PLATE TECTONIC

- Natural hazard
-> Naturally occurring events that threaten human lives and cause damage to property.
-> can be climate related
- caused by extreme weather and climate conditions
- e.g floods, storms, droughts, tropical cyclones
-> can be tectonic
- caused by plate movements when continental crust and
Ocean floors move
- e.g earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunami (not direct)

NATURAL HAZARDS TEND TO HAPPEN IN COASTAL AREAS AND THEY CAN OVERLAP - E.g Earthquake first then
repercussion of other natural hazards

- Inside earth
-> core
- inner core: approx 1,400km thick + solid
- outer core: approx 2,100km thick + liquid layer
- temperature between: 3,000.C & 5,000.C
-> mantle: 2,900km thick; solid rock that flows under high
Temperature and pressure
- upper & lower mantle: temperature ranges between 800.C
& 3000.C
-> crust
- outermost layer :oceanic crust (thinner than continental
curst) & continental crust (thickness from a few km to more
than 70km)
- When rocks in lithosphere melts, hot molten rock; magma
is formed

- Tectonic plates
→ oceanic crust
- beneath deep oceans
- between 5 & 8km
- consists of mainly of basalt, a heavy and dense rock
formed from magma which has cooled quickly

-> continental crust

- beneath the earth’s continental land masses and under
shallow seas close to continents
- between 35 & 70km
- consists of lighter rocks; granite (less dense as they
have holes/pores)

-> WHY DO TECTONIC PLATES MOVE (NOT SURE IF NEEDED)

1) Convection currents occur. Material in the mantle is heated
by the core causing them to expand, rise and spread out
beneath the plates.
2) Causes plates to be dragged and move away from each
other.
3) Hot mantle cools slightly and sink, pulling plates along
4) Sinking mantle material heats up as it nears the core
and process repeats
5) Slab pull force occurs when dense sinking oceanic plates
pulls the rest of the plate behind it
6) The sinking plate drives the downward moving portion of
convection currents.
 -> DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
- Divergent plate boundaries
- plates move away from each other
- Convergent plate boundaries
- plates move towards each other
- Transform plate boundaries
- plates move past each other

- Landforms
-> Fold mountains
- formed along convergent plate boundaries, plates
move towards each other and collide.
- compressional force creates immense pressure
causing layers of rocks to buckle and fold (folding)
- located at convergent plate boundaries e.g
Himalayas
-> Rift valleys and block mountains
- formed at divergent plate boundaries, plates are
pulled apart, giving rise to faults.
- faults are fractures in the rocks which are displaced
- Tensional forces from these movements result in
parts of the crust being fractured (faulting)
- Rift valleys are valleys with steep sides
- When sections of the crust extended along fault lines,
tensional forces can cause a central block of land to
subside between a pair of parallel faults, causing
a rift valley to form.
-> Block mountains
- A tensional forces causes the land masses surrounding
a block of land to subside, a block mountain is formed
between a pair of parallel faults.
- A block mountain is a block of land with steep slopes
left standing higher than the surrounding land.

-Volcanoes
-> Shield volcanoes (found along divergent boundaries)
- sides; gently sloping
- summit; broad
- base; very wide
- eruption; gentle
- e.g Mount Washington in United States of American

-> Stratovolcanoes (found along convergent boundaries)

- sides; steep especially at the top, gentle towards
the base
- summit; narrow, has alternating layers of solidified
lava and ash
- eruption; violent
- profile; concave
- e.g Mount Mayon in the Philippines

-> Distribution of volcanoes

- Along plate boundaries

- Earthquakes
-> What
 - It is a vibration in the earth’s crust caused by the
sudden release of stored energy in the rocks
- Earthquakes occur when there is a plate movement
along plate boundaries
- Plate movements cause the slow build up of stress on
the rocks found on either side of the fault
- When rocks can no longer withstand the increasing
stress, they slip many meters, causing an earthquake

-> Focus
- Seismic waves radiate out from a point of sudden
energy release

-> Epicentre
- Point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus

*High magnitude > caused by shallow focus (near earth’s surface)

*Low magnitude > caused by deep focus (far from earth’s surface)

- Extent of Earthquakes
-> Population density
- The number of people living in the affected area.
- Earthquake in sparsely populated areas are likely
to affect fewer people than in densely populated
areas.
- Rural areas; densely populated, less destruction
- Urban areas; more densely populated, more
destruction

-> Level of preparedness

- Less developed countries > less prepared
> panic and chaos E.G Indonesia

-> Distance from epicentre

- Places located nearest to epicenter = more destruction

-> Time of occurrence

- If earthquake occurs when most people are sleeping,
higher chance that these people will be trapped.
- E.g more than 2,400 people died when an earthquake
occurred a couple of hours after midnight in the Sun
Moon Lake Region in Taiwan in 1999.

-> Type of Soil

- When sediments are loose and unconsolidated, the
seismic waves are amplified and results in greater
damage when earthquakes occur.

- Risks associated living in earthquake zones (Just Know 2)

-> Tsunamis
- Formed by the movement of sea floor during earthquakes
- An explosive underwater volcanic eruption
- A landslide above sea level which causes materials to
plunge into the water.

-> Disruption of services

- Disrupt services such as the supply of electricity, gas,
water and potentially affect a large area.
- Vibration on the ground can snap pipes and break cables
 which may cause the outbreak of fires.
- Communication services such as television broadcasts and
telephone connections may also be affected.
- E.g Kobe, Japan in 1995 damaged pipes and transmission
lines. Disrupted electricity, gas, water supplies to 1.4 million
residents in Kobe

-> Destruction of properties

- Tohoku Japan Earthquake in 2011 caused Tsunami to travel inland

- Risks of living near volcanic areas (Just 2)

-> Massive Destruction by volcanic materials
- Volcanic materials: Lava + Pyroclasts - rock fragments, ash + volcano
bombs
- Volcano bombs: can fall in areas surrounding the volcano and cause
damage to properties.
- The on going eruption of Kilauea in Hawaii since 1983 destroyed
many homes and highways
- Landslides can occur due to structural collapse of a volcanic cone
during a volcanic eruption - can obstruct flow of rivers causing flood, blocked roads and buried villages
+ farmlands - lead to no food + death + no house
- E.g Eruption of Nevado del Ruiz in Andes mountains of South America in 1985 released a
pyroclastic flow that triggered lahars

-> Pollution
- Ash particles ejected from eruption can disrupt human
activities over large distances from the volcano. Thick
plumes of ash may eventually settle on the ground and block
sunlight, suffocate crops and cause severe respiratory
problems for people and animals.
- Release poisonous gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen and carbon monoxide which may be harmful to
people
- E.g Eyjafjallajokull in iceland in 2010

- Benefits of living near volcanic areas (Just 2)

-> Fertile soil
- Lava and ash from volcanic eruptions break down to form
fertile volcanic soils. Volcanic soils are very favorable to
agricultural. Volcanic rocks are rich in minerals, the
minerals are not available to plants when the rocks are
newly formed.
- Volcanic soils of Java and Bali in Indonesia support the
cultivation of crops such as tea, coffee and rice.

-> Precious stones and minerals

- Resources can only be extracted from volcanic areas
after millions of years. When upper layers of volcanic
rocks are eroded, the precious stones can be extracted
- E.g Diamond, diamonds are heated and pressurised
carbon that is cooled. Diamonds are useful as
industrial tools and scientific research. Found in Kimberly
in South Africa are one of the world’s richest sources of
diamonds

- Preparedness measures
-> Emergency drills
- Japan conducts an emergency drills on 1 September to
commemorate disaster prevention day. Main roads are blocked
to create the possible road conditions in the event of an
earthquake
 -> Earthquake monitoring and warning system
- Seismic risk maps which show the likelihood of locations at
risk from earth movements or liquefaction are produced from
such studies.
- Expensive to obtain, install and use
- Warnings may not provide sufficient time for evacuation

- Short-term responses
-> Search and rescue
- People trapped under collapsed buildings are easily located
and freed
- Some survivors are found after being trapped for a couple
of weeks without food.
- E.g after the earthquake in Tohoku, Japan in 2011, sniffer
dogs and heat sensors were deployed and successfully rescued
many that were trapped
- However, rescue workers only have 72 hours to find survivors
until they are unable to live without food and water.
- E.g rescue workers had a limited time of three days to
rapidly search through two towns after the earthquake in
Tohoku, Japan

-> Emergency, food and medical supplies

- Injured are treated and clean drinking water is provided to
survivors to prevent dehydration and the spread of diseases
- The provision of immediate aid helps survivors continue
with their lives
- E.g after earthquake in Afyon 2002, Turkish Red Crescent
Society responded by delivering 20000 tents, 50000 blankets
- However, medical supplies, food and water may be
insufficient and cause social unrest
- E.g after the earthquake in Haiti in 2010, looting and fighting broke out as people fought for food and supplies

- Long-term responses
-> Rebuilding of infrastructure
- Infrastructure and amenities are rebuilt and improved upon
after disaster
- Authorities can develop stricter building codes to ensure
infrastructure is restored at a higher safety level than before
- Kobe, Japan, Japan spent billions developing infrastructure
prone to earthquakes
- However, reinforced buildings may be protected from
earthquakes but not Tsunamis

-> Provision of healthcare

- Healthcare options such as one-term counseling are
provided. The lost of loved ones cause long lasting trauma
- Improving health options, such as restoring the
resilience of people after earthquake

Tourism - Gateway 2

- Roles of different groups in promoting tourism

-> Government
- Can influence the number of tourists - length of their stay + authorize air
 landings + allow building of facilities (e.g hotels)
- Involved in planning, funding and building infrastructure projects - airports,
roads + ports
- Ensure the safety and the security of the site that tourists frequently visit
- Set up agencies that devise strategies to help promote tourism - tourism
marketing campaigns and promotional events
- SingaporeTourism Board (STB) - encourages development of new
attractions - River Safari, Integrated Resorts

-> Media
- Refers to the channels through which new + information are communicated to
the public (televisions, radio, newspapers + internet
- Reports about a country or an area can influence the decisions of tourists to visit
- Positive reports: friendliness of locals, interesting culture, good shopping
oppportunities - encourage tourists to visit
- Cherry Blossom Season starts in Tokyo - 18 March 2013
- TripAdvisor voters say Italian Beach is the world's best - 21 February
2013
- Negative reports: incidents of violence, disease outbreaks + natural
disasters - deter visitors
- Deadly explosions rock Bangkok protests - 21 February 2013
- Noway shooting leaving 77 dead - 22 July 2011
- Travel writers provide comments on Travelogues + travel websites - to offer
opinions and review about destinations - may influence the decisions of
travellers in terms of deciding their final decisions

-> International Organisations

- Different countries that work together for a common purpose
- Reports made by them can encourage or discourage tourists visitin a place
- Oganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
- Promote the sustainable growth of tourism
- Address economic, sustainability, and employment issues
- Produces guidelines on measuring the social and economic
impacts of tourism
- UNWTO
- Promotes tourism as a way of spurring economic growth
and environmental stability
- Strives to improve tourism knowledge and tourism policies

-> Reasons for the growth of global tourism

- Developments in Technology - Better and affordable transport
- Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to develop
machines, equipments, and ways of doing things
- Led to great improvements in safety, shorter travelling time and
lower travelling costs
- More affordable
- Rise of budget airlines (low fares) made air transport affordable
- Enabled more people to travel internationally and more
frequently
- Given travellers the opportunity to go on a holiday further away
from home
- Enabled travellers to go to destinations not covered by major
commercial airlines - Bhutan, Pacific Islands, Northern Thailand

- Developments in Technology - Ease of access to information

- Made information more readily available and accessible
- Made available updated information
- Promote air travel and global tourism
- Enables travellers to buy their own tickets without going to travel agents
- Gives tourists more options and control
- Better access to information at their destination - see, social etiquettes
 - Allows travellers to view feedback and recommendations
- Makes tourists feel safer and more confident

- Demand factors - Disposable income

- It is the amount of income left after taxes - income available to spend
- Growth in income allowed people to spend more on goods and services
- Leisuree
- Disposable income has been increasing globally due to rapid economic
growth

- Demand factors - Leisure time

- Time when people are free from work responsibilities and commitments
- Middle to high income - leisure time comes in form of paid leave
- More income and more paid leave - more inclined to travel
- Australia - employee exchange paid overtime work for leave.
- increases chances of taking longer weekend breaks

- Demand factors - Changing lifestyles

- Refers to the change in the way people live through their lifetime and
generations to generations
- Pace of life today is much faster
- Workforce spending long hours at workspace beyond official work hours
- Travelling becomes a way people relax and take a break
- Advances in medical technology - health conscious and lead healthier
lifestyles - people live longer - more physically fit to travel

- Demand factors - Attractions

- It is a feature or quality that makes a place interesting or enjoyable
- It promotes and enhanced by tourism to attract even more tourists
- Some attractions are natural - places of scenic beauty
- Built attractions - medical services, educational facilities, theme park
- without them, tourists are less likely to travel
- Dubai, city in UAE, Middle East - mainly for shopping, business and
entertainment

- Demand factors - Investments in infrastructure and services

- Tourist attractions require large investments in infrastructure and services
- Infrastructure - transport and communication networks, electrical
frameworks and systems for water and waste disposal
- Services - help or work that is provided
- Transport infrastructure - airport expansion and development
- Fewer tourists - if airport cannot manage the growth in passenger traffic
- Countries need to develop roads + railways
- Southeast Asia - rapid growth in international tourism
- Airports undergone considerable expansion to facilitate increased
international tourist arrivals
- Singapore Changi Airport
- Transportation infrastructure - accommodation
- Sufficient hotels must be built to receive rising number of tourists

- Demand factors - Access to information

- Refers to the ease with which information can be obtained
- Tourist are more likely to visit when travel-related information is easy to
obtain - both outside and within a destination
- Information - transport routes, schedules, weather conditions
available accommodations
- Tourists want to have access to information in a language they can
understand - often English
- It assures tourists that there are people they can communicate with for
help
 -> Why is tourism subject to fluctuations
- Disasters
- Events that cause great damage to properties
- Lead to injuries or cause great loss of lives
- Can discourage tourists from visiting a destination - post greater risks to
the safety of tourists and may disrupt essential tourist infrastructure
- E.g March 2011 Earthquake and tsunami in Tohoku, Japan occur - month
after earthquake, tourists dip
- Recessions
- A period of general slowdown in economic activities
- Many people experience a loss of income or jobs
- Cause people to cut back on spending
- Leads to decline in demand for goods and services
- People are less likely to trade during recession - fewer tourists
- Caused by factors like sharp increases in the prices of goods and
services, problems in the financial markets or a decline in exports
- Regional recession: affects only a region or group of countries - Europe
Sovereign Debt Crisis - started 2010 when Greece was unable to repay
government debt
- Global recession: affects many countries around the world - some of the
world's largest financial firms went bankrupt in 2007 and 2008 - collapsed
after losing large amounts of investments in the crash of the housing
market in USA
- Political situations - political conflicts
- May discourage tourists from visiting
- Refers to a state of disagreement between groups of people - wars
- Pose dangers to tourists as well as residents - disrupt services and
cause damage to infrastructure
- Tourists may postpone or cancel their travel plans
- Government authorities may also issue travel advisories - official
notices that discourage citizens from traveling
- E.g Civil war taking place in Libya for most of 2011 - caused ban in visit
- Diseases [outbreak]
- Refers to the sudden and widespread occurrence of disease in an area
- Cause huge drop in tourists arrivals - do not want to risk getting infected
- Government agencies advice to avoid areas of outbreak of disease
- E.g SARS outbreak spread over six months in 2003 - killed 775 people
+ infected more than 8000 in 25 countries

Tourism - Gateway 3

- Economic Impacts
-> Advantages
- Employment opportunities (2011, UNWTO estimated that the
tourism industry employed over 235 million people worldwide;
roughly 6-8 percent of all the jobs in the world)

- Growth in income (Fishermen on Pamilacan Island,

Philippines)

- Development in infrastructure and facilities (Train

infrastructure for transportation, Singapore/Beijing, China
Beijing national stadium)

-> Disadvantages
- Seasonal unemployment
- Underuse of facilities at certain times of the year
(Venue for Summer Olympic Games in Beijing)
- Shortage of services (A ski resort in the Alps in Europe)
- Socio-cultural Impacts
-> Advantages
- Preservation of local customs and heritage (Historical Christ Church in
Malacca, Malaysia stands as a relic of Malacca’s colonial history, while
serving as a tourist attraction)
-> Disadvantages
- Dilution of local customs and heritage
- Increased crime (Louvre, most visited museum in the world located in
Paris, France)

- Environmental Impacts
-> Advantages
- Conservation of natural environment (Kenya, relies on funding of
National tourists for the survival of animals and national parks) OR
(Sepilok Orang-utan Rehabilitation Centre in Sabah, Malaysia, relies
on visitor entrance fees to pay its staff)

-> Disadvantages
- Vandalism (Thousands of stones and bricks of the Great Wall of
China, visited by about 10 million tourists a year are graffitied)

- Littering and pollution

- Destruction of habitats
- Carbon footprint
- Increased congestion