3/2/2023

Course Description
• PHY 111 is the introductory physics course to
bridge secondary high school physics to
PHY 111 Foundation Physics I university physics and consolidate basic
concepts using algebraic and problem-based
Lecture 1: Units & Measurement Systems approaches

Semester 1, 2023

Aiyomba Ainao
The Year of Transformation March 2, 2023 2

SOME OF THE QUESTIONS THAT PHYSICS CAN What is Physics?

ANSWER: HOW? WHY? WHAT?
• Why do things move?
• Physics is the natural science that
• How do magnets work?
• Does everything that goes up come
down? • How does a compass work? involves the study of matter and its
• What is the physics behind
seatbelts?
• How do refrigerators work? motion through space and time,
• Why doesn’t the moon fall into the • What is sound?
earth or the earth fall into the Sun? • How is electricity produced? along with the related concepts such
• Why is it difficult to walk on ice?
• Why does ice melt?
• What’s the difference between
DC and AC? as energy and force. (Branch of
• What is light?
• What is lightning?
• What is work and energy?
• What do airplanes and
science which deals with matter and
• What makes rainbows?
• How can a boat made of steel float?
curveballs have in common? energy and their interactions.)
• Why do golf balls have dimples?
• Why is it a bad idea to plug every
appliance into the same outlet?

3 4

Biblical Point of View [PNG as a Christian Country] Introduction

• God created the laws of physics.
• Since He made the laws, He can stop the effects of those
laws when He chooses. This is called a MIRACLE.
• Many scientists think that because they can describe
nature so well without using God that it proves God does
not exist.
• Being able to describe these intricate, interrelated laws
shows the wisdom and might of God. It allows for
miracles.
• God’s laws of nature don’t change, neither do His other
laws like 10 Commandments. Following His laws makes
everything perfect or work better.
• Physics may be defined as that branch of science
which deals with matter and energy and their
interactions.
• These interactions of matter and energy are revealed
in nature through the behavior of objects, and the aim
of physics is to explain and predict this behavior.
• This energy can take the form of motion, light,
electricity, radiation, gravity.., just about anything.
Perhaps, Physics deals with matter on scales ranging
from sub-atomic particles (i.e. the particles that make
up the atom and the particles that make up those
particles) to stars and even entire galaxies.
• Therefore, Physics may also be defined as the science
of nature.

1
 3/2/2023

Lecture 1: Units & Measurement Systems Units & Measurement Systems

• Physics is based on experimental observations Measurements: Characteristics of standards for

and quantitative measurements. To be
• Used to describe natural
quantitative in Physics requires phenomena
measurements. • A quantitative observation
• Needs defined standards
measurements:
• Readily accessible
• Possess some property that
can be measured reliably
• Must yield the same results
when used by anyone
anywhere
• Cannot change with time

Quantities and Unit Physical Quantity

1. A physical quantity is a quantity that can be
measured and consists of a numerical magnitude
and a unit.
2. The physical quantities can be classified into
base quantities and derived quantities.
3. There are seven base quantities: length, mass,
time, current, temperature, amount of
substance and luminous intensity.
4. The SI units for length, mass and time are metre,
kilogram and second respectively.
5. Prefixes are used to denote very big or very small
numbers.
• Physical Quantity is a variable used to describe a physical
phenomenon and to which a numerical value can be assigned.
Examples: Length, Force, Energy, Temperature, Pressure, etc.
• Measurement consists of 2 parts:
 Quantity − Number
 Unit – tells the scale
being used
• Units provide a scale on which to represent the results of a
measurement.

Standards of Fundamental Quantities SI Unit for 3 Basic Quantities

Definition of SI Unit: LENGTH
A. Standardized systems
 The meter is the length of the path traveled by light (in
 Agreed upon by some authority, usually a governmental vacuum) during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 s (or
body
roughly 3.33564 ns)
 Length is the one dimensional measure of distance.
B. SI – Systémé Internationalé Unit: Metre (m)
 Main system used in this time and were agreed to in 1960  Quantities such as area and volume, and their associated
by an international committee. units, are ultimately derived from measures of length.
 In 1960, standards bodies control and define Système
Internationale (SI) unit as,  1792: 1 meter = 1 ten millionth of the
 LENGTH: Meter – [L] distance from the North pole to the Equator
 MASS: Kilogram – [M]  1960: 1 meter = 1,650,763.73 wavelengths
 TIME: Second – [T] of a Krypton 86 spectral line
 1983: 1 meter = distance light travels in
vacuum in 1/299,792,458 seconds
 inch = 2.54 cm exactly, 1 cm = 1/100 m,
 12 in = 1 foot

2
 3/2/2023

SI Unit for 3 Basic Quantities SI Unit for 3 Basic Quantities

Definition of SI Unit: MASS
• The kilogram is the amount of mass in a platinum
– iridium cylinder of 3.9 cm height and diameter.
• Mass is the measure of inertia for a body (or
loosely speaking the amount of matter present).
Unit: kilogram (kg)
 1887: 1 kg = mass of the International Prototype
Kilogram − a Platinum – Iridium cylinder kept
near Paris with copies elsewhere.
 2000: Kilogram definition proposed using
Planck’s constant
 1kg = mass of 1 litre of H O at 4℃., 1 slug =
14.59 kg
 Mass of = 12 AMU. 1 AMU = 1.661 ×
10
Definition of SI Unit: TIME
• Definition of the SI Unit: The second is the time taken
by 9,192,631,770 oscillations of the light emitted by a
cesium-133 atom.
• Time is the physical quantity that measures either:
 When did an event take place,
 The duration of the event.
 Unit: second (s) - measurable to highest accuracy
(~15 decimal digits)
 Until 1967: 1 second = [1/24]×[1/3600] of a mean
solar day
 1967: 1 second = 9,192,631,770 times the period
of a certain cesium−133 spectral line, measured
using a certain atomic clock accurate to 1 second
in 20 million years.

Measurement of Length and Time Measurement of Length and Time

Time Pendulum Clock
• Measured in years, months, days, hours, minutes and • Measures long intervals of time
seconds. SI unit for time is the second (s). • Hours, minutes and seconds
• Mass at the end of the chain attached to the clock is allowed to fall
• Clocks use a process which depends on a regularly
• Gravitational potential energy from descending mass is used to keep
repeating motion termed oscillations. the pendulum swinging
• In clocks that are wound up, this energy is stored in coiled springs as
• Caesium atomic clock: 1999 - NIST-F1 begins elastic potential energy.
operation with an uncertainty of 1.7 × 10−15, or Watch
accuracy to about one second in 20 million years • also used to measure long intervals of time
• most depend on the vibration of quartz crystals to keep accurate
• The oscillation of a simple pendulum is time
an example of a regularly • energy from a battery keeps quartz crystals vibrating
• some watches also make use of coiled springs to supply the needed
repeating motion. energy
• The time for 1 complete oscillation Stopwatch
is referred to as the period of • Measure short intervals of time
• Two types: digital stopwatch, analogue stopwatch
the oscillation.
• Digital stopwatch more accurate as it can measure time in intervals
of 0.01 seconds.
• Analogue stopwatch measures time in intervals of 0.1 seconds.

Classes of Units A. Fundamental Quantities or SI Base Units

• A standard used to measure a physical quantity is • Basic Quantity must be defined in terms of a standard (meter,
called a unit of that quantity. kilogram, second).
• The units for length, mass, time, temperature, electric current,
luminous intensity and amount of a substance are regarded as
• There are two classes of units: Fundamental or Basic units.
1. Fundamental or SI Base Units, and • These have been chosen for convenience, not because they have
special significance.
2. SI Derived Units.
Fundamental Quantity SI Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Thermodynamic Temperature kelvin K
Luminous Intensity candela cd
Amount of Substance mole mol
**The above are the Seven Basic units of which other units can be derived

3
 3/2/2023

B. SI Derived Units Classes of Units

• Derived Quantity is defined in terms of combinations C. Other Units
of basic quantities.  There are also other commonly used unit systems:
 English or Imperial Systems − (used in the United States)
• Any unit which is essentially a combination of  Metric System (broadly used across the World)
fundamental units is referred to as a Derived Unit.
• The following are the examples of derived units. D. Unit Symbols
Quantity Unit Symbol  The symbol used in an equation is not necessarily the symbol
Volume cubic meter m3 used for its dimension.
Density kilograms per cubic meter kg/m3  Some quantities have one symbol used consistently. For
example, time is virtually all the time.
Speed meter per second m/s
 Some quantities have many symbols used, depending upon the
Acceleration meter per second squared m/s2 specific situation. For example, lengths may be , , , , , ℎ,
Force Newton (kg m/ s2) N etc.
Energy Joule (kg m2/s2) J  The dimensions will be given with a capitalized, nonitalicized
Pressure Pascal (kg/(ms2) Pa letter.
 The algebraic symbol will be italicized.
**There are thousands of derived units and you will discover some of
them in this course.

Methods of Measurement Quantitative Versus Qualitative

• Measurement of a physical quantity means • Most experiments in physics require the
comparing it with some reference standard. observations made to be quantitative rather than
qualitative.
 Estimation
• If observations are only descriptive or qualitative,
 Approximation they are likely to be imprecise and could cause
 Quantitative Versus Qualitative disagreements between experimenters.
 Accuracy and Precision • For example, scientists cannot merely say that an
 Rounding object is large or small.
 Scientific notation • Instead they have to specify its size as a quantity,
 Significant figures
that is, with a number and using a standard unit
such as kilogram.
• This is called a quantitative observation.

Accuracy and Precision Scientific Notation

• Accuracy is a description of how close a measurement is to the • When very large and very tiny numbers are involved, they can be
correct or accepted value of that quantity measured. stated in a shorthand way using power of ten notations called
• Precision is the degree of exactness of a measurement. (Refers to scientific notation. Scientific notation consists of two parts.
how close the agreement is between repeated measurements). • A number is expressed in Scientific Notation when it in in the form:
• A numeric measure of confidence in a measurement or result is
known as uncertainty. A lower uncertainty indicates greater
confidence.

where a is between 1 and 10 [1 ≤ < 10] and n is an integer.

• The power of 10 depends on:

 The number of places the decimal point is moved.
 The direction the decimal point is moved.
Left  Positive exponent
Right  Negative exponent

Example: Normal notation Scientific notation

350 000 000 000 = 3.5 × 10
0.000 000 220 = 2.2 × 10

4
 3/2/2023

Significant Figures Prefixes of Base and Derived units

Rules for Determining Significant Figures in Measurements:
 When reading a measured value, all nonzero digits should be counted as
• Parts of words like micro, milli, kilo and mega
significant. which represent multiples of or fractions of one
 There is a set of rules for determining if a zero in a measurement is significant or
not:
unit are called PREFIXES. The prefixes found in
Rule 1. Zeros in the middle of a number are like any other digit; they are common use are tabulated below:
always significant. Thus, 94.072 g has five significant
figures.[Captive Zeros] Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol Value
Rule 2. Zeros at the beginning of a number are not significant; they act exa E 1018 deci d 10-1
only to locate the decimal point. Thus, 0.0834 cm has three
significant figures, and 0.029 07 mL has four.[preceding or leading peta P 1015 centi c 10-2
zeros/placeholders]
tera T 1012 milli m 10-3
Rule 3. Zeros at the end of a number and after the decimal point are
significant. It is assumed that these zeros would not be giga G 109 micro μ 10-6
shown unless they were significant. 138.200 m has six significant
figures. If the value were known to only four significant figures, we mega M 106 nano n 10-9
would write 138.2 m.[Trailing Zeros]. kilo k 103 pico p 10-12
Rule 4. Zeros at the end of a number and before an implied decimal point
may or may not be significant. We cannot tell whether they are hecto h 102 femto f 10-15
part of the measurement or whether they act only to locate the decka da 101 atto a 10-18
unwritten but implied decimal point unless the decimal is used at
the end.

SI Unit Conversions Involving Prefixes Unit Conversions

• In physics, converting units from one unit system to another
(especially within the Metric system) can appear daunting at first
glance. However, with a little guidance, and a lot of practice, you
can develop the necessary skill set to master this process.

• Conversion steps:

Example: Convert 2.5 mile per hour to meters per second.

2.5 1ℎ 1.609 1 1000 4022.5

× × × × = = 1.12 /
1 ℎ 60 1 60 1 3600

Scalars and Vectors

Conversions Factors
• 1 mile = 1609 m = 1.609 km KEY CONCEPTS
• 1 ft = 0.3048 m = 30.48 cm 1. Scalar quantities are quantities that only have
• 1 m = 39.37 in. = 3.281 ft magnitudes
• 1 in. = 0.0254 m = 2.54 cm 2. Vector quantities are quantities that have both
• 1 lb = 0.465 kg magnitude and direction
• 1 oz = 28.35 g 3. Parallel vectors can be added arithmetically
• 1 slug = 14.59 kg 4. Non-parallel vectors are added by graphical
means using the parallelogram law
• 1 hr = 60 min = 3600 s
• 1 day = 24 hours = 24 × 60 minutes = 24 × 60 ×
60 seconds

5
 3/2/2023

Scalars and Vectors Scalars and Vectors

• Scalar quantities are quantities that have magnitude only. • Vector quantities are quantities that have both
Two examples are shown below:
magnitude and direction
Scalars Vectors
Measuring Temperature distance displacement
speed velocity
Measuring Mass mass weight
time acceleration
•Scalar quantities are added or subtracted by using simple
arithmetic. pressure force
Example: 4 kg plus 6 kg gives the answer 10 kg energy momentum
volume
density

Vector Addition Vector Addition

1. Adding Vectors using Arithmatic • The parallelogram law of vector addition states that if two
• Parallel vectors can be added arithmetically vectors acting at a point are represented by the sides of a
parallelogram drawn from that point, their resultant is
represented by the diagonal which passes through that
point of the parallelogram

2. Adding Vectors using Graphical Method

•Non-parallel vectors are added by graphical means using the
3. Another method of Adding Vectors: Head to Tail Method
parallelogram law
•To add vectors A and B
–Vectors can be represented graphically by arrows
–place the starting point of B at the ending point of A
–The vector sum or resultant R is the vector joining the starting point of
vector A to the ending point of B
–The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector –Conversely, R can also be obtained by placing the starting point of A at
–The direction of the arrow represents the direction of the vector the ending point of B
–The magnitude and direction of the resultant vector can be found using an accurate –Now the resultant is represented by the vector joining the starting
scale drawing point of B to the ending point of A

Measuring Instruments A. Vernier Calipers

• Physics is a quantitative experimental science. To • Allows measurements up to 0.01 cm
do physics, one has to make measurements using • Consists of a 9 mm long scale divided into 10 divisions
instruments. Every measurement has an • The object being measured is between
uncertainty; no measuring uncertainty; no 2.4 cm and 2.5 cm long.
measuring instrument is perfect. Uncertainty may • The second decimal number is the
be written explicitly, e.g. Height of a table marking on the vernier scale which
= 72.3 ± 0.1 cm. coincides with a marking on the main
scale.
• Here the eighth marking on the vernier
scale coincides with the marking at C
on the main scale
• Therefore the distance AB is 0.08 cm,
i.e. the length of the object is 2.48 cm

6
 3/2/2023

Vernier Calipers Instructions on use of a Vernier caliper

• The reading shown is 3.15 cm.
• The instrument also has inside jaws for measuring internal • Before measuring, close jaws and check that
main scale zero mark lines up exactly with
diameters of tubes and containers. vernier scale zero mark.
• The rod at the end is used to measure depth of containers. • Adjust jaws.
• You may need to gently “rock” the jaws to
get the right feel – not too tight, not too
loose.
• Lock the slide.
• Read number of whole millimeters on main
scale, before the vernier zero
• Look for a vernier scale graduation which
lines up exactly with any graduation on the
main scale
• Read fraction number on vernier scale
where the marks line up.
• Add fraction to whole millimeters to get
final measurement.

B. Micrometer Screw Gauge B. Micrometer Screw Gauge

• To measure diameter of fine wires, thickness of paper and small Precautions when using a micrometer
lengths, a micrometer screw gauge is used 1. Never tighten thimble too much
– Modern micrometers have a ratchet to avoid this
• The micrometer has two scales:
2. Clean the ends of the anvil and spindle before making a measurement
• Main scale on the sleeve
– Any dirt on either of surfaces could affect the reading
• Circular scale on the thimble 3. Check for zero error by closing the micrometer when there is nothing
• There are 50 divisions on the thimble between the anvil and spindle
• One complete turn of the thimble moves the spindle by 0.50 mm – The reading should be zero, but it is common to find a small zero error
• Two scales: main scale and circular scale –Correct zero error by adjusting the final measurement

• One complete turn moves the spindle by 0.50 mm.

To get the final measurement:
• Each division on the circular scale = 0.01 mm • Note the number of whole millimetres visible on the datum line.
• Add any half millimetres showing on the datum line.
• Add the number of thimble graduations lined up with the datum
line. Example
4 whole mm showing = 4.00 mm
1 half mm showing = 0.50 mm
5 indicated on the thimble = 0.05 mm
TOTAL = 4.55 mm

Ticker-tape Timer Ticker-tape Timer

• Electrical device making use of the oscillations of a steel strip to
mark short intervals of time
KEY CONCEPTS
• Steel strip vibrates 50 times a second and makes 50 dots a second on 1. The metre rule and half-metre rule are used to measure lengths
a paper tape being pulled past it accurately to 0.1 cm.
• Used only in certain physics experiments 2. Vernier calipers are used to measure lengths to a precision of
0.01 cm.
3. Micrometer are used to measure length to a precision of 0.01
mm.
4. Parallax error is due to:
• Time interval between two consecutive dots is 0.02 s
(a) incorrect positioning of the eye
• If there are 10 spaces on a pieces of tape, time taken is 10 × 0.02 s = 0.20 s. (b) object not being at the same level as the marking on the
• Counting of the dots starts from zero scale
• A 10-dot tape is shown below. 5. Zero error is due to instruments that do not read exactly zero
when there is nothing being measured.
6. The time for one complete swing of a pendulum is called its
period of oscillation.
7. As the length of the pendulum increases, the period of oscillation
increases as well.

7
 3/2/2023

Dimensions, Units and Equations Dimensional Analysis

• Technique to check the correctness of an equation or
• Quantities have dimensions: to assist in deriving an equation
– Length – L, Mass – M, and Time - T • Dimensions (length, mass, time, combinations) can
be treated as algebraic quantities
• Quantities have units: Length – m, Mass – kg, Time – s
– add, subtract, multiply, divide
• To refer to the dimension of a quantity, use square
• Both sides of equation must have the same
brackets, e.g. [F] means dimensions of force. dimensions
• Any relationship can be correct only if the
Quantity Area Volume Speed Acceleration
dimensions on both sides of the equation are the
Dimension [A] = L2 [V] = L3 [v] = L/T [a] = L/T2 same
SI Units m2 m3 m/s m/s2
• Cannot give numerical factors: this is its limitation

January 22-25, 2013

Dimensional Analysis Dimensional Analysis, example

• Necessary either to derive a math expression, or
equation or to check its correctness. • Given the equation: x = ½ at 2
• Quantities can be added/subtracted only if they have • Check dimensions on each side:
the same dimensions.
L
• The terms of both sides of an equation must have the L  T2  L
same dimensions. T2
• The T2’s cancel, leaving L for the dimensions
– a, b, and c have units of meters, s = a, what is [s] ?
– a, b, and c have units of meters, s = a + b, what is [s] ?
of each side
– a, b, and c have units of meters, s = (2a + b)b, what is [s] ? – The equation is dimensionally correct
– a, b, and c have units of meters, s = (a + b)3/c, what is [s] ?
– There are no dimensions for the constant
– a, b, and c have units of meters, s = (3a + 4b)1/2/9c2, what is [s] ?

January 22-25, 2013

Dimensional Analysis Example

Checking equations with dimensional analysis:
Check the equation for dimensional
1
x f  xi  vi t  at 2 consistency:
2

(L/T2)T2=L mc 2
L
mgh  2
 mc 2
(L/T)T=L 1  (v / c )
 Each term must have same dimension
 Two variables can not be added if dimensions are Here, m is a mass, g is an acceleration,
different c is a velocity, h is a length
 Multiplying variables is always fine
 Numbers (e.g. 1/2 or p) are dimensionless

8
 3/2/2023

A. Laboratory Reports A Guide to Writing a Laboratory Report

• Physics is an experimental science by A. Introduction
which it can be quantitatively descript • A Laboratory Report is a written description of
using experiments as lab reports. what you did in an experiment.
• Lab Report is a written description of • Everytime you perform an experiment you are
what you did in an experiment, the expected to write a laboratory report on it.
results obtained, analysis of this data
and your conclusions.

March 2, 2023 49 March 2, 2023 50

Laboratory Reports
This is a written description of what you did in an experiment, the results obtained,
analysis of this data and your conclusions.
B. Parts of a Laboratory Report
The main parts of a practical report are:
• Cover page – Heading; Name; ID #; Level; Tutors Name. No fancy decorations, 1. The Heading (Cover Page).
• Aim – be brief
• Theory Consists of:
• Apparatus – state all equipment used
• Diagram – 2-D ; simple, well labeled, use pencil/ruler • Name of the Course, date of the actual
• Procedure/Method – To be in reported form. Precise, No numbering of steps; ½
page at the most. performance of the experiment, the experiment
• Results – IMPORTANT !.... Table form, neat/tidy, correct units,
• Analysis & calculations – Do the required/appropriate calculations using YOUR number, and the title of the experiment.
OWN results [calculations,units,graphs]
• Error analysis – at all times. • Your Name, ID Number,
• Conclusions – Be precise. 1 or 2 sentences at the most.
• Questions – (may be included). Answers to these questions will help you make • Name of your lecturer & tutors
conclusions.
• No fancy decorations.

March 2, 2023 51 March 2, 2023 52

2. AIM
3. Theory
• Brief statement of the reason why you
are doing the experiment • Briefly states the concepts involved and their
• To verify certain physical principles (i.e background ideas.
check whether they hold true under the • State what you are going to do in this
conditions specified in your experiment),
experiment based on what you stated in your
• To establish the relationship between
certain physical variables,
aim.
• To familiarize yourself with some
physical quantities and the instruments
used in their measurement.

March 2, 2023 53 March 2, 2023 54

9

4. Apparatus
List of all the equipment that you
actually used in the experiment.
March 2, 2023
6. Procedure (or Method)
• To be in reported speech, i.e.
describe what you actually did.
• Should occupy half the page.
March 2, 2023
8. Analysis & calculations
CALCULATIONS,UNITS,GRAPHS
• Calculation - Almost all experiments
involve calculations.
• Show atleast one sample calculation for
each of the physical quantities
determined, under this heading.
• There is no need for you to show all
calculations for the same quantity.
March 2, 2023
3/2/2023
5. The Diagram
• As the name implies, the diagram is a pictorial
representation of the equipment used or of
the laboratory set-up built in the experiment
[drawing of pieces of apparatus mentioned in
3 are put together to carry out the
experiment].
• Your diagram must be clearly labelled.
• Your drawing should occupy half of a page.
55 March 2, 2023 56
7. Results
• Record results in table form, neat/tidy, correct
units.
• Be honest with your results
• Record even those which appear wrong or do not
fit the overall pattern.
• Do not be selective in the choice of which results
to use or to discard.
• Get into the habit of using them all if your work is
to be meaningful.
• If you discard results, explain on what grounds
but be sure your reason is not to idealize your
data; or you defeat the purpose of the
experiment.
57 March 2, 2023 58
8. Analysis & calculations
CALCULATIONS,UNITS,GRAPHS
• Units – As in your results, remember
to attach the required SI units for the
quantity you have just calculated. *A
value without a unit is worse than a
person without a name.
59 March 2, 2023 60
10
 3/2/2023

8. Analysis & calculations 9. Error analysis

CALCULATIONS,UNITS,GRAPHS
• Graphs –you are required to draw graphs using the data • For ALL measurements involving numerical
obtained in the experiment.
• Graphs permit us to make measurements e.g., the
measurements, you should estimate the
gradient or the intersection on an axis. attendant errors in each of the measured
• Also allow us to see whether all the results follow a
reasonable pattern or whether some may be very quantities and combine these to give the
inaccurate, in which case they need to be re-checked. overall error.
• Requirements: Title of the Graph, graph paper (whole
sheet), appropriate scales (simple), Units, labelling • Notes on Error Analysis in the next few
(name of quantities on X and Y axis), calculations
derived from the graph. slides

March 2, 2023 61 March 2, 2023 62

10. Conclusions 11. Answers to Questions

• More Important after the results.
• In conclusion you are expected to interpret your
results and draw your conclusion from them.
• Your conclusion is the measure of what you have
learned from the experiment.
• State everything you have found out or learnt.
• Experiment without conclusion has little value and
won’t receive much credit.
• If your results do not confirm the conclusions you
expected from the manual, do not disguise the fact.
Note the disagreement and try to explain its cause.
• Answers to these questions will help you
make conclusions.
• In some experiments you will find
Questions, either scattered through the text
or at the end.
• Do not ignore these questions. Some of
them are intended to guide your conduct of
the experiment and other require an explicit
answer.
• Use your own judgement as to what is
expected.

March 2, 2023 63 March 2, 2023 64

Error Analysis A. Systematic Errors

Measurement is the means of gaining accurate These errors are generally in the same direction
knowledge about subject matter. However, no each time a measurement is taken and usually
measurement can be perfectly accurate. This can be corrected for by a simple calculation.
means that errors are involved in ALL
measurements. Errors may be classified into two Example: (i) Zero (or null) errors
main types: Systemic errors and Random error.
(ii) Pointer not pivoted at
the centre of a circular
scale

11
 3/2/2023

B. Random or Accidental Errors C. Limit of Reading a Scale

These are errors of observation and follow no
fixed pattern – they cause an increase or
decrease in a reading at random. Since they are
random, an improved result may be obtained by
only averaging the results of several
independent observations.
The limit of reading of a scale is defined to be
the smallest part of the scale which can be read
from the scale.
Example: If a scale is in mm, then the limit
of reading the scale is 1 mm

Example: Parallax error

D. Absolute Error E. Statement of Measurement

One method of estimating errors in a given

quantity is to take repeated measurements. The
result of this is a set of non-identical values. The
spread of these values is the difference between
the highest measurement and the lowest. The
absolute error is then one half of the spread of
values. For a single reading, the absolute error is
equal to the half the limit of the scale reading in
the instrument.

(b) Error in a Product or Quotient

CALCULATION WITH ERRORS

12
 3/2/2023

(c) Error in the Power of a Quantity

(d) Errors in Graphs

• The straight line or the linear graph is the most important or widely
used for experimental purposes.
• The slope and the intercept on the axes of such a graph give
information useful in determination of physical quantities from
experimental data. Like any measurement, the individual points on a
graph are prone to errors, arising from the following:
i. The experimental results being in error
ii. Errors from locating the points accurately on the graph
paper. The accuracy in placing the points depends on the
scale chosen for the graph.
• To get a straight line we construct a line of best fit (LBF) through the
points. It may pass through some experimental points. The LBF should
have roughly as many points below as there are above. We use this
LBF to determine the slope of the graph and the intercepts on the
axes.

The Centroid Method • The following figure shows the diagram of line of best fit and
lines of worst fit.
• In this method we take the mean of the corresponding values
of the variables plotted.

Example: Table of values for x and y are tabulated below.

Centroid
y 2 4 6 8 5.0
x 1 2 3 4 2.5
• The centroid here is given by mean of x values x = 2.5 and
mean of y values y = 5.0. You may need to draw the LBF
through the centroid given by the x and y points. Also through 1. L2 does not include the point A. You may find out that in
the centroid we can construct two lines – the lines of worst fit practice if L1 or L2 is to include such points very close to the
(LWF1 and LWF2) such that they together enclose the majority
of the experimental points. These are the line of minimum centroid, the slope of the line will be too small (in case of L1), or
slope (L1), and the line of maximum slope (L2), drawn such too large (for L2). In either case such a line will not be
that they enclose almost all the experimental points. representative of all the points.

13
 3/2/2023

2. Point B is neglected. Again forcing any of the lines of worst

fit to pass through outlying points like this will yield an
unreasonable value for the slope of the line. A point such as
this can also be excluded from the centroid calculation.

Having drawn our line of best fit and those of worst fit, we can
proceed to determine the errors in the slope of the line of
best fit and also the error in determining the intercept on the
y-axis. To do this we find the slopes of the lines of worst fit
individually and use the relations:

Error in slope of LBF = ½ x (slope of L2 – Slope of L1)

The error in the intercept, Δc = ½ (C1 –C2)

Errors Analysis – Calculus Perspective

The error associated with calculated physical quantities, such as the area
of a circle, can be estimated by the application of calculus.
f f
df  dx  dy  ...
x y

A 
Error~dA 
r
dr 
r
 
 r 2 dr  2 rdr  0 . 0063 m 2

dA 2 rdr 2  0 .01 m 
Relative Error =    0 .20 or 20%
A  r2  0 .10 m 

V  4 3 2 3
Error~dV  dr    r  dr  4 r dr  0.0013 m
r r  3 
dV 4 r 2dr 3  0.01 m 
Relative Error =    0.30 or 30%
V 4 3 0.10 m
r
3

14