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Thermal Expansion Type

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer

MABE 345 • Uses thermal expansion of a liquid

• Typical uncertainties from ±0.2oC to ±2oC
Chapter 8 • Note immersion level

Temperature Measurement

Figure 8.2 from “Theory and Design for

Mechanical Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and
D. Beasley

Thermal Expansion Type Electrical Resistance Type

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
Bimetallic Thermometer
• Uses the change in resistance of a wire with temperature.
• Uses differential thermal expansion of two metals.
• Deflection typically move an indicating pointer. [
R = R 0 1 + α (T − T 0 ) + β (T − T 0 ) + ...
2
]
• Typical uncertainties from ±1oC • Ideally, this will follow a linear relation but not always.
• Most can be assumed to be linear over a limited range.
Table 8.2 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical
Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley

Figure 8.5 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurement 4th”
Figure 8.3 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley R. Figliola and D. Beasley

Electrical Resistance Type Electrical Resistance Type

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) Thermistors
• Resistance can me measured using an ohmmeter but these • Ceramic-like semiconductors that have change resistance with
apply a small voltage and the resulting current can heat the temperature.
RTD introducing error. • Similar to RTD but have a much greater resistance change.
• Most applications use a bridge. Ex. Wheatstone Bridge:
β (T − 1 )
R RTD = R0 e T −1 T0

R RTD = R 3 + r1 − r3

• Other bridges can be used to reduce • β ranges from 3500 to 4600 K but
or eliminate the error from the leads. is different for each sensor.
• Slow response time but can be fast • In general, these respond more
using very thin wires. quickly than RTDs.
• Typical uncertainties from ±1oC • Do not require a bridge.
Figure 8.6a from “Theory and Design for • Typical uncertainties from ±1oC Figure 8.8 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical
Mechanical Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D.
Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley
Beasley

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Thermoelectric Type Thermoelectric Type

Thermocouples • If using two thermocouples on is often placed in an ice bath so
• If two dissimilar metals come in contact they generate a small its temperature is known and constant.
emf.

Figure 8.11 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley

• Every dissimilar metal junction creates a thermocouple!

Figure 8.15a from “Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley
• In this figure, there are two thermocouples.
> If they are at the same them there is no voltage.
> There is a voltage for differing temperature. • Electronic circuitry can often compensate for the ice point
• Requires circuitry to accurately read the small voltages. junction.

Thermoelectric Type Thermoelectric Type

Thermocouple Types Thermocouple Types Response
• Different metals used in the junctions yield different
behaviors.
• There are various standard thermocouple types.
• Each type has its own distinctive coloring.
> K-type uses a yellow connector
K-type
> T-type uses a blue connector
Table 8.4 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley T-type

Table 8.18 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley

Thermoelectric Type Thermoelectric Type

Thermocouple Calibration Common Thermocouple Junctions
• These are nonlinear. Thermocouples can be made by simply twisting two clean
• Calibration data exists in both tabular and in polynomial form: wires together.
n
E= • Welded wire
∑cT
i =0
i
i

Data from Table 8.7 - “Theory and Design for Mechanical

Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley • Exposed junction
• For a J-type thermocouple,
an 8th order polynomial is • Ungrounded Junction
used as shown for a range
of -210 to 760oC • Grounded Junction
• T-type is
> 8th order from-270 to 0oC
> 14th order from-270 to 0oC Figure from www.designworldonline.com

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Radiative Temperature Measurement

Radiative Temperature Measurement
Fundamentals The radiation happens over a range of wavelengths. The
distribution of energy vs. wavelength for a black body is:

2π h p c 2
E bλ =
λ exp
5
[ ( )− 1 ]hpc
kBλT

Figure 8.24 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical

Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley
where:
Ebλ = total emissive power at given wave length (λ)
• Thermal radiation emitted from an object is related to its c = speed of light
temperature. hp = Plank’s Constant = 6.6256 x 10-34 Js
• For a black body (ideal surface) the radiative energy released is kB = Boltzmann’s Constant = 1.3805 x 10-23 J/K
Eb = σT 4

Radiative Temperature Measurement Radiative Temperature Measurement

Plank Distribution Radiation Detectors
A thermal detector collects this radiative energy and focuses it on
a sensor.

• Temperature Measurement - The temperature rise of the

sensor can then be used to determine the amount of radiation
and then the temperature.
• Photomultiplier Tube – uses photovoltaic cells can be used to
convert the radiation power directly to a voltage signal.

Figure 8.26 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurement 4th” R.
Figure 8.25 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurement Figliola and D. Beasley
4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley

Errors in Temperature Measurement Errors in Temperature Measurement

Two Sources Minimizing Conduction Error
• The sensor does not measure the temperature accurately.
• The sensor does not experience the correct temperature. • Insulate the probe from the wall.
• Small diameter probe.
Insertion Error – ex. Outdoor thermometer exposed to • Long probe.
sunlight. This is a bad location for the measurement. • Low conductivity support.
Conduction Error – the probe does not experience the correct • Use an exposed bead type probe.
temp due to condition in the support structure. • Keep probe mount (wall) close to measured temp.

Figure 8.30 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley Figure 8.30 from “Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurement 4th” R. Figliola and D. Beasley

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Errors in Temperature Measurement Errors in Temperature Measurement

Radiation Errors
Lets say you need to measure the temperature of an oven So the error in the probe temperature due to radiation is:
heated by an open flame. Radiation from the flame will F εσ
increase the temperature of the sensor above the temp of the e r = T p − T∞ = ( T w4 − T p )
h
air. where:
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.669x10-8 W/m2K4
If the probe is in a steady state condition: ε = emissivity of the sensor
qc + qr = 0 F = Radiation view factor = 1 for a small sensor
Tp = Probe temp
The radiation is additional energy added to the probe which must Tw = Wall Temp.
be dissipated through the convective term so: Tw = fluid Temp.
q c = hA s ( T ∞ − T p ) = − q r = − FA s εσ ( T w4 − T p )

Errors in Temperature Measurement Errors in Temperature Measurement

Radiation Shielding Recovery Errors
If you are trying to make a temperature measurement near a The temperature experience by a probe can be found from:
radiative source, it is possible to add a plate between the
rU 2
source and the sensor. Much like moving the thermometer T p = T∞ +
from the earlier example to the shade. 2c p
where the recover factor (r) is:
Recovery Errors r = 0.68 ± 0.07 for wires normal to the flow
If a high speed flow is brought to a stop, its temperature r = 0.86 ± 0.09 for wires parallel to the flow
increases (total temp). This can create a problem when r = 0.75 for a large welded bead w.r.t. wire dia.
measuring temp in a high speed stream. If we had either the
static temp. or total temp. and flow conditions we can find the This is only a factor with higher speed flows in excess of
other but the probes are normally exposed to both. Mach = 0.1
U U
Mach = =
a kRT