).
RATIO:
But: because of the different density,

timber and steel columns weigh just 1/5th
of concrete ones!!!
Timber structures are lightweight!!!
Benefits of having a light structure:
• Less load on foundations and soil
• Less mass and, hence, less seismic action
• Simple transportation and erection
POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH
LIGHT-WEIGHT STRUCTURES:
• Important effects due to the wind (possible unroofing)
• Important effects of snow (due to the high Q/G ratio,
there are only few safety margins in the case of an increase
in Q with respect to the design value)!
WHY MAY SNOW BECOME

CRITICAL FOR LIGHT-
WEIGHT STRUCTURES?
Design inequality for a one-way roof structure:
f mk
M Ed  Fu   M Rd   Wy Fu   G G   Q Q
M
For the sake of simplicity, assume γG ≈ γQ=1.5 and γM=1.3:
f mk f mk  Wy
M Ed  Fu    Q M Ed  G  Q  M Ed  G  Q    Wy 
 Q  M 2
So there is a global safety factor of 2 against flexural failure.
Maximum increase in variable (snow) load Q before the
actual failure takes place: Q  2  G  Q    G  Q   G  Q

WHY MAY SNOW BECOME
CRITICAL FOR LIGHT-
WEIGHT STRUCTURES?
Consider two cases: (i) a heavy (e.g. reinforced concrete) roof
G  8 kN / m 2 Q  2 kN / m 2 Q / G  1/ 4
Q  G  Q  8  2  10 kN / m 2 Q / Q  10 / 2  5
So Q may increase up to 5 times the design value before
the actual failure occurs.
Second case: (ii) a lightweight (e.g. timber) roof
G  2 kN / m 2 Q  2 kN / m 2 Q / G 1
Q  G  Q  2  2  4 kN / m 2 Q / Q  4 / 2  2
So Q may increase only up to twice the design value before
the actual failure.
SPEED OF ERECTION:
• ‘Dry’ construction without the need of waiting for

curing and hardening of concrete
• No formworks and props
Construction time: 28 days
Construction time: few hours

SPEED OF ERECTION:
• Ease of handling thanks to the light weight

• Possibility of prefabrication off-site by reducing the
work on the building site to a minimum (connections
among structural members)
SOME DISADVANTAGES OF
TIMBER:
• Influence of defects
• Anisotropy
• Influence of the moisture content (dimensional
variations)
• Reduced Modulus of Elasticity and creep behaviour
• Reduced ductility
• Possible durability problems if in contact with
water/humidity
• Combustibility

INFLUENCE OF DEFECTS:
• Knots
• Grain deviations
Defects reduce
strength and
increase the scatter
of the mechanical
properties
ANISOTROPY:
R T
N R L

T
A
L
  arctgE0 T L
R=T 
l
R
l
L
EXCELLENT behaviour parallel to grain (L dir.)
VERY BAD behaviour perpendicular to the grain
(R, T directions) Design process in timber eng.
INFLUENCE OF MOISTURE
CONTENT
FSP=29% for radiata pine

Tangential: Shr=3.9%
Radial:
Shr=2.1%
Longitudinal: Shr=0.1%
REDUCED MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY:
PROPERTY TIMBER STEEL CONCRETE
Modulus of Elasticity [GPa] 10 210 30

REDUCED MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY:
REMARK: Suppose we want to design a beam
subjected to a uniformly distributed load q.
Since timber exhibits about 1/3rd of the Young
modulus of concrete, a high deflection (about
3 times) is expected:   5  ql
inst
4
384 EI x
In addition, the creep of timber will increase
the deflection in the long term, particularly
for high moisture cont.:    1  k   5  ql  1  k 
fin inst def
4
def
384 EI x
REDUCED MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY:
CONSEQUENCE: timber structures may
suffer from:
• Excessive deflection, under gravity and lateral
loading (Serviceability Limit State)
• Excessive vibrations (SLS)

REDUCED MODULUS OF
ELASTICITY:
• Lateral-torsional buckling in deep beams and

flexural buckling in columns (strength limit state)
(Pcr=2EI/l02: since E is low, also Pcr is low)
REDUCED DUCTILITY:
Timber has little ductility and only in compression
Disadvantage in seismic design.

The only source of ductility for a
timber structure comes from the
connections, which shall be made
of steel fasteners (nails, screws,
bolts, dowels, etc.) so as to exploit
the ductility of steel.
DUCTILE FAILURE MECHANISM:
Plasticization
of timber in
compression
at the
interface Plastic hinge
with the formation in the
dowel dowel
DIFFERENT FAILURE
MECHANISMS:
Dissipative mechanism: Non dissipative mechanism: Very dissipative mechanism:

fastener plasticization and timber plasticization in plasticization of steel plate with
timber plasticization in compression at the interface fasteners in elastic phase
compression at the with the fastener, with without timber plasticization at
interface with the fastener fastener still in elastic phase the interface with the fasteners
DURABILITY:
Timber may suffer from durability issues if in

contact with water and oxygen, or when exposed
to high values of moisture content (greater than
20%) Timber should therefore be
kept to lower values of m.c., and
suitable details to prevent water
stagnation and ensure water
evaporation shall be adopted for
structures exposed to the rain
DURABILITY:
covering overhang
ventilation
ventilation
ventilation
covering
Examples of details to reduce durability

problems 32
COMBUSTIBILITY:
Timber burns – however it is an

excellent insulation material,
therefore while burning on the exterior
surface, the inner volume is still at
ambient temperature and therefore
resistant.
If the cross-section is sufficiently
large (minimum size > 90 mm), it is 20C
possible to achieve a good fire
resistance without additional
protective measures.
COMBUSTIBILITY:
Conversely, steel does not burn, but has a large

heat conductivity
Consequently, after little
time from exposure to fire,
steel quickly raises its
temperature, and the
mechanical properties
(particularly E) quickly
degrade leading to a sudden
failure
COMBUSTIBILITY:
REGULATIONS FOR DESIGN OF

TIMBER STRUCTURES:
• European regulations: Eurocode 5 (EN 1995-1-1, EN
1995-1-2, EN 1995-2) – currently under revision
• National regulation: NTC 2018 with circolare
applicativa
• CNR regulations: CNR DT 206/2007, Documento di
aggiornamento RELUIS 2014, aggiornamento CNR
DT 206-R1/2018

TIMBER STRUCTURES:
• In Italy we have to use the
NTC 2018 (this is a law!)
with circolare applicativa
• However NTC 2018 only
deals with member design
(no provisions for
connection design, for
example)

TIMBER STRUCTURES:
• For parts not dealt with
by NTC 2018: designers
may use other existing
non-law regulations (e.g.
CNR regulations or
Eurocodes)
• Use either the RELUIS
2014 update of CNR DT-
206/2007, or the new
update CNR DT 206-
R1/2018
TIMBER STRUCTURES:
• Another option is to use the
Eurocodes instead of the
NTC 2018 – this is allowed
by law, however Eurocodes
should be used together
with the National Annexes,
which introduce in each
countries some possible
modifications of the
general rules set up by the
Eurocode (e.g. the material
partial safety coefficients)

TIMBER STRUCTURES:
• Examples: Italian National Annex to EC5-1-1:

TIMBER STRUCTURES:
• Examples: Italian National Annex to EC5-1-1:
• Note that new Italian
National Annexes will
have to be issued to
incorporate the
changes from NTC
2008 to NTC 2018.
LIMIT STATES:
ruptures (strength)
Ultimate: when become unstable
the structure (buckling)
Limit looses equilibrium
State excessive
Serviceability: when deflections
the structure becomes
excessive
unfit for use through
vibrations
ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES:
Design of a timber member according to
the Eurocode 5: the design inequality
displayed in the following is used:
Ed  Rd
Ed: Effect of Rd: Design strength
design actions
Ed is the maximum stress in the timber
members ( or ) due to the most critical
load combination:  d  f d  d  f v ,d
DESIGN INEQUALITY AT ULS:
Why reference to the stress rather than to

internal forces (N, M, T) is made for timber?
Because, unlike reinforced concrete and
steel, timber behaves elastically.

STRESS-STRAIN
RELATIONSHIPS:
R T
N R L

T
A
L
  arctgE0 T L
R=L 
l
R
l
The plastic deformations are limited and, therefore,

neglected.
STRESS-STRAIN
RELATIONSHIPS:
R T
N R L

T
A
L
  arctgE0 T L
R=L 
l
R
l
L
An elastic-brittle behaviour is assumed for timber in tension,
compression and shear, parallel and perpendicular to the
grain Design process in timber eng.
DESIGN INEQUALITY AT ULS:
Since no plasticization of the timber cross-
section is possible, the design inequalities
in terms of stresses are equivalent to those
in terms of internal forces:
Design inequality in Design inequality in
terms of stresses terms of internal forces
Axial force  d   Fi Fki  
N
 fd N Ed   Fi Fki   N c , Rd  f d A
A
Bending moment  d   Fi Fki  

M
 fd M Ed   Fi Fki   M c , Rd  f dW y ,el
W y ,el
Shear force (Av=A/1.5  d   Fi Fki   V
 f v ,d VEd   Fi Fki   Vc , Rd  f v ,d Av
for rectangular sections) Av
STRENGTH DEMAND:
qd=γG1Gk1+γG2Gk2+ γQ1Qk1+γQ202Qk2+γQ303Qk3+... where Gk1,
Gk2, Qk1, Qk2,... are the different actions (permanent, imposed, snow,
wind, etc.) combined so as to produce the most critical effects on
the structure b d
q Md=qdL2/8 at mid-span
d
d=Md/(bd2/6)≤fd in the d
outermost fibres
Rd L Rd d 
b
Vd 
V Vd=Rd=qdL/2 at the
support d
M
Md d=1.5Vd/(bd)≤fv,d in d
the centre fibre
LOAD COMBINATIONS AT ULS:
G1 = peso proprio strutturale G2 = carico permanente portato

P = forza di precompressione Qki = azione variabile
Qk1 è assunta come azione base della combinazione
ATTENZIONE: nel caso di più azioni variabili Qki, ciascuna delle
azioni variabili va assunta come azione base. Ciò significa che, ad
es., con due azioni variabili Qk1 e Qk2, andrà considerata anche
un’altra combinazione:  G1  G1   G 2  G2   P  P   Q 2  Qk 2   Q1   01  Qk1

ULS – DESIGN STRENGTHS:
Design strength: f d  k mod

fk
M
fk=characteristic value of the strength
M=partial safety factor for a material
property
kmod=modification factor taking into
account the effect of the duration of load
and moisture content
CHARACTERISTIC STRENGTH
OF SAWN TIMBER:
It depends on the strength class of timber:
OF GLUE-LAMINATED TIMBER:
It depends on the strength class of glulam:

OF GLUE-LAMINATED TIMBER:
It depends on the strength class of glulam:
PARTIAL SAFETY FACTOR FOR

MATERIAL STRENGTH:
Eurocode 5:

PARTIAL SAFETY FACTOR FOR
MATERIAL STRENGTH:
Norme NTC2008:
Tecniche
Costruzioni –
NTC2018:
Il coefficiente γM è valutato secondo la colonna A della tabella

4.4.III. Si possono assumere i valori riportati nella colonna B della
stessa tabella, per produzioni continuative di elementi o strutture,
soggette a controllo continuativo del materiale dal quale risulti un
coefficiente di variazione (rapporto tra scarto quadratico medio e
valor medio) della resistenza non superiore al 15%. Le suddette
produzioni devono essere inserite in un sistema di qualità di cui al §
11.7.
CONTROLS ON THE BUILDING

SITES:
11.7.10.2 CONTROLLI DI ACCETTAZIONE IN CANTIERE
I controlli di accettazione in cantiere sono obbligatori per tutte le tipologie

di materiali e prodotti a base di legno e sono demandati al Direttore dei
Lavori il quale, prima della messa in opera, è tenuto ad accertare e a verificare
quanto sopra indicato e a rifiutare le eventuali forniture non conformi.
Il Direttore dei Lavori esegue i controlli di accettazione, così come

disciplinato di seguito. Il Direttore dei Lavori potrà far eseguire ulteriori prove di
accettazione sul materiale pervenuto in cantiere e sui collegamenti, secondo le
metodologie di prova indicate nella presente norma.
Il laboratorio incaricato di effettuare le prove provvede all’accettazione dei

campioni accompagnati dalla lettera di richiesta sottoscritta dal direttore
dei lavori. Il laboratorio verifica lo stato dei provini e la documentazione di
riferimento ed in caso di anomalie riscontrate sui campioni oppure di mancanza
totale o parziale degli strumenti idonei per la identificazione degli stessi, deve
sospendere l’esecuzione delle prove e darne notizia al Servizio Tecnico Centrale
del Consiglio Superiore dei Lavori Pubblici.
SITES:
Il prelievo potrà anche essere eseguito dallo stesso laboratorio incaricato
della esecuzione delle prove. I laboratori devono conservare i campioni
sottoposti a prova per almeno trenta giorni dopo l’emissione dei certificati di
prova, in modo da consentirne l’identificabilità e la rintracciabilità.
Per gli elementi di legno massiccio, su ogni fornitura, dovrà essere eseguita
obbligatoriamente una classificazione visuale in cantiere su almeno il
cinque per cento degli elementi costituenti il lotto di fornitura, da confrontare
con la classificazione effettuata nello stabilimento.
Per gli elementi di legno lamellare dovrà essere acquisita la

documentazione relativa alla classificazione delle tavole e alle prove
meccaniche distruttive svolte obbligatoriamente nello stabilimento di
produzione relativamente allo specifico lotto della fornitura in cantiere (prove a
rottura sul giunto a pettine e prove di taglio e/o delaminazione sui piani di
incollaggio). Inoltre, su almeno il 5% del materiale pervenuto in cantiere,
deve essere eseguito il controllo della disposizione delle lamelle nella
sezione trasversale e la verifica della distanza minima tra giunto e nodo,
secondo le disposizioni della UNI EN 14080.

SITES:
Per gli altri elementi giuntati di cui ai paragrafi 11.7.3 (LEGNO STRUTTURALE
CON GIUNTI A DITA), 11.7.5 (PANNELLI A BASE DI LEGNO) ed 11.7.6 (ALTRI
PRODOTTI DERIVATI DAL LEGNO PER USO STRUTTURALE), dovrà
essere acquisita la documentazione relativa alla classificazione del
materiale base e alle prove meccaniche previste nella documentazione
relativa al controllo di produzione in fabbrica, svolte obbligatoriamente in
stabilimento relativamente allo specifico lotto della fornitura in cantiere.
Inoltre, su almeno il 5% del materiale pervenuto in cantiere, deve essere

eseguito il controllo della disposizione delle lamelle nella sezione
trasversale e la verifica della distanza minima tra giunto e nodo, secondo le
disposizioni delle specifiche tecniche applicabili. Infine, su almeno il 5% degli
elementi di legno lamellare e degli elementi giuntati di cui ai paragrafi 11.7.3,
11.7.4, 11.7.5 ed 11.7.6 forniti in cantiere, deve essere eseguito il controllo dello
scostamento dalla configurazione geometrica teorica secondo le tolleranze di cui
al § 4.4.

SITES:
Per gli elementi meccanici di collegamento di cui al § 11.7.8, in fase di
accettazione in cantiere, il Direttore dei lavori verifica la prevista
documentazione di qualificazione, la corrispondenza dimensionale,
geometrica e prestazionale a quanto previsto in progetto, ed acquisisce i
risultati delle prove meccaniche previste nelle procedure di controllo di
produzione in fabbrica. Il Direttore dei lavori effettua, altresì, prove meccaniche di
accettazione in ragione della criticità, della differenziazione e numerosità degli
elementi di collegamento.
Nei casi in cui non siano soddisfatti i controlli di accettazione, oppure

sorgano dubbi sulla qualità e rispondenza dei materiali o dei prodotti a quanto
dichiarato, oppure qualora si tratti di elementi lavorati in situ, oppure non si
abbiano a disposizione le prove condotte in stabilimento relative al singolo lotto di
produzione, si deve procedere ad una valutazione delle caratteristiche
prestazionali degli elementi attraverso una serie di prove distruttive e non
distruttive con le modalità specificate di seguito.

SITES:
Per quanto riguarda il legno massiccio potrà farsi utile riferimento ai criteri di
accettazione riportati nella norma UNI EN 384:2016.
Per il legno lamellare e gli altri elementi giuntati di cui ai § 11.7.3, 11.7.4,
11.7.5 ed 11.7.6, in considerazione dell’importanza dell’opera, potranno essere
effettuate, da un laboratorio di cui all’articolo 59 del DPR 380/2001, prove di
carico in campo elastico anche per la determinazione del modulo elastico
parallelo alla fibratura secondo le modalità riportate nella UNI EN 408:2012 o
nella UNI EN 380:1994, ciascuna in quanto pertinente.
Qualora i risultati dei controlli di accettazione non risultassero

soddisfacenti, il Direttore dei lavori rifiuta la fornitura.

MODIFICATION FACTOR kmod:
It accounts for the dependency of the

timber strength on:
- load duration: the longer the load
duration, the lower the strength;
- moisture content: the higher the
moisture content, the lower the strength.
Loads are assigned to a load duration class
depending on the type.
LOAD DURATION:
G1,G2
Q
Q,S
S,W
W,E,Fire

LOAD DURATION:
The coefficient kmod=fk(t)/fk(5 min), ratio between
the strength of wood for the actual load duration and
the strength of wood in a 5 min short-term
experimental test, is provided by the Eurocode 5
for each load duration class.
The coefficient kmod also accounts for the
dependency of the strength on the moisture content.
Eurocode 5 assigns a timber structure to a service
class depending on the type of environment.
EFFECT OF MOISTURE:
(e.g. wood in heated, indoor conditions)
(e.g. wood in unheated, indoor conditions, or wood in

outdoor conditions protected by the rain)
Engineering
(e.g. wood in outdoor properties
conditions ofthe
exposed to wood
rain)
EFFECT OF MOISTURE:
Engineering properties of wood
EFFECT OF MOISTURE:
Which service class? 2

EFFECT OF MOISTURE:
EFFECT OF MOISTURE:

EFFECT OF MOISTURE:
EFFECT OF MOISTURE:

EFFECT OF MOISTURE:
EFFECT OF MOISTURE:
Which service class? 1 indoor, 2 outdoor

Eurocode 5:
f k t   k mod  f k 5 min  Design process in timber eng.

NTC2018:
f k t   k mod  f k 5 min  Design process in timber eng.

How to choose the kmod factor when the

design load combination involves different
load duration classes?
ULS – CRITICAL LOAD

CONDITION:
The dependency of the timber strength on the

load duration makes the design process more
complex. The most critical load combination
is not always the one with the largest value.
Example: short 100×100 mm (A=104 mm2) post strength
class C14 (fc,o,k=16 MPa) loaded with an axial load due to
permanent load G=58 kN, an axial load due to snow Q=8
kN, and an axial load due to wind pressure W=20 kN.
Assume the post is exposed to heated, indoor condition,
which means service class 1. Design process in timber eng.
CONDITION:
Q
W

CONDITION:
G Q W
f k t   k mod  f k 5 min 

CONDITION:
Load conditions at ULS: Fd   G Gk   Q1Qk1   Q 2 0, 2Qk 2  ...
Since the kmod assumes different values for permanent (long-
term, 0.6), snow (short-term, 0.9) and wind (instantaneous,
1.1), the following load conditions should be considered:
1) Permanent and variable loads, with snow as basic action:
kmod1=max(0.6,0.9,1.1)=1.1
Nc1=1.35G+1.5Q+1.50,WW=1.35×58+1.5×8+1.5×0.6×20=
=108.3 kN c1=Nc1/A=108.3×103/10000=10.8 MPa
fd1=kmod1fc,0,k/m=1.1×16/1.3=13.5 MPa > c1=10.8 MPa OK
2) Permanent and variable loads, with wind as basic action:
kmod2=max(0.6,0.9,1.1)=1.1 Design process in timber eng.
CONDITION:
Nc2=1.35G+1.5W+1.50,QQ=1.35×58+1.5×20+1.5×0.5×8=
=114.3 kN c2=Nc2/A=114.3×103/10000=11.4 MPa
3) Permanent and snow only: kmod3=max(0.6,0.9)=0.9
Nc3=1.35G+1.5Q=1.35×58+1.5×8=90.3 kN
c3=Nc3/A=90.3×103/10000=9.0 MPa
4) Permanent and wind only: kmod4=max(0.6,1.1)=1.1
Nc4=1.35G+1.5W=1.35×58+1.5×20=108.3 kN
c4=Nc4/A=108.3×103/10000=10.8 MPa

CONDITION:
5) Only permanent loads: kmod5=0.6
Nc5=1.35G=1.35×58=78.3 kN
c5=Nc5/A=78.3×103/10000=7.8 MPa
fd5=kmod5fc,0,k/m=0.6×16/1.3=7.4 MPa < c5=7.8 MPa NO!
Remark: the largest load condition (the second one) is not
critical (11.4 MPa of strength demand, with the strength
capacity being 13.5 MPa). Conversely, the smallest load
condition (the fifth, with only permanent action and no
variable loads) is the most critical and in this example would
not be satisfied (7.8 MPa of strength demand, with the
strength capacity being 7.4 MPa).
CONDITION:
For timber structures, therefore, it is not enough to
consider the largest load condition.
For two different types of load, permanent G and variable
Qk1, two load conditions must be checked at ULS:
Fd 1   G Gk   Q1Qk1 Fd 2   G Gk
For three different types of load, permanent G and variable

Qk1 and Qk2, five load conditions must be checked at ULS:
Fd 1   G Gk   Q1Qk1   Q 2 0, 2Qk 2 Fd 4   G Gk   Q 2Qk 2
Fd 2   G Gk   Q 2Qk 2   Q1 0,1Qk1 Fd 5   G Gk
Fd 3   G Gk   Q1Qk1

CONDITION:
The most critical load condition has the
largest Fu/kmod ratio. For a generic force E in
the member: Design force Partial safety factor
Ed
d   f d ,e  k mod f k ,e /  m fc,o,k, A for axial
Ae
force
Design stress Depends on Fu fk,e, Ae= f , W for bending
(due to Fu) m,k
Design strength f , 2A/3 for shear v,k
Dependent Ed f Independent of the
on the load  k,e Ae
k mod  m load condition
condition Fu
CONDITION:
In the previous example: Nc/kmod=98.5, 103.9, 100.3, 98.5
and 130.5 kN for the load conditions No. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5,
respectively, showing that the load condition No. 5
(permanent only) is the most critical having the largest
Nc/kmod ratio.
The most critical load condition is usually:
• permanent with imposed load/snow load
for floor/roof members;
• permanent with snow and wind or
earthquake for the entire structure.
ksys: system strength factor for load

sharing: account for increases in strength in
structural systems due to load sharing
between elements because of less variability
of both f and E with respect to individual
elements (the lower f, the lower E).
ksys=1.1 provided the continuous load-distribution
system is capable of transfering the loads from one
member to the neighbouring members.

kh: size effect factor, to be used to increase the

tensile and bending strength of timber/glulam
with depth less than 150/600 mm:
Sawn timber Glulam

kh is also used for LVL.
fk
In conclusion: f d  k sys k h k mod
M
(often, conservatively, ksys=1)
ULS – TENSION:
Nd f t ,0,k
t , 0,d  f t , 0,d  k sys k h k mod
bd m
y y d
b
ULS – TENSION:
ULS – COMPRESSION:
f c ,0,k
y y d
N
 c ,0,d  d f c , 0,d  k sys k mod
bd m
b

ULS – COMPRESSION:
ULS – FLEXURAL BUCKLING:

Only compression:
 c , 0,d  kc , y f c , 0,d Nd f c ,0,k
 c ,0,d  f c , 0,d  k sys k mod
bd m
 c , 0,d  kc , z f c ,0,d
z
y y d
P P
z
b

 0, y Iy d
y  ry  ry 
ry A 12 For a rectangular
 0, z Iz b cross-section z
z  rz  rz 
rz A 12
y y d
z
b
If both rel,z≤0.3 and rel,y≤0.3, the flexural buckling control is not
needed (only strength control)

Pcr  2
E I  2 E0.05 I  2 E0.05  2 E0.05
 c , 0   cr  cr  Pcr  0.05
 cr  2    kc f c ,0,d

2 2 2
 2 E0.05
A l0
l0 A  l0 
kc   1 For kc=1: =lim  2

f c ,0,d  2  
 E0.05
2
E0.05
 f c , 0,d lim  
lim 2
f c ,0,d
  f c , 0,d l0 l
rel    
lim  E0.05  I
A
l0   l


ULS – SHEAR:
Longitudinal shear (fv,k) Rolling shear (fr,k)
ULS – SHEAR:
y y d
b
kcr=2/3 for glulam and sawn
timber, otherwise 1.

ULS – SHEAR:
Rolling shear strength fr,k: fr,k≈2ft,90,k
ULS – SHEAR:
Remark: since the shear strength is less on

horizontal planes than on vertical planes due to
the anisotropy of wood, the shear failure will
always occur with nearly horizonal cracks

ULS – BENDING:
Uni-axial bending:
Md f
 m, y ,d   f m , y ,d  k sys k h k mod m ,k
Wy m
bd 2 y y d
Wy 
6
b
ULS – BENDING:

ULS – BENDING:
Bi-axial bending:
1/km
1
1 1/km
y y d
Remark: usually, fm,y,k=fm,z,k and fm,y,d=fm,z,d Design process in timber eng.
ULS – LATERAL-TORSIONAL
BUCKLING:
Only bending:
z
y y d
z
b
BUCKLING:
Only bending:
kcrit
BUCKLING:
z
y y d
y y h
z
b
b

BUCKLING:
d
z
y y d
z
b
BUCKLING:

ULS – BEARING:
f c ,90 ,k
f c ,90 ,d  k sys k mod
m
Fc,90,d
qd
Fc,90,d L Fc,90,d
ULS – BEARING:
Fc,90,d
Aef
Fc,90,d
kc,90=1,25 or 1,5
Aef
ULS – BEARING:
Fc,90,d
kc,90=1,5 or 1,75
Aef
ULS – BEARING:

ULS – COUPLED AXIAL FORCE
AND BENDING – STRENGTH:
Biaxial bending Biaxial bending and
and tension: compr.:   0.3 and 
rel , z rel , y  0 .3
z
y y d
z
b
ULS – COUPLED COMPRESSION

AND BENDING – BUCKLING:
Columns subjected to biaxial bending: rel , z  0.3 and
rel , y  0.3
z
y y d
z
b

ULS – COUPLED AXIAL FORCE
AND BENDING:
No flexural buckling:
Flexural buckling:
ULS – COUPLED BENDING AND

COMPRESSION – BUCKLING:
Beams loaded in compression:
z (see equations before for flexural buckling)
y y d
z
b Design process in timber eng.
ULS – COMPRESSION AT AN
ANGLE TO THE GRAIN:
N , d N cos 
 c , ,d    ,d
d bd
b
cos 
N,d
N,dcos 
d
b
ULS – MEMBER DESIGN:
BEAMS:
• Strength (and lateral buckling) in bending;
• Longitudinal
shear;
• Bearing over the
support
(compression
perpendicular to
grain). Design process in timber eng.
COLUMNS:
• Flexural buckling (slender
members)
• Compressive strength
(squat members)
• Combined M and N
CHORDS & DIAGONALS

IN TRUSS SYSTEMS:
• Tensile strength;
• Compressive
strength including
flexural buckling;
• Bearing and
compression at an
angle to the grain. Design process in timber eng.
SERVICEABILITY LIMIT
STATES:
Eurocode 5:
Characteristic (or rare) load condition

Fc  Gk  Qk1   02Qk 2   03Qk 3  ...
STATES: Eurocode 5:

STATES: Eurocode 5:
STATES:
NTC 2018:
• No deflection limits are given for timber beams
• However, deflection limits are given for steel beams
• Such limits for steel beams are not very conservative
• In general, the deflection limits should be defined on a
case-by-case basis
• The limits of NTC 2018 for steel beams can be
considered as a maximum that should not be
exceeded in any case by timber beams and joists

SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES:
Design of a timber member according to
the NTC 2018: winst ( Fc ' )  winst ,l
wnet , fin ( Fc )  wnet , fin ,l
winst: instantaneous design deflection
wnet,fin: final net deflection in the long-term
winst,l and wnet,fin,l: deflection limits
winst, wnet,fin are the deflections produced by
the characteristic (or rare) load conditions F’c
and Fc: F '  Q  Q  Q  ...
c k1 02 k2 03 k3
Fc  Gk  Qk1   02Qk 2   03Qk 3  ... Design process in timber eng.
STATES:
wnet , fin winst

 

INSTANTANEOUS DEFLECTION:
How to calculate the instantaneous
deflection of a timber beam?
Use the elastic formulas for bending
deflection. For a simply supported beam
subjected to a uniformly distributed load q:
z q
5 ql 4
wM ,inst   y y d winst
384 EI y
Rd l Rd
bd 3
Iy  z
12 b
In addition, the deflection due to shear should
be considered for timber beams, as this
contribution may be significant for short and deep
beams due to the low value of the shear modulus G
of timber (G ≈ E/16 instead of G ≈ E/2.6 for steel).

For simply supported beams: wT ,inst  M  x 
GA
with G shear modulus (see table mechanical
properties), A=bd cross-sectional area,  shear factor
(=1.2/1.1 for rectangular/round cross-sections), and
M bending moment (M=ql2/8 at mid-span)
CREEP OF TIMBER:
The deflection in the long-term must account
for the creep deformation of timber.
How to calculate the deflection in the long-term?
Simply, by multiplying the instantaneous
deflection by one plus the creep coefficient of
timber φ(t): w fin  winst 1   t 
The creep coefficient of timber at the end of the

service life (50 years), denoted with kdef, is tabled
in the Eurocode 5 depending on the service class:
CREEP OF TIMBER:
kdef is larger for service class 3, where the

moisture content is larger. This reflects the
outcomes of experimental tests:
CREEP OF TIMBER:
Use of green timber, with initial moisture content close to
saturation point (mc≈30%) kdef=0.8+1=1.8 (service
class 2, plus one because timber is installed green)
Use of dry timber, with initial mc≈18% kdef=0.8
(service class 2) 30÷12%
Deflection
18÷12%
12÷18%
Time
Green timber should not be used because it deflects too

much. If used: it should be propped for some months.
CREEP DEFLECTION:
The creep component of the deflection is
calculated under the quasi-permanent
load condition Fp:
F  G  Q   Q p k 2 ,1 k ,1 2 ,i k ,i
i 1
wcreep ( Fp )  k def winst ( Fp )
This is in fact the part of the rare load

combination which will be applied for the
whole service life on the structure (only
sustained load causes creep deformation)
LONG-TERM DEFLECTION:
How calculate the deflection in the long-term

under the characteristic load Fc?
w (F )  w (F )  w (F )
fin c inst F  G  Q   Q
c creep p c k k ,1 0 ,i k ,i
i 1
w  F   w  G   w  Q    w  Q 
inst c inst k inst k ,1 0,i inst k ,i
i 1
F  G  Q   Q
p k 2 ,1
w (F )  k w (F )
k ,1 2 ,i k ,i creep p def inst p
i 1
w  F   w  G  k   w  Q  k   w  Q  k
creep p inst k def 2,1 inst k ,1 def 2,i inst k ,i def
i 1
w fin ( Fc )  winst (Gk )(1  k def )  winst (Qk ,1 )(1  2,1k def ) 
  winst (Qk ,i )( 0,i  2,i k def )
i 1
STATES:
If for example only two u.d.l.’s G and Q are
applied on a simply supported sawn timber
beam part of an interior office floor, the SLS
verifications are listed in the following:
Fc '  Qk Fc  Gk  Qk
5 Qk l 4 1.2 Qk l 2 l
winst ( Fc ' )  wM ,inst ( Fc ' )  wT ,inst ( Fc ' )     
384 EI y GA 8 300
w fin ( Fc )  winst (Gk )  1  k def   winst (Qk )  1   2 k def  
 5 Gk l 4 1.2 Gk l 2   5 Qk l 4 1.2 Qk l 2 
       1  k def         1   2 k def   l
 384 EI GA 8   384 EI GA 8  250
 y  y
STATES:
wnet , fin winst

 

STATES:
Choose service class 1 since the

beam is inside the building in k def  0.6
heated environment
STATES:
For office buildings:  2  0.3 Design process in timber eng.

SLS AND ULS:
When are the Serviceability Limit States

more critical than the Ultimate Limit States?
Generally, for long-span beams
But: be careful of lateral-torsional
buckling, which could make the ULS more
critical for long-span beams in the absence
of adequate lateral restraints
STRUCTURAL FORMS USING

TIMBER:
Conceptual design
PRELIMINARY DESIGN:
L/27-
d L/55
Depth d Span length (meters)
PRELIMINARY DESIGN:
PRELIMINARY DESIGN:
SECTIONS OF RECTANGULAR
SAWN TIMBER MEMBERS:
Iy b
 min  
A 12
Minimum radius of gyration

SECTIONS OF ROUND SAWN
TIMBER MEMBERS:
Iy d
 
A 4
Radius of gyration
SECTIONS OF RECTANGULAR
GLULAM TIMBER MEMBERS:
According to EN 14080:2013 in a glulam beam

laminations thickness may vary from 6 to 45 mm.
However, for most of the commercial productions of

straight glulam beams, the lamination thickness is 40
mm.
The breadth of the beam may vary from 6 to 8 to 24

cm with an increase of 2 cm for the intermediate
values.
REFERENCES:
Timber Engineering, Step 1, First Edition,
Centrum Hout, The Netherlands
EN 1995-1-1:2004 (E), Eurocode 5: Design of

timber structures. Part 1-1: General –
Common rules and rules for buildings; Part
1-2: General – Structural fire design
EN 1990:2002, Eurocode - Basis of structural

design

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Corso: «Timber Engineering»

Design process in timber eng.

Design process in timber eng.

To review the design process of a timber

Design process in timber eng.

Use of wood in construction:

Design process in timber eng.

Design process in timber eng.

Some advantages of wood over

Design process in timber eng.

Design process in timber eng.

Design process in timber eng.

TENSILE AND COMPRESSION

Design process in timber eng.

Design process in timber eng.

REMARK: Suppose we want to design a

Area A=P/adm cm2 33x33=1000 7.9x7.9=62.5 33x33=1000

Weight W=Am daN/m 50 49 240

Timber and concrete columns have an area

But: because of the different density,

Design process in timber eng.

WHY MAY SNOW BECOME

Design process in timber eng.

• ‘Dry’ construction without the need of waiting for

Construction time: few hours

• Ease of handling thanks to the light weight

Design process in timber eng.

Design process in timber eng.

FSP=29% for radiata pine

Design process in timber eng.

Design process in timber eng.

Design process in timber eng.

• Lateral-torsional buckling in deep beams and

Design process in timber eng.

Timber has little ductility and only in compression

Disadvantage in seismic design.

Design process in timber eng.

Dissipative mechanism: Non dissipative mechanism: Very dissipative mechanism:

Timber may suffer from durability issues if in

Design process in timber eng.

Examples of details to reduce durability

Timber burns – however it is an

Conversely, steel does not burn, but has a large

Design process in timber eng.

REGULATIONS FOR DESIGN OF

Design process in timber eng.

Design process in timber eng.

REGULATIONS FOR DESIGN OF

REGULATIONS FOR DESIGN OF

Design process in timber eng.

Design process in timber eng.

DESIGN INEQUALITY AT ULS:

Why reference to the stress rather than to

Design process in timber eng.

The plastic deformations are limited and, therefore,

Bending moment  d   Fi Fki  

G1 = peso proprio strutturale G2 = carico permanente portato

Design process in timber eng.

LOAD COMBINATIONS AT ULS:

Design process in timber eng.

Design process in timber eng.

ULS – DESIGN STRENGTHS:

Design strength: f d  k mod