STATES OF MATTER

y
kk
ra
Solids , liquids and gases

Ta
S
KM

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  Kinetic theory of matter

y
kk
1. All matter is composed of tiny particles

ra
Ions , atoms or molecules

Ta
2. There are 3 states of matter :
Solid , liquid and gas
S
KM

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  Basic differences between the 3 states are

y
kk
A. Order / arrangement of particles

ra
B. Motion of particles

Ta
C. Attractive forces between particles
S
KM

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Solids
a. particles packed closely together in an

y
kk
orderly arrangement

ra
b. strong forces between particles

Ta
c. small amounts of energy. Particles vibrate
about fixed positions
S
KM

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Liquids
 a. particles are slightly further apart

y
kk
 b. weaker forces between particles

ra
 c. larger amounts of energy. Particles can

Ta
move freely around each other but in close
proximity. Have vibrational , rotational and
S
translational energy
KM

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Gases
 a. particles are much widely separated

y
kk
 b. almost no forces or weak forces between

ra
particles

Ta
 c. much larger amounts of energy. Particles
move rapidly and randomly into any
S
KM

space available. Have vibrational ,

rotational and translational energy

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
Difference in behaviour when placed in a container :

y
kk
ra
 a. solids keep their shape and volume , no matter

Ta
what container they are in
 b. liquids take up the shape of their container but
S
do not necessarily fill it
KM

 c. gases quickly take up the shape of their

container and always fill it
7

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 GASES
1. Gas laws :

y
kk
a. Boyles’ Law : the volume of a fixed mass of

ra
gas is inversely proportional to the pressure , at
constant temperature
 v α 1/p
Ta
S
pv = constant
KM

 p1v1 = p2v2

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 v

y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

1/p

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 v

y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

10

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 pv

y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

1/v

11

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 pv

y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

12

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 b. Charles Law : the volume of a gas is

y
kk
proportional to the temperature ( expressed in
Kelvin ) at constant pressure.

ra
vα T

Ta


 v/ T = constant
S
v1 / T1 = v2 / T2
KM

13

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 v

y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

T ( in K )

14

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 v

y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

T/0C
- 273
15

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 c. The constant volume law : the pressure is

y
kk
proportional to the temperature (in kelvin)
provided its volume remains constant.

ra
P α T

Ta


 P / T = constant
S
P1/ T1= P2 / T2
KM

16

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 P

y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

T ( in K )

17

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 2. Combining gas laws :

y
kk
PV = nRT

ra
Ideal / general gas equation

Ta
3. Equation of state :
used to calculate the volume a gas would
S
KM

occupy under different conditions of temp

and pressure

18

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 y
kk
Equation of state

ra
P1V1 P2V2
 Ta
S
KM

T1 T2
19

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Pressure Volume
Pa m3
KPa dm3
1000 dm3 =1 m3

Eg : P1 = 101315 Pa , V1 = 50 cm3 ,

y
kk
T1 = 200 C

ra
s.t.p → P2 = 101000 Pa , T2 = 273 K

Ta
Substituting into equation :
V2 = 46.7 cm3
S
KM

20

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 4. Dalton’s Law of partial pressure :

y
kk
a. in a mixture of 2 gases A and B ,

ra
 PA = mole fraction of A x total P (PT)

Ta
PA is partial pressure of gas A
where mole fraction of A ,
S
KM

XA = no of moles of A / total no of moles of gases

21

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 y
kk
n( A)

ra
Ta
XA =
n( A)  n( B)
S
KM

22

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 if all gases are measured under the same conditions ,

y
kk
XA = volume of A / vol of A + vol of B

ra
b. Dalton’s Law :

Ta
For a mixture of 2 gases , A and B
S
 PT = PA + PB
KM

total pressure is the sum of individual partial pressures of all

gases present in the mixture

23

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  Eg : 2 moles H2 , 1 mole O2 , PT = 100 kPa

y
kk
 PO2 = 1/3 x 100 kPa = 33.3 kPa

ra
 PH2 = 2/3 x 100 kPa = 66.7 kPa

Ta
 or PH2 = PT – PO2
S
KM

24

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  Q : 0.5 dm3 O2 , P = 200 kPa

y
kk
 2 dm3 N2 , P = 500 kPa

ra
 new volume = 2.5 dm3

Ta
 P1V1 = P2V2
For O2 : 5 x 200 = 2.5 x PO2
S

KM

 PO2 = 400 kPa

25

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  For N2 : 2 x 500 = 2.5 x PN2

y
kk
 PN2 = 400 kPa

ra
 PT = PO2 + PN2

Ta
 = 400 + 400
= 800 kPa
S

KM

26

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  P1V1=P2V2

y
kk
 Smaller craft : 50 x 10 = P2 x 40

ra
 P2 = 12.5 kPa

Ta
 Larger craft : 100 x 30 = P2 x 40
P2 = 75 kPa
S

KM

 PT = 12.5 kPa + 75 kPa

 = 87.5 kPa

27

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 nT = n1 + n2

pT vT = p1 v1 + p2 v2

y
p1 v1 + p2 v2

kk
pT =
V1 +V2

ra
Ta
S
KM

28

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Kinetic theory of gases
Assumptions ( features of an ideal gas ) :

y
kk
1. gas particles have negligible volume compared

ra
to volume of gas (*)

Ta
2. no forces of attraction between gas particles (*)
3. all collisions are perfectly elastic
S
KM

29

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 4. particles are continuously moving at random

y
kk
5. average speed and average kinetic energy of
the gas particles are directly proportional to the

ra
temperature

Ta
6. at the same temperature, molecules of every
gas have the same average kinetic energy
S
KM

7. ideal gas obeys the gas laws perfectly

30

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  REAL GASES

y
kk
1. Gases that shows deviation from ideal gas

ra
behaviour = real gases

Ta
2. Deviations occurs because 2 of the
assumptions are not valid for a real gas.
S
KM

31

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Real gases have the following features :

y
kk
 a. gas particles have a definite volume / do

ra
not have negligible volume

Ta
 b. there are attractive forces between
particles though they are usually very weak
S
KM

32

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 3. Real gas behaves more ideally under :

y
kk
a. low pressure :

ra
 few molecules which are widely spaced

Ta
 little intermolecular attraction and

 particles have negligible volume

S
KM

33

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 b. high temperature :

y
kk
 molecules move rapidly and intermolecular

ra
forces are not significant

Ta
4. Real gases shows biggest deviation from
ideal behaviour under :
S
a. high pressure :
KM

 many molecules packed closely together

34

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Therefore,

y
kk
 i) significant forces of attraction between
particles

ra
 ii) volume of particles not negligible

Ta
b. low temperature :
S
 Gas particles have low kinetic energy , move
KM

slowly and forms significant intermolecular

attraction

35

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 5. Different gases shows different degree of

y
kk
deviation , which depends on

ra
a. mainly intermolecular force of attraction

Ta
stronger forces of attraction ,
 greater deviation
S
KM

eg : CO2 vs NH3
 VDW in CO2 weaker than H-bond in NH3
 NH3 shows greater deviation
36

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 b. size of gas molecule / volume

y
kk
 Bigger size , greater deviation

ra
Eg : O2 vs CO2

Ta
 CO2 has stronger VDW and larger volume

 CO2 shows greater deviation

S
KM

37

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

38

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
Real Gas Deviates from Ideal Gas Equation.

y
kk

KMS TARAKKY
ra
Ta
S
KM

 Ideal gas has the conditions stated in kinetic theory of gasses

and obeys the ideal gas equation.
 Real gasses do not obey ideal gas equation.
 Deviation from ideal gas behavior is large at high pressure
and low temperature. 39

AS CAIE
  At lower pressures and high temperatures, the

y
real gas has deviation small from ideal behavior

kk
(obeys ideal gas equation fairly well)

KMS TARAKKY
ra
 Deviation from ideal gas behaviour depends on
the intermolecular forces on the gas molecules.

Ta
 The stronger the intermolecular force, the
larger the deviation.
S
 Mr of gas increase, num. of electron increase,
KM

larger deviation.

40

AS CAIE
 Deviation from ideal behavior can also be shown for a
given gas (N2) as a function of temperature:

y
kk

KMS TARAKKY
ra
Ta
S
KM

 At low temperature and high pressure, real gas

deviates from ideal gas equation.
 For the following temperatures, the deviation increase 41
as pressure increase.

AS CAIE
  Therefore, real gas behaves almost ideally at

y
high temperature and very low pressure.

kk

KMS TARAKKY
 Temperature decreased to very low, kinetic energy

ra
of particles are low deviation from ideal gas
equation becomes severe because the gas

Ta
condenses to liquid.
S
KM

42

AS CAIE
 LIQUIDS
 1. Change of state :

y
kk
Boiling

ra
melting
/vaporisatio

Ta
solid liquid n gases
freezing condensation
S
KM

sublimation

endothermic exothermic 43

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 a. solids must gain energy to melt

y
kk
 energy required to overcome some of the

ra
strong forces holding particles in fixed

Ta
positions
b. liquids must gain energy to boil
S
KM

 energy required to completely break the

forces between particles in liquid

44

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 2. Vapour pressure :

y
kk
 a. liquids exert vapour pressure

ra
 Molecules vaporise from surface of liquid to

Ta
become gas
 Vapour molecules exert a pressure on the
S
walls of any closed container
KM

45

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 b. temperature increase, vapour pressure

y
increase

kk
 Higher temp . Molecules have more kinetic

ra
energy and can vaporise more easily

Ta
 More vapour molecules , higher vapour
pressure
S
KM

 c. when vapour pressure = atmospheric

pressure , liquid boils

46

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Note :

y
kk
 Saturated vapour pressure

ra
 Evaporation in a closed container continues

Ta
until rate of evaporation = rate of condensation
 At this point , vapour is saturated
S
KM

 Pressure exerted is called saturated vapour

pressure

47

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 SOLIDS
1. Solids are crystalline.

y
kk
 Particles arranged in regular and orderly

ra
arrangement

Ta
 Represented by a lattice
 2. Lattice particles : atoms , ions or
S
KM

molecules

48

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 3. Coordination number = no of nearest

y
kk
neighbours

ra
 Larger coordination no , solid more dense

Ta
4. Four types of solids :
Giant ionic solid , giant molecular solid ,
S

KM

giant metallic solid and simple molecular

solid

49

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Giant Ionic Solids
1. Consists of oppositely charged ions packed

y
kk
closely together.

ra
 Distance between the nuclei of adjacent ions
is the sum of the 2 ionic radii

Ta
Eg : Na+ = 0.095 nm , Cl- = 0.181 nm
S
Distance = 0.095 + 0.181
KM

= 0.276 nm

50

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 2. Eg : solid NaCl

y
kk
 a. simple cubic structure , face centred cubic

ra
structure

Ta
 b. coordination number - 6 : 6
S
KM

51

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

52

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 GIANT IONIC SOLIDS
Oppositely charged ions held in a regular
3-dimensional lattice by electrostatic attraction
Eg : solid NaCl

y
kk
ra
Cl-

Ta
Chloride ion

S Na+
Sodium ion
KM

53

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

Each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl¯ (co-ordination number = 6)

and each Cl¯ is surrounded by 6 Na+ (co-ordination number = 6).
54

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

Each Na+ is surrounded by 6 Cl¯ (coordination number = 6)

and each Cl¯ is surrounded by 6 Na+ (coordination number = 6).
55
Coordination number of NaCl = 6 : 6
KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Part of crystal structure
of NaCl

y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

56

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 3. Type of bond : ionic bond

y
kk
4. Properties :

ra
a. ions in fixed positions – good conductors

Ta
when molten or in aqueous solution
b. strong ionic bonds – high melting point
S
KM

Strength of ionic bonds depends on charge

density of ions

57

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  Charge density = charge/size of ion

y
kk
 Higher charge density , stronger attraction

ra
between ions

Ta
 therefore higher melting point

c. strong bonds and ions held together closely

S
and rigidly in fixed positions - hard
KM

58

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 d. ions arranged in regular lattice ( have good

y
kk
cleavage planes ) – brittle

ra
e. forms ion-dipole attraction with water
molecules - generally soluble in water

Ta
Note : compounds with ions of high charge
S
density are not soluble eg MgO , Al2O3
KM

59

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 BRITTLE IONIC LATTICES

- - - -

y
+ + + +

kk
- -

ra
+ +
- + - +

Ta
IF YOU MOVE A LAYER OF IONS, YOU GET IONS OF THE SAME
S
CHARGE NEXT TO EACH OTHER. THE LAYERS REPEL EACH
KM

OTHER AND THE CRYSTAL BREAKS UP.

60

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Giant metallic solids
1. Lattice of positive ions surrounded by a sea

y
kk
of delocalised (mobile or free) electrons

ra
2. Type of bond : metallic bond

Ta
3. Have high coordination no – dense solids
S
KM

61

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 METALLIC BONDING

Involves a lattice of positive ions surrounded by delocalised electrons

y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

Atoms arrange in regular close
packed 3-dimensional crystal
lattices.
The outer shell electrons of each atom
leave to join a mobile “cloud” or “sea”
of electrons which can roam
throughout the metal. The electron
cloud binds the newly-formed positive
ions together.
62

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 4. Properties :

y
kk
a. strong metallic bonds – high melting point

ra
b. mobile electrons – good conductors when

Ta
solid or liquid
c. atoms held closely together by strong bonds
S
in fixed positions - hard
KM

63

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 d. rigid non directional bonds , atoms can slide

y
kk
over each other without breaking metallic bonds
– malleable and ductile

ra
Ta
S
KM

64

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 METALLIC PROPERTIES
Metals can have their shapes changed relatively easily

MALLEABLE CAN BE HAMMERED INTO SHEETS

y
DUCTILE CAN BE DRAWN INTO RODS AND WIRES

kk
ra
As the metal is beaten into another shape the delocalised electron cloud

Ta
continues to bind the “ions” together.
S
KM

Some metals, such as gold, can be hammered into sheets thin enough to
be translucent.

65

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Giant molecular ( covalent ) solid /
macromolecular solid
1. Covalent bonds between atoms bind all atoms

y
kk
into a giant molecule.

ra
Egs : diamond , graphite , silica SiO2

Ta
 silicon carbide , (SiC)n : similar to diamond

 silicon , germanium
S
KM

66

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 GIANT (MACRO) MOLECULES
DIAMOND

MELTING POINT VERY HIGH

many strongcovalent bonds must be broken to separate the atoms

y
STRENGTH STRONG

kk
each carbon is joined to four others in a rigid structure
Coordination Number = 4

ra
ELECTRICAL NON-CONDUCTOR
No free electrons - all four carbon electrons are used for bonding

Ta
S
KM

67

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 GIANT (MACRO) MOLECULES
GRAPHITE

MELTING POINT VERY HIGH

many strongcovalent bonds must be broken to separate the atoms

y
STRENGTH SOFT

kk
each carbon is joined to three others in a layered structure
Coordination Number = 3
layers are held by weak van der Waals’ forces

ra
can slide over each other

Ta
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTOR
Only three carbon electrons are used for bonding which
leaves the fourth to move freely along layers
S
KM

layers can slide over each other

used as a lubricant and in pencils

68

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 GIANT (MACRO) MOLECULES

y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

DIAMOND GRAPHITE

69

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 GIANT (MACRO) MOLECULES
SILICA, SiO2

MELTING POINT VERY HIGH

many strongcovalent bonds must be broken to separate the atoms

y
STRENGTH STRONG

kk
each silicon atom is joined to four oxygen atoms - C No. = 4
each oxygen atom are joined to two silicon atoms - C No = 2

ra
ELECTRICAL NON-CONDUCTOR - no mobile electrons

Ta
S
KM

70

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 2. Type of bond : covalent bond

y
kk
3. Properties :

ra
 a. atoms held by numerous strong

Ta
covalent bonds in a rigid structure – hard
and high melting point
S
KM

 b. no delocalised electrons or ions – non

conductor ( except graphite )

71

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 4. Comparing graphite and diamond :

y
kk
 a. C-C bond in graphite is stronger

ra
 - intermediate between single and double

Ta
bond
- C-C bond in diamond is a single bond
S
KM

 - graphite has higher melting point

72

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 b. Graphite is soft

y
kk
 - layers of atoms held by weak VDW

ra
forces , can slide over each other easily

Ta
 - soft ( used as lubricant )
Diamond is hard
S
KM

 - strong C-C bonds between atoms

arranged in a rigid tetrahedral structure

73

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 c. Delocalised electrons in graphite

y
kk
 - conducts electricity in a direction

ra
parallel to the planes containing the

Ta
hexagonal rings
but poor conductor perpendicular to the
S
KM

planes as electrons are unable to move

between planes

74

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  - Diamond is a non conductor as all

y
kk
electrons are involved in bonding , no

ra
delocalised/free electrons

Ta
S
KM

75

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Simple molecular solids /
molecular solids
1. Atoms are joined together within the molecule

y
kk
by strong covalent bonds

ra
 But the non polar molecules are attracted by
weak VDW forces
 Egs :
Ta
S
 Solid I2 , solid CO2 , solid sulphur
KM

76

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  Structure of solid I2

y
kk
 Face centred cubic structure

ra
 Coordination number = 12

Ta
 I2 molecules arranged in a cube with a
molecule at each corner and one at the
S
centre of each face
KM

77

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Solid iodine

y
kk
ra
Ta
S
KM

78

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 3. Properties :

y
kk
 a. weak VDW forces between molecules

ra
molecules easily separated

Ta
 - soft and low melting point
 b. no free mobile electrons or ions
S
KM

 - non conductor

79

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Hydrogen bonded solid
Eg : ice

y
kk
 Simple molecular solid

ra
 Each H2O surrounded tetrahedrally by 4

Ta
other molecules by hydrogen bonds
 Open structure
S
KM

 Ice less dense than liquid water

80

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 Modern use of materials
1. Metals :

y
kk
 a. Aluminium :

ra
i) properties

Ta
 - light yet strong
- malleable and ductile
S

KM

 - resists corrosion

81

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  Corrosion resistant :

y
kk
 Exposed to air , layer of oxide forms on the

ra
surface

Ta
 Oxide layer is non porous and adhering
 Seals off the metal from oxygen , no further
S
oxidation
KM

82

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  ii) Uses of Al metal :

y
kk
 (1)Excellent conductor of heat and electricity

ra
- used as heat exchangers

Ta
 (2)highly reflective – used in roofing to
insulate buildings
S
(3)Non toxic – used to make food equipment
KM


and in packaging

83

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 iii) Uses of Al alloys :

y
kk
 Duralumin ( Al , Mg , Cu ) and

ra
magnalium ( Ca , Al , Mg )

Ta
 Light yet strong

 Used in construction of aircrafts and ships

S
KM

84

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  b. Copper :

y
kk
i) Uses of copper metal :

ra
 (1)high electrical conductivity – used for

Ta
electrical wiring
 (2)chemically inert – used in domestic and
S
gas pipework
KM

85

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  (3) catalytic properties – used as catalyst in

y
kk
oxidation of methanol

ra
ii) Uses of copper alloys :

Ta
 (1) brass ( Cu , Zn ) – used for making
screws, hinges, decorative items, working
S
parts of watches and clocks
KM

86

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
  (2)bronze ( Cu , Sn ) – used for bearings and

y
kk
ship’s propellers

ra
 (3)cupro nickel ( Cu , Ni ) – used for making
coins

Ta
S
KM

87

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 2. Ceramics :

y
kk
a. have giant structures

ra
b. properties :

Ta
i) high melting point
ii) resistant to wear and abrasion
S
iii) resistant to heat and chemical attack
KM

iv) less likely to deform under compression

v) electrical insulator

88

KMS TARAKKY
AS CAIE
 c. Uses of ceramics :

y
 i) as furnace linings which must withstand high

kk
temperatures

ra
Eg : Al2O3 ( m.p = 23000 C)

Ta
MgO ( m.p = 28000 C )
 ii) in crockery, china, porcelain, pottery eg
S
KM

SiO2
 iii) as electrical insulators eg MgO ,SiC , Si3N4

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Carbon nanoparticles

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Graphite and diamond are not the only allotropes of

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carbon. In recent years, substances called fullerenes have
been made. The structure of many fullerenes is based on

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rings of carbon atoms, as is the structure of graphite. But

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many fullerenes exhibit properties unlike those of graphite.
The individual particles in fullerenes may have one of their
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dimensions between 0.1 and 100 nanometers (1 nanometre =
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10-9m). Particles of this size are called nanoparticles. Another

form of carbon, graphene, can be regarded as a single layer
of graphite.

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Fullerenes
Fullerenes are allotropes of carbon in the form of hollow spheres
or tubes. They are similar in structure to graphite, in that each
carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms. They
contain rings of carbon atoms arranged in hexagons and in
addition many contain rings of carbon atoms arranged in

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pentagons. The first fullerene discovered was called
buckminsterfullerene, C60 (Figure 5.16). The C60 molecule has

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the shape of a football (soccer ball). The carbon atoms are

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arranged at the corners of 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons. The
bonds where two hexagons join are shorter than the bonds
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between the hexagons and the pentagons. As in graphite, some
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of the electrons in C60 are delocalised, but to a lesser extent than

in graphite. Since the discovery of the C60 molecule, many types
of buckminsterfullerene have been discovered. Some are ball-
shaped molecules that are multiples of C60, e.g. C120. Other
fullerene molecules include C20, C70 and C72.
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The properties of buckminsterfullerene are significantly
different from those of graphite and diamond.

 It has a relatively low sublimation point: it turns directly from the

solid to the vapour state when heated to about 600 °C.

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(Graphite only turns from the solid to the vapour state at about
3700 °C). This is because there are weak van der Waal’s forces

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between each buckminsterfullerene molecule and no

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continuous layered giant structure as in graphite.
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 It is relatively soft because it does not require much energy to
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overcome the weak intermolecular forces.

 It is a poor conductor of electricity compared with graphite

because the extent of electron delocalisation is lower.
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 It is slightly soluble in solvents such as carbon disulphide and
methylbenzene. Neither diamond nor graphite is soluble in
common solvents.

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 It is more reactive compared with graphite or diamond.

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Buckminsterfullerene reacts with hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine,
bromine and oxygen. This is due to the relatively high electron

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density in certain parts of the molecule (see electrophilic addition

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on page 209).
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A second type of fullerene is a class of molecules described

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as nanotubes. Nanotubes are fullerenes of hexagonally
arranged carbon atoms like a single layer of graphite bent into

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the form of a cylinder (Figure 5.17). The first nanotubes to be

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made were one layer of carbon atoms in thickness. More
recently nanotubes have behave been made with thicker walls
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with several tubes inside one another. Although the diameter
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of a nanotube is very small, it can be made relatively long.

The length of the nanotube cylinder can be a million times
greater than its diameter.

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Nanotubes have characteristic properties:

 They have high electrical conductivity along the long axis of

the cylinder. This is because, like graphite, some of the

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electrons are delocalised and are able to move along the

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cylinder when a voltage is applied.

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 They have a very high tensile strength when a force is
applied along the long axis of the cylinder. They can be up to
100 times stronger than steel of the same thickness.
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 They have very high melting points (typically about 3500 °C).
This is because there is strong covalent bonding throughout
the structure.

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Fullerenes have a large range of potential uses. Reactive groups

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can be attached to their surfaces and metal complexes (see

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page 371) can also be formed. Small molecules or atoms can be
trapped in the cage of buckminsterfullerenes. Possible medical

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uses include delivering drugs to specific places in the body.

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Nanotubes are used in tiny electrical circuits as ‘wires’ and as
electrodes in paper-thin batteries. They can be incorporated into
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clothing and sports equipment for added strength. They have
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also been used in the treatment of certain types of cancer.

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Graphene

Graphene is a single isolated layer of graphite (Figure 5.18).

The hexagonally arranged sheet of carbon atoms is not

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completely rigid and it can be distorted.

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Graphene has some of the properties of
graphite, but they are more exaggerated. For example:

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1. Graphene is the most chemically reactive form of carbon.
Single sheets of graphene burn at very low temperatures and

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are much more reactive than graphite.

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2. Graphene is extremely strong for its mass.
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3. For a given amount of material, graphene conducts electricity

and heat much better than graphite.

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It has been said that ‘a one square metre hammock

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made of graphene could support a 4 kg cat but

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would weigh only as much as the cat’s whisker’.

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Potential applications of graphene include use in

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tiny electrical circuits and for tiny transistors,
touchscreens, solar cells and other energy
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storage devices.
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