2018 IEEE Canadian Conference on Electrical & Computer Engineering (CCECE)
Power Quality Characteristics and Electromagnetic
Compatibility of Modern Data Centres
Alexandre B. Nassif Yang Wang
ATCO Electric University of Alberta
Edmonton, Canada Edmonton, Canada
nassif@ieee.org yang5@ualberta.ca
Abstract—Data centers have evolved to become large power
consumers. Their supporting infrastructure includes large
HVAC systems, and is in addition to massive computer and
lighting loads. Nowadays, some of these centers have been built
specifically to mine electronic currency (bitcoins). Their sheer
sizes exceed those of typical large commercial customers by a
vast amount. With such massive sizes, their impact on power
quality has become an important concern and needs to be
addressed by careful design. There is a need for research into
application of innovative design and technology for conditioning
power supply in a system supplying such data centers. This paper
presents measurements collected at the Point of Common
Coupling (PCC) between the electric utility and two large
(20MW and 32MW) data centers. Their impact on harmonic
emissions, interharmonic injection, voltage flicker and imbalance
are analyzed. It is found that individual device standard
compliance does not translate into aggregate load standard
compliance, and utilities need to be cognizant of these challenges
and work with the customer to strategize effective harmonic
mitigation.
Keywords—Power Quality; Harmonics; Power Electronic
Converters; EMC; Data Centers.
I. INTRODUCTION
The recent proliferation of residential and commercial scale
power electronic loads reflects modernization. Classic
examples are the replacement of CRT TVs with LED sets, and
incandescent lighting with LED lights. Power electronics-
based home appliances are predominantly built to operate
under direct current supply. As a result, most devices have a
front-end bridge rectifier. In most cases, this bridge is built
with either diodes or transistors. The former introduces large
magnitude low frequency harmonic content and behaves like
constant harmonic current injection, whereas the latter
typically injects low magnitude low frequency harmonics, but
noticeable high frequency harmonics (>3kHz), and behaves
like constant harmonic voltage supply [1]. In both topologies,
front-end passive filtering can be applied to reduce harmonic
emissions. The application of these built-in filters normally
depends on economies of scale and on customer class.
The sheer size of some concentrations of power electronic
978-1-5386-2410-4/18/$31.00 ©2018 IEEE
Iraj Rahimi Pordanjani
AltaLink
Calgary, Canada
iraj.rahimi@altalink.ca
loads has attracted attention of electric utilities. Some
commercial ventures have noticed the opportunity to harvest
bitcoins and constructed massive data centers, which
predominantly contain computer and lighting loads, as well as
associated peripheral equipment, such as Heat, Ventilation and
Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems. While the characteristics
of the individual devices has been well understood [2], they
suggest issues can be created in a distribution network. This is
because computer loads are built with an unfiltered diode-
bridge front-end rectifier and feature large harmonic current
emissions. These have very high harmonic current with total
demand distortion (TDD) often in excess of 100% [3].
Electromagnetic compatibility standards, covered by IEEE
519 [4] and Canadian Standards Association (CSA) 61000-3-6
[5], apply to a customer facility, but not to individual
equipment (unlike IEC 61000-3-2 [6], the European standard
that applies to small appliances). The reason is likely the
potential impact they would have on the cost of small
appliances, such as small power supplies and lights. For this
reason, computer and lights, which were anticipated to
compose only a small fraction of a distribution feeder, end up
becoming a massive harmonic source when installed in a large
data center without adequate mitigation strategy.
This paper analyzes the characteristics of two large
(>20MW) data centers built in Alberta to mine bitcoins. The
paper focuses on harmonic emissions, interharmonics (to
account for voltage flicker), and voltage imbalance at both
60Hz and harmonic frequencies. It also discusses the
implications of European standard IEC 61000-3-2 should it be
adopted by the Canadian Standards Association. This paper is
structured as follows. Section II describes the two data centers
under study, and the measurement method. Section III
presents the main findings on power quality disturbances.
Section IV discusses electromagnetic compatibility standards.
Section V concludes the work.
II. DATA CENTERS UNDER ANALYSIS
Two major data centers were constructed in an urban area
of Alberta and connected to two recently upgraded
substations. The PCC was defined as the primary meter
 2018 IEEE Canadian Conference on Electrical & Computer Engineering (CCECE)

location, with a voltage level of 25kV. Fig. 1. Shows the currents were recorded and the data were processed in Matlab.
generic configuration that applies to both PCCs. In both cases,
A. First Data Centre
the loads were connected through eight (8) Yg-Yg 2.5MVA
transformers with a secondary Neutral Grounding Resistor In the first data centre, it was found that the load demand
(NGR) and voltage transformation 25kV-480V. The NGR was was largely flat, about 14MW. Fig. 3 shows a sample current
used to reduce short-circuit levels for line-to-ground faults at waveform containing the three phases. This figure reveals
the 480V bus, as the PCCs are very close to the substations. current distortion and slight phase asymmetry. Fig. 4 shows
The implication is that the transformers, which were a free the corresponding spectra of the three phases.
path for zero-sequence current, become a high-impedance 500

path, which in turn reduces the zero-sequence harmonic Phase A

Phase B

emissions from the facilities.

Phase C

Current [A]
0

-500
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time [s]

Figure. 3. Sample current waveform for the first data center

Figure. 1. Simple circuit to represent the data centers connection 350

Phase A
300 Phase B

Current Magnitude [A]

Phase C
Both data centres were connected near their feeder heads, 250

very close the substation and at a point of high system 200

150
strength. As a result, the voltages show very little distortion, 100

as illustrated in Fig. 2, which show a sample waveform 50

snapshot at the PCC of data centre #1 (a) and data centre #2 0

0 5 10 15 20 25

(b). In data centre #1, the voltage Total Harmonic Distortion

Harmonic order [p.u.]

(THD) was about 1%, and in data centre #2, the voltage THD Figure. 4. Sample current spectrum for the first data center
was about 2%. It was also found that the total power factor
Fig. 4 reveals the following:
(including harmonics) was about 0.9 in both cases, which is
- The 3rd and 5th harmonics are the highest measured
typical for composite loads of this nature.
harmonics in this system. This is expected.
x 10
4 - The Total Demand Distortion (TDD) is about 13%.
2
Phase A
Phase B
- There is a presence of 2nd harmonic current. This is not
1
Phase C
expected; however, the magnitudes are small.
- There is very small imbalance at 60Hz (less than 1%).
Voltage [V]

0
However, the harmonic imbalance (defined as per [7]),
was calculated to be quite large. For example, the
-1

-2
imbalance at 540 Hz (9th harmonic) is over 16%. This
is attributed to the harmonic diversity effect [8] within
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time [s]

(a) the data centres.

4
x 10
Phase A
2
Phase B
25 0.35
Phase C
1
0.3
Voltage [V]

20

0 0.25
Time [s]

15
0.2
-1
10
0.15
-2
5 0.1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
Time [s]
0.05

(b) 0.5 1 1.5

Frequency [Hz]
2 2.5 3
x 10
4

Figure. 2. Background voltage at the 25kV PCC, (a) data centre #1, and (b) Figure. 5. Sample interharmonic spectrum for phase A of the first data center
data centre #2
The interharmonic content of the current waveform was
III. MEASUREMENT RESULTS also analyzed. To obtain interharmonic information for proper
visualization, a 1-second sliding window was applied to allow
Continuous waveform recording was carried out with a
for a 1 Hz frequency resolution. Then, each harmonic
resolution of 1024 samples/cycle, which allow harmonic
frequency ± 4 Hz was erased from the plot to hide the picket
acquisition up to 30,712 Hz (512th harmonic). A portable
fence effect due to harmonic spill-over [9]. The result is
power quality recorder was used. Three phase voltages and
 2018 IEEE Canadian Conference on Electrical & Computer Engineering (CCECE)

shown in Fig. 5, which reveals that no significant The interharmonic content of the current waveform was
interharmonic component exists; any frequency component is also analyzed for data centre #2 and shown in Fig. 8. No
of very small magnitude (<< 1 A) and essentially confined significant interharmonic component exists, as any frequency
within all harmonic vicinities, meaning they are likely a result component is of very small magnitude (<< 1 A) and confined
of harmonic spill-over into adjacent frequencies. within harmonic vicinities.
B. Second Data Centre IV. ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY STANDARDS THAT
Like what was found for data centre #1, in the second data APPLY TO DATA CENTRES
centre it was also found that the load demand was largely flat,
about 5MW. The reason the demand is relatively low (as A. Comparison between IEEE 519 and IEC 61000-3-6
compared to the total 20MVA installed capacity), is that this The IEEE 519 [4] and the IEC 61000-3-6 [5] are two most
customer had not ramped out activities yet. Since the load is well-known standards governing the connection of harmonic
scalable, the characteristics of the load can be scaled up to producing customers. While US utilities have broadly adopted
represent its behavior under full load condition. Fig. 6 shows a the IEEE 519, Canadian utilities tend to adopt the IEC 61000-
sample current waveform containing the three phases. This 3-6, often with modifications [10]. This is reflected by the
figure reveals current distortion, and some asymmetry. Fig. 7 adoption of this standard by CSA under the same name.
shows the corresponding spectra of the three phases. The IEEE 519 prescribes voltage and current distortion
limits. Current limits compliance is generally a customer’s
200
Phase A responsibility, whereas voltage limits compliance is generally
150
the utility’s responsibility. This attribution makes sense, as the
Phase B
Phase C
100

customer is better positioned to mitigate its own harmonic

Current [A]

50

-50
0
emissions through the use harmonic filters or other means to
-100 meet the current distortion limits. There is no provision of
-150
harmonic distortion margin for future customers [10].
-200
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time [s]
0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1
The IEC 61000-3-6 was established based on two CIGRE
Figure. 6. Sample current waveform for the second data center publications: “Connection of Harmonic Producing
installations in High-voltage Networks with Particular
Reference to HVDC" [11], and "Equipment Producing
140
Phase A
120 Phase B
Harmonics and Conditions Governing Their Connections to
Current Magnitude [A]

Phase C
100

80 the Mains Power Supply" [12]. The objective is to set a

60 voltage distortion compatibility level at any point of a system.
40
The current injection levels from connected customers are in
20

0
turn determined so that the resulting collective voltage
distortions are below the compatibility level. Limits for the
0 5 10 15 20 25
Harmonic order [p.u.]

Figure. 7. Sample current spectrum for the second data center planning level are more restrictive than those for the
compatibility level and are recommended for system design.
Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 reveal that: The IEC standard proposes a three-stage compliance
- The 3rd and 5th harmonics are the highest measured verification approach: Stage 1 accepts small customers
harmonics in this system. This is expected. through a simplified evaluation process. Stage 2 requires
- The Total Demand Distortion (TDD) is about 7%. customers to demonstrate their compliance to the harmonic
- Even-order harmonics are of very small magnitude current injection limits. Stage 3 applies to high distortion cases
- There is some imbalance at 60Hz (about 4%), and the on an exceptional and precarious basis. Stage 2 of the IEC
imbalance at harmonic orders are higher. The 61000-3-6 is analogous to IEEE 519 current limits. A large
imbalance at 7th harmonic is about 8%, and about 26% portion of IEC 61000-3-6 explains how to estimate the current
at 15th order. This can be attributed to the harmonic injection levels for Stage 2. Specific formulas are developed
diversity effect within the data centre. for this purpose so that all customers, including future ones,
share the harmonic absorbing capacity of the supply system.
25
Current limits are estimated, rather than obtained by harmonic
0.2

0.18

20 0.16

0.14
load flow results. As a result, voltage limits might be violated
even if a customer complies with the current limits.
Time [s]

15 0.12

Alternatively, estimated limits might be conservative [10].

0.1
10
0.08

0.06
5
0.04 B. IEC 61000-3-2
0.02
0.5 1 1.5
Frequency [Hz]
2 2.5 3
x 10
4 Both aforementioned standards apply to the PCC of a large
Figure. 8. Sample interharmonic spectrum for phase A for data center #2 customer. In 2001, the IEC developed a document to address
harmonic emissions at the device level. The IEC 61000–3-2
 2018 IEEE Canadian Conference on Electrical & Computer Engineering (CCECE)

addresses the harmonic current emission limits for non-linear
appliances rated < 16 A. Most appliances in such absorption
range take part of the class identified by the standard as class
D [6]. IEC 61000–3-2, thus, attributes the burden of
complying with emission limits to the individual appliance
manufacturer. The IEC 61000–3-2, however, is a European
standard that has not been adopted in North America. There is
no analogous US or Canadian standard. As a result, device
manufacturers would not be required to comply with this
standard, unless they do so voluntarily, and with an implied
higher cost. Furthermore, this standard is most effective in
typical residential loads, where a blend of linear and non-
linear loads exists. Should an individual nonlinear load be
checked against IEEE 519, it would violate the IEEE limits.
C. Application of EMC Standards for the Data Centres
The short-circuit capacities at the substation where the first
and second data centres were connected are 6,050A and
7,060A, respectively, at the 25kV PCC. These would result in
ISC/IL < 20 (ISC is the three-phase short-circuit current at the
PCC, and IL is the rated load at the PCC), corresponding to the
limits presented in Table I, from IEEE 519 [4].
TABLE I. IEEE 519 CURRENT HARMONIC LIMITS (<69KV), ISC/IL < 20
ISC/IL < 11 11”h<17 17”h<23 23”h<35 35”h
< 20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3
Fig. 9 shows the currents for both data centres, along with
distortion limits, suggesting lack of compliance at harmonic
orders 3 and 5, as well as TDD. However, the voltage
distortion is well within limits (about %1 was measured), due
to the system strength (near a high capacity substation). This
means that the customer would be accepted under Stage 3 of
[5], does not adhere to IEEE 519 limits
14
12
Magnitude [%]
results suggest harmonic current limit violations. Nowadays,
two analogous standards are adopted in North America to
limit harmonic emissions, namely the IEEE 519 [4] and the
IEC 61000-3-6 [5]. A European standard IEC 61000-3-2 [6]
was developed to address individual appliance harmonic
emissions. The adoption of [6] would not have improved the
compliance situation in neither data centre, even if every
individual device be individually compliant. This is because
[6] is not effective in a massive collection of non-linear loads,
but rather in a blend of non-linear and linear loads, such as the
case in typical residential loads. The loads would, however, be
accepted under Stage 3 of [5], as the voltage supply distortion
is well within acceptable limits if connected to a very stiff
system.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the support
provided by ATCO electric. The following employees are
recognized: Dwayne Hoffus, Matthew Chang, Tom
Greenwood-Madsen and Julian Tong.
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Figure. 9. IEEE 519 veryfication for both data centres
V. CONCLUSIONS
The evolution in power electronic-based devices, such as
LED lighting and computer loads, does not imply compliance
with EMC standards. This paper presented two measurement-
based case studies in two large (>20MW) data centres built to
mine electronic currenty. It was found that no interharmonics,
flicker, or imbalance issues exist at the PCCs. However, the
investigation of harmonics attenuation and diversity among distributed
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