This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery.
This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2023.3248157
Condition Assessment of Power Circuit Breakers
Based on Machine Learning Algorithms
Kerim Obarcanin, Senior Member IEEE, Dzenita Skulj, and Bakir Lacevic, Member, IEEE
Abstract –This paper presents two approaches to power
circuit breakers condition assessment. The first one covers a
wide variety of machine learning classification algorithms where
the input for the classification is a manually selected feature set.
The second one utilizes deep learning classification based on the
convolutional neural network. Both approaches revolve around
the idea behind spectral kurtosis, one of which exploits its visual
representation in the form of kurtogram. The first approach uses
a spectral kurtosis curve as the base for feature extraction while
the second approach uses a spectral kurtosis kurtogram as a
single input into the convolutional neural network. The
validation is performed on a large set of vibration signatures
and compared to competing state-of-the-art algorithms. The
results indicate promising features of the proposed approach.
Keywords—circuit breakers, vibration measurement, spectral
kurtosis, kurtogram, machine learning, deep learning
I. INTRODUCTION
More than two decades have passed since the first research
results related to the vibration-based condition assessment of
the mid and high-voltage circuit breakers (CB) were
published. Ever since, the reliability of the CBs, as well as
condition assessment methods, has tremendously improved.
However, the vibration-based methods until the present day,
have not been standardized and well accepted as the traditional
offline-based methods. Furthermore, the CB vibration
fingerprint mirrors its mechanical nature. The CB is one of the
most important and common type of switch equipment in a
power system. Since the CB is an electromechanical system,
the energy stored in the operating mechanism is released and
transmitted to the moving contacts through the mechanical
elements and linkages in a very short time frame. The high
energy of the moving mechanical parts transfer results in
extrusion, friction and impact of components and
subassemblies of the CB [1]. The mechanical nature of the
CB over time results in a potential decrease in performance.
Even though the reliability of the CB is continuously
improved, failures still take place which sometimes implies
costly consequences [2]. This calls for widely used time-based
condition assessment and maintenance of the CB. However,
the maintenance cost for aging CB is significant [3]. Thus, the
improvement of the CB reliability must be followed by the
improvement of the condition assessment methods.
The time-based maintenance is supplemented and, in some
cases, replaced by condition-based maintenance. The
excessive overhaul and expenses of time-based maintenance
are reduced by the utilization of condition-based maintenance.
However, to preserve the reliability of the power system grid
and its subassemblies including the CB, an accurate and
minimally invasive approach is a must. Most of the classical
CB testing methods and approaches are invasive, meaning the
partial or complete interruption of the CB normal operation is
__________________________________
K. Obarcanin is with DV Power, Stockholm, Sweden (email: kerim.o@dv-power.com)
Dz. Skulj is with OSB Engineering Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (email: dzenita.skulj@osb-connagtive.com)
B. Lacevic is with the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (email: blacevic@etf.unsa.ba)
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF AGDER. Downloaded on June 07,2023 at 08:35:13 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
© 2023 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
required [4]. It is desirable to utilize a non-invasive method to
obtain indices that will be used for the CB condition state
decision stage. Due to the mechanical nature of the CB, the
vibration signature recorded during the making and breaking
operation of the CB contains valuable information that can
indicate a potential issue. The acquiring vibration signature
does not require interfering with the normal operation thus it
represents a non-invasive measurement method.
Different approaches for analyzing the CB vibration
fingerprint have been used in literature and engineering
practice. In general, most of the methods available in literature
can be separated into two stages: the indices computation
stage and the decision stage. For computing the suitable
indices, the authors have adopted the analysis in the time
domain, frequency domain, and time-frequency domain as
well as other approaches combining the previously stated
domains. In the early stages of this topic, researchers used
approaches based on indices derived from statistical analysis
in the time domain [5]. Furthermore, the approach called Short
Time Energy (STE) uses windowing of the time domain signal
to obtain the energy of each segment [6]. On the other hand,
in the frequency domain, some of the authors approached the
analysis in a simple frequency spectrum of the vibration
fingerprint [7].
However, due to the non-stationary nature of the signal,
most of the authors reject the frequency domain as the single
tool for the condition assessment task. The time-frequency
domain has been utilized in the form of Continues Wavelet
Transform (CWT), Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) [8],
[9] and Hilbert Huang Transform (HHT) [10], [11]. Since the
non-stationary nature of the CB vibration fingerprint, some of
the provided approaches in the literature are based on spectral
decomposition of the signal based on Empirical Mode
Decomposition (EMD) [12], Ensemble Empirical Mode
Decomposition (EEMD) [13], Local Mean Decomposition
(LMD) [14], ensemble empirical mode decomposition with
adaptive noise (CEEMDAN) [15] and Variable Mode
Decomposition (VMD) [1], [16]. Combining previously
mentioned frequency and time-frequency methods with fields
such as chaos theory, some authors based their work on fractal
dimension [13], [17], ergodic quantities such as Largest
Lyapunov exponent [18] or information entropy [19], [20].
Also, there is a large portion of available literature that utilizes
variations of a well-known algorithm derived from the speech
recognition niche, the Dynamic Time Warp (DTW) [21], [22],
[23], [24].
The second stage – the decision stage – is directly
dependent on the previous one. Thus, the authors choose
machine learning classification methods based on Support
Vector Machine (SVM), [18], [19], [25], [26], Self-
Organizing Maps (SOM) [13], [27], Convolutional Neural
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2023.3248157
SELECTED METHODS OVERVIEW
Deep
No. Reference Domain
learning
1. Yang et.al. [47] Time-Freq No
2. Ye et.al. [28] Time Yes
3. Li et al. [25] Time-Freq No
4. Wang et al. [48] Time-Freq Yes
5. Mingliang et al. [49] Time-Freq No
6. Ruan et al. [50] Time No
7. Method BT Freq. No
8. Method CNNK Time-Freq Yes
Networks (CNN) [10], [28], Extreme Learning Machine
(ELM) [29], Classification and regression tree (CART) [30],
etc. Table I provides a succinct qualitative comparison of the
proposed methods with the most relevant ones from the
literature.
The methods presented in this paper provide the
noninvasive approach for detecting the potential issue of the
CB. The main idea elaborated in the paper is that most of the
anomalies and issues will reflect in the form of the prolonged
or delayed main contacts closing time of the CB. In
contemporary industrial applications, to obtain the main
contact closing time of the CB, two approaches can be
utilized. The first one includes deenergizing CB and applying
constant test current throughout the contact measuring voltage
drop. The second approach is to record the current change of
the current transformer secondary winding and compute the
main contact closing time using the obtained signals.
However, the first method requires downtime while the latter
method depends on the availability of the current transformer
of the CB. Both methods are invasive and require interfering
with the normal operation of the CB. To this end, the proposed
method does not interfere with the normal operation of the CB
while it detects any time deviation of the CB timing or motion
parameters. Furthermore, the proposed methods are not
oriented toward a specific issue like most of the other methods
available in the literature. The main goal of the proposed
method is primarily to detect the fault state of the CB without
necessarily isolating the type of fault or its location. In other
words, we are interested in the assessment of the manifestation
of the issue within CB, rather than in diagnosing or
pinpointing its specific component or subsystem that has
undergone failure.
The research highlights are listed as follows:
- Practicality and application – By providing spectral
kurtosis and kurtogram as a foundation of the
classification features, they may be used as a vanguard for
training the classifier for the tested but possibly for other
types of CB. Furthermore, the proposed algorithm does not
address the origin of the issue but focuses on the outcome
resulting in the deviation of the CB normal operation
which yields generality. Such an approach substantially
facilitates noninvasive monitoring of the CB.
- High classification accuracy – The proposed methods are
capable of detecting the CB with a potential issue with an
accuracy of nearly 100%, as presented in the experimental
results section. The obtained models substantially
outperform the state-of-the-art classifiers in terms of
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF AGDER. Downloaded on June 07,2023 at 08:35:13 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
© 2023 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
TABLE I
Output Assessment
Isolated faults Validation object
(Classes) signal
Multiclass (4) Vibration Not stated Not stated
Binary Vibration - ECC VS1-ZN63A
Multiclass (3) Vibration The loose screw, falling of the spring Not stated
Coil plunger jam, poor contact in coil
Multiclass (3) Vibration ECC VS1-ZN63A
circuit, jam in open latch
Multiclass (3) Vibration The loose screw, time delay Not stated
The jam between the coil and the
Vibration +
Multiclass (4) plunger, poor contact, jam in the open ECC VS1 series
Coil current
latch
Binary Vibration - ABB Emax SACE
Binary Vibration - ABB Emax SACE
accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, F1 score and Matthew
Correlation Coefficient.
- Knowledge representation – The spectral kurtosis and the
kurtogram preserve context-relevant features of the
vibration signal and represent discernible visual data
suitable for 2D input into the deep learning classification
network, which yields remarkably better classification
performance than a broad range of other vibration signal
representation modes. This knowledge represents the base
for further investigation and expansion of the proposed
algorithm in terms of specific issue diagnostic and
localization.
The paper is organized as follows: Section II provides
insight into the origin of the CB vibrations as well as the nature
of the signal itself. Section III describes the theoretical
background, along with the description of two proposed
methods. To confirm the proposed algorithm's effectiveness
and performance on the real object under test (OUT),
experimental results are provided in Section IV along with the
details about the test setup as well as performance comparison
with the relevant concurrent methods given in section V. The
limitations of the proposed methods are presented in section
VI. The concluding remarks are given in section VII.
II. THE ANATOMY OF THE CB VIBRATION SIGNATURE
Due to the electromechanical nature of the CB and its
structure consisting of interrupting unit, operating mechanism
and linkage, a series of superimposed percussion waves are
generated during the process of the energy transfer [31]. An
example of the vibration signature along with the time instant
of the main contact engagement for the closing operation and
the motion of the moving contacts of the de-energized CB is
given in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 - (a) Main contact closing operation, motion of the main
contacts and (b) vibration signature
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2023.3248157

Clearly, the vibration events are concentrated at the time represents the distance traveled by the contacts from the initial
of contact closing. However, the start of the operating starting position to the final resting position. The main contact
mechanism engagement as well as the linkage movement closing time parameters reflect the state of the control circuit
produces a portion of the vibration series superimposed before and the contact system while the motion stroke reflects the
the contacts closing event. Another series of vibration events condition of the operating mechanism and mechanical
are notable after the contacts are closed. Operation of the CB linkages. Since those parameters are defined by the IEC
(making and breaking main or arcing contacts) yields high- 62271-100:2021 standard and are well established in the
speed movement and high-intensity impacts resulting in the industry for detecting potential issues in offline testing
acceleration from zero to several meters per second in tens of methods, combined with the normal operation limits provided
milliseconds [1]. This makes the extraction of the exact by the manufacturer of the CB, the CB can be classified as a
closing time as defined by the standard, as well as changes in “Functional“ (F) or “Potentially defective“ (PD) in Stage 1.3
the total motion of the moving contacts (stroke), almost [32]. Stage 2.1 and Stage 2.2 differ depending on the method.
impossible.
To address the frequency content of the vibration signal,
Fig. 2 shows the power spectrum of the example of the healthy
CB where the closing time and stroke parameters are within
the limits defined by the manufacturer, and the CB with the
potential issue where the closing time parameter was outside
of the defined limits. It is evident that neither in the time nor
frequency domain there is no visible characteristic or pattern
that might differentiate the vibration fingerprint of healthy CB
from the one with a potential issue. The graphs presented in
Fig. 2 serve as a simple illustration that justifies our
motivation for digging deeper within different domains and
choosing more subtle classification features.

Fig. 3 - Feature calculation and classification training

A. Method BT: Manual features selection and classification

Fig. 2 - (a) Comparison of vibration signatures in time domain along
with corresponding (b) power spectrum of functional (F) and CB with
potential issue (PD)
III. PROPOSED METHODS
Two methods for CB condition assessment have been
proposed. The first method (Bagged Trees Based Method –
Method BT, Table I, Method No. 7) consists of a manual
selection of features followed by the classification using a
variety of machine-learning-based classification algorithms.
The second method (Method based on Convolutional Neural
Network and Kurtogram – Method CNNK, Table I, Method
No 8.) is based on kurtogram computation as a single feature
for the deep learning CNN-based approach. Despite their
differences, both methods have a similar workflow that
consists of two stages: the feature extraction and the decision
stage. As shown in Fig. 3, the feature extraction stage consists
of three substages.
In Stage 1.1. and Stage 1.2., the close operation of the CB
has been recorded and the CB main contacts closing time and
motion stroke have been calculated as scalar values. Main
contacts closing time is the time interval between energizing
the closing release and the instant when the contacts touch.
The motion stroke, also known as the total travel parameter,
Instead of using an original signal in the time domain or a
transformed signal in the frequency domain, for machine
learning classification we have obtained a set of features
derived from the spectral kurtosis (SK) curve. The SK is the
descriptor of the signal frequency domain which overcomes
the deficiency of the power spectral density (PSD) in
characterizing non-stationary signals [33]. While the PSD
represents a measure of position (time-average), the SK
represents the measure of dispersion (time-variance) of a time-
frequency energy density [34].
The SK has been introduced by Stewart et al. in the 1970s
and found its first industrial application in the 1980s for
detecting impulsive events in sonar systems [35]. The main
idea behind SK is to get a high value when the signal is
transient and a low or zero value when the signal is stationary
Gaussian [36]. The CB vibration signature is a series of
superimposed vibration signals resulting from multiple
mechanical events during operation. Defining SK calls for the
representation of a non-stationary vibration signal as a
stochastic process 𝑋(𝑡), as in Eq.1.
𝑌(𝑡) = 𝑋(𝑡) + 𝑁(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑿𝒌 ℎ(𝑡 − 𝑡𝑘 ) + 𝑁(𝑡). (1)
𝑘

Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF AGDER. Downloaded on June 07,2023 at 08:35:13 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
© 2023 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2023.3248157

Here, ℎ(𝑡) is the impulse response resulting from a single classification, the Minimum Redundancy Maximum
impact where {𝑿𝑘 }𝑘∈ℤ and {𝝉𝑘 }𝑘∈ℤ are sequences of a Relevance (MRMR) algorithm has been used.
random variable that account for possibly random amplitudes
The MRMR algorithm finds an optimal set of features that
and random occurrences of the impact, respectively. The
is mutually and maximally dissimilar and can represent the
𝑁(𝑡) represents stationary additive noise. The stochastic
response variable effectively. The core of the algorithm is
process 𝑋(𝑡) can be decomposed into:
minimizing the redundancy of a feature set and maximizing
1 the relevance of a feature set to the response variable.
2

𝑋(𝑡) = ∫ 𝐻(𝑡, 𝑓)𝑒 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑡 𝑑𝑍𝑥 (𝑓), (2) The goal of the MRMR algorithm is to find an optimal set
1
S of features that maximizes 𝑉𝑠 , the relevance of S with respect
−
2 to a response variable y, and minimizes 𝑊𝑠 , the redundancy of
where 𝑑𝑍𝑥 (𝑓) is spectral increment and 𝐻(𝑡, 𝑓) is the S, where 𝑉𝑠 and 𝑊𝑠 are defined with mutual information I:
complex envelope of 𝑋(𝑡) at frequency f. This representation
is also known as the Wold-Cramer representation [34].
1 1
According to this representation (Eq.2), the SK is defined as a 𝑉𝑠 = ∑ 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑊𝑠 = 2 ∑ 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑧). (5)
fourth-order cumulant: |𝑆| |𝑆|
𝑥∈𝑆 𝑥,𝑧∈𝑆

〈|𝐻(𝑡, 𝑓)4 |〉 The predictor importance score (PIS) is obtained as

𝐾𝑥 (𝑓) = − 2, (3)
〈|𝐻(𝑡, 𝑓)2 |〉2
𝑉𝑥
where 〈∎〉 stands for the temporal averaging operator. Thus, 𝑃𝐼𝑆 = , (6)
based on Eq.3, the spectral kurtosis of the signal 𝑌(𝑡) can be 𝑊𝑥
defined as: where 𝑉𝑥 and 𝑊𝑥 are the relevance and redundancy of a
feature, respectively:
𝐾𝑥 (𝑓)
𝐾𝑦 (𝑓) = , (4)
[1 + 𝜌(𝑓)]2
1
where 𝜌(𝑓) is the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio at frequency f 𝑉𝑥 = 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑊𝑥 = ∑ 𝐼(𝑥, 𝑧). (7)
|𝑆|
𝑧∈𝑆
[33]. To provide meaningful and informative indices that well
separate the F class from the PD class, we first describe a
According to the MRMR algorithm, the ranking of the
selection of statistical parameters that are in line with the
selected indices is shown in Fig. 5. Interestingly, the Shannon
notion of the SK curve. Thus, the following indices have been
(information) entropy (IE) has the highest PIS followed by the
considered: harmonic mean (HM), kurtosis (kurt), second-
median value and variance. Using the selected indices, the
order central moment (2nd CM), skewness (skew), mean value,
series of machine learning classification algorithms have been
median value, 10% trimmed mean (10% TM), standard
trained and tested. The results are shown in Section IV.
deviation (SD), variance (var), covariance (covar), signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR), signal to noise and distortion ratio
(SINAD), peak to root mean square (PRMS) with a total of 14
indices. As additional indices, the signal energy and Shannon
information entropy (IE) have been added to the indices set
totaling 16 parameters. It is worth pointing out that we have
considered a significantly broader set of feature candidates.
After the extensive empirical study, a reduced set of the most
influential features is kept for further analysis. For a visual
comparison, Fig. 4 shows an example of SK curves for signals
from the F and PD classes.

Fig. 5 - Selected indices importance ranking

B. Method CNNK: Deep Learning

Fig. 4 - Comparison of the SK curve of F and PD class signal
Since the above indices have been experimentally selected
to provide a balance between computational intensity and
classification performance, it is advised to rank them
(according to their importance) to possibly omit the
unnecessary features for classification. As criteria for
determining how selected features are suitable for
Method CNNK does not rely on manually selected
features. Instead, it uses a kurtogram image of the raw
vibration fingerprint. Fig. 6 shows examples of kurtograms for
the healthy and unhealthy vibration fingerprints of real CB.
Intuitively, the differences between kurtograms for healthy
and unhealthy vibration fingerprints are notable. To visualize
SK in form of a kurtogram, authors pursue different
approaches and algorithms [37], [38], [39].
The very first version of the SK estimator utilizes the Short
Time Fourier Transform (STFT) and, as a formal extension,
the concept of the term kurtogram has been proposed by
Antoni et al. [40]. In essence, the map formed by STFT-based

Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF AGDER. Downloaded on June 07,2023 at 08:35:13 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
© 2023 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2023.3248157

SK as a function of frequency f and STFT window length 𝑁𝑤
is called kurtogram. However, to yield the “true“ central
frequency and bandwidth, all possible widths should be
enumerated which makes the method computationally very
intense. As an improvement, the Fast kurtogram (FK) of the
complexity 𝑁𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑁 based on an arborescent multi-rate filter
bank structure has been proposed [41].
preprocessing stage. Finally, the preprocessed kurtogram
images are resized to 256x256 pixels using the lanczos3
interpolation kernel. The information loss during the
resampling process is inevitable, however, we have not
observed any substantial performance degradation of the
classifier when resized kurtograms are used as inputs. The
CNN has been fed with pre-processed kurtograms along with
the corresponding labeled “class“, thus following a typical
workflow of supervised learning.

Fig. 6 - The kurtogram example for the (a) “Functional” and (b)
“Potentially defective” real CB vibration fingerprint

Nevertheless, there is a variety of approaches for

kurtogram creation which are based on WT [33], [42] where
instead of the STFT, the DWT has been used. To decrease the
computational intensity and thus render this method more
suitable for industrial monitoring applications, our approach
is based on a pyramidal 1/3 binary tree multi-rate filter bank
kurtogram estimator. The 1/3 binary tree filter bank approach
is illustrated in Fig. 7. The process of creating a filter tree starts
with decomposing the original vibration fingerprint using
quasi-analytic band-pass filters, in the frequency bands [0;
1/6], [1/6; 1/3] and [1/3; 1/2] respectively. This approach is
continued in a pyramidal manner until level 𝑘 − 1, where after
each level the obtained decomposed signals are downsampled
by a factor of 3. While with each level, the number of filtered
sequences increases by factor 3, their respective lengths
decrease by the same factor thus the overall amount of data
remains the same. As a final stage, kurtogram is formed by
calculating the SK of each decomposed signal element.
As a natural classifier among image-based data, a 2D CNN
is chosen. In this case, CNN is used to infer patterns and
classify input images that depict kurtograms, therefore,
discriminating between healthy and unhealthy CBs. The size
of the original kurtograms is 875x656 pixels, which implies
high computational costs to train a model with original
images. Thus, kurtograms are pre-processed before training
the model in form of scaling, axes removal and image resizing.
The scaling simply means that all axes of each kurtogram
image are set to the same range. Since the kurtogram is a pure
color-coded representation, axes are then removed in the
Fig. 8- 1/3 tree based Fast kurtogram principle
The output of the CNN is binary in form of 1 for the
healthy CB (class F) while 0 is the one with potential issue
(class PD). The architecture of the CNN is given in Fig. 8. The
CNN network has three convolutional layers with
accompanying three pooling layers. The convolutional layer
is the first layer in the network, and it produces feature maps
based on input images, the number of filters, and the size of
filters. The first convolutional layer produces 64 feature maps
with the size 254 x 254 since the number of filters is 64 with
kernel size 3 x 3. As mentioned before, after the convolutional
layer, there is a max-pooling layer that resizes feature maps to
127 x 127 pixels since the size of the pooling is 2 x 2. The
second convolutional layer gives 48 feature maps with the size
125 x 125, which means there are 48 filters with kernel size 3
x 3. Max-pooling layer again resizes the feature maps to the
size of 63 x 63. The last convolutional layer consists of 32
filters with kernel size 3 x 3. Accordingly, it gives 32 feature
maps of size 61x61. These feature maps are input to the max-
pooling layer, which resizes maps to 31 x 31 pixels. These
three convolutional and max-pooling layers can be considered
the first stage of the CNN network. The layer after max-
pooling is the flattened layer, followed by fully connected

Fig. 7 - The architecture of the Convolution Neural Network model

Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF AGDER. Downloaded on June 07,2023 at 08:35:13 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
© 2023 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2023.3248157

(FC) layers. The flattened and FC layers represent the second calculated parameters and corresponding vibration
stage of the CNN. The flattened layer converts feature maps fingerprints. For experimental OUT, statistically obtained
to a one-dimensional (1D) vector. 1D feature map is acceptable limit, using 6% deviation from the average main
forwarded to an FC layer with 128 units, then transferred to contact closing time and 4% of the average motion stroke for
the second FC layer that produces one binary output (1 or 0) the first 100 operations of the CB before it became worn out,
since the Sigmoid activation function is used in the last layer. are [58, 61] ms and [48, 51] °, respectively. The results within
Other layers use Rectified Linear Unit (ReLu) activation the defined limits are labeled with class F. Any deviation
function since it is commonly used in CNN due to its faster outside of this parameter range yields labeling with class PD.
operation. It is worth noting that the dropout layer is used The obtained result set is imbalanced with the higher number
between the flattened and FC layer to prevent overfitting. As of results classified as F (91.69 %) compared to the ones
a loss function, binary cross-entropy is chosen. In essence, it labeled as PD (8.31 %). As expected, most of the PD labels
is suitable due to discrete classifier output. Furthermore, since come toward the end of the test before the CB failure.
the loss is logarithmic in nature, it yields a large loss for large
differences close to 1 and a small loss for small differences B. Results – Method BT
tending to 0. Moreover, it can compensate for any exponential In order to obtain the best possible performance with the
behavior that is often given through activation units like selected indices as well as to yield the most suitable machine
Sigmoid or SoftMax [43], [44]. Finally, the Adam optimizer learning classification algorithm for this task, a number of
is used in this network due to its efficient way of changing the learning attempts (different classifiers and different subsets of
learning rate during the training. All computations, design and features) have been conducted using the full set of 16 features.
training have been performed using MathWorks MATLAB The trained model has been validated using 5-fold cross-
2022a, specifically Neural Network Toolbox and Deep validation and tested with the 5% of dedicated data.
Learning Toolbox for the Method BT. For the Method CNNK, TABLE II
the Python libraries Keras 2.4.0, scikit-learn 1.0.0., NumPy, RESULTS OF CLASSIFICATION WITH FULL 16-FEATURES DATASET
Pandas and matplotlib.pyplot 3.5.0. have been used. Acc Sens Spec F1
Algorithm MCC
[%] [%] [%] score
IV. EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION
Fine Tree 92.72 68.56 93.35 33.66 36.61
To validate the proposed methods, the test has been Medium Tree 91.93 65.22 92.06 10.67 18.75
conducted on real CB and vibration fingerprints have been Coarse Tree 91.61 33.33 91.66 01.53 5.43
recorded during its operation. The experiment consisted of the Gaussian Naive Bayes 72.50 18.40 96.00 01.50 7.81
brand new CB which has been put under test with a large
Kernel Naive Bayes 80.09 21.15 94.86 28.45 24.36
number of operations during which parameters such as main
Linear SVM 91.63 50.00 91.64 - -
contact closing and opening time, coil current, main contact
motion, auxiliary channels as well as vibration fingerprint in Quadratic SVM 91.62 50.00 91.64 - -
1 position on the chassis of the CB have been recorded. Cubic SVM 74.12 10.54 92.26 01.40 7.41
Fine Gaussian SVM 94.80 87.71 95.07 63.20 64.25
A. Test setup and Data Acquisition Medium Gaussian SVM 91.66 50.00 91.64 - -
The OUT used for the experimental validation of the Coarse gaussian SVM 91.69 50.00 91.64 - -
proposed algorithm has been de-energized and not grounded Fine KNN 95.95 74.17 98.00 76.53 74.36
ABB SACE 2 EMAC CB family member CB. One PR MEMS Medium KNN 93.25 61.05 95.60 54.08 50.48
(piezoresistive micro electromechanical system) mono-axial Coarse KNN 91.64 13.64 91.64 02.29 7.44
accelerometer is used for recording the vibration fingerprint –
Cosine KNN 93.13 60.53 95.61 53.81 50.12
mounted on the CB chassis. The used Brüel & Kjær type 4393
Cubic KNN 93.10 60.45 95.57 53.45 49.84
accelerometer has a frequency range of [0.1 16500] 𝐻𝑧 and
Weighted KNN 96.77 81.70 98.00 79.89 78.14
sensitivity 0.316 ± 2% 𝑝𝐶/(𝑚/𝑠 2 ). The vibration signal as
well as main contact voltage and motion trajectory has been Boosted Trees 91.75 92.30 91.70 03.20 11.23
acquired using Brüel & Kjær data acquisition system and Bagged Trees 97.80 96.38 97.87 85.50 85.10
Pulse LABSHOP software suite. In the available literature, Subspace KNN 97.43 90.55 97.96 83.02 81.85
there are several approaches available for mounting the RUSBoosted Trees 67.25 18.44 98.00 30.50 29.22
vibration sensor and the most common are screws [24], glue Linear Discriminant 91.22 28.75 91.38 23.42 18.45
[45], wax and magnets [46]. Since the intention of this Quadratic Discriminant 81.42 21.21 94.42 - -
experimental setup is a large number of operations spread Logistic Regression 91.69 50.00 91.64 - -
throughout several weeks, mounting with the beeswax is not
appropriate. Mounting using strong magnets reduces the
frequency bandwidth of the recorded vibration pattern. The ratio of datasets for training/validation/test has been
Accordingly, the mounting has been performed using strong designated to 76% / 19% / 5% of the complete dataset,
rigid glue. The experiment was initiated on the brand new respectively. Using this specific data allocation for training,
OUT until its failure. The signals required for the calculation validation and testing, we have preserved the ratio of the initial
of the main contact closing time, motion stroke, rebound and dataset of 91.69% for F and 8.31% for the PD class. Most of
overtravel are acquired at the rate of 20 kHz while vibration the tested machine learning classification algorithms had a
signals are sampled at the rate of 33 kHz. The selected promising performance. Performance of the classifiers
sampling rates are in accordance with the ones used in the presented with F1 and MCC in the following tables are
available research literature as well as in industrial practice. A multiplied by 100 for a sake of clear presentation. However,
total of 35473 complete cycles of the de-energized CB the best results in terms of accuracy have been achieved with
consisted of open operation, charge spring, and close Ensemble Bagged Trees (97.80%) as well as the highest F1
operation. All closing operations are extracted along with the score (85.50) and Mathew Correlation Coefficient (85.10).

Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF AGDER. Downloaded on June 07,2023 at 08:35:13 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
© 2023 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2023.3248157

Training this classification algorithm yielded a sensitivity C. Results – Method CNNK

of 96.38 % and a specificity of 97.87%. The next step is It turns out that the performance of the machine learning
optimizing the number of features needed for good classification obtained using Method BT can be improved
performance classification. For that purpose, the training with while the process of the feature selection is simplified at the
the best-performing Ensemble Bagged Trees have been same time. This statement is justified by the results obtained
repeated ramping up the cardinality of the feature set, adding using deep learning utilized in Method CNNK. Due to the fact
one feature for each iteration with the respect to the predictor that the result set is highly imbalanced, the available data set
importance score: Set 1 {IE}, Set 2 {IE, Median Value}, Set is portioned into the training set with 1000 results of the F
3 {IE, Median Value, Variance}, Set 4 {IE, Median Value, class and 1000 results of the PD class, and the validation set is
Variance, 10% Trimmed Mean}, etc. Based on this approach, chosen as 30% of the training set. The number of 1000
the total number of feature sets is 16. Using this strategy, a operations for training test data turned out to be statistically
total of 16 ensembles bagged trees classification models have relevant considering the average number of operations that a
been trained. The accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, F1 score CB performs in its lifetime. After obtaining the model, the
and MCC of the training and validation with each set are given model behavior is tested on new data. The test data contains
in Table III and graphically presented in Fig. 9. 351 results from class PD and 351 results from class F. For the
TABLE III differences between F and PD classes, please refer to Fig. 2
ENSEMBLE BAGGED TREES PERFORMANCE and Fig. 6. The testing and evaluation of the trained model
Acc Sens Spec F1 have been conducted with the test data set in several iterations
Set Features MCC
[%] [%] [%] score
varying the number of members of each class.
1 IE 95.91 74.06 98.04 76.35 74.16
2 Set 1 + Median 97.25 87.97 97.91 82.05 80.74 The testing is done as mentioned due to the nature of real
3 Set 2 + Variance 97.43 90.37 97.90 83.14 82.10 CB, where it is known that the number of vibrations signatures
4 Set 3 + 10% TM 97.51 92.44 97.90 83.67 82.77 of class F is much greater than the number of vibration
5 Set 4 + Mean 97.56 92.78 97.89 84.02 83.16 signatures of class PD. In Table IV the results of training and
6 Set 5 + SNR 97.70 94.76 97.86 84.52 83.82
testing the trained model are given. The accuracy of the
training model is 99.98%, with a loss of 0.00015. The
7 Set 6 + Energy 97.61 94.70 97.85 84.38 83.67
accuracy of the validation set is slightly lower, with a value of
8 Set 7 + Kurtosis 97.81 96.45 97.85 85.08 84.56
99.80 % and a loss of 0.009. Finally, the test set with 351
9 Set 8 + SD 97.81 96.68 97.88 85.15 84.67 signatures of class F and 351 signatures of class PD, and its
10 Set 9 + CM 97.73 95.65 97.87 85.01 84.48 accuracy is 99.80 % while the value of the loss is 0.0019. The
11 Set 10 + Covar. 97.74 95.98 97.86 85.13 84.61 confusion matrix for the trained CNN model is shown in Table
12 Set 11 + Skew. 97.80 96.20 97.88 85.28 84.78 V. The model performance is tested on different test sets.
13 Set 12 + THD 97.80 96.67 97.85 85.21 84.73
TABLE IV
14 Set 13 + SINAD 97.75 96.11 97.85 84.88 84.37 PERFORMANCE OF THE CNN
15 Set 14 + PRMS 97.81 97.18 97.82 85.20 84.73 Training Validation Test
16 Set 15 + HM 97.80 97.07 97.87 85.20 84.77 Accuracy [%] 99.98 99.80 99.80
Loss 0.00015 0.0090 0.0019
Sensitivity [%] 99.84
Specificity [%] 100
F1 Score 99.98
MCC 99.88

TABLE V
THE CONFUSION MATRIX FOR THE TRAINED CNN MODEL
False 998 2
Actual value
True 0 1000
False True
Predicted value

Table VI presents accuracies and losses for different test

Fig. 9- (a) Accuracy, (b) sensitivity and specificity and (c) F1 score
and MCC of Ensemble Bagged Tree algorithm as function of number
of features
As can be seen from Table III and Fig. 9, the optimal
classification performance has been achieved ending with the
feature set 8 (the sensitivity of 96.45%, specificity of 97.85%,
accuracy of 97.81%, F1 score of 85.08 and MCC of 84.56)
since it achieves optimum performance with the minimum
number of features. A marginal performance improvement
can be spotted when using a feature set 9, however, with an
expense of using the additional feature.
data sets, with numbers of signatures from class F and class
PD. From Table VI one can conclude that the model is robust
since the accuracy is high and loss is low regardless of the
number of PD or F class signatures. This statement is
supported by the F1 and MCC metrics as well. As the
comparison of the proposed two methods, the results are
presented in Table VI. Clearly, Method CNNK exhibits better
performance. For the sake of visual perception, the data
provided in Table VI are graphically presented in Fig. 10,
precisely the trend of the accuracy of both methods for the
case with the constant number of F and PD class results.

Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF AGDER. Downloaded on June 07,2023 at 08:35:13 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
© 2023 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2023.3248157

V. COMPARISON WITH OTHER METHODS
An additional step in the proposed method validation is the
comparison with the selected methods provided in the
literature. Since there is a wide variety of methods and
approaches described in the published papers, the benchmark
comparison will be focused on the 2 most related methods.
The training of the machine learning classification algorithms
proposed in both methods is performed using the same
vibration signatures data set as in Section IV containing 1000
examples of PD and 1000 examples of F class. Additionally,
the proposed methods are tested using the variable number of
instances from each class. The comparison of the obtained
results is presented in Table VI. The first method (denoted as
Reference method 1, Table I, No. 1) to be compared is the one
based on the EEMD, where the first 4 IMFs are used to obtain
the correlation dimension using G-P algorithm [47]. The
obtained 4 correlation dimensions are used as a feature vector
for the SVM machine learning algorithm training. A similar
approach regarding the feature extraction stage is persuaded
by other authors with the main difference in classification
algorithms [17], [13]. Along with these differences, the
concept can be found in a vast range of available research
papers with the difference in the decomposition approach in
form of LMD, EMD, EEMD, VMD, etc. Since the method
[47] assumes multiclass output, the comparison is performed
such that all three faulty classes are treated as a PD class. The
second method (denoted as Reference method 2, Table I, No.
2) used for a comparison with our method is based on the one-
dimensional convolution neural network (1D-CNN) enriched
with attention mechanism and capsule layer [28]. The original
unprocessed vibration signal is used as the input signal into
the network. The authors state, considering the network
consisted of two convolution layers and one capsule layer, that
the main benefit is the independence of a number of samples
while keeping the network architecture simple. The
performances of the training of the machine learning
classification algorithms based on 1000 F and 1000 PD,
provides the following results. For Reference method 1.,
obtained an accuracy of 95.49 %, a sensitivity of 95.49 % and
a specificity of 91.40 % of the model using the proposed
feature vector underperforms the classification performance

TABLE VI
EVALUATION OF PROPOSED MODELS AND COMPARISON WITH CONCURENT ALGORITHMS
Class Method BT Method CNNK Reference Method 1 [47] Reference Method 2 [28]
Sens F1 Sens F1 Sens F1 Sens F1
Acc [%] Score Acc [%] Score Acc [%] Score Acc [%] Score
F PD
[%] Spec [%] Spec [%] Spec [%] Spec
MCC MCC MCC MCC
[%] [%] [%] [%]
100 88.20 99.72 99.86 97.11 85.38 95.79 94.43
351 351 98.61 99.83 97.33 97.91
98.22 88.17 100 99.57 96.01 82.96 92.22 88.66
100 87.76 99.72 99.86 96.99 87.31 95.73 95.71
175 98.55 99.81 96.40 94.30
97.77 87.06 100 99.57 96.11 86.21 91.43 87.21
100 87.76 99.72 99.86 93.67 81.23 95.73 96.75
87 98.63 99.77 95.90 94.75
98.32 87.06 100 99.30 96.38 86.23 90.8 84.18
100 85.22 99.72 99.86 87.50 74.43 95.73 97.33
43 99.00 99.75 96.70 95.17
98.87 85.11 100 98.72 97.74 84.47 90.69 78.40
100 85.21 99.72 99.86 78.26 79.91 95.73 97.53
21 99.51 99.73 97.80 95.43
99.43 85.11 100 97.56 99.14 81.11 90.48 69.00
100 80.01 99.72 99.86 61.54 79.91 95.73 97.71
351

10 99.41 99.72 98.10 95.29

99.43 79.84 100 95.21 99.43 82.33 80.00 56.51
100 80.01 99.72 99.86 44.44 79.91 95.73 97.72
5 99.74 99.72 98.30 95.51
99.72 79.84 100 95.21 99.71 82.33 80.00 39.61
100 80.01 99.72 99.86 16.67 79.91 95.73 97.87
2 99.75 99.72 98.30 95.75
99.72 79.84 100 81.53 99.71 82.33 100 33.58
100 78.16 99.72 99.86 16.67 79.91 95.73 97.88
1 100 99.72 98.60 95.73
100 75.15 100 70.61 100 82.21 100 24.54
- - - - - - - -
0 100 99.72 98.60 95.73
- - - - - - - -
100 87.23 99.43 99.71 99.10 89.16 96.00 86.36
175 97.94 99.81 96.00 93.92
94.09 86.56 100 99.57 90.53 84.32 92.87 83.31
100 86.11 98.85 99.43 99.70 89.01 97.70 76.45
87 97.54 99.77 95.70 93.84
88.78 85.05 100 99.29 82.70 82.01 92.89 75.22
100 86.06 100 100 100 79.92 97.67 60.60
43 97.23 100 95.40 93.40
79.63 85.00 100 100 70.49 81.99 92.88 62.40
100 84.55 100 100 100 79.92 95.24 40.91
21 97.01 100 95.20 93.01
65.63 83.11 100 100 53.85 81.99 92.88 46.67
100 84.34 100 100 100.00 79.92 90.00 28.63
351

10 97.00 100 95.00 92.80

47.62 83.11 100 100 35.72 81.99 92.88 39.32
100 82.11 100 100 100 79.90 100 13.81
5 96.91 100 94.90 92.98
31.25 81.00 100 100 21.74 80.67 92.88 26.21
100 81.09 100 100 100 74.44 100 7.45
2 96.90 100 94.90 92.92
15.38 79.34 100 100 10.00 79.93 92.88 18.91
100 79.88 100 100 100 74.39 92.90 7.49
1 96.90 100 94.90 91.11
8.33 75.89 100 100 10.00 79.93 100 18.90
- - - - - - - -
0 96.93 100 94.90 -
- - - - - - - -

Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF AGDER. Downloaded on June 07,2023 at 08:35:13 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
© 2023 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2023.3248157
obtained using Method CNNK. Furthermore, Reference
method 2 performance accuracy of 99.67 %, underperforms
the accuracy of 99.98% of our proposed algorithm as well.
Additionally, the results of the performances for Reference
methods 1 and 2 with the different levels of imbalance are
given in Table VI as well.
Fig. 10 - Accuracy of both proposed methods a) F sample size of 351
and PD with variable size and b) PD sample size of 351 and F with
variable size
According to the data from Table VI, Method CNNK
clearly outperforms Method BT, but also the competing
methods [28] and [47] across all the levels of imbalance within
the test data.
VI. LIMITATIONS OF THE APPROACH
Despite the successful validation of the proposed methods,
there are certain limitations that might even be considered as
future work in this research field. The limitations are:
- The CB type – The proposed Method CNNK has been
validated based on the data acquired from a single type of
CB. Method CNNK is likely to be applicable for any CB
type due to the similarities of the vibration origin.
However, this cannot be stated for sure at this moment.
- Classification limitations – Method CNNK is the binary
classification method and does not provide the estimation
of the residual lifetime of the CB.
- The severity of the potential defect – This limitation is
tightly connected to the previous one. Even if the method
indicates the potential effect of the CB, there is no
estimation of the degree of severity.
VII. CONCLUSION
Even though the spectral kurtosis and its visualization in
form of kurtogram are mostly utilized for assessing the
condition of the rotating machines, the method presented in
this paper is a novelty in form of using the modified concept
for assessing the CB operational condition. The presented
method has demonstrated promising features that may serve
as a useful tool for condition assessment in terms of periodic
maintenance testing. Even more so, the machine learning
element, which provides a high-accuracy binary classification,
enables a monitoring-based condition assessment. If needed,
appropriate diagnostic and corrective action may follow.
Though the proposed classification-based approach provides
a broad type of fault detection, its binary nature clearly adds
to its generality. Low computational intensity along with the
high accuracy of the trained model makes this method a highly
promising candidate to be part of the CB monitoring system.
Future work will address three research lines. Firstly, the
performance of the proposed algorithm will be tested in the
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF AGDER. Downloaded on June 07,2023 at 08:35:13 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
© 2023 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
real-world field environment considering multiple various
CBs. The second open problem is to test the algorithm
dependency on the vibration sensor mounting approach. The
third aspect worth investigating is whether kurtogram captures
the information on specific issues (loosed bolt, jammed or
partially jammed dumper, etc.). This approach may provide
the means to finer-grained diagnostics, rather than a binary-
classification-based one. Finally, this approach should be
considered for other types of CBs covering different voltage
levels, different contact system constructions and as well as
operating mechanisms.
REFERENCES
[1] K. Obarcanin, B. Lacevic and M. Ermidoro, "A High-Voltage Circuit
Breaker Condition Assessment Method using the Vibration
Fingerprint based on VMD-EM method," in IEEE International
Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC),
Dubrovnik, Croatia, 2020.
[2] N. Charbkaew, T. Suwanasri, T. Bunyagul and A. Schnettler,
"Vibration Signal Analysis for Condition Monitoring of Puffer-Type
High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Using Wavelet Transform," IEEE
Transactions ON Electrical and Electronic Engineering, vol. 7, no. 1,
pp. 13-22, 2012.
[3] J. Huang, X. Hu and F. Yang, "Support vector machine with genetic
algorithm for machinery fault," Elsevier Measurement, no. 44, pp.
1018-1027, 2011.
[4] A. Secic and K. Obarcanin, "Power circuit breaker condition
assessment based on vibration fingerprint measurement and why it can
save your day," NETA World Magazine, pp. 89-95, 2017.
[5] D. Dyer and R. Steward, "Detection of Rolling Element Bearing
Damage By Statistical Vibration Analysis," American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, vol. 100, no. 2, pp. 229-235, 1977.
[6] Y. Meng, S. Jia, Z. Shi and M. Rong, "The Detection of the Closing
Moments of a Vacuum Circuit Breaker by Vibration Analysis," IEEE
Transaction on Power Delivery, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 652-658, 2006.
[7] S. Park, M. Lai, C. Lin, H. Naidu, A. Soom, A. Reinhorn, Y. Lee, V.
Demjanenko, D. Benenson and T. Soong, "Measurements for
Noninvasive Mechanical Diagnostics of Power Circuit Breakers,"
Electric Power Systems Research, vol. 19, no. 1, pp. 1-10, 1990.
[8] R. A. Munteanu, A. A. Pop, H. Balan and M. Buzdugan, "Wavelet
Analysis in Monitoring and Diagnosis of Power Circuit Breakers," in
International Conference on Applied and Theoretical Electricity
(ICATE), Craiova, Romania, 2014.
[9] J. Tang, S. Lu, J. Xie and Z. Cheng, "Contact Force Monitoring and
Its Application in Vacuum Circuit Breakers," IEEE Transactions on
Power Delivery, vol. 32, no. 5, pp. 2154-2161, 2017.
[10] Q. Yang, J. Ruan, Z. Zhuang and D. Huang, "Condition Evaluation for
Opening Damper of Spring Operated High-Voltage Circuit Breaker
Using Vibration Time-Frequency Image," IEEE Sensors Journal, vol.
19, no. 18, pp. 8116-8126, 2019.
[11] W. Zhang, Y. Guan, W. Liu, C. Tang, J. Wu, J. Zhong and Z. Yang,
"Vibration characteristics during mechanism endurance test of a high
voltage circuit breaker," in Proceedings of 2012 IEEE International
Conference on Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, 2012.
[12] C. Lu and X. Hu, "A new method of fault diagnosis for high-voltage
circuit-breakers based on Hilbert-Huang transform," in Second IEEE
Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications, 2007.
[13] Y. Xing and M. Liu, "A method of classified HV circuit breaker fault
signal based on EEMD and SOM neural network," in Chinese Control
And Decision Conference (CCDC), 2018.
[14] L. Yongbo, S. Shubin, L. Zhiliang and L. Xihui, "Review of local
mean decomposition and its application in fault diagnosis of rotating
machinery," Journal of Systems Engineering and Electronics, vol. 30,
no. 4, pp. 799-814, 2019.
[15] W. Gao, S. Qiao, R. Wai and M. Guo, "A Newly-Designed Diagnostic
Method for Mechanical Faults of High-Voltage Circuit Breakers Via
SSAE and IELM," IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and
Measurement, vol. 70, pp. 1-13, 2021.
 This article has been accepted for publication in IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. This is the author's version which has not been fully edited and
content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TPWRD.2023.3248157
[16] Q. Yang, J. Ruan, Z. Zhuang, D. Huang and Z. Qiu, "A New Vibration
Analysis Approach for Detecting Mechanical Anomalies on Power
Circuit Breakers," IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 14070 - 14080, 2019.
[17] Z. Jianfeng, L. Mingliang, W. Keqi, X. Jingyan and S. Shuli, "Feature
extraction of HV circuit breaker based on ensemble empirical mode
decomposition and correlation dimension," in Electronic
Measurement & Instruments (ICEMI), 2015 12th IEEE International
Conference on, 2015.
[18] Q. Yang, J. Ruan, Z. Zhuang and D. Huang, "Chaotic Analysis and
Feature Extraction of Vibration Signals from Power Circuit Breakers,"
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 1124-1135,
2019.
[19] N. Huang, H. Chen, S. Zhang, H. Cai, W. Li and D. Xu, "Mechanical
fault diagnosis of high voltage circuit breakers based on wavelet time-
frequency entropy and one-class support vector machine," Entropy,
vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 1-17, 2016.
[20] Y. Zhang, Y. Shao, W. Gong, Z. Zhang and J. Wu, "Research on
combined diagnosis of mechanical fault vibration-sound signal of high
voltage circuit breaker based on EEMD-energy entropy feature," in
International Conference on Sensors and Instruments 2021, Qingdao,
China, 2021.
[21] M. Runde, T. Aurud, L. Lungaard, G. Ottesen and K. Faugstad,
"Acoustic diagnosis of high voltage circuit-breakers," IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 1306-1315, 1992.
[22] M. Ermidoro and F. Previdi, "A condition assessment algorithm based
on dynamic time warping for high-voltage circuit breaker," in IEEE
International Conference on Control and Automation (ICCA),
Katmandu, Nepal, 2016.
[23] L. Fasanotti, S. Cavalieri, M. Tomasini, F. Floreani and S. Ierace,
"Prognostics algorithms for circuit breaker application: A benchmark
analysis," in International Conference on Industrial Informatics,
INDIN 2014, 2014.
[24] M. Landry, F. Léonard, C. Landry, R. Beauchemin, O. Turcotte and
F. Brikci, "An improved vibration analysis algorithm as a diagnostic
tool for detecting mechanical anomalies on power circuit breakers,"
IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 1986-1994,
2008.
[25] L. Li, J. Xiao, B. Wu, M. Zhou and Q. Wang, "Online monitoring and
diagnosis of high voltage circuit breaker faults : feature extraction
analysis of vibration signals," International Journal of Metrology and
Quality Engineering, vol. 10, no. 13, 2019.
[26] Y. Zhang, Y. Jiang, Y. Chen and Y. Zhang, "Fault Diagnosis of High
Voltage Circuit Breaker Based on Multi-classification Relevance
Vector Machine," Journal of Electrical Engineering and Technology,
vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 413-420, 2019.
[27] M. Wong, L. Jack and A. Nandi, "Modified self-organising map for
automated novelty detection applied to vibration signal monitoring,"
Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 593-
610, 2006.
[28] X. Ye, J. Yan, Y. Wang, L. Lu and R. He, "A Novel Capsule
Convolutional Neural Network with Attention Mechanism for High-
Voltage Circuit Breaker Fault Diagnosis," Electric Power Systems
Research, vol. 209, no. 108003, 2022.
[29] D. Jiang, S. Zhao, J. Ren and Y. Xu, "Extreme learning machine in the
breaker fault diagnosis," Advanced Materials Research, Vols. 960-
961, pp. 896-899, 2014.
[30] S. Ma, B. Jia, J. Wu, Y. Yuan, Y. Jiang and W. Li, "Multi-vibration
information fusion for detection of HVCB faults using CART and D–
S evidence theory," ISA Transactions, vol. 113, pp. 210-221, 2021.
[31] M. Kapetanovic, High Voltage Circuit Breakers, Sarajevo: Faculty of
Electrical Engineering Sarajevo, 2011.
[32] IEC, "IEC 62271-100 High-voltage switchgear and controlgear – Part
100: Alternating - current circuit-breakers," International
Electrotechnical Comission (IEC), 2021.
[33] D. Wang, P. W. Tse and K. L. Tsui, "An enhanced Kurtogram method
for fault diagnosis of rolling element bearings," Mechanical Systems
and Signal Processing, vol. 35, no. 1-2, pp. 176-199, 2013.
[34] J. Antoni, "The spectral kurtosis: A useful tool for characterising non-
stationary signals," Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, vol.
20, no. 2, pp. 282-307, 2006.
Authorized licensed use limited to: UNIVERSITY OF AGDER. Downloaded on June 07,2023 at 08:35:13 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
© 2023 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.See https://www.ieee.org/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
10
[35] M. L. Bouhalais and M. Nouioua, "The analysis of tool vibration
signals by spectral kurtosis and ICEEMDAN modes energy for insert
wear monitoring in turning operation," International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 115, no. 9-10, pp. 2989-
3001, 2021.
[36] X. Ni, J. Zhao, Q. Hu, X. Zhang and H. Li, "A new improved
Kurtogram and its application to planetary gearbox degradation
feature analysis," Journal of Vibroengineering, vol. 19, no. 5, pp.
3413-3428, 2017.
[37] F. Combet and L. Gelman, "Optimal filtering of gear signals for early
damage detection based on the spectral kurtosis," Mechanical Systems
and Signal Processing, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 652-668, 2009.
[38] T. Barszcz and R. B. Randall, "Application of spectral kurtosis for
detection of a tooth crack in the planetary gear of a wind turbine,"
Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 1352-
1365, 2009.
[39] C. Liu, X. Gao, D. Chi, Y. He, M. Liang and H. Wang, "On-line
chatter detection in milling using fast kurtogram and frequency band
power," European Journal of Mechanics, A/Solids, vol. 90, 2021.
[40] J. Antoni and R. Randall, "The spectral kurtosis: Application to the
vibratory surveillance and diagnostics of rotating machines,"
Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 308-
331, 2006.
[41] J. Antoni, "Fast computation of the kurtogram for the detection of
transient faults," Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, vol. 21,
no. 1, pp. 108-124, 2007.
[42] P. H. Nguyen and J.-M. Kim, "Multifault diagnosis of rolling element
bearings using a wavelet kurtogram and vector median-based feature
analysis," Shock and Vibration, vol. 2015, no. 320508, pp. 0-14, 2015.
[43] A. Ruby, P. Theerthagiri, J. Jacob and Y. Vamsidhar, "Binary cross
entropy with deep learning technique for Image classification,"
International Journal of Advanced Trends in Computer Science and
Engineering, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 5393-5397, 2020.
[44] I. Goodfellow, Y. Bengio and A. Courville, Deep learning, Illustrated
edition ed., London: The MIT Press, 2016.
[45] N. Charbkeaw, T. Suwanasri and T. Bunyagul, "Mechanical Defect
Detection of SF6 High Voltage Circuit Breaker Using Wavelet Based
Vibration Signal Analysis," in 5th International Conference on
Electrical EngineeringElectronics Computer Telecommunications
and Information Technology, 2008.
[46] A. Brandt, Noise and Vibration Analysis - Signal Analysis and
Experimental Procedures, West Sussex, United Kingdom: John Wiley
& Sons Ltd, 2011.
[47] P. Yang, M. Liu, Q. Peng, Y. Xing and B. Li, "A improved way for
fault diagnose based on EEMD and SVM," in 29th Chinese Control
And Decision Conference (CCDC), Chongqing, China, 2017.
[48] X. Wang, J. Ruan, T. Zhou, X. Peng, Y. Deng and Q. Yang, "Data
Mining in the Vibration Signal of the Trip Mechanism in Circuit
Breakers Based on VMD-PSR," Electronics, vol. 11, no. 22, 2022.
[49] L. Mingliang, W. Keqi, S. Laijun and Z. Jianfeng, "A New Fault
Diagnosis Method for High Voltage Circuit Breakers Based on
Wavelet Packet and Radical Basis Function Neural Network," Open
Cybernetics & Systemics Journal, vol. 8, pp. 410-417, 2014.
[50] J. Ruan, X. Wang, T. Zhou, X. Peng, Y. Deng and Q. Yang, "Fault
identification of high voltage circuit breaker trip mechanism based on
PSR and SVM," IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., pp. 1-11, 2022.