2020 IDDPNQL ExploringGeosciences Block2 L3

Block 2
Mining Exploration
Lesson 3
Geochemical Surveys
Exploring
Geosciences –
12 Thematic Lessons-
September 30th,, 2020
Your Host:
Francine Fallara, P. Geo., M.Sc.A (OGQ #433)
Exploration geologist with over 25 years

of field experience in various difficult
geological environments
Consultant in analytical data analysis
specialized in complex geological
exploration studies
Expert in 3D geological modeling and
www.ffexplore3d.com
digital targeting of minerals
2
Thematic Bloc 2 - Overview
Thematic Block 2 Lesson Subtitle Date - 2020 English
1 Cartography Surveys September 2nd 1:30 – 3:30 PM
Mining Exploration 2 Geophysical Surveys September 16th 1:30 – 3:30 PM
3 Geochemical Surveys September 30th 1:30 – 3:30 PM
3
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys
Lesson 3 – Geochemical Surveys
Lesson 3 Sub-lessons September
30th
a. Intro to geochemistry
Geochemical b. Overview of field techniques 1:30 – 3:30

Surveys c. Using geochemistry data PM
d. Validating and interpreting

geological surveys with
geochemistry
4
What is Geochemistry?
 Geochemistry studies the origin, evolution and distribution of chemical
elements on Earth which are contained in the rock-forming minerals and
the products derived from it, as well as in living beings, water and
atmosphere.
 One of the goals of geochemistry is to determine the abundance of

elements in nature, as this information is essential to hypotheses
development about the origin and structure of our planet and the universe.
https://www.gob.mx/sgm
5
 Geochemistry uses chemistry to understand various processes on Earth
 Geochemistry = Chemistry of the Earth’s materials — Minerals and rocks:
 Study of the chemical composition of the Earth and other planets:
 The chemical processes and reactions that govern the

composition of rocks, water, and soils.
 The cycles of matter and energy that transport the Earth's

chemical components in time and space, and their interaction
with the hydrosphere and the atmosphere.
The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky
6
 Swiss chemist Victor Moritz Goldschmidt is the founder,
characterizing, in 1933, the major role of geochemistry as:
 The task to investigate the composition of the Earth as a whole and of

its various components and to uncover the laws that control the
distribution of the various elements.
 Based on a comprehensive collection of analytical data of terrestrial

material:
• Rocks, waters and atmosphere
• Meteorites
• Astrophysical data about the composition of other cosmic
bodies and geophysical data about the nature of the Earth’s
inside.
• Information from the synthesis of minerals in the lab and
Victor Moritz Goldschmidt from the observation of their mode of formation and stability
1888 - 1947 conditions
Goldschmidt System - eduqas The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky
7
Main Layers that form the Earth
Earth’s Interior
The Earth's crust is a thin hard outer shell
of rock. Under the crust, there is a deep
layer of hot soft rock called the mantle.
Goldschmidt System - eduqas The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky
8
The crust and upper mantle can be divided
into three layers according to their rigidity:
Earth’s Interior
 The lithosphere is the upper, rigid layer of
the Earth:
 Consists of the crust and the top of

the mantle
 About 100 km thick

9
The crust and upper mantle can be divided into
three layers according to their rigidity:
Earth’s Interior
 The asthenosphere, below the lithosphere,
in the Earth's mantle, is the hot, soft rock of
the asthenosphere:
 This boundary between the

lithosphere and the asthenosphere
occurs at the point where
temperatures climb above 1300°C
10
The crust and upper mantle can be divided into
three layers according to their rigidity:
Earth’s Interior
 The mesosphere is the solid part of the
earth's mantle lying between the
asthenosphere and the core.
11
Geochemistry of the Earth’s Minerals and Rocks
 Earth’s Geo-Chemistry
Earth’s Interior
 The bulk of the Earth is made from iron,
oxygen, magnesium and silicon.
 More than 80 chemical elements occur

naturally in the Earth and its atmosphere.
 Mostly Earth is composed of three parts:

• Crust
• Mantle (Upper & Lower)
• Core The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky
12
Earth’s Interior
 The Earth's crust is a thin layer of rock
that floats on the mantle.
 The Earth’s crust is made mostly from

oxygen and silicon:
• Silicate minerals such as quartz, with
aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium,
sodium, potassium, titanium and traces
of 64 other elements.
13
Earth’s Interior
 The upper mantle is made up of iron and
magnesium silicates.
 The lower mantle is mostly silicon and

magnesium sulfides and oxides.
 The core is mostly iron, with little nickel

and traces of sulfur, carbon, oxygen and
potassium. The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky
14
Earth’s Interior
 The outer core is so hot (4500°C -
6000°C) that it is always molten.
 The inner core is even hotter (up to

7000°C) but it stays solid because the
pressure is 6000 times greater than on
the surface.
15
 Earth’s Mass Distribution
Earth’s Interior
• Inner core = 1.7% of the Earth's mass
• Outer core = 30.8%
• Core - mantle boundary = 3%
• Lower mantle = 49%
• Upper mantle = 15%
• Ocean crust = 0.099%
• Continental crust = 0.374%
16
Elemental Composition of the Earth’s Crust
 99% of the earth’s crust by weight is

made up of just eight elements:
 Oxygen
 Silicon
 Aluminum
 Iron
 Calcium
 Sodium
 Potassium
 Magnesium
Goldschmidt System - eduqas

17
Geochemistry of the Earth’s Processes
Geochemistry is the study of

the composition of geological
materials and the behavior of
individual elements during
geological processes.
18
Geochemistry of the Earth’s Processes
 Geochemical analysis is now a vital

tool in most fields of geological and
environmental research for studies of:
 Water, soil, and air quality,

 Formation of rocks and minerals
 Fossilization mechanisms
 Metal accumulation in
organisms from contaminated
water and soil
19
Geochemistry Subdivisions
 Isotope geochemistry: Determination of the relative and absolute
concentrations of the elements and their isotopes in the earth and on
earth's surface.
 Trace element, petro, soil, sediment and marine geochemistry:

Examination of the distribution and movements of elements in different
parts of the earth (crust, mantle, hydrosphere etc.) and in minerals with
the goal to determine the underlying system of distribution and
movement.
 Planetary geochemistry and Cosmo geochemistry: Analysis of the

distribution of elements and their isotopes in the cosmos.
20
Geochemistry Subdivisions
 Biogeochemistry: Field of study focusing on the effect of life on the
chemistry of the earth.
 Organic geochemistry: A study of the role of processes and compounds

that are derived from living or once-living organisms.
 Inorganic geochemistry
 Aquatic geochemistry: Understanding the role of various elements in

watersheds.
 Regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry: Applications to

environmental, hydrological and mineral exploration studies.
21
The Goldschmidt Classification of Elements
 Swedish born mineralogist considered to be
one of the founders of modern
geochemistry and crystal chemistry
 Chemical elements on the periodic table

are classified into 4 groups according to
their preferred host phases:
 Lithophile
 Siderophile
 Chalcophile
Victor Moritz Goldschmidt
1888 - 1947
 Atmophile
22

23
 In Goldschmidt’s classification, elements are divided on how they partition
between coexisting silicate liquid, sulfide liquid, metallic liquid, and gas phase:
Gas Phase Atmophile H, He, N, Noble gases
Alkalis, Alkaline Earths,

Halogens, B, O, Al, Si, Sc, Ti,
Silicate Liquid Lithophile V, Cr, Mn, Y, Zr, Nb,
Lanthanides, Hf, Ta, Th, U
Sulfide Liquid Cu, Zn, Ga, Ag, Cd, In, Hg,

Chalcophile Tl, As, S, Sb, Se, Pb, Bi, Te
Metallic Liquid
Siderophile Fe, Co, Ni, Ru, Rh, Pd, Os,
Ir, Pt, Mo, Re, Au, C, P, Ge, Sn

24
Lithophile Elements: Concentrated in the Crust
 Lithophile (rock loving) elements
are found:
 Close to the Earth’s surface
 They combine readily with

oxygen
 Form compounds that do

not sink into the core Goldschmidt System - eduqas
25
 Lithophile elements include:
 Aluminium
 Calcium
 Potassium
 Magnesium
 Sodium
 Oxygen
 Silicon
 Titanium
26
 Lithophile are found in the silicate minerals
which make up 93% of the crust by mass and
constitute the common rock-forming
minerals:
 Quartz
 Orthoclase Feldspar
 Plagioclase Feldspar
 Biotite Mica
 Muscovite Mica
 Hornblende (Amphibole)
 Augite (Pyroxene)
 Olivine
 Garnet
 Clay Minerals (Kaolinite)
27
Siderophile Elements: Concentrated in the Core
 Siderophile (iron-loving) elements:
 High density metals
 Sink into the Earth’s core
 Do not combine with oxygen
 Dissolve in iron as solid

solutions or in the molten Goldschmidt System - eduqas
state
28
Siderophile Elements: Concentrated in the Core
 Siderophile elements include:
 Gold
 Iridium
 Iron
 Molybdenum
 Nickel
 Platinum
29
Chalcophile Elements: Trace amounts in the Crust
 Chalcophile (ore-loving) elements:
 Combine readily with sulfur
 Form compounds that do

not sink to the core
 Make up just 0.046% of crust

by mass:
• Concentrated in mineral Goldschmidt System - eduqas
veins
30
Chalcophile Elements: Trace amounts in the Crust
 Chalcophile elements include:
 Arsenic
 Cadmium
 Copper
 Lead
 Silver
 Sulphur
 Tin
 Zinc
31
Atmophile Elements: Concentrated in the Atmosphere & Hydrosphere
 Atmophile (atmosphere-loving)
elements:
 Known as volatile elements
 Occur in gases and liquids

close to the Earth’s surface
32
Atmophile Elements: Concentrated in the Atmosphere & Hydrosphere
 Atmophile elements include:
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Nitrogen
 Argon
 Helium
 Neon
 Krypton
 Xenon
33
Geochemical Geological Exploration
 Until two decades ago, The Exploration Challenge
geological exploration was Deep Exploration Targeting
restricted to easily detectable
outcropping mineralized bodies.
A New Search Space

CSIRO, 2013, James S. Cleverley
34
Geochemical Geological Exploration
 Nowadays, exploration leads to The Exploration Challenge
deposits that are not exposed to Deep Exploration Targeting
the surface and therefore are
difficult to locate:
 For indirect exploration,
different methods were
developed for the detection of
hidden mineralized bodies:
 Geochemical prospection
based on established
principles of geochemistry
A New Search Space
cycle and distribution of CSIRO, 2013, James S. Cleverley
elements.
35
Geochemical Geological Exploration Objectives
 Geochemistry exploration applied to mining has three main purposes:
 Search for metals in different adjacent parts to a known deposit,

defining its limits, reiterate and new mineral bodies.
 Finding deposits in unexplored areas.
 Definition and delimitation of mineralized belts and/or metallogenic

provinces.
36
How do I explore for a mineral system?  Geochemistry has a
direct connection to
the commodity that is
sought:
 Geophysics, though
indisputably useful,
cannot make the
same claim.
 Geochemical responses
are often larger than
the target itself:
 Which makes it easier
(and cheaper) to
detect
CSIRO, 2013, James S. Cleverley 37
How do I explore for a mineral system?
The Why Question
Why is the ore body there?
Inputs from:
Data Integration
New technology
3D Analytics
The Where Question
Where is the next ore body?

Geochemical Geological Exploration Principles
 Among the fundamental principles of geochemistry is the recognition of
geochemical environments that are developed in the earth's crust and are
grouped into:
 Surface geochemical environment:

 Supergene, secondary and exogenous
 Geochemical reactions: Weathering, erosion, sedimentation
and soil occurs:
 Clear superficial conditions and features, such as:
• Low temperature and pressure
• Free fluids movement
https://www.gob.mx/sgm • Plenty oxygen, water and carbon dioxide
39
 Dispersion:
 Formation of a mineral deposit with a certain distribution of the ore
minerals or elements associated with them:
 A halo around the deposit is formed from a few centimeters to
kilometers of extension
 Types of dispersion:
 Primary dispersion:
• Involves all emplacement processes during the formation of
how the mineralized body was formed.
 Secondary dispersion:
• Involves the redistribution of primary models, by any
subsequent process
• Often under low temperature and pressure conditions 40
 Dispersion: Primary and Secondary
 Both types depend on:
 The geochemical mobility of elements which depends on the:
 Mechanical properties (mobile stage of mineral):
• Viscosity, solution, size, shape and density of the

grains and the physic- chemical features of each
element.
41
 We may sample material derived from the rocks on the assumption that if the rocks are
enriched in metals of interest, the derived material will be too.
Schematic diagram of primary and secondary dispersions
CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor
42
 We may sample material derived from the rocks on the assumption that if the rocks are
enriched in metals of interest, the derived material will be too.
Schematic diagram of primary and secondary dispersions
 Mineral deposits represent anomalous

concentrations of specific elements,
usually within a relatively confined
volume of the Earth's crust.
 Most mineral deposits include a central

zone, or core, in which the valuable
elements or minerals are concentrated.
 This zone surrounding the core deposit is

known as a primary halo or anomaly
H. E. Hawkes and J. S. Webb (1979) Geochemistry in mineral exploration, 2nd edition, p.535-548.
Eric Grunsky, 2015
43
 We may sample solid material derived directly from the rock as soil, or sediment created
by the mass-wasting of soil into streams, or sediment on which metals transported in
solution (ground-, creek- or lake-water) are precipitated, or the waters themselves
Dispersion of metals from sulfide
deposits by groundwater and streams
into lakes and lake sediments.
(Allan et al. (1973), reproduced in Levinson (1980))
44
 We also may be sampling material that has been transported by glaciers, or stream or lake
sediment derived from it.
Glacial dispersion from metals from sulfide deposit into till (Miller, 1984).
45
Overview of Geochemical Exploration Methods
Regional Prospecting ...

1850
Goldoz.com.au

Why Use Geochemical Exploration Methods?
 Until 20 years ago, geological exploration was restricted to easily detectable
outcropping mineralized bodies, however, today exploration has led to
deposits that are not exposed to the surface and therefore are difficult to
locate:
 The purpose is the possible discovery of a geochemical "anomaly" or area where the
chemical pattern indicates the presence of ore in the vicinity.
 As a result, geochemical exploration focuses on the determination of the

elements of the ore or elements associated with the ore that are dispersed,
called respectively indicator elements and guide elements:
 For example, in a deposit of lead-zinc (Pb-Zn) sulfide:
 The indicator elements are lead and zinc
 A possible guide element will be mercury (Hg)
47
Types of Geochemical Exploration Methods
 The different types of studies performed by sampling elements are:
 Lake and stream-sediment and water geochemistry

 Soil geochemistry
 Till geochemistry
 Rock geochemistry
 Gas geochemistry
 Vegetation geochemistry
48
 Lake and stream-sediment and water geochemistry:
 The method of sampling lake sediments and waters is ideally suited to
large-scale regional projects that only a government or large company
could undertake, although some prospectors carry out lake surveys of
more limited scope, particularly in winter when access is easier.
There are also large online Coverage of lake-sediment and

databases of lake data collected water sample collection by
by both the Provincial and Geological Survey of Canada
Federal governments (GSC).
49
 Lake and stream-sediment and water geochemistry:
 Lake water samples are collected in Nalgene bottles; normally before
collecting sediment samples, so that disturbed sediment does not get
into the sampled water.
 Lake and stream sampling
should be considered as a first-
pass method that can be used
to identify targets prior to
more detailed geochemical
work (soil or till sampling) or
prospecting.
Collecting lake-water samples in
Nalgene bottles.
Retrieving a lake-sediment sample
from a “Hornbrook bomb”
50
 Soil geochemistry:
 The soils are mainly humoferric and ferrohumic podzols, both consist of
an:
 Organic-rich Ah horizon and an ash-grey leached Ae horizon:
• Neither of which should be sampled
 Underlain by a rusty brown B horizon:
• The preferred sample medium for many prospectors as it is
enriched in metals leached from the A horizons
 The base of the soil profile is the C horizon:
• Consisting of the relatively unweathered source material of
the soil
51
 Sampling the Soil Profile
Top Layer = 0 to 5cm. Organic debris with
little mineral matter.
Oxidized, bioturbated and organic debris,

extensive weathering of mineral matter.
Effects of groundwater, vegetation, oxidation.
weathering
(not sampled)
Unweathered mineral matter.
Progressive weathering of mineral matter up the profile.

52
 Soil geochemistry:
 Soil sampling may be a second-stage prospecting procedure used to follow up a
drainage anomaly OR may also constitute the first geochemical work to be carried
out, if mineralization is already known to occur nearby.
 Soil samples are laid out on a grid, normally in the form of regularly spaced cut lines
 Sampling lines are spaced so that any important feature
should be cut by at least two of them
 Samples are spaced so the key feature is sampled in at

least two adjacent samples
 Normally, this means that the spacing between the

samples is much less than the spacing between the lines:
 Samples are spaced at intervals of 10 to 25 metres
Selection of line and sample spacing should reflect  Lines are 100 to 200 metres apart.
the size of the expected target.
53
 Till geochemistry:
 Till (sometimes called drift) is the sediment from the movement of glacier ice over
the land surface and the plucking and grinding of bedrock.
 Typically unsorted, meaning that fragments of all sizes are intimately mixed together
Typical rocky till, exposed in a road cut

CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor 54
 The interpretation of till geochemistry requires
knowledge of the glacial history of the area; in
particular, the direction(s) of ice movement.
 Usually, ice-movement direction is generally towards Striations directions map

the coast, but large- and small-scale deviations from this
rule are not uncommon.
 Several field methods are used to determine the

direction of ice movement:
 Most common is to measure the direction of
striations on glaciated rock surfaces.
 Downloadable database of striation
measurements exist
Striations on a flat rock
surface

Glacial dispersion of
beryllium (Be) from the
Strange Lake rare earth-rare
metal deposit, Labrador
(Batterson 1989).

 Schematic sections and
plan of glacial dispersion
from an ore zone
(from Miller, 1984)
 Assuming a single till-
depositing event:
 Distance “up-ice” to
the bedrock source of a
geochemical anomaly,
or mineralized boulder,
detected at surface is
dependent on the till
thickness.
57
Geochemical Mineral Exploration: How to?
 Select the geochemical survey study area:
 The main purpose of this stage is to select areas or regions that have
good mineral potential and that can be prospected effectively.
 Initial selection of areas should be based on a most thorough review of

the known geology and records of past mining and prospecting activity:
 “To get some idea of background for an area of interest, prospectors should
examine regional and local historical survey data with respect to their area of
interest” CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor
 Based on recorded mineralization and on the geological environment.

58
 Define the geochemical survey scale:
Continental Scale – > 1:500,000 & < 1:1,000,000

Mapping large crustal blocks/tectonic assemblages
Regional Scale - > 1:50,000 & < 1:500,000

Regional geological mapping
Local/Camp Scale < 1:50,000

Exploration scale studies and detailed geologic mapping
Eric Grunsky, 2015
59
 Characterize the target size and geometry:
 Some features of ore environment, such as favorable host rocks,

geological structures, or geochemical provinces, are related to the
genesis and localization.
 Each geological, geophysical, and geochemical features of the ore

environment defines a target area of characteristic size, shape, and
relationship to the ore.
60
 Choose the exploration technique:
 For greatest overall effectiveness, an optimum balance must be struck
between the various geological, geophysical, and geochemical methods
that are known to be applicable.
 The choice must be based on relevant previous experience and case-

history data.
 Fit with the chosen scale of the study area.
 Selection of methods is also strongly influenced by the size of the target

and by property control.
61
 Rely on the chosen geochemical survey method:
 Reliability depends not only on how effective the exploration method is

in locating the target, but also extent to which an anomaly is specifically
related to ore and the abundance of non-significance anomalies that
may confuse interpretation and require fallow-up survey.
62
 Link the cost of the method based on the value of the expected ore:
 The expected value of the ore body being sought and the chances of
success may have an appreciable bearing on the applicability of a given
method.
 Thus a high-cost survey is justified for large ore bodies are expected and
there is relatively little chances of overlooking a deposit.
 Conversely, a low cost-survey is justified in areas of small targets.
63
 Assure high quality control for geochemical surveys:
 Geochemical methods of exploration constitutes an important

tool in the investigation of the economic mineral deposits.
 Any geochemical investigation to be effective, must take into

consideration several aspects of the ore body, including genesis
and cost at various stages of exploration.
64
 Justify the role of geochemistry in an exploration program:
 Geochemistry is an essential component in most modern integrated

mineral exploration programs, for the following reasons:
1. Economic mineral deposits are commonly characterized by their low grade and
large tonnage. Discovery, assessment and development are highly dependent
upon geochemical methods and analyses.
2. Exploration activity is mostly carried out in tropical and subtropical
environments where chemical weathering has predominated and where
geochemical prospecting techniques have proven most effective.
 Recent estimates suggest that between 10 and 25% of exploration budgets

are allocated to geochemistry.
65
 Choose the elements to analyze:
 “Primary Targets”:
 Metal elements that are most commonly sought by prospectors
 “Secondary Targets”:
 Metals (except fluorine) which may be sought under special geological and
economic circumstances
 “Pathfinders”:
 Uneconomic elements useful in discovering a deposit of an element other than
themselves:
• Usually, the target have sampling or analytical challenges that the pathfinders do not.

66

67
 Reduce ‘nugget’ effects:
 Gold analyses in geochemical samples are subject to the “nugget effect”

which can cause an anomaly to be missed, or alternately for an
unrealistically high value to be returned; the outcome depends very much
on chance  “Nugget” or “particle sparsity” effect illustration:
CIM Short Course, 2013, Steve Amor  Gold’s sample material represented by the smaller
square will return a very low assay
 If the scoop picks up the single gold particle
(represented by the larger dot), the assay will be
very high.
 As indicators of the bulk gold composition of the
sample, neither will be correct (Harris, 1981).
 A pathfinder element like arsenic is more evenly
distributed and not subject to this problem.
68
 Understand analytical certificates:
 Analyses preceded by the “less than” (<) sign:

 Means there is so little of the element in question in the sample that
the analytical method is not sensitive enough to measure it.
 The < sign is sometimes replaced by a minus sign (-)
 Rarely (though it may turn up in old assessment documents) the
words “ND” meaning “Not detected”.
 “Greater than” (>) sign:

 Indicates an analysis that exceeds the method’s upper range

Field Cartography
A long tradition
70
Helicopter Outcrop Stripping
In compliance with all the regulations

71
Outcrop Stripping
In compliance with all the regulations

72
Trenching and Sampling
Experienced and efficient

73
Sampling of Lake Sediments
More than 50,000 lakes to our credit

74
Sampling and Characterization
Surface Water
Lake Sediments
75
Till Sampling
Quaternary Geology
76
Soil Sampling
Highly skilled experience

77
Soil Sampling and Characterization
Trenching Sampling Drill Hole Sampling
Collecting soil samples Drilling tailings within abandoned sites

78
Pedogeochemistry:
LiftIndex, Double-normalization and Probabilism
Beyond statistics
79
Preparation of Soil Samples
Super-clean work by reducing all risk of contamination

80
EXPLORATION GEOCHEMISTRY:
From planning to interpretation, with all its complexity
http://www.iosgeo.com/en/
 PLANNING AND SAMPLING

 General influences
 MEDIUM ADAPTED TO THE CONTEXT
 REGIONAL OR LOCAL
 ENVIRONMENT TYPE
 AVAILABILITY AND HOMOGENEITY
 BEHAVIOR OF TARGETED METAL
 USE THE MOST SUITABLE MEDIUM, THE RIGHT

ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR THE MEDIUM, AND THE
ONE YOU MASTER THE MOST
 EFFICIENCY vs COSTS
81

 Problems
 80% OF QUALITY PROBLEMS ARE FROM SAMPLING *
 Numbering errors
 Localization errors
 Bad material
 No description of the material
 No description of the environment
 Contamination problem
 Poorly trained staff
 Not very robust working method
 *Project Manager
82

 Numbering
 MOST SERIOUS ERRORS
 If there is an anomaly, the tracking takes place in
the wrong place
 SIMPLE, DIGITAL SYSTEM
 Avoid letters
 Avoid complexities (i.e. no line)
• Example: 92951125, project 929, 5 for soils,
sample 1125
 CUSTOM COUPON BOOKS
 With barcode
 REDUNDANCY
 Bag, coupon, aluminum ticket, ribbon
83

 Location
 GPS with external antenna (± 1 m)
 Pay attention to the coordinate system (NAD27
and NAD83)
 Planning traverses
 Digital transfer AND handwritten notes
 Watch out for numbering shifts
 GPS corroborated with line / station numbers
 GPS inaccuracy causes zigzags in the lines
84

 Material selection
 The quality of the survey depends on the homogeneity
of the medium collected.
 Samples representing material other than the targeted
material generate noise
 Must be performed by trained employees (not just
supervised)
 Dramatic effects on results and interpretation:
 Not filterable
 Difficult to detect after
 GARBAGE IN, GARBAGE OUT!
85

 Material selection
 The meaning of the geochemical signature depends on
the study area and therefore on its environment
 The sample environment must be adequately
described (expensive to do after).
 Topography, slope, drainage, hydrography, forest
cover, geomorphology, outcrops, etc.
 Soil profile
 Anthropogenic influence
 Eliminate false anomalies
86

 Describe the sample
 Necessary for interpretation
 Required for QCQA (Redundancy)
 Granulometry, color, humidity, cohesion, etc.
 Constituents:
 Silt, sand, gravel
 Type of pebbles
 Presence of a glaze
 Organic matter:
 Humus, twigs, fibers, sphagnum, etc.
 Crusts:
• Ferrochelate, calcrete, gypsum, etc.
87

 Describe the color
 MUNSELL'S CHART
 Required for QCQA (Redundancy)
 Too subjective to be just descriptive
 Ex.: Red brown, Goose poo brown, chocolate brown
 Cannot be used in a database
 TVC (perception) versus RGB (measurement)
 Tint (Base color)
• R: red; Y: yellow, V: green, B: cyan, P: purple
• YR, GY, BG, PB, RP
• 5: pure, 10: hybridized
 Value (tint brightness)
 1: white, 10: black
 Chromaticity (Purity of perceived color)
 1: gray, 12: saturated color
88

 Sample size
 CATIONIC METHODS
 300-1000 grams wet
 CHEMISTRY OF DETRITICAL FRACTIONS
 300 gr for the fines
 1-5 kg for BLEG
 10 kg for heavy minerals
 MINERALOGICAL METHODS
 10 kg for nugget gold
 20-30 kg for the tills
 20-50 kg for eskers
89
 SAMPLING PATTERNS
 OPTIMAL SCALES OF SURVEYS
MEDIUM TRANSPORT RESOLUTION
Regional RIVERS AND ESKERS 1 - 300 km > 10 km Detrital
LAKES 1-5 km > 1 km Cat> Det
TILLS 300 m-30 km > 500 m Detrital
STREAMS 0-5 km > 500 m Det or Cat
Local SOILS 0-1 km <100 m Cationic
Unusual methods (plants, water, termite mounds, etc.) are far less well precise
90

 LAKES
 Mileage spacing
 Heavy logistics
 Gyttja in the darkest part of the lake
 Under the hypolimnion
 Avoid sampling near riverbanks, mouths, or in bog
lakes
 Helicopter torpedo sampling
 BLIND
 Tight sampling of the same lake: NOT USEFUL
91

 RIVERS AND ESKERS
 Pluri-kilometric spacing
 Sifted and clean gravel
• Heart of the esker or swimming pool in the rapids
 Avoid shoulders or sandy dunes
 Rapid dilution of chemical signal
 Oxidizing system, no sulfide
 Heavy mineral studies only
92

 STREAMS: DETRITAL
 Detrital material
 Sub-kilometer spacing
 Alluvial plain, meanders
 High energy zone
• Confluences, rapids, traps
 Concentration of heavy minerals
 Mineralogy or chemistry
 Oxidizing medium: destroyed sulfides
93

 STREAMS: ORGANIC
 Organic banks
 Flood zones
 Organic material
 Adsorption of water cations
 Restricted watershed influx
94

 GLACIAL SEDIMENTS: DETRITAL
 Bottom till and melting till
 Geomorphological study (specialist)
 Material availability
 Flow direction
 Complex stratigraphy, palimpsest
 Doesn't work everywhere
 Presence of wind glacis or runoff
 Mineralogical study (10-30 kg)
 Chemical analysis (0.5-2 kg)
 Fence 2-20 km, perpendicular to the dominant flow
 Spacing on fences: According to target
95

 SOILS
 Only local grid method
 Line 100 - 400 meters
 Station 25 - 100 meters
 Different horizons do not have the same signature
 Humus "A": cationic
 Ferrochelate "B": cat + detrital
 Horizon "C": detrital
96

 SOILS SAMPLING
Inverted plastic bag
used as a glove to
avoid contamination
Hole crossing the

target horizon
Kraft paper
bag Barcode label
97

 SOILS SAMPLING
 Fibrisol: Organic peaty soils
PEAT
Pierre-Luc
> 6 feet
98

 SOILS PROFILES
L-F : Fibrous material
Ah : Humic matter
Ae : Leached area
B : Ferruginous zone
C : Non altered overburden
99

 SOILS PROFILES: PODZOL
 Leached soil, poorly developed
 Typically thin
 Dominant on the tills
 Very acidic
 Cold climate
 Typical forest floor of the taiga
 Conifers
 Ericaceae
 Dominated by chelation
 Organic-iron-aluminum complex
 Horizon B poorly developed
 Easy to sample
100

 SOILS PROFILES: BRUNISOL
 Very well drained soil
 Hardwoods, pine forests, etc.
 Permeable terrain (sand and gravel)
 Positive water balance, dominated by downward flow
 Oxidizing environment
 Intense ferrochelate
 Highly developed Horizon B
 Complex structure, can be thick
 No leached zone Ae
 Easy-to-sample humus
 Horizon B: can be difficult
 Presence of ferricrust
 Destroyed by forest fires
101

 SOILS PROFILES: BRUNISOL
 FERRICRUST
 HARDSTEIN
102

 SOILS PROFILES: GLEYSOL
 Continuously waterlogged soil
 Swamp, bog, sphagnum moss
 Poorly drained, waterproof land
 Anoxic, reducing
 No ferrochelate
 Horizon B absent
 Enrichment of clays
 Humus sits directly on the clay
 Can be deep
 Holes 1-2 meters
 Dutch Auger
103

 SOILS PROFILES: LUVISOL
 Leaching soil
 Agricultural plains, herbaceous plants
 Good drainage
 Weathering and production of clays
 Positive water balance, dominated by downward
eluviation / illuviation
 Complex structure
 Easy to sample
 Can be thick and disturbed
104

 SOILS PROFILES: OTHERS
 MOLLISOL: Accumulation of organic matter in herbaceous plains
 REGOSOL: Poorly developed profiles
 CRYOSOL: Developed on permafrost
 VERTISOL: Clay soils with poorly developed profiles and argilopedoturbation
 FIBRISOL: Organic peaty soils
https://soilweb.ca/
105
Geochemical Data Interpretation
 Data for major elements are generally reported in the form of oxides as weight
per cent (e.g. silica, SiO2 wt. percent) and trace elements in parts per million
(ppm) or micrograms per gram (μg g−1).
 An important consideration in the interpretation of data is analytical

uncertainty, particularly when evaluating the existence or significance of small
variations in composition.
 Some of the most common sources of uncertainty are sample contamination,

incomplete sample digestion (some minerals are extremely resistant to acids),
interferences between elements, and poor instrument calibration.
106
 The extent of these problems is best limited at the time of analysis by taking
necessary precautions and through discussion with experienced laboratory
staff.
 They are, however, impossible to eliminate completely and an indication of

analytical uncertainty should therefore be reported with the data, ideally as
‘error bars’ on geochemical diagrams.
 Uncertainties can be estimated from the regular analysis of reference

materials of known composition and from the analysis of two or more
samples.
107
 To help in interpretation, data are often imported into graphing and statistical
computer programs.
 A wide variety of diagrams can be produced to compare the data with those
from previous studies and to demonstrate trends or new interpretations.
108
1) 2D and 3D quantitative punctual data:
a) Added analyzes of cartographic surveys, compilation and drilling (DDH)
2) 2D and 3D qualitative punctual data:

b) Alteration and mineralization observed (in %)
2D and 3D Geochemistry
Fallara, Rabeau, Cheng and de Kemp (2008) 109
 Targeting Proximal and Distal Footprints
Fisher et al; 2013
110
Paddington
Mt Pleasant
Kanowna Belle
Kundana
Golden Mile
Scott Halley
Minmap 10 km
Binduli
Fisher et al; 2013 111

<50 meters - Gas, hydrogeochemistry

biogeochemistry (trees/shrubs)
> 50-100 meters - Hydrogeochemistry
Immobile geochemistry / mineralogy,

mineral chemistry
Whole rock geochemistry / mineralogy,

mineral chemistry

 Real time integrated data while drilling

 Real time integrated data while drilling
Geochemistry
114
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys Fisher et al; 2013
 Linking geophysics and geochemistry
115
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys Fisher et al; 2013
 Geochemical surveys are conducted to provide baseline information for:
 Mineral exploration
 Geologic mapping
 Baseline values for environment/land use purposes
 Geochemical survey data:

 Contains various information for geological, geochemical, environmental and
climatic processes.
 Uses more than 50 elements can be analyzed at sufficiently low detection
limits.
 Reflects processes that form or affect mineralogy.
 Represents a multivariate data space over a two or three dimensional
geographic space and time.
E. C. Grunsky and P. de Caritat Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 2019; Geochem2019-031
116
 Melville Peninsula Case Study

117
 Regional basement rock type map of Nunavut, Canada, showing the location
of the Melville Peninsula study area.
118
 Regional scale of geochemical surveys 1:250,000
1 site/13km2
119
 Geological map of the southern part of the Melville Peninsula, Nunavut,
Canada, with lake sediment sample sites (shown as black dots)
120
 Mineral occurrences obtained from NUMIN (2017)
121
 Map of the residual values of Au (ppb) estimated from a robust
interpretation of lake sediment geochemical data, Melville Peninsula.
122
 Map of the residual values of Ni (ppm) estimated from a robust
123
 Map of the residual values of Zn (ppm) estimated from a robust
124
 Map of the residual values of Cu (ppm) estimated from a robust
125
 3D Spatial Interpretations and Geochemical Quantification:
 Used to identify and illustrate possible anomalies found within the
vicinity of known mineral deposits.
126
Fisher et al; 2013
Gold isosurfaces:
0.05,0.1, 0.5, 1.0 ppm
Fisher et al; 2013

127
Favorable Alteration
Isosurfaces (0.5, 0.6, 0.7)
Fisher et al; 2013

128
B2: Lesson 3: Geochemical Surveys: Videos
THE GEOLOGICAL MAP "Drawing the Earth's skin"(9.47min)

https://youtu.be/qdz9DN74ukY
Mineral Exploration Geologist (5.02min)

https://youtu.be/3uXyZ3FGTCo
Tellus geochemical sampling: collecting soil samples (6.2min)

https://youtu.be/sDAtLfSP9SU
Geochemical Prospecting (28.06min)

https://youtu.be/-Ys0LH7sYWg
Geochemical Techniques for Undercover Exploration: The 'New Geophysics'?- James Cleverley, 2013
(56.45)
https://youtu.be/ag2JLP5vIkQ
110
Questions?
Thanks!
FNQLSDI.CA
Exploring Geosciences: B2-Mining Exploration: L3- Geochemical Surveys 130

2020 IDDPNQL ExploringGeosciences Block2 L3

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Block 2

Exploration geologist with over 25 years

1 Cartography Surveys September 2nd 1:30 – 3:30 PM

Mining Exploration 2 Geophysical Surveys September 16th 1:30 – 3:30 PM

3 Geochemical Surveys September 30th 1:30 – 3:30 PM

Geochemical b. Overview of field techniques 1:30 – 3:30

d. Validating and interpreting

 One of the goals of geochemistry is to determine the abundance of

 Geochemistry = Chemistry of the Earth’s materials — Minerals and rocks:

 Study of the chemical composition of the Earth and other planets:

 The chemical processes and reactions that govern the

 The cycles of matter and energy that transport the Earth's

 The task to investigate the composition of the Earth as a whole and of

 Based on a comprehensive collection of analytical data of terrestrial

 Consists of the crust and the top of

 About 100 km thick

 This boundary between the

The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky

 More than 80 chemical elements occur

 Mostly Earth is composed of three parts:

 The Earth’s crust is made mostly from

 The lower mantle is mostly silicon and

 The core is mostly iron, with little nickel

 The inner core is even hotter (up to

The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky

The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky

 99% of the earth’s crust by weight is

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

Geochemistry is the study of

The Geochemistry of Rocks and Natural Waters, A. Koschinsky

 Geochemical analysis is now a vital

 Water, soil, and air quality,

 Trace element, petro, soil, sediment and marine geochemistry:

 Planetary geochemistry and Cosmo geochemistry: Analysis of the

 Organic geochemistry: A study of the role of processes and compounds

 Aquatic geochemistry: Understanding the role of various elements in

 Regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry: Applications to

 Chemical elements on the periodic table

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

Alkalis, Alkaline Earths,

Sulfide Liquid Cu, Zn, Ga, Ag, Cd, In, Hg,

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

 Close to the Earth’s surface

 They combine readily with

 Form compounds that do

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

 High density metals

 Sink into the Earth’s core

 Do not combine with oxygen

 Dissolve in iron as solid

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

 Chalcophile (ore-loving) elements:

 Combine readily with sulfur

 Form compounds that do

 Make up just 0.046% of crust

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

 Known as volatile elements

 Occur in gases and liquids

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

 Atmophile elements include:

Goldschmidt System - eduqas

A New Search Space

 Search for metals in different adjacent parts to a known deposit,

 Finding deposits in unexplored areas.