PLANE AND SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY

Learning outcomes (iv) b + e = 180° and c + h = 180°. Such pairs of

angles are called interior angles.
After completion of this module, the students should be
able to: 2.1. TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
OF AN ACUTE ANGLE
a. Define angles and evaluate trigonometric
functions, inverse trigonometric functions, and
trigonometric equations;
b. Solve problems involving right triangles and
oblique triangles using trigonometric functions;
and
c. Solve problems involving spherical triangle using
fundamental formulas in spherical trigonometry
Trigonometry – is the branch of mathematics that deals Figure 2
with the measurement of sides and angles of triangles, and
their relationship with each other.
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎
An angle is the amount of rotation between two straight 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝐴 = or 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 =
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐
lines or arrays. simply
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 =
Types and properties of angles ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝐴 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏
(a) (i) Any angle between 0° and 90° is called an ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡𝐴 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝐴 =
acute angle. 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎
ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑐
(ii) An angle equal to 90° is called a right angle. 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑛𝑡𝐴 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴 =
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏
(iii) Any angle between 90° and 180° is called an 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏
obtuse angle. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴 =
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎
(iv) Any angle greater than 180° and less than
360° is called a reflex angle.
The theorem of Pythagoras
(b) (i) An angle of 180° lies on a straight line.
(ii) If two angles add up to 90° they are called The theorem of Pythagoras states: ‘’In any right-angled
complementary angles. triangle, the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum
(iii) If two angles add up to 180° they are called of the squares on the other two sides.’’
supplementary angles.
(iv) Parallel lines are straight lines which are in Hence c2 = a2 + b2
the same plane and never meet. PQ and RS are
parallel lines. Example 2.1.1:
(v) A straight line which crosses two parallel Find the values of the trigonometric functions of the
lines is called a transversal (see MN).

Figure 1
angles of the right triangle ABC in Figure 2.
(c) With reference to Figure 1: 𝑎 60 𝑏 91
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 = = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 = =
𝑐 109 𝑐 109
(i) a = c, b = d, e = g and f = h. Such pairs of 𝑏 91 𝑎 60
angles are called vertically opposite 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 = =
𝑐 109 𝑐 109
angles. 𝑎 60 𝑏 91
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵 = =
𝑏 91 𝑎 60
(ii) a = e, b = f, c = g and d = h. Such pairs of
𝑐 109 𝑐 109
angles are called corresponding angles. 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝐴 = = 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝐵 = =
𝑎 60 𝑏 91
(iii) c = e and b = h. Such pairs of angles are 𝑐 109 𝑐 109
called alternate angles. 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴 = = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐵 = =
𝑏 91 𝑎 60

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 𝑏 91 𝑎 60 4.
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴 = = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐵 = =
𝑎 60 𝑏 91

Example 2.1.2:
c = √2
Draw the right triangles whose sides have the following a=1
value and find the six trigonometric functions of the
angle A.
1. a=4 b=3 c=5 b=1
2. a=5 b = 12 c = 13
3. a=2 b=3 c = √13 1 √2 √2
4. a=1 b=1 c = √2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 = ∙ = 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝐴 = = √2
√2 √2 1
√2
Solution: 2
1 √2 √2
1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = ∙ = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴 = = √2
√2 √2 1
√2
c=5 2
1 1
a=4 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 = =1 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴 = =1
1 1

b=3 Exercise 2.1.1:

4 5 1. A support wire is anchored 12 m up from the base
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝐴 =
5 4 of a flagpole, and the wire makes a 158angle with
3 5 the ground. How long is the wire?
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴 =
5 3
4 3
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴 =
3 4

2.

c = 13
a=5

[write your solution here]

b = 12
5 13
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝐴 =
13 5
12 13
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴 =
13 12

5 12
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴 =
12 5

3.

c = √13
a=2
2. Two aircraft leave an airfield at the same time.
One travels due north at an average speed of 300
km/h and the other due west at an average speed
b=3 of 220 km/h. Calculate their distance apart after 4
hours. (Ans: 1488 km)
2 √13
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 = 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝐴 =
√13 2
3 √13
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝐴 =
√13 3
2 3
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝐴 =
3 2

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 2.2. SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES Angles of elevation and depression

Solution of right triangles
To ‘solve a right-angled triangle’ means ‘to find
the unknown sides and angles’. This is achieved
by using (i) the theorem of Pythagoras, and/or
(ii) trigonometric functions.
Example 2.2.1:
1. Sketch a right-angled triangle ABC such that B
= 90°, AB = 5cm and BC = 12 cm. Determine
the length of AC and hence evaluate sinA, cosC
and tanA.
Vertical heights can sometimes be measured using either
the angle of elevation or the angle of depression. If a
person is looking up at an object, the acute angle
measured from the horizontal to a line of sight to the
object is called the angle of elevation. See Figure 3(a). If
a person is standing on a cliff looking down at an object,
the acute angle made by the line of sight to the object and
the horizontal is called the angle of depression. See
Figure 3(b).

Figure 3

Example 2.2.2:

1. Meteorologists find the height of a cloud using an

Exercise 2.2.1:
Draw and solve the following triangles in which C = 90o.
Use separate sheet of papers.
a. A = 35o, c = 5
instrument called a ceilometer. A ceilometer consists of a
light projector that directs a vertical light beam up to the
cloud base and a light detector that scans the cloud to
detect the light beam. See Figure 4(a). On December 8,
2010, at Midway Airport in Chicago, a ceilometer was
employed to find the height of the cloud cover. It was set
up with its light detector 300 feet from its light projector.
If the angle of elevation from the light detector to the base
of the cloud was 75°, what was the height of the cloud
cover?
f. c = 20.0 mm, B = 23o17’

b. a = 37, b = 53 g. B = 35o, a = 5.0 cm

c. a = 23, b = 17 h. A = 37o, b = 53 cm

d. a = 15, b = 8, c = 17 i. A = 75o, a = 10 cm

e. c = 37mm, b = 35 j. B = 51o, b = 6.7 mm

Figure 4(b) illustrates the situation. To find the height h,

we use the fact that
tan 75° = h/300 ft
h = tan75°(300 ft)
h = 1120 ft
2. Adorning the top of the Board of Trade building in
Chicago is a statue of Ceres, the Roman goddess of wheat.
From street level, two observations are taken 400 feet
from the center of the building. The angle of elevation to
the base of the statue is found to be 55.1°, and the angle

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of elevation to the top of the statue is 56.5°.See Figure
5(a). What is the height of the statue? (Ans: 31 ft)
4. To measure the height of Lincoln’s caricature on Mt.
Rushmore, two sightings 800 feet from the base of the
mountain are taken. If the angle of elevation to the bottom
of Lincoln’s face is 32°and the angle of elevation to the
top is 35°, what is the height of Lincoln’s face? (Ans:
60.27 ft)

x
o
35
32o
800
ft
y=h+x
h=y–x tan 35 = y/800 tan 32 = x/800
y = 800(tan 35) x = 800(tan 32)
h = 800(tan 35) – 800(tan 32)
h = 60.27 ft

3. A blimp flying at an altitude of 500 feet, lies directly
over a line from Soldier Field to the Adler Planetarium on
Lake Michigan (see the figure). If the angle of depression
from the blimp to the stadium is 32°and from the blimp to
the planetarium is 23°, find the distance between Soldier
Field and the Adler Planetarium. (Ans: 1978.09 ft)
Exercise 2.2.2:
1. From the top of a building that overlooks an ocean, an
observer watches a boat sailing directly toward the
building. If the observer is 100 feet above sea level and if
the angle of depression of the boat changes from 25° to
40° during the period of observation, approximate the
distance that the boat travels. (Ans: 95 ft)

tan 32 = 500/a tan 23 = 500/b

a = 500/tan 32 b = 500/tan 23
a = 800.167 ft b = 1 177.926 ft
x = 800.167 + 1 177.926 = 1 978.09 ft

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Solution of Isosceles Triangles and Regular Polygons b. a regular inscribed nonagon whose side is 15 in.

Isosceles triangle – a triangle having two sides of equal 360

length. 7.5 7.5 𝜃= = 40𝑜
9
Polygon – a closed figure bounded by straight lings or a Solving for a:
arcs.
r 𝜃 =40o
20o tan 20o = 7.5/a
A regular polygon is a polygon that is both equilateral
and equiangular. a = 5/ tan 20o

Example 2.2.3: a = 20.61 in.

1. Each of the equal angles of an isosceles triangle is

40o15’. The base is 15 inches. Find the remaining parts r = √20.612 + 7.52
and the area. (area = 47.62 in2)
= 21.93 in
Solution: Required:
B a=c
A = 9(1/2)(15)(20.61)
A
A = 1391.18 in2
c a=c
h
3. The area of a regular pentagon is 560 ft2. Find the radii
40o15’ 40o15’
A C of the circumscribed and inscribed circles. (15.37 ft,
7.5 in. 7.5 in. 12.42 ft)
15 in.
Solution:
Regular Pentagon (5-sided polygon)
For a or c: For h:
cos 40o15 = 7.5/c tan 40o15 = h/7.5 A = 560 ft2
c = 7.5/cos 40o15 h = 7.5(tan 40o15)
c = 9.827 in. = a h = 6.349 in. r=?
For circumscribed circle:
For A: b
A = ½ base x height b/2 b/2
a
= ½ 15 (6.349) 𝜃 =72o
r
A = 47.62 in2 36o
2. Find the radius, the apothem (perpendicular distance
from the center to a side), and the area of the following:
a. a regular inscribed decagon whose side is 10 in.
b. a regular inscribed nonagon whose side is 15 inches.
Solution:
a. a regular inscribed decagon whose side is 10 in. Continue…

360
𝜃= = 36𝑜
5 in. 5 in. 10
Solving for a:
a
𝜃 =36o tan 18o = 5/a
18
a = 5/ tan 18o

a = 15.39 in.

r = √52 + 15.392

= 16.18 in

A = 10(1/2)(10)(15.39)

A = 769.5 in2

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For inscribed circle: Law of Sines
b
b/2 b/2 In any triangle ABC, the ratio of a side and the sine of
r the opposite angle is a constant; i.e.,
𝜃 =72o
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
= = 𝒐𝒓
36o 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑪

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑪

= =
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄

Continue…. Law of Cosines

In any triangle ABC, the square of any side is equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides diminished by
twice the product of these sides and the cosine of the
included angle; i.e.,
a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bccosA
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2accosB
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2abcosC
When three parts of a triangle, not all angles, are known,
the triangle is uniquely determined, except in one case
noted below. The five cases of oblique triangles are
Case I: Given two angles and the side opposite one of
them
Suppose b, B, and C are given.
𝒃 𝒄 𝒃(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑪)
To find c, use = ; then 𝒄 =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑪 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑩

Solution of Oblique Triangles To find A, use A = 180 - (B + C)

𝒂 𝒃 𝒃(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨)
An oblique triangle is one which does not contain a right To find a, use = ; then a =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑩
angle. Such a triangle contains either three acute angles or
Case II: Given two angles and the included side
two acute angles and one obtuse angle.
Suppose a, B, and C are given
The convention of denoting the angles by A, B, and C and
the lengths of the corresponding opposite sides by a, b, To find A, use A = 180 - (B + C)
and c will be used here. (See Figure 4)
𝒃 𝒂 𝒂(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑩)
To find b , use = ; then b =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨

𝒄 𝒂 𝒂(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑪)
To find c, use = ; c=
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑪 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑨

Case III: Given two sides and the angle opposite one of
them
Suppose b, c, and B are given
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
From = , sinC =
𝑐 𝑏 𝑏

If sinC > 1, no angle C is determined

If sinC = 1, C = 90o and a right triangle is determined.
If sinC < 1, two angles are determined: an acute angle C
and an obtuse angle C’ = 180 - C. Thus, there may be
one or two triangles determined. If C’ + B ≥ 180, then
the angle C’ is not a solution.
When the given angle is acute, there will be
Figure 4

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 (a) One solution if the side opposite the given angle III
is equal to or greater than the other given side
(b) No solution, one solution (right triangle), or two
solutions if the side opposite the given angle is
less than the other given side Angle opposite of
Sines the second given
When the given angle is obtuse, there will be side
(a) No solution when the side opposite the given
angle is less than or equal to the other given side
(b) One solution if the side opposite the given angle
is greater than the other given side
IV
Case IV: Given two sides and the included angle
Suppose a, b, and C are given.
To find c, use c2 = a2 + b2 - 2abcosC.
Cosines Third side
𝒂(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑪)
To find A, use sin A =
𝒄
𝒃(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝑪)
To find B, use sin B =
𝒄
To check, use A + B + C = 180o. V

Case V: Given the three sides

With a, b, and c given, solve the law of cosines for
each of the angles. Any angle can be
Cosines
found
𝑏2 + 𝑐2 – 𝑎2
To find the angles, use cos A = ,
2𝑏𝑐
𝑎2 + 𝑐2 – 𝑏2 𝑎 2 + 𝑎2 – 𝑐 2
cos B = , cos C =
2𝑎𝑐 2𝑎𝑏
To check, use A + B + C = 180o

USE LAW FIRST PART TO

CASE
OF FIND
I

Side opposite of
Sines the second given
angle

II

Third angle, then

Sines either of the
remaining sides

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Example 2.2.4:
1. Solve the triangle ABC, given a = 62.5, A = 112o20’,
and C = 42o10’

For B: B = 180 - (C + A) = 180 – (42o10’ + 112o20’)

B = 25o30’
𝑎(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵) 62.5(𝑠𝑖𝑛25𝑜 30′ )
For b: b = = = 29.1 units
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛112𝑜 20′

𝑎(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶) 62.5(𝑠𝑖𝑛42𝑜 10′ )

For c: c = = = 45.4 units
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛112𝑜 20′
ft Answer
2. Solve the triangle ABC, given c = 25, A = 35o, and B =
68o. ft Answer

5. Solve the triangle ABC, given c = 628, b = 480, and C

= 55010’.

Since C is acute and c > b, there is only one solution.

3. A and B are two points on opposite banks of a river.

From A, a line AC = 275 m is laid off, and the angles CAB
= 125040’ and ACB = 48050’ are measured. Find the
length of AB.

4. A tower 125 ft high is on a cliff on the bank of a river.

From the top of the tower, the angle of depression of a
point on the opposite shore is 28 040’, and from the base
of the tower, the angle of depression of the same point is
18020’. Find the width of the river and the height of the
cliff.

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Exercise 2.2.3: 3. Solve the triangle ABC, given a = 322, c = 212, and B
= 110050’. (Ans: b = 444)
1. Solve the triangle ABC, given a = 525, c = 421, and A
= 130o50’. (Ans: C = 37o20’)

[write your solution below this line]

[write your solution below this line]

2. Solve the triangle ABC, given a = 132, b = 224, and C 4. Two forces of 17.5 and 22.5 lb act on a body. If their
= 28040’. (A = 30o30’, c = 125) directions make an angle of 50010’ with each other, find
the magnitude of their resultant and the angle that it makes
with the larger force. (Ans: R = 36.3 lb)

[write your solution below this line]

[write your solution below this line]

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5. Solve the triangle ABC, 7. Two adjacent sides of a parallelogram are 3473 and
given a = 25.2, b = 37.8, and 4822 ft, and the angle between them is 72.23 o. Find the
c = 43.4. (Ans: C = 60o10’) length of the longer diagonal. (Ans: 6748 ft)

[write your solution below this line]

[write your solution below this line]

6. Solve the triangle ABC, given a = 30.3, b = 40.4, and c
= 62.6. (Ans: A =23o40’)
8. To find the distance between two points A and B that
lie on opposite banks of a river, a surveyor lays off a line
segment AC of length 240 yards along one bank and
determines that the measures of angle BAC and angle
ACB are 63o20’ and 54o10’, respectively (see the figure).
Approximate the distance between A and B. (Ans: 219
yd)

[write your solution below this line]

[write your solution below this line]

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9. As shown in the figure on the next page, a cable car
carries passengers from a point A, which is 1.2 miles from
a point Bat the base of a mountain, to a point Pat the top
of the mountain. The angles of elevation of P from A and
B are 21o and 65o, respectively. (Ans: a. 1.6mi, b. 0.6mi)
(a) Approximate the distance between A and P.
(b) Approximate the height of the mountain.
[write your solution below this line]
10. The angles of elevation of a balloon from two points
A and B on level ground are and, respectively. As shown
in the figure, points A and B are 8.4 miles apart, and the
balloon is between the points, in the same vertical plane.
Approximate the height of the balloon above the ground.
(Ans: 2.7 mi)
[write your solution below this line]
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3. TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS AND
IDENTITIES
Trigonometric Identities
An equation involving the trigonometric functions which
is valid for all values of the angle for which the functions
are defined is called a trigonometric identity.
The basic trigonometric identities
Quotient Identities
Reciprocal Identities
Pythagorean Identities
Even–Odd Identities
A trigonometric identity is verified by transforming one
member (your choice) into the other. In general, one
begins with the more complicated side. In some cases
each side is transformed into the same new form.
General Guidelines for Verifying/Proving/ Establishing
Identities
1. Know the eight basic relationships and recognize
alternative forms of each.
2. Know the procedures for adding and subtracting
fractions, reducing fractions, and transforming
fractions into equivalent fractions.
3. Know factoring and special product techniques.
4. Use only substitution and simplification
procedures that allow you to work on exactly one
side of an equation.
5. Select the side of the equation that appears more
complicated and attempt to transform it into the
form of the other side of the equation.
6. If neither side is uncomplicated, transform each
side of the equation, independently, into the same
form.
7. Avoid substitutions that introduce radicals.
8. Use substitutions to change all trigonometric
functions into expressions involving only sine
and cosine and then simplify.
9. Multiply the numerator and denominator of a
fraction by the conjugate of either. (The
conjugate of a two-term expression is the
11
 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝑥
expression determined when the sign between the 2. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
two terms is replaced by its opposite.)
10. Simplify a square root of a fraction by using [write your solution below this line]
conjugates to transform it into the quotient of
perfect squares.
11. Always keep your goal in mind. As you
manipulate one side of the expression, you must
keep in mind the form of the expression on the
other side.

Example 2.3.1:
Use algebraic techniques to simplify/verify the given 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
3. =
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
trigonometric expressions
[write your solution below this line]
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
a. Simplify by rewriting each trigonometric function
𝑐𝑠𝑐𝜃
in terms of sine and cosine functions.

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
b. Show that = by multiplying the
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
numerator and denominator by 1- sin𝜃.

𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 1
4. =
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥)2

[write your solution below this line]

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃−1
c. Simplify by factoring.
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃

[continue after this line]…

Trigonometric Functions of Two Angles

Addition Formulas

sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + cos 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − sin 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽

Exercises 2.3.1: 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽

tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) =
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
Verify/Prove/Establish the following identities
Subtraction Formulas
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃+2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
1. tanƟ + 2cotƟ = sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − cos 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

[write your solution below this line] cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + sin 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
tan(𝛼 − 𝛽) =
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
Double-Angle Formulas

sin(2𝛼) = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

cos(2𝛼) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 1

Prepared by 12
Engr. AFR
 1 + cos (2𝜃)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 =
2
4. Simplify:
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝛼
tan(2𝛼) = a. sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) + sin(𝛼 − 𝛽)
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝛼
b. cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) − cos(𝛼 − 𝛽)
tan(𝑥+𝑦)−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
Half-Angle Formulas c.
1+ tan(𝑥+𝑦) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

1 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 Solution:
sin ( 𝛼) = ±√
2 2 a. sin(𝛼 + 𝛽) + sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) =

1 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (sin 𝛼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽) + (sin 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽)

cos ( 𝛼) = ±√
2 2 = 2sin 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽
b. cos(𝛼 + 𝛽) − cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) =
1 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
tan ( 𝛼) = ±√ = = (cos 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 − sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽) − (cos 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽)
2 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= −2 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽
Example 2.3.2:
cos (𝛼−𝛽)
1. Establish the identity: = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽 + 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 tan(𝑥+𝑦)−𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥
c. = tan[(𝑥 + 𝑦) − 𝑥 ] = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦
Solution: 1+ tan(𝑥+𝑦) 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥

cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) cos 𝛼 cos𝛽 + sin 𝛼 sin𝛽

=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
cos 𝛼cos𝛽 sin𝛼sin𝛽 cotα 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽−1
= + 5. Prove cot(𝛼 + 𝛽) =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽+ cotα

=
cos 𝛼
∙
cos 𝛽
+1 Solution:
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
1 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽 + 1 cot(𝛼 + 𝛽) = =
tan(𝛼 + 𝛽) tanα + tanβ
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
1
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽 1−𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽
2. Prove the identity: tan(𝜃 + 𝜋) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = 1 1
tanα+tanβ +
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽
Solution:
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽−1
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜋 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 + 0 =
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝛼
tan(𝜃 + 𝜋) = = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜋 1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ∙ 0

𝜋
3. Prove the identity: tan (𝜃 + ) = −𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
2
𝜋
Note: tan is undefined
2

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 sin (𝜃 + ) sin 𝜃 cos + cos 𝜃 sin
tan (𝜃 + ) = 2 2 2
2 𝜋 = 𝜋 𝜋
cos (𝜃 + ) cos 𝜃 cos 2 − sin 𝜃 sin 2
2
(sin 𝜃)(0) + (cos 𝜃)(1)
=
(cos 𝜃)(0) − (sin 𝜃)(1)
cos 𝜃
=
− sin 𝜃
= −cot 𝜃
= −cot 𝜃

Prepared by 13
Engr. AFR
Exercises 2.3.1: 4. Write an equivalent expression for 𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 𝜃 that does
not involve any powers of sine or cosine greater than 1.
1
1− 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (2𝑥)
1. Prove cos x = 𝟑 𝟏 𝟏
1
1+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (2𝑥) Ans: + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝜽) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝟒𝜽)
𝟖 𝟐 𝟖

1
2. Establish the identity: 2 tan ( 𝑥)
2
5. 1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 (2𝑥)
sin 𝜃 1 + cos 𝜃
+ = 2𝑐𝑠𝑐 𝜃
1 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃

3. Use double-angle formula to prove

sin(3𝜃) = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝜃

Prepared by 14
Engr. AFR
 4. SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY Solution of Right Spherical Triangles: Napier’s Rule

Spherical trigonometry deals with the relations between Consider the following figures for Napier’s rule.
the six parts (three sides and three angles) of a spherical
triangle and its solution. Spherical triangle is that part of
the surface of a sphere bounded by three arcs of great
circles. Figure below shows a spherical triangle with
angles A, B, C, and the opposite sides are a, b, c,
respectively. Both angles and sides are in angular units.

Rule I: The sine of any middle part is equal to the product

of the tangents of the adjacent parts.

sin a = tan b tan (co-B)

= tan b cot B

Rule II: The sine of any middle part is equal to the product
of the cosines of the opposite parts.

sin a = cos (co-c) cos (co-A)

= sin c sin A

Note: co-A means “complement of A”

Solution of Right Spherical Triangles
Useful Formulas for Spherical Triangles
Sine Law
The sum of the sides is less than 3600, and the sum of the 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐
= =
angles is between 1800 and 5400. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶
Cosine Law for Sides
a + b + c < 3600
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴
1800 < A + B + C < 5400
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵
Spherical Excess (E) is the amount by which the sum of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶
the angles of a spherical triangle exceeds 180 0.
Cosine Law for Angles
0
E = A + B + C - 180
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑎

𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏

When three sides are known, L’Huilier’s formula can be
used. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐶 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐

tan 14 𝐸
Unit conversion
= √tan 12 𝑠 tan 12 (𝑠 − 𝑎) tan 12 (𝑠 − 𝑏) tan 12 (𝑠 − 𝑐)

Where s = ½ (a + b + c)
The area (A) of a spherical triangle on the surface of the
sphere of radius R.

𝜋𝑅 2 𝐸
𝐴 =
1800

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Engr. AFR
Example 2.4.1
A spherical triangle ABC has an angle C = 90 and sides
a = 50 and c = 80. Find b, B, and A

Solution:
For b,
sin(co-c) = cos (a) cos (b)
cos(c) = cos (a) cos (b)
cos 80 = cos (50) cos (b)
b = 74.330
For B,
sin(co-B) = tan(co-c) tan(a)
cos (B) = cot(c) tan(a)
cos (B) = cot(80) tan(50)
B = 77.860 or 77052’10.35”
For A,
sin(a) = cos(co-c) cos(co-A)
sin(50) = sin(c) sin(A)
sin(50) = sin(80) sin(A)
A = 51.070

Exercise 2.4.1
Find the remaining parts of the following triangles, in
each of which C = 900
1. b = 45030’, c = 1300
2. A = 80010.5’, c = 110046.3’
3. B = 130030.0’, a = 114023.8’
4. B = 36.710, c = 112.420
5. A = 136.10, a = 110.310

Prepared by 16
Engr. AFR