LEPT REVIEWER

2023

Aileen Marie De Guia Armeza

BSE-English
 PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
REPUBLIC ACTS
● RA 7836 - Philippine Teacher Professionalization Act of 1994
● RA 7796 - TESDA Act of 1994
● Article XIV 1987 Philippine Constitution (Educ. Sci & Tech, Arts, Culture&
Sports) This is the very fundamental legal basis of education in the
Philippines.
● Education Act of 1982 (Batas Pambansa 232, Sept 11, 1982) an Act
providing for the Establishment & Maintenance of an Integrated System of
Education
● RA 4670 - Magna Carta for Public School Teachers (June 18, 1966)
● RA 6713 - Code of Conduct & Ethical Standards for Public Officials and
Employees
● RA 7877 - Anti-sexual Harassment Act of 1995
● RA 9155 - Decentralization; Legal Basis of Shared Governance in Basic
Education
● RA 7784 - Establishment of Center of Excellence
● K-12 Curriculum - Enhanced Basic Education Curriculum
● RA 90210 - "An Act to Integrate Information Technology into the Public
Elementary & Secondary Curricula & Appropriating funds
● RA 10121 - DRMM approval headed by OCO office of Civil Defense May
2010

1. Law of Readiness - preparedness

2. Law of Exercise - practice makes perfect
3. Law of effect - satisfaction
4. Law of primacy - learn first / first impression
5. Law of Recency - now/most recent are best
remembered
6. Law of intensity - impact/ exciting
Ex. Roleplaying
7. Law of Freedom - right to freedom
8. Law of importance – essentials

Cognitive:
mental skills(knowledge)
Affective:
growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)
 Psychomotor:
manual or physical skills (skills)

𝗣𝗥𝗜𝗡𝗖𝗜𝗣𝗟𝗘𝗦 𝗢𝗙 𝗧𝗘𝗔𝗖𝗛𝗜𝗡𝗚

A. create active learning.

B. Focus Attention
C. Connect Knowledge
D. Help students organize their knowledge.
E. Provide timely feedback.
F. Demand quality
G. Balance high expectations with student support
H. Enhance motivation to learn.
I. Communicate your message in a variety of ways.
J. Help students to productively manage their time.

𝗦𝗧𝗔𝗚𝗘𝗦 𝗢𝗙 𝗟𝗘𝗔𝗥𝗡𝗜𝗡𝗚

1. Acquisition - learning a new skill

2. Fluency - practice for mastery of skill
3. Generalization - across time & situation/variety
of setting
4. Adaptation -. Use for problem-solving.
5. Maintenance - performance over time

𝗕𝗟𝗢𝗢𝗠'𝗦 𝗖𝗢𝗚𝗡𝗜𝗧𝗜𝗩𝗘 𝗗𝗢𝗠𝗔𝗜𝗡

Blooms Taxonomy
Remember - recall facts & basic concepts.
define, duplicate, list, memorize, state.

Understand - Explain ideas or concepts.

Classify, describe, discuss, explain,
locate, and recognize.

Apply - Use of information in a new situation.

execute, implement, solve, use,
demonstrate, interpret, and operate.

Analyze -. Draw connections among ideas.

differentiate, organize, relate, compare,
contrast, distinguish, examine,
experiment, question, test

Evaluate -. Justify a stand or decision.

appraise, argue, defend, judge, select,
support, value, critique, weigh

Create -. Produce new or original work.

Design, assemble, construct,
conjecture, develop, formulate, author,
investigate

𝗔𝗡𝗗𝗘𝗥𝗦𝗢𝗡 𝗧𝗔𝗫𝗢𝗡𝗢𝗠𝗬

Remembering - recalling
Understanding - making sense of the material you
have learned.
Applying -. Use knowledge gained in new ways.
Analyzing -. Breaking the concept into parts
Evaluating -. Making judgment
Creating -. Putting information together in an
innovative way.

𝗔𝗙𝗙𝗘𝗖𝗧𝗜𝗩𝗘 𝗗𝗢𝗠𝗔𝗜𝗡:

✓Receiving - is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain

ideas, material, or phenomena and being willing to tolerate them.
Ex. To differentiate, to accept, to listen (for), and to respond to.

✓Responding - committed in some small measure to the ideas l, materials,

or phenomena involved by actively responding to them.
Example: to comply with, to follow, to command, to volunteer, to spend
leisure time in, to acclaim.

✓Valuing - is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas,

materials, or phenomena. Examples include: to increase measured
proficiency in, or relinquish, to subsidize, to support, to debate.
✓Organization - is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into
a harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. Examples: to discuss,
to theorize, to formulate, to balance, to examine.

✓Characterization- by value or value set is to act consistently in

accordance with the values he or she has internalized. Examples: include:
to revise, to require, to be rated high in the value, to avoid, to resist, to
manage, to resolve.

𝗣𝗦𝗬𝗖𝗛𝗢𝗠𝗢𝗧𝗢𝗥 𝗗𝗢𝗠𝗔𝗜𝗡:

✓Perception - Sensory cues to guide motor.

✓Set - mental, physical, and emotional dispositions that make one respond
in a certain way to a situation.
✓Guided response - first attempts at a physical skill. trial and error coupled
lead to better performance.
✓Mechanism - responses are habitual with a medium level of assurance
and proficiency.
✓Complex Overt Response - complex movements are possible with a
minimum of wasted effort and a high level of assurance they will be
successful.
✓Adaptation - Movements can modified for special situations.
✓Origination - New movements can be created for special situations.
Learning theories

A. Behaviorist (classical, operant, Connectionism, Social Learning, and

purposive)
PCSO
Pavlov - Classical
Skinner – Operant

𝗕𝗘𝗛𝗔𝗩𝗜𝗢𝗨𝗥𝗜𝗦𝗠

A. Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

Two stimuli are linked together one Neutral and one Natural Response.

Adhesive Principle
- response attached to stimulus to evoke a new response.
Experimentation:
(Salivation of Dog and Ring of the bell)
The ringing of bell- stimuli
Response - Naglalaway ang aso

Unconditioned Stimulus:
- automatically produces an emotional or psychological response.

Unconditioned Response:
- Naturally occurring emotional or physiological response.

Neutral Stimulus:
- a stimulus that does not elicit a response.

Conditioned Stimulus:
- evokes an emotional or Physiological response.

𝗕. 𝗢𝗣𝗘𝗥𝗔𝗡𝗧 𝗖𝗢𝗡𝗗𝗜𝗧𝗜𝗢𝗡𝗜𝗡𝗚 (𝗕𝗙 𝗦𝗞𝗜𝗡𝗡𝗘𝗥)

Experimentation:
skinner Box (rat)
✓Reinforcement - increase behavior
✓Punishment - decrease behavior
✓Positive Reinforcement -
may binigay na gusto ng bata.

✓Negative reinforcement -
taking something away for the good of students.

✓Positive Punishment -
may binigay na ayaw mo / something unpleasant.

✓Negative punishment -
tinagangalan ng bagay na gusto ng bata.

𝗖. 𝗖𝗢𝗡𝗡𝗘𝗖𝗧𝗜𝗢𝗡𝗜𝗦𝗠 𝗧𝗛𝗘𝗢𝗥𝗬 /𝗦-𝗥

( 𝗘𝗗𝗪𝗔𝗥𝗗 𝗧𝗛𝗢𝗥𝗡𝗗𝗜𝗞𝗘)
- specific stimulus has specific response
Law of Readiness- hinahanda mo sila
Law of Exercise- nagpapadrills
Law of Effect - satisfying effect
Secondary Laws of Learning
RIP
Law of primacy - dapat tama ang tinuro sa una.
Law of intensity - dapat fun ang learning
Law of Recency - mas natatandaan ang previous.
Other law:
Law of association By Aristotle
Law of similarity - recall similar object.
Law of contrast - recall of opposite object
Law of Contiguity - recall of an activity which is frequently related with the
previous one.

𝗗. 𝗦𝗢𝗖𝗜𝗔𝗟 𝗟𝗘𝗔𝗥𝗡𝗜𝗡𝗚 𝗧𝗛𝗘𝗢𝗥𝗬 𝗕𝗬 𝗕𝗔𝗡𝗗𝗨𝗥𝗔

Experimentation: Bobo doll

- may pinaggagayahan
- focus on observation learning

Social learning theory

4 steps:
1. Attention - focus
2. Retention - store information
3. Reproduction - to perform the observed
behavior
4. Motivation - be motivated

𝗘. 𝗣𝗨𝗥𝗣𝗢𝗦𝗜𝗩𝗘 𝗕𝗘𝗛𝗔𝗩𝗜𝗢𝗥𝗜𝗦𝗠 / 𝗦𝗜𝗚𝗡 𝗟𝗘𝗔𝗥𝗡𝗜𝗡𝗚 𝗧𝗛𝗘𝗢𝗥𝗬 𝗕𝗬 𝗧𝗢𝗟𝗠𝗔𝗡

Experiment: Rats
- reinforcement is not essential to learning
- a bridge between behaviorism and cognitive theory
- Learning is acquired through meaningful behavior.

According to Tolman, in all learning, some intelligence is at work. It is the

learner who actively participates in the act of getting new experience. He
organizes his perceptions and observations and gives meaning to them. He
explains the theory of rats in teaching the goal through many trials because
of insight or making a cognitive map of the maze.
 𝗖𝗢𝗚𝗡𝗜𝗧𝗜𝗩𝗜𝗦𝗧

𝗔. 𝗠𝗘𝗔𝗡𝗜𝗡𝗚𝗙𝗨𝗟 𝗟𝗘𝗔𝗥𝗡𝗜𝗡𝗚 𝗧𝗛𝗘𝗢𝗥𝗬 𝗕𝗬 𝗗𝗔𝗩𝗜𝗗 𝗔𝗨𝗦𝗨𝗕𝗘𝗟

"Reception not discovery"
- advance organizer
- use of the graphic organizer

𝗕. 𝗖𝗢𝗚𝗡𝗜𝗧𝗜𝗩𝗘 𝗗𝗘𝗩𝗘𝗟𝗢𝗣𝗠𝗘𝗡𝗧 𝗕𝗬 𝗣𝗜𝗔𝗚𝗘𝗧

a). Sensory - 0 to 2 years old - permanent object

b). Pre-operational - 3 to 7 years old - egocentric
Symbolic function
- Centration - refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect
of a thing or event and exclude other aspects EXAMPLE:
when a child is presented with two identical glasses with the same amount
of water, the child will say they have the same amount of water. however,
once water from one of the glasses is transferred to an obviously taller but
narrower glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller
glass.
"The Child only Focus (centered)".

Irreversibly-
Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.
They can understand that 2+3 is 5 but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2.

Animism - This is the tendency of children to attribute human-like traits or

characteristics to inanimate objects.
When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply, "Mr. Sun
is asleep."

Transudative reasoning -This refers to the pre-operational child's type of

reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.
Example: since her mommy comes home every day around six o'clock in
the evening when asked why it is already night, the child will say, "Because
my mom is home".

c). Concrete operational - 7 to 11 years old - begin learning logical

reasoning.
Decentering - This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different
features of objects and situations.
This allows children to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects
and situations.

Reversibility -The child can now follow that certain operations can be done
in reverse. For example, they can already comprehend the commutative
property of addition, and that subtraction is the reverse of addition.

Conversation- this is the ability to know certain properties of objects like a

number. Mass, Volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance. Because of the development of the child's ability to decenter
and also reversibility, the concrete operational child can now judge rightly
that the same as when the water was shorter but wider glass.

Seriation - This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series

based on one dimension such as weight, volume, or size.

d). Formal operational - 13 to onwards years old -

Thinking becomes more logical. Can solve abstract problems and can
hypothesize.

Hypothetical reasoning - The ability to come up with a different hypothesis

about a problem and to gather and weigh data to make final decisions or
judgments.
(What if questions)

Analogical reasoning -This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one

instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in
another similar situation or problem.

Deductive reasoning -This is the ability to think logically by applying a

general rule to a particular instance or situation.
For example, all countries near the north pole. therefore, Greenland has
cold temperatures.

𝗖. 𝗦𝗖𝗛𝗘𝗠𝗔/𝗦𝗖𝗛𝗘𝗠𝗔𝗧𝗔 𝗧𝗛𝗘𝗢𝗥𝗬 𝗕𝗬 𝗕𝗔𝗥𝗟𝗘𝗧

Schema- refers to the prior knowledge.

Assimilation - This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing
or previously created schema.

Accommodation- This is the process of creating a new schema.

Equilibrium - Achieving the proper balance between Assimilation and

accommodation. If not match our schemata we experience
"Cognitive disequilibrium"

𝗗. 𝗚𝗘𝗦𝗧𝗔𝗟𝗧 𝗣𝗥𝗜𝗡𝗖𝗜𝗣𝗟𝗘 𝗢𝗙 𝗩𝗜𝗦𝗨𝗔𝗟 𝗣𝗘𝗥𝗖𝗘𝗣𝗧𝗜𝗢𝗡 𝗕𝗬 𝗚𝗘𝗦𝗧𝗔𝗟𝗧

- determine what we see/percept.

Laws of Gestalt
Gestalt means "whole".
Law of similarity -
Kapag kapareho

Law of pragmanz or Law of Good Figure -

Symmetry order- brain will perceive ambiguous shapes in as simple a
manner as possible for example, a monochrome of the Olympic logo is
seen as a series of overlapping circles rather than a collection of a curved
line.
The law of proximity - refers to how close elements are to one another. The
strongest proximity relationship is those between overlapping subjects, but
just grouping objects into a single area can have a strong proximity effect.

Law of Continuity - posits that the human eye will follow the smoothest path
when viewing lines, regardless of how the lines were actually drawn

Law of Closure - "fill the gap" - is one of the coolest gestalt principles and
one I already touched on at the beginning of this piece. It's the idea that
your brain will fill in the missing parts of a design or image to create a
whole.

𝗘. 𝗜𝗡𝗦𝗜𝗚𝗛𝗧 𝗟𝗘𝗔𝗥𝗡𝗜𝗡𝗚 𝗧𝗛𝗘𝗢𝗥𝗬 𝗕𝗬 𝗪𝗢𝗟𝗙𝗚𝗔𝗡𝗚 𝗞𝗢𝗛𝗟𝗘𝗥

- sudden grasping of the solution, a lash of understanding, without any
process of trial and error.

Learning happens in sudden -"Eurika"

(Aha moment)
Experiment: monkey names (Sultan)
Believes that the whole is more important than the parts.so Learning takes
place.

𝗙. 𝗜𝗡𝗙𝗢𝗥𝗠𝗔𝗧𝗜𝗢𝗡 𝗣𝗥𝗢𝗖𝗘𝗦𝗦𝗜𝗡𝗚 𝗧𝗛𝗘𝗢𝗥𝗬 𝗕𝗬 (𝗔𝗧𝗞𝗜𝗡𝗦𝗢𝗡 𝗔𝗡𝗗 𝗦𝗛𝗜𝗙𝗙𝗥𝗜𝗡)

Sensory memory - it holds information that the

The mind perceives through various senses.
(Small capacity).

Short-term memory - last around 30 seconds.

(Short Duration)

Long-term Memory - has an unlimited amount of space as it can store

memories from a long time ago to be retrieved later.

Long term memory

1. Episodic Memory
- recalling episodes (events)
2. Semantic Memory
- knowledge of general Facts, principles, and concepts.
3. Procedural Memory
- refers to "know-how" as opposed to "know about".

𝗚. 𝗖𝗨𝗠𝗨𝗟𝗔𝗧𝗜𝗩𝗘 𝗟𝗘𝗔𝗥𝗡𝗜𝗡𝗚 𝗕𝗬 𝗥𝗢𝗕𝗘𝗥𝗧 𝗚𝗔𝗚𝗡𝗘

The gradual development of knowledge and skills that improve over time.

(Assessment and Evaluation of Learning 1)

BASIC CONCEPTS

Test -an Instrument designed to measure any characteristic, quality,

ability, knowledge, or skill. It comprised of Items in the area. it is
designed to measure.

Measurement -a process of quantifying the degree to which

someone/something possesses a given trait. ie., quality,
characteristic, or feature.
 Assessment – the process of gathering and organizing quantitative or
qualitative data into an interpretable form to have a basis for
judgment or decision-making, it is a pre-requisite to evaluation. It
provides the information which enables evaluation to take place.

Evaluation - a process of systematic interpretation, analysis,

appraisal, or judgment of the worth of organized data as a basis for
decision-making. It involves judgment about the desirability of
changes in students.

Traditional Assessment - it refers to the use of the pen-and-paper

objective test.

Alternative Assessment - It refers to the use of methods other than

pen-and-paper objective tests which include performance tests,
projects, portfolios, journals, and the like.

Authentic Assessment - It refers to the use of an assessment method

that simulates true-to-life situations. This could be objective tests that
reflect real-life situations or alternative methods that are parallel to
what we experience in real life.

PURPOSES OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT

1. Assessment FOR Learning - this Includes three types of assessment

done before and during instruction. These are placement, formative and
diagnostic.

a. Placement - done prior to instruction.

• Its purpose is to assess the needs of the learners to have a basis in

planning for relevant instruction.

• Teachers use this assessment to know what their students are bringing
into the learning situation and use this as a starting point, for instruction.
• The results of this assessment place students in specific learning groups
to facilitate teaching and learning.

b. Formative - done during instruction.

• This assessment is where teachers continuously monitor the students'
level of attainment of the learning objectives (Stiggins, 2005)
• The results of this assessment are communicated clearly and promptly to
the students so that to know their strengths and weaknesses and the
progress of their learning.

c. Diagnostic - done during instruction.

• This is used to determine students’ recurring or persistent difficulties.

• It searches for the underlying causes of students’ learning problems that

do not respond to first aid treatment.

• It helps formulate a plan for detailed remedial instruction.

2. Assessment OF Learning - this is done after instruction. This is usually

referred to as the summative assessment.

• it is used to certify what students know and can do and the level of their
proficiency or competency.

• Its results reveal whether instructions have successfully achieved, the

curriculum outcomes.

• The information from the assessment of learning is usually expressed as

marks or letter grades.

• The results of which are communicated to the students, parents, and

other stakeholders for decision-making.

•It is also a powerful factor that could pave the way for educational
Reforms.

3. Assessment AS learning -this is done for teachers to understand and

perform well their role of assessing FOR and OF learning. It requires
teachers to undergo.

training on how to assess learning and be equipped with the following

competencies needed in performing their work as assessors.
 Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of
Students
(Developed by the American Federation of Teachers National, Council on
Measurement in Education, National Education Association)

1. Teachers should be skilled in choosing assessment methods

appropriate for instructional decisions.

2. Teachers should be skilled in developing assessment methods

appropriate for instructional decisions.

3. Teachers should be skilled in administering, scoring, and interpreting

the results of both externally produced and teacher-produced
assessment methods.

4. Teachers should be skilled in using assessment results when making

decisions about individual students, planning to teach, developing
curriculum, and school improvement.

5. Teachers should be skilled in developing valid pupil grading

procedures which use pupil assessments.

6. Teachers should be skilled in communicating assessment results to

students, parents, other lay audiences, and other educators.

7. Teachers should be skilled in recognizing unethical, illegal, and

otherwise inappropriate assessment methods and uses of
assessment information.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory (Personality)

Psychosexual Development
Oral Stage (0-1 yrs. old) – Infant
Anal Stage (1-3 yrs. old) – Toddler
Phallic Stage (3-6 yrs old) preschoolers
Latency Stage (age 6 - puberty) school age
Genital Stage (adolescence /puberty onwards)

Personality Component
 ID (pleasure principles) infancy
EGO (reality principles) preschooler
SUPEREGO (morality principles) near the end of preschool

3 Levels of Mind
CONSCIOUS - all that we are aware of that are stored in our conscious
mind.
UNCONCIOUS - all that we go through (feelings, beliefs, impulses deep
within)
SUBCONSCIOUS (a.k.a. Pre-Conscious) – the part of us that’s hidden
unless we search for it

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

3 Basic Cognitive Concepts

1. Schema – Building blocks of knowledge
2. Adaptation Processes (3)
Assimilation – using an existing schema to deal with a new object or
situation.
Accommodation – happens when an existing schema does not work and
needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation
Equilibration – occurs when a child’s schemas can deal with most new
information through assimilation. But when our experiences do not match
our schemata, we experience cognitive disequilibrium

3. Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1. Sensorimotor stage (birth - infancy)

Highlight:
Object Permanence – the ability to know that an object still exists even
when out of sight.

Stage 2. Pre-operational stage (2-7yrs) preschool years

Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature.
A child can now make mental representations and is able to pretend.

Highlights on this stage:

Symbolic Function – the ability to represent objects and events.
Egocentrism – the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and
to assume that everyone also has the same point of view.
 Centration – the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a
thing or event and exclude other aspects.
Irreversibility – inability to reverse their thinking.
Can understand 2+3=5 but cannot understand that 5-3=2
Animism – attribute human-like traits or characteristics to inanimate
objects
(e.g. Mr. Sun is asleep)
Transudative Reasoning – reasoning appears to be from particular to
particular.
(i.e. If A causes B, then B causes A)

Stage 3. Concrete-operational stage (8-11 yrs.) elementary school years

This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but
only in terms of concrete objects.
Decentering – no longer focused or limited to one aspect or dimension
which makes the child be more logical when dealing with concrete objects
and situations.
Reversibility – can now follow that certain operations can be done in
reverse.
Conservation – the ability to know that certain properties of objects like
number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance.
Seriation – the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight, volume, or size.

Stage 4. Formal-operational stage (12-15 yrs.)

Thinking becomes logical.
Can solve problems and hypothesize.
This stage is characterized by the following:
Hypothetical Reasoning – the ability to come up with a different
hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data to make a final
decision. Can answer what-if questions.
Analogical Reasoning – the ability to perceive the relationship in one
instance and use it to narrow down possible answers. Can make an
analogy.
Deductive Reasoning – the ability to think logically by applying the
general rule to a particular situation.

𝐓𝐘𝐏𝐄𝐒 𝐎𝐅 𝐆𝐎𝐕𝐄𝐑𝐍𝐌𝐄𝐍𝐓
 𝐑𝐄𝐏𝐔𝐁𝐋𝐈𝐂
—a government whose authority is based on citizens' votes, which are
represented by elected or nominated officials chosen in free elections.

𝐃𝐄𝐌𝐎𝐂𝐑𝐀𝐂𝐘
—democracy means the rule of the people. The term today refers to a
political system in which the people or their elected representatives govern
themselves.

𝐓𝐇𝐄𝐎𝐂𝐑𝐀𝐂𝐘
—a government where priests rule in the name of God or by officials who are
regarded as divinely guided, or consistent with the principles of a particular
religion.

𝐀𝐔𝐓𝐎𝐂𝐑𝐀𝐂𝐘
—a government controlled by absolute power, and in the hands of a single
person with minimal restraints on the decisions and lack of any mechanisms
of popular control.

𝐓𝐄𝐂𝐇𝐍𝐎𝐂𝐑𝐀𝐂𝐘
—a government where scientists and technical experts are in control of the
state, and where rulers are selected based on their knowledge/skill rather
than wealth/power.

𝐅𝐀𝐒𝐂𝐈𝐒𝐌
—it is a way of ruling that advocates total control of the people and seeks to
promote ancestral and cultural values and eradicate foreign influences.

𝐀𝐍𝐀𝐑𝐂𝐇𝐘
—anarchy is a state of absence of law, a state of lawlessness and disorder
(usually resulting from a failure of government.
𝐌𝐎𝐍𝐀𝐑𝐂𝐇𝐘
—a government where supreme authority is vested in a single and usually
hereditary figure, such as a king, and whose powers can vary from absolute
to none at all.

𝐎𝐋𝐈𝐆𝐀𝐑𝐂𝐇𝐘
—rule of the few. It is a form of the power structure in which power effectively
rests with a faction of persons or families.
 𝐏𝐋𝐔𝐓𝐎𝐂𝐑𝐀𝐂𝐘
—government ruled by the rich or power provided by wealth, often used to
describe a wealthy class ruling a government, often from behind the scenes.

𝐓𝐘𝐑𝐀𝐍𝐍𝐘
—government or authority of an absolute ruler; arbitrary exercise of power
over subjects not requisite for the purposes of government/approved by law
and justice.

𝐓𝐎𝐓𝐀𝐋𝐈𝐓𝐀𝐑𝐈𝐀𝐍
—a totalitarian system is one in which a single political authority regulates
total control over the state, which is centralized and dictatorial.

𝐅𝐄𝐃𝐄𝐑𝐀𝐓𝐈𝐎𝐍
—a political organization characterized by a union of small states, groups, or
parties, which are self-governed in internal affairs and are united under a
central government.

𝐂𝐎𝐌𝐌𝐔𝐍𝐈𝐒𝐌
—communism is a system of government in which the state owns and
operates industry on behalf of the people.

𝐉𝐔𝐍𝐓𝐀
—it refers to a group or coalition that takes control of the state after
overthrowing a government. Usually, this is done by military groups.

𝐃𝐈𝐂𝐓𝐀𝐓𝐎𝐑𝐒𝐇𝐈𝐏
—a form of government where the power rests entirely on one person or a
group of persons. This rule could be acquired by inheritance or force and is
usually oppressive.

Jacob Kounin [Classroom Management]

1. Accountability- The teacher holds all members of the class responsible for
their learning and behavior.
2. Dangles- The teacher continues to find materials, reviews lesson plans,
and talks with individual students when the class is ready for instruction.
3. Desists- The teacher engages to stop misbehavior.
4. Flip-flops- The teacher is engaged in one activity and then returns to a
precious activity that the students thought they had finished.
5. Fragmentation- The teacher engages in a type of slowdown.
Group Alerting- The teacher obtains and holds the attention of the class, both
at the beginning of a lesson and as the activities change within a lesson.
6. Group Focus- The teacher always keeps the attention of all members of
the class, which assists in maintaining an efficient classroom and reducing
students' misbehavior.
7. Jerkiness- The teacher fails to develop a consistent flow of instruction,
thus causing students to feel lesson momentum jerks from slow to fast.
8. Movement Management- The teacher keeps lessons and groups engaged
at an appropriate pace, with smooth transitions and varying activities.
9. Over-Dwelling- The teacher dwells on an issue and engages in a stream
of talk clearly longer than the time needed for students' understanding.
10. Overlapping- The teacher supervises and attends to more than one
group activity at the same time
11. Ripple Effect- The teacher corrects one student or calls attention to one
student for his or her misbehavior and it ripples to other students causing
them to behave better.
12. Satiation- The students have focused on one learning aspect too long
and begin to lose interest, make more mistakes, and misbehave.
13. Slowdowns- The teacher, when teaching, moves too slowly and stops
instruction too often. Thus, the students lose interest or learning momentum.
14. Stimulus Bound- The teacher has the students engaged in a lesson and
then something attracts his or her attention, she or he loses the instructional
focus and momentum while dealing with the other issue.
15. Thrust- The teacher teaches too slowly or too fast or switches back and
forth, thus failing to acquire and hold an appropriate momentum for students
to learn.
16. Truncation- The teacher engages in a dangle, yet fails to resume the
original, dropped activity.
17. Weightiness- The teacher always perceives everything in all areas of the
classroom.

DIFFICULTY INDEX EXPLAINED

*0--.2 (Very Difficult) REJECT

*.21--.4 (Difficult) REVISE
*.41--.6 (Moderate) RETAIN
*.61--.8 (Easy) REVISE
*.81-- 1 (Very Easy) REJECT

DISCRIMINATION INDEX :

POSITIVE - retain.
- it means more from the upper group got the correct answer.
NEGATIVE - REJECT
- it means more from the lower group got the correct answer.
ZERO - REJECT
- the answer cannot discriminate.
REJECT.
- If the discrimination index is positive then refer to its difficulty index to
decide on the answer.