Philippine politics and governance - encompass a wide range of topics, including

the political system, government structure, key institutions, political parties,

elections, and major issues and challenges facing the country. Here are some
important topics in Philippine politics and governance:

1. Political System: The Philippines is a democratic republic with a presidential

system. It follows a three-branch government structure, consisting of the
executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

2. President and Executive Branch: The President of the Philippines is the head of
state and government. The President is elected for a single six-year term and
exercises significant executive powers. The executive branch includes various
departments and agencies responsible for implementing policies and delivering
public services.

3. Legislature: The Philippine Congress is a bicameral legislature composed of the

Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate has 24 members elected
nationally, while the House of Representatives has 300 members elected through
district and party-list systems.

4. Judiciary: The judiciary is an independent branch responsible for interpreting

and applying the laws. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial body in the
Philippines, headed by the Chief Justice.

5. Political Parties: The Philippines has a multi-party system, but dominant parties
include the Partido Demokratiko Pilipino-Lakas ng Bayan (PDP-Laban),
Nacionalista Party (NP), Liberal Party (LP), and Nationalist People's Coalition
(NPC).
6. Elections: Elections are held regularly in the Philippines to choose political
leaders at various levels, including the President, members of Congress,
governors, mayors, and local officials. The Commission on Elections (COMELEC) is
responsible for overseeing the electoral process.

7. Political Dynasties: The issue of political dynasties is prominent in Philippine

politics, where political power is concentrated within certain families over
multiple generations. This phenomenon has been a subject of debate and
discussion due to concerns about fair representation and competition.

8. Corruption: Corruption remains a significant challenge in the Philippines. Efforts

have been made to combat corruption through legislation, institutional reforms,
and the establishment of anti-corruption bodies such as the Office of the
Ombudsman and the Commission on Audit.

9. Poverty and Inequality: Poverty and income inequality are persistent issues in
the Philippines. The government has implemented poverty reduction programs
and social welfare initiatives to address these challenges, but the gap between
the rich and poor remains significant.

10. Territorial Disputes: The Philippines has territorial disputes with neighboring
countries, particularly in the South China Sea. These disputes center around the
sovereignty over certain islands and maritime areas, leading to diplomatic
tensions and regional security concerns.

These topics provide a broad overview of the key aspects of Philippine politics and
governance. It is important to note that the political landscape and specific issues
may evolve over time.
An ideology is more or less a coherent set of ideas that direct or organize a
specific political action. It consist of belief and value systems, a discussion of
existing power relationships, an exploration of how political change is achieved in
line with these power relations and an illustration of a desired future (Heywood
2013).

MAJOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES AND THEIR KEY TENETS (Heywood 2013)

1. ANARCHISM

⚫ Political authority in all its form, and especially in the form of the state, is both
evil and unnecessary (anarchy literally means 'without rule'). ⚫ The sovereign,
compulsory, and coercive authority of the state is seen as a nothing less than
legalized oppression operating in the interests of the powerful, propertied, and
privileged.
Anarchist prefers a stateless society. Individuals can best manage their own affairs
through voluntary agreement and cooperation.
2. CONSERVATISM
• Tradition must be conserve. These traditions include established customs,
institutions, and ways of doing things that have endured through time. • The
belief in pragmatism highlights the limits of human reason. As a belief,
pragmatism emphasizes that the action should be shaped by practical
circumstances and goals.
⚫ Human imperfection presents the pessimistic view of conservatives on the
individual. Accordingly, individuals are morally corrupt and are therefore the
sources of crime and disorder. Order could thus be achieved through a strong
state.
⚫ Conservatives believe that society is an organic whole and is a living entity,
more than being an artifact of human ingenuity. This belief is known as
organicism.
⚫ Conservatives also believe that social position and status are only natural. With
this, hierarchy is thought to be inevitable.
⚫ Authority must be exercised from above. Leadership is provided to guide and
support those who lack knowledge and education and those who have little
capacity to act for their own interest.
• Conservatives look at property as significant because it is the individual's source
of security and independence from the government.
3. FACISM
⚫ Ultranationalist ideology. As such, it subscribes to the idea of a supreme race,
whose members should enjoy the natural resources. It is by nature exclusive as it
excludes nonmembers of the race.

⚫ Manifested during Mussolini's facist dictatorship in Italy and Hitler's

dictatorship in Germany. ⚫ Common values upheld are struggle, leadership,
power, heroism, and war.
• The "new man" or a hero who is motivated by duty, honor, and self-sacrifice;
and gives unrelenting obedience to the supreme leader is a fascist ideal. • Fascists
believe in a unified national community of strength through unity. As such,
individual identity is not as important as that of the social group or community.
4. FEMINISM
A diverse but its unifying theme is the desire to enhance the social role of women.
⚫ Society is characterized by sexual or gender equality. The structure of male
power must be overturned, hence the belief in gender equality. Its strands
include liberal feminism, socialist feminism and radical feminism.
5. LIBERALISM
⚫ Belief in individualism underscores the importance of the human individual
compared to any other group.
⚫ Liberty of the individual must be protected. An individual has freedom when he
or she is able to act as he or she pleases.
• Reason can lead individuals to make wise judgments, which could solve issues
or differences.
Equality implies that individuals are born equal, at least in moral terms. Equal
rights and entitlements are at its core. It must be noted, however, that liberals do
not endorse social equality or equality of outcome.
⚫ Tolerance is willingness of individuals to allow others to think and behave in
ways they do not approve. It is a guarantee of individual liberty. • Authority and
social relationships must also be based on agreement and consent.
6. SOCIALISM
⚫ Belief in the community highlights the degree to which the individual is
connected with others. Identify is therefore a product of social interaction more
than innate qualities. Brotherhood or fraternity speaks of a shared common
humanity Socialist thus prefer cooperation rather than competition and
collectivity rather than individualism.
Socialists look at society in terms of differences in the distribution of income or
wealth. Social class is believed to be an important social cleavage, which divides
societies. The interests of the working class and the oppressed should be upheld.
With this, eradicating economic and social inequalities is deemed as the primary
goal of socialism.
Common ownership is also central to socialist thought. Unlike private property,
common ownership is a means to harness material resources for the common
good.
Legislative power

According to Section 1 of Article VI of the 1987 Philippine Constitution: "The

legislative power shall be vested in the Congress of the Philippines which shall
consist of a Senate and a House of Representatives, except to the extent reserved
to the people by the provision on initiative and referendum."

The legislative power is vested in a bicameral body, the Congress of the

Philippines, which is composed of two houses the House of Senate (upper
chamber) and the House of Representatives (lower chamber). The Legislative
Branch enacts legislation, confirms or rejects Presidential appointments, and has
the authority to declare war. The Congress of the Philippines is the country's
highest lawmaking body.

Senate -The Senate shall be composed of twenty-four Senators who shall be

elected at large by the qualified voters of the Philippines, as may be provided by
law.

The qualifications to become a senator, as stipulated in the constitution, are:

1. a natural-born citizen of the Philippines;

2. at least thirty-five years old;
3. is able to read and write
4. a registered voter; and
5. a resident of the Philippines for not less than two years before election day.
It is worthy to note that the composition of the Senate is smaller in number as
compared to the House of Representatives. The members of this chamber are
elected at large by the entire electorate. The rationale for this rule intends to
make the Senate a training ground for national leaders and possibly a springboard
for the presidency. It follows also that the Senator, having a national rather than
only a district constituency, will have a broader outlook of the problems of the
country. instead of being restricted by narrow viewpoints and interests. With such
perspective, the Senate is likely to be more circumspect, or at least less impulsive,
than the House of Representatives.

⚫ House of Representatives The House of Representatives shall be composed of

not more than two hundred and fifty (250) members, unless otherwise fixed by
law, who shall be elected from legislative districts apportioned among the
provinces, cities, and the Metropolitan Manila area in accordance with the
number of their respective inhabitants, and on the basis of a uniform and
progressive ratio, and those who, as provided by law, shall be elected through a
party-list system of registered national, regional, and sectoral parties or
organizations.
Meanwhile, the constitution provides for the following criteria to become
member of the House of Representatives:
1. a natural-born citizen of the Philippines;
2. at least twenty-five years old;
3. is able to read and write; and
4. except the party-list representatives, a registered voter and a resident for at
least one year in the district where s/he shall be elected.

The district congressmen represent a particular congressional district of the

country. All provinces in the country are composed of at least one congressional
district. Several cities also have their own congressional districts, with some
having two or more representatives.
The party-list congressmen represent the minority sectors of the population. This
enables these minority groups to be represented in the Congress, when they
would otherwise not be represented properly through district representation.
Also known as party-list representatives, sectoral congressmen represent labor
unions, rights groups, and other organizations. The party-list representatives shall
constitute twenty per cent of the total number of representatives including those
under the party list. For three consecutive terms after the ratification of this
Constitution, one-half of the seats allocated to party-list representatives shall be
filled, as provided by law, by selection or election from the labor, peasant, urban
poor, indigenous cultural communities, women, youth, and such other sectors as
may be provided by law, except the religious sector.

Legislative process
Congress is responsible for making enabling laws to make sure the spirit of the
constitution is upheld in the country and, at times, amend or change the
constitution itself. In order to craft laws, the legislative body comes out with two
main documents: bills and resolutions.

Resolutions convey principles and sentiments of the Senate or the

Representatives. These resolutions can further be divided into three different
elements:

joint resolutions - require the approval of both chambers of Congress and the
signature of the President, and have the force and effect of a law if approved.
concurrent resolutions - used for matters affecting the operations of both
chambers of Congress and must be approved in the same form by both houses,
but are not transmitted to the President for his signature and therefore have no
force and effect of a law.
simple resolutions - deal with matters entirely within the prerogative of one
chamber of Congress, are not referred to the President for his signature, and
therefore have no force and effect of a law.
Bills - are laws in the making. They pass into law when they are approved by both
houses and the President of the Philippines. A bill may be vetoed by the
President, but the House of Representatives may overturn a presidential veto by
garnering a 2/3rds vote. If the President does not act on a proposed law
submitted by Congress, it will lapse into law after 30 days of receipt.
Legislators grouped in committees conduct hearings and consultation meetings to
improve or pass a proposed bill. Those outside the group can also discuss any
proposed bill in plenary before it is voted upon.
These debates during plenary are very important because they ideally give a
chance for others to scrutinize the proposed bill before it is passed. Once
approved,a law can affect not just the government's function but the life of every
Filipino. It is also vital that it adheres to the Constitution.
Here are the various steps in the passage of a bill:
1. First Reading - Any member of either house may present a proposed bill, signed
by him, for First Reading and reference to the proper committee. During the First
Reading, the principal author of the bill may propose the inclusion of additional
authors thereof.
2. Referral to Appropriate Committee - Immediately after the First Reading, the
bill is referred to the proper committee or committees for study and
consideration. If disapproved in the committee, the bill dies a natural death unless
the House decides other wise, following the submission of the report.
3. Second Reading - If the committee reports the bill favorably, the bills is
forwarded to the Committee on Rules so that it may be calendared for
deliberation on Second Reading. At this stage, the bill is read for the second time
in its entirely, together with the amendments, if any, proposed by the committee,
unless the reading is dispensed with by a majority vote of the House.
4. Debates - A general debate is then opened after the Second Reading and
amendments may be proposed by any member of Congress. The insertion of
changes or amendments shall be done in accordance with the rules of either
House. The House may either "kill" or pass the bill.

5. Printing and Distribution - After approval of the bill on Second Reading, the bills
is then ordered printed in its final form and copies of it are distributed among the
members of the House three days before its passage, except when the bill was
certified by the President. A bill approved on Second Reading shall be included in
the calendar of bills for Third Reading.
6. Third Reading - At this stage, only the title of the bill is read. Upon the last
reading of a bill, no amendment thereto is allowed and the vote thereon is taken
immediately thereafter, and yeas and nays entered in the journal. A member may
abstain. As a rule, a majority of the members constituting a quorum is sufficient to
pass a bill.
7. Referral to the Other House - If approved, the bill is then referred to the other
House where substantially the same procedure takes place.
8. Submission to Joint Bicameral Committee - Differences, if any, between the
House's bill and the Senate's amended version, and vice versa are submitted to a
conference committee of members of both Houses for compromise. If either
House accepts the changes made by the other, no compromise is necessary.
9. Submission to the President - A bill approved on Third Reading by both Houses
shall be printed and forthwith transmitted to the President for his action -
approval or disapproval. If the President does not communicate his veto of any
bill to the House where it originated within 30 days from receipt thereof, it shall
become a law as if he signed it. Bill repassed by Congress over the veto of the
President automatically becomes a law.
How important is the lawmaking function of Congress?
It passes laws that regulate the conduct of and relations between the private
citizens and the government.
• It defines and punishes crimes against the state and against persons and their
property. It determines the taxes people should pay for the maintenance of the
government.
• It appropriates the money to be spent for public purposes.
•It can reorganize, create, or abolish offices under the civil service.
•And it can create and abolish courts, except the Supreme Court.
•Finally, it is only Congress which was given by the Philippine Constitution the
sole power to declare war and to authorize the President - in case of national
emergency or war to issue executive orders embodying rules and regulations
intended to carry out the national policy.

Other responsibilities
Aside from lawmaking, Congress is also given several powers and responsibilities
in certain situations.
Congress' role in exacting accountability is crucial as legislators play a part in
checking on possible excesses by the executive and judicial branches of
government.
The 1987 Philippine Constitution provides many instances when Congress can
invoke this power:
1. Congress has the power to remove from office impeachable government
officials, including the President, Vice President, members of the Supreme Court,
members of constitutional commissions, and the Ombudsman. The House of
Representatives can tackle impeachment complaints and submit the resolution
setting the Articles of Impeachment. The Senate, meanwhile, decides on cases of
impeachment in a full-blown trial.
2. Congress has the "sole power to declare the existence of a state of war,"
according to Section 23 Article VI of the Constitution. A vote of two-thirds of both
Houses, voting separately, is needed.

3. Congress can revoke the President's proclamation of martial law by a vote of at

least a majority of all members of the Senate and the House, If requested,
Congress can also extend the period of martial law beyond the mandated 60 days.

4. Congress may authorize the President to exercise powers to carry out a

declared national policy "for a limited period and subject to restrictions" in times
of war or other national emergency.
5. Congressional committees can conduct hearings "in aid of legislation" on
various issues that affect the nation and release a report based on findings. For
example, the Senate committee in August 2018 conducted a hearing on the TRAIN
law's impact on inflation amid rising prices of commodities.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE SUPREME COURT

Royal Audencia was established on May 5, 1583, composed of a president, four

oidores (justices) and a fiscal. The audencia exercised both administrative and
judicial functions. Its functions and structure were modified in 1815 when a chief
justice replaced its president and the number of justices was increased. It came to
be known as the Audencia Territorial de Manila with two branches, civil and
criminal. A royal decree issued on July 24, 1861 converted it to a purely judicial
body with its decisions appealable to the Court of Spain in Madrid.

A territorial audencia in Cebu, and audencia for criminal cases in Vigan were
organized on February 26, 1898.
Philippine Revolution and First Republic In the three phases of the revolution:
1896- 1897 1898 1899-1901, the exigencies of war prevented the thorough
organization of the administration of justice. Katipunan councils, then the
provisional governments of Tejeros. Biak-na-Bato, and the Revolutionary Republic
proclaimed in Kawit, essentially had General Emilio Aguinaldo exercising decree-
making powers instituting ad hoc courts and reviewing any appeals concerning
their decisions. In 1899, when the Malolos Constitution was ratified, it provided
for a Supreme Court of Justice. President Aguinaldo proposed the appointment of
Apolinario Mabini as Chief Justice, but the appointment and the convening of the
Supreme Court of Justice never materialized because of the Philippine-American
War.

American Military rule- During the Philippine-American War, General Wesley

Merrit suspended the audencias when a military government was established
after Manila fell to American forces in August, 1898. Major General Elwell S. Otis
re-established the Audencia on May 29, 1899 by virtue of General Order No. 20,
which provided for six Filipino members of the audencia.
Establishment of the Supreme Court- With the establishment of civil government,
Act No. 136 of the Philippine Commission abolished the audencia and established
the present Supreme Court on June 11, 1901, with Cayetano Arellano as the first
chief justice together with associate justices-the majority of whom were
Americans.

Commonwealth: Filipinization of the Supreme Court With the ratification of the

1935 Constitution, the membership was increased to 11 with two divisions of five
members each. The Supreme Court was Filipinized upon the inauguration of the
Commonwealth of the Philippines on November 15, 1935. The composition of the
court was reduced by virtue of Commonwealth Act No. 3. It provided for a
Supreme Court, headed by a chief justice with six associate justices, 1. Exercise
jurisdiction over cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls,
and over petitions for certiorari, prohibition, mandamus, quo warranto, and
habeas corpus.

2. Review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm, on appeal or certiorari, as the law or

the Rules of Court may provide, final judgments and orders of the lower courts in:
a. All cases in which the constitutionality or validity of any treaty, international or
executive agreement, law, presidential decree, proclamation, order, instruction,
ordinance, or regulation is in question;

b. All cases involving the legality of any tax, impost, assessment, or toll, or any
penalty imposed in relation thereto;

c. All cases in which the jurisdiction of any lower court is in issue; d. All criminal
cases in which the penalty imposed is reclusion perpetua or higher;

e. All cases in which only an error or question of law is involved; 3. Assign

temporarily judges of lower courts to other stations as public interest may
require. Such temporary assignments shall not exceed six months without the
consent of the judge concerned.
4. Order a change of venue or place of trial to avoid a miscarriage of justice.
5.Promulgate rules concerning the protection and enforcement of constitutional
rights, pleading, practice, and procedure in all courts; the admission to the
practice of law, the Integrated Bar, and legal assistance to the underprivileged.
Such rules shall provide a simplified and inexpensive procedure for the speedy
disposition of cases, shall be uniform for all courts the same grade, and shall not
diminish, increase or modify substantive rights. Rules of procedure of special
courts and quasi-judicial bodies shall remain effective unless disapproved by the
Supreme Court.
6. Appoint all officials and employees of the Judiciary in accordance with the Civil
Service Law (Sec. 5, id.)
Scope of Judicial Power
Adjudicating Power - The power to settle legal disputes Power of Judicial Review
Refers to the power of Supreme Court to interpret and make judgements with
respect to the law.
Incidental Powers- Powers necessary for the discharge of the judicial function.
Special Courts
A. Court of Tax Appeals. It has exclusive jurisdiction over tax appealed by private
citizens and commercial firms who protect the amount of taxes imposed.
B. Sandiganbayan. It decides cases involving graft and corruption by government
and employee.
C. Ombudsman. Otherwise known as Tanod-bayan. Investigates cases of graft and
corruption.
Three kinds of courts in the country:
1. Supreme Court- The highest court in the land.
2. Regular Court Appellate Court, Regional Trial Court,etc.
3. Quasi-Judicial Bodies-NLRC,SEC,etc. -each court has its own jurisdiction which
has one Chief Justice and fourteen Associate Justices
APPLICATIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS ARE FILED
1. Applicants may file applications themselves or be recommended by other
persons.
2. Applications must be filed personally or by registered mail sent to the
Secretariat of the Council.
3. A recommended applicant must manifest acceptance either in the
recommendation paper itself or in a separate document. His or her acceptance
must be filed before the deadline set by the Council.

A LIST OF APPLICANTS IS PUBLISHED

How these process goes:
1. A long list of candidates shall be published in a Philippine newspaper of general
circulation and in a newspaper of local circulation in the province or city where
the vacancy is located.
2. Copies of the list shall likewise be posted on three conspicuous places in the
said area.
3. Copies thereof shall be furnished to major nongovernmental organizations in
the city or municipality where such vacancy is located, including the Integrated
Bar of the Philippines and its corresponding local chapter. 4. The long list shall
contain an invitation to the public to inform the Council, within ten days, of any
complaint or derogatory information against the applicants. 5. The Council may
choose to direct a discreet background check on the applicant or require the
nominee to comment in writing or during the interview.

APPLICANTS ARE SCREENED BY THE JBC

Applicants and recommendees shall be screened based on set qualifications from
the 1987 Constitution (a member of the Judiciary must be a citizen of the
Philippines, a member of the Philippine Bar, and a person of proven competence,
integrity, probity, and independence) as well as by office-specific qualifications set
by the rules of the JBC.

They shall also be evaluated according to

1. Competence, to be measured by a. Educational preparation

b. Experience

c. Performance

Other accomplishments

2. Integrity, by means of;

a. Evidence of integrity

b. Background check

c. Testimony of parties

d. Anonymous testimonies

3. Probity and independence

4. Sound physical, mental, and emotional condition, by means of; a. Medical

documents

b. Psychological/psychiatric tests

In addition, the following are disqualified from becoming nominees (see JBC

and Sec. 6):

1.Those with pending criminal or regular administrative cases; 2. Those with

pending criminal cases in foreign courts or tribunals; and

3. Those who have been convicted in any criminal case; or in an administrative

case, where
the penalty imposed is at least a fine of more than P10,000, unless he has been
granted judicial clemency

4. Members of the Judiciary facing administrative complaints under informal

preliminary

investigation by the Court Administrator.

WHO ARE THE MEMBERS OF THE JBC?

The Constitution provides for the composition of the JBC to include the following:

The Constitution provides for the composition of the JBC to include the following:
1. Representatives of the three branches of government as ex-officio members
[Le., the Chief Justice, the Secretary of Justice, and a member from the
Legislature): 1 2. A representative of the Integrated Bar of the Philippines;

Notable Chief Justices

Of the list of chief justices, there are a few individuals that stand out for having
gone above and beyond their duty and tenure as chief justice.

1. Cayetano Arellano: Cayetano Arellano was the first Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court. He was appointed in 1901 when the Supreme Court was created
through Act No. 136, along with three American justices and one Filipino justice.

2. Ramon Avanceña: Appointed in 1925 by U.S. President Calvin Coolidge, he is

known for ushering in an all-Filipino Supreme Court in 1935. Upon the
establishment of the Philippine Commonwealth in 1935, American justices were
no longer allowed to sit in the Philippine Supreme Court thus, new justices were
appointed, all of whom were of Filipino citizenship.

3. Jose Abad Santos: As a wartime chief justice, Abad Santos took on two different
roles; he was the chief justice and concurrently the Secretary of Justice. When
President Quezon left the Philippines to evade capture by the Japanese, Abad
Santos chose to stay in the country as a caretaker of the government. On May 2,
1942, the Japanese military caught Abad Santos in Cebu and invited him to
become one of the members of their puppet government. Abad Santos refused to
collaborate. He died at the hands of the Japanese on May 2, 1942. His last words
to his son were, "Do not cry, Pepito, show to these people that you are brave. It is
an honor to die for one's country. Not everybody has that chance."

4. Manuel V. Moran: Appointed in 1945 by President Sergio Osmeña, Manuel V.

Moran would serve as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court for six years. Upon his
retirement in 1951, Moran was appointed as Philippine Ambassador to Spain and
concurrently to the Holy See. During President Quirino's administration, Moran
was once again offered a position in the Supreme Court in 1953, at the twilight of
Quirino's presidency. Moran, however, refused the midnight appointment.

5. Roberto V. Concepcion: He went into early retirement for refusing to grant

absolute power to Ferdinand Marcos, the president who appointed him. In the
resolution of Javellana v. Executive Secretary, Concepcion argued against the
validity of the 1973 Constitution and its questionable aspects. Accordingly, he
dissented, along with Justices Techankee, Zaldivar, and Fernando, from
implementing the 1973 Constitution. Due to the court's decision. Concepcion
would enter early retirement, 50 days before his originally scheduled retirement
date.
6. Claudio Teehankee: Claudio Techankee was known for his firm anti-martial law
stance during his tenure in the Supreme Court. Teehankee resisted multiple
attempts by the Marcos administration to garner absolute power by issuing
questionable decrees. In 1973, he was part of the bloc that dissented from the
implementation of the 1973 Constitution. In 1980, he dissented from the
proposed judicial reorganization act of President Marcos. In 1986, after the EDSA
Revolution, he administered the Oath of Office of President Corazon C. Aquino in
Club Filipino. He was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in 1986 by
President Corazon C. Aquino.

7. Hilario G. Davide: Appointed by President Joseph Ejercito Estrada in 1998, Chief

Justice Hilario G. Davide was known as the presiding judge of the first
impeachment proceedings in Asia. During the impeachment of President Estrada,
he conducted proceedings with impartiality. Following EDSA II uprising, which
deposed President Estrada. Davide swore in Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo as the 14th
President of the Philippines.

8. Maria Lourdes P.A. Sereno: Appointed by President Benigno S. Aquino III in

2012 Chief Justice Sereno is the first woman appointed to the position.

1. Political System in the Philippines:

The political system in the Philippines is a unitary presidential republic. It is
characterized by a multi-party system, where political power is divided among
three separate branches: the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The
President is both the head of state and the head of government. The political
system is based on the 1987 Constitution, which provides for a separation of
powers and a system of checks and balances.

2. Government Structure in the Philippines:

The government structure in the Philippines follows a hierarchical system. At the
national level, there are three branches of government: the executive, legislative,
and judicial. The executive branch is headed by the President, who is elected by
popular vote and serves as the chief executive. The legislative branch consists of
the bicameral Congress, which is composed of the Senate and the House of
Representatives. The judicial branch is independent and is responsible for
interpreting and applying the law.

3. Key Institutions in the Philippines:

Some key institutions in the Philippines include:

- Malacañang Palace: The official residence and workplace of the President.

- Congress: The legislative body composed of the Senate and the House of
Representatives.
- Supreme Court: The highest judicial body in the country, responsible for
interpreting the constitution and settling legal disputes.
- Commission on Elections (COMELEC): The constitutional body responsible for
overseeing elections and ensuring their integrity.
- Ombudsman: An independent government body tasked with investigating and
prosecuting public officials for corruption and other offenses.
- Department of Justice (DOJ): The government agency responsible for the
administration of justice, law enforcement, and legal services.

4. Political Parties in the Philippines:

There are several political parties in the Philippines, but the two dominant ones
are:
- Partido Demokratiko Pilipino-Lakas ng Bayan (PDP-Laban): The ruling party,
currently led by President Rodrigo Duterte.
- Liberal Party (LP): The main opposition party, associated with liberal and
progressive ideologies.

In addition to these major parties, there are numerous smaller political parties
and coalitions that play a role in the political landscape of the country.

5. Elections in the Philippines:

Elections in the Philippines are held regularly to choose national and local
government officials. The President and Vice President are elected separately
through popular vote for a single six-year term. Members of Congress, including
Senators and Representatives, are also elected through direct voting. Local
government officials, such as governors, mayors, and councilors, are elected at
the regional and municipal levels.

Elections in the Philippines are known for their vibrant and competitive nature.
The Commission on Elections (COMELEC) oversees the entire electoral process,
including voter registration, campaign finance regulations, and the conduct of the
elections themselves. The country has a history of high voter turnout and active
citizen participation in the electoral process.

Branches of Feminism:

1. Liberal Feminism:
Liberal feminism is a branch of feminism that focuses on achieving gender
equality through legal and political reform within existing societal structures. It
emphasizes equal rights, opportunities, and individual freedom for women.
Liberal feminists believe that women should have the same legal and political
rights as men, including the right to vote, own property, access education and
employment, and participate in public life. They advocate for changes in laws and
policies to eliminate gender-based discrimination, such as equal pay for equal
work, reproductive rights, and protection against domestic violence and sexual
harassment. Liberal feminists aim to challenge and change societal norms and
attitudes that perpetuate gender inequality.

2. Socialist Feminism:
Socialist feminism combines feminist goals with those of socialism, aiming to
address both gender and class inequalities. It argues that the oppression of
women is intertwined with the capitalist economic system and the exploitation of
labor. Socialist feminists view gender oppression as a product of the patriarchal
capitalist system, where women's unpaid domestic labor and low-wage work are
undervalued and contribute to their economic and social subordination. They
advocate for economic and social changes, such as fair wages, affordable
childcare, healthcare, and social services, as well as challenging the patriarchal
structures that reinforce gender roles. Socialist feminists seek to transform the
economic and social system to achieve gender and economic justice.

3. Radical Feminism:
Radical feminism seeks to address the root causes of women's oppression by
challenging the power structures and cultural norms that perpetuate gender
inequality. It views patriarchy as the primary source of women's subordination
and seeks to dismantle it entirely. Radical feminists critique not only political and
economic institutions but also social and cultural institutions that reinforce
gender roles and stereotypes. They argue for radical social change through means
such as consciousness-raising, direct action, and the creation of women-only
spaces. Radical feminism often centers on issues such as reproductive rights,
violence against women, and the objectification and sexualization of women. It
aims to create a society where women's liberation is achieved through the
complete eradication of sexism and gender-based oppression.
The passage of a bill in the Philippines involves several steps in the legislative
process. Here are the general steps involved:

1. Proposal: A bill can be proposed by a member of either the House of

Representatives or the Senate. The bill's author, also known as the sponsor,
introduces the bill and files it with the respective chamber.

2. First Reading: The bill undergoes the first reading, where it is introduced and its
title and number are read out. No debates or amendments take place during this
stage.

3. Committee Referral: After the first reading, the bill is referred to the
appropriate committee(s) for review and analysis. The committee examines the
bill's content, conducts public hearings or consultations, and may request inputs
from experts or stakeholders.

4. Committee Stage: During this stage, the committee reviews and discusses the
bill in detail. They may propose amendments, modify provisions, or even
recommend its rejection.

5. Second Reading: The bill is presented for the second reading, during which the
members of the chamber debate its merits and provisions. Amendments can be
proposed and voted upon.

6. Third Reading: The bill undergoes the third reading, where a final version of the
bill is presented. Further amendments can still be proposed, but they must be
within the scope of the bill's content as approved during the second reading. After
the voting process, if the bill passes, it moves to the other chamber.

7. Repeat of the Process in the Other Chamber: If the bill originated in the House
of Representatives, it will go through the same steps in the Senate (and vice
versa). The other chamber may propose amendments, and the bill will go through
first, second, and third readings again.

8. Bicameral Conference Committee: If the two chambers pass different versions

of the bill, a Bicameral Conference Committee is formed. Members from both
chambers work together to reconcile the differences and agree on a single version
of the bill.

9. Approval by Both Chambers: After the Bicameral Conference Committee

finalizes the reconciled version, it is presented for approval by both the House of
Representatives and the Senate.

10. Transmittal to the President: If both chambers of Congress approve the bill, it
is transmitted to the President for signature. The President has the option to sign
it into law or veto it.

11. Possible Veto Override: If the President vetoes the bill, Congress can attempt
to override the veto by obtaining a two-thirds majority vote in both chambers.

Please note that these steps provide a general overview of the legislative process,
and there may be additional or specific procedures depending on the
circumstances and the nature of the bill being considered.
DEFINITION OF TERMS:

In the context of the Philippines, the definitions of the terms you provided are as
follows:

Committee on Rules: The Committee on Rules in the Philippine context typically

refers to the committee established in the legislative branch of the government.
In the Philippines, both houses of Congress (the Senate and the House of
Representatives) have their respective Committee on Rules. These committees
are responsible for formulating and recommending rules and procedures
governing the conduct of legislative business within their respective chambers.
The Committee on Rules plays a crucial role in managing the legislative process,
determining the order of business, and regulating the flow of legislation.

Certiorari: Certiorari in the Philippines refers to a legal remedy or writ issued by

the Supreme Court or the Court of Appeals. It is used to review and correct the
decisions or orders of lower courts, tribunals, or quasi-judicial bodies. When the
Supreme Court or the Court of Appeals grants certiorari, it takes up the case and
evaluates whether the lower court or tribunal has committed errors of law or
grave abuse of discretion. Certiorari is an extraordinary remedy and is typically
sought when there is no other plain, speedy, or adequate remedy available.

Prohibition: Prohibition in the Philippine legal system refers to a legal remedy or

writ that is issued by a higher court, such as the Supreme Court or the Court of
Appeals, to prevent a lower court, tribunal, or public official from proceeding with
a particular action or exercising jurisdiction beyond its authority. Prohibition is
used to correct or prevent the commission of grave abuse of discretion, excess of
jurisdiction, or any act that is contrary to law or the Constitution. It serves as a
means to control and limit the powers of lower courts or officials when they are
acting beyond their lawful authority.
Mandamus: Mandamus in the Philippines refers to a legal remedy or writ issued
by the Supreme Court or the Court of Appeals. It is used to compel a public
official, governmental agency, or any person exercising public functions to
perform a specific duty that they are legally obligated to fulfill. Mandamus is
sought when there is a clear right to the performance of a particular act and there
is no other plain, speedy, or adequate remedy available. It is used to ensure that
public officials carry out their duties and responsibilities as required by law.

Quo warranto: Quo warranto in the Philippine legal system refers to a legal
proceeding or remedy used to question the legal right or authority of a person or
entity holding a public office, franchise, or privilege. It is a judicial process that
challenges the qualifications, title, or authority of the individual or entity to hold
the position or exercise the powers associated with it. Quo warranto proceedings
in the Philippines are initiated by the government or a private person or entity
with a legitimate interest in the matter. The objective is to determine whether the
person or entity holds the office or franchise by lawful authority.

Habeas corpus: Habeas corpus in the Philippines refers to a fundamental legal

principle and writ that protects the right to liberty and safeguards against
arbitrary detention. It allows individuals who are unlawfully detained or
imprisoned to seek judicial review of their confinement. Habeas corpus petitions
are filed with the courts, typically the Supreme Court or the Court of Appeals, to
challenge the legality of the detention and secure the release of the person held.
The courts evaluate whether the detention is lawful and whether the detaining
authority has sufficient legal justification for the continued confinement.

Perpetua: In the Philippines, "perpetua" is an abbreviation for "reclusion

perpetua," which refers to a prison sentence of 20 years and one day to life
imprisonment. It is the most severe penalty imposed by Philippine law, short of
the death penalty. Reclusion perpetua signifies that the convicted person will
spend the rest of their life in prison.
PART 2

Lesson 1. Nature of Power

In any given endeavour at any given situation, the players in that scenario all
become power players, where every single person wants to be empowered to
have the right hand control over the game. So, what's with this power that,
literally, everybody seem to have grown insane for the love of power and that
power must have become a part of man's social existence?

Power, according to J.C. Turner (2005) (https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.244) "the

standard theory is that power is the capacity for influence and that influence is
based on the control of resources valued or desired by others. As per this
definition of power, it is presupposed that for one to be empowered, he/she must
be capacitated with the skills of influencing and persuading others and the know-
how of coercion.

Basically, one can only call the shots when he/she was able to persuade others, if
done in a diplomatic manner, or has influenced them through a coercive manner
or must have used force in the process. To explain this in the actual scenario, let
us take our very own families where the head of the family would be able to
impose a house rule, say about smoking, either by talking nicely to his children,
for instance tell them about the negative effects of smoking in the most friendly
way, or exert influence over them by say, hurting the children just so they will
stay away from smoking. When this happens, the father can say that being the
head of the family, he is spelled p-o-w-e-r.

Another description of the nature of power comes from Wikipedia

(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power (soial political), and it says "power is the
capacity of an individual to influence the actions, belief, or conduct (behavior) of
others." This could be the more common nature of power which has become a
part of the social construct. Why? Because, more often than not we have always
equated power with being able to have one over another person.

We could then say that power either induces action or becomes a constraining
factor where P1 could be made to follow the health protocol or P2 may be
prevented from staying in crowded areas. Power does affects one's perspectives,
one's life.

Lesson 2. Dimensions of Power

Power has its dimensions, which makes us aware of its scope or boundaries, and
they are as follows:

1. Agenda- This refers to the motive of the person who wants to have power or
the reason why one wants to be paced under the influence of another person.

2. Decision-making. This refers to the end of the person seeking for power, where
he has to have influence over others because they are vital to whatever decisions
he would be making inherent to his status or position.

3. Manipulation. This is from the means of who holds the power and it refers to
the controlling factor over the other person and which means that the former can
make the latter do whatever he wishes, whether in legitimate or illegitimate
means.

Lesson 3. Types of Power

If power has dimensions, it has its kinds or types as well and they are listed

below.

1. Legitimate power- This is the type or kind of power which is oftentimes

referred to as positional power. There is a legal and formal basis for the
acquisition or delegation of power to a certain individual and there are relative
position and duties and responsibilities. A classic example of this type of power is
the executive power as exercised by the President of the Philippines, where PRRD
obtained it through the national elections held way back in 2016. As per
observation and as per the actual scenario, he has been executing the laws
enacted by the Congress f the Philippines

2. Referent power- When an individual is able to convince another person without

lifting a finger or just by simply being with the other person and talking it out with
him, that is referent power. For one, the so-called "charisma" or a very
enterprising inherent personal characteristic is the Indicative factor of referent
power.

3. Expert power From the word itself, this type of power presupposes the
expertise or special knowledge one has to capacitate him/her exert influence over
another person. The people in the medical field are able to persuade the people
to observe strictly the health protocol, like the wearing of facemask, because,
above anybody else, they are equipped with the information about the Covid19.
4. Coercive power The word coercive denotes negativity, however, sometimes,
this kind of power is deemed necessary to make other people obey laws or
directives or to prevent an unnecessary action. The exercise of this power
presupposes the use of threat or punishment.

5. Reward power This type of power refers to the capacity of the power-wielder
to offer or extend a reward or to recompense an accomplishment. A very good
example is when your parents buy you a new pair of trendy shoes because you
have been doing the household tasks assigned to you.

Lesson 4. Consequences of Power

In the exercise of one's power, it is imminent that it will yield a result. The figure
below (culled from https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/jassidut/power-and-
politics-28411797) would summarize the general consequences of power:

Politics and Political Science

Aristotle, the Father of Political Science, once said, "Man is by nature at political
animal". The tendency and interest of people toward anything political is because
individuals are naturally social. Unlike other species, humans rely on social
interactions to survive. Individuals are not self-sufficing, so they find the need to
group together as a community. Politics is born out of these social interactions.
The word politics was formulated by the Greeks during the 4th and 5th

century. It come from the word "polis" which means city state. It deals with
power

in society in general. It is said to be the art and science of government. Politics

was

inseparable from life in the polis or a place or state shared by a certain group of

people.

According to Plato and Aristotle, there are central concepts in politics: (1) Concept
of justice - what and who is morally and politically right, (2) Concept of power
source of authority, (3) Concept on the right types of constitutions and
governments different types of governments and states, (4) Concepts on political
structures different ideologies in a state, and (5) Concept on the right and
virtuous leadership - who should lead in a certain political system

Heywood (2013) defined politics as an activity that involves the interaction of

people, whose relationship is characterized by conflict and cooperation, and who
come together to solve such disagreement through binding solutions. However,
politics is no Utopian solution. These are disparities that remain as such.

Political Science is a social science discipline that studies the state and the
government. It is a systematized body of knowledge based on facts which deals
with experimentation and observation. Based on the given definition, there are
four elements to become a science - a.) body of knowledge: b.) based on facts; c.)
deals with experiments; and d.) observation.

Importance of Politics

1. Politics helps you to know your rights.

2. Politics clarifies what you yourself believe.

3. Politics is a living, breathing subject.

4. Politics helps you to understand our nation's parties.

5. Politics prepares you for adult life.