General Chemistry

PARTICLES OF MATTER PROPERTIES OF MATTER

• Atoms – is the smallest particle of matter.

• Molecules – aggregates of at least two
atoms in a definite arrangement held
together by chemical forces.
• Ions – an atom or a group of atoms that
has a net positive or negative charge.

STATES OF MATTER
Solid
• Compact particles - fixed and uniformly
arranged
• Vibrates - little to no movement Chemical Properties
• Rigid -reactivity, flammability, toxicity, ability to
oxidize, heat of combustion
• Definite shape
o Rusting
• Definite volume o Digestion
Liquid
• Micro Physical Properties
o Slightly far particles Extensive Properties
o Free to move mass, volume, weight, size, length
o Weight
• Macro o Volume
o Definite volume
o Takes the shape of the container Intensive Properties
Gas density, color, luster, odor, malleability,
conductivity, hardness, ductility, boiling point,
• Micro
melting point
o Random motion
o Boiling point
o Elastic collision ➢ Melting of ice
o Particles are far apart ➢ Evaporation of water
• Macro o Density
o No definite shape
Quantitative Properties – measured and described
o No definite volume
in numerical values
o Compressible
(melting, boiling point, density, solubility,
electrical/thermal)
PHASE CHANGES Qualitative Properties – observed and described
• Condensation (gas to liquid) with words
• Evaporation/Vaporization (liquid to (color, odor, malleability, ductility, hardness,
gas) brittleness, physical state, crystal shape)
• Freezing (liquid to solid) Chemical Properties
• Melting (solid to liquid) reactivity with water, air, , pure oxygen, acids,
• Sublimation (solid to gas) pure substances, flammability, toxicity,
• Deposition (gas to solid) decomposition

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 General Chemistry
COMMON PHYSICAL QUANTITIES IN
CHEMISTRY
Mass and Density
D = m/v
D = m / Vf – Vi
D = gram / cubic cm

Measurement – provides quantitative information

PROPERTY CHANGE
Physical Change - only the physical properties are
altered, not the composition
Chemical Change - formation of new substance
due to changes in its composition
Intensive Property – is independent on the
amount of substance. [often studied to identify a
substance because it is more definitive than
extensive properties.]
Extensive Property – is dependent on the amount
of substance.
Quantitative Properties – a characteristic of a
substance that can be measured and described with
numerical values.
Qualitative Properties – a characteristic of a
substance that can be observed and described in
words that does not use numerical values. [sight,
hearing, smell, taste, touch]
of an unknown quantity by comparing it to that of
a known quantity
Presidential Decree No. 187, s. 1973 – prescribes
the use of metric system of weights and measures
as the standard measurement for all products,
commodities, materials, utilities, and services and
in all business and
legal transactions.
1790, France – birth of metric system, Antoine
Lavoisier is a
member.
1960, France – revised the metric system and
established the
universally accepted SI Units (Systéme
International d’ Unités)

PROPERTIES OF MATTER THAT ARE

USUALLY STUDIED IN CHEMISTRY

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 General Chemistry
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
pertains to a number or figure that is certain to give
reasonable and reliable information.
1. All nonzero digits (1 to 9) are significant.
2. Leading zeros are always not significant.
0.003 = 1 SF
3. Captured zeros are always significant.
3003 = 4 SF
4. Trailing zeros may or may not be
significant
Zeros to the right of a nonzero digit with a decimal
point are significant
3.00 = 3 SF
Zeros at the end of a nonzero digit without a
decimal point are not significant
300 = 1SF
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN
CALCULATION
The number of decimal places in the answer
should be the same as the number with the least
decimal places among those being added or
subtracted.
2.051 + 3.56 + 72.1 = 77.711 — 77.7
The number of significant figures in the answer
should be the same as the number with the least
number of significant figures among the factors
(multiplication) and among the dividend and
divisor (division).
3.8056 / 2.5 = 1.5224 — 1.5
ROUNDING NUMBERS
General rule: The least certain measurement sets
the limit on the certainty of the final answer.
Rule 1: If the digit removed is more than 5, the
preceding number increases by 1.
Rule 2: If the digit removed is less than 5, the
preceding number remains the same.
Rule 3: If the digit removed is 5, the preceding
number increases by 1 if it is odd and remains the
same if it is even.
3.a If the 5 is followed only by zeros, rule 3 is
followed; if the 5 is followed by non-zeros, rule
1 is followed.
Rule 4: Always carry one or two additional
significant figures through a multistep calculation
and round off the final answer only.
IF + and − = least decimal places
IF × and ÷ = least significant figures
ACCURACY
how close the measurement value is relative to the
standard value.
(𝐴 = 100 – 𝐸%) ∗ 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 3 𝑠𝑖𝑔 𝑓𝑖𝑔 ∗
PRECISION
how close to one another the measured values are.
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 General Chemistry
Error in Measurements – tells us the difference
between the actual value of a quantity and the
value obtained by a measurement. Determines the
degree of uncertainties in physical measurements
Absolute Error = the difference between the actual
and measured value
Relative Error = Absolute error divided by the
actual measurement.
TYPES OF ERRORS:
Systematic errors - results in low accuracy
(inaccuracy)
Random error - results in low precision
(imprecision).
SOURCES OF ERRORS:
1. Incomplete definition (R or S)
2. Failure to account for a factor (usually S)
3. Environmental factors (R or S)
4. Instrument resolution (R)
5. Calibration (S)
6. Personal errors from carelessness, poor
technique, or bias on the part of the
experimenter.
SUMMARY
Measurement is important because it gives us
information on the magnitude or quantitative
aspect of the properties of matter. Measurements
can be accurate or precise. Accuracy in
measurement refers to the closeness of the
obtained values to the standard value while
precision in measurement refers to the how close
to one another the measured values are.
However, measurements can still have errors.
These errors can be systematic or random error.
The first type of error affects the accuracy of the
measurement while the next type affects the
precision of the measurement.
1. Beakers - containers used for mixing,
stirring, and heating chemicals.
2. Erlenmeyer flasks (conical flasks) –
have narrow neck expanded base which
allows easy mixing with little chance of
spilling.
➢ The narrow opening allows the use
of a stopper.
➢ They can easily be clamped to ring
stands; heated or shaken
mechanically.
3. Florence flasks (boiling flasks) – has a
round bottom and a long neck.
➢ Used to hold liquids and can be
easily swirled and heated.
➢ Can also easily be capped by rubber
or glass stoppers.
4. Test tubes, tongs, and racks – a glass
tube with one end open and the other end
closed and rounded.
➢ Used to hold samples.
➢ They are generally held in a test
tube rack.
➢ If the test tubes become hot, test-
tube tongs can be used to move
them.
5. Watch Glasses – round piece of glass
that is slightly concave/convex.
➢ Can hold a small amount of liquid
or solid.
➢ Can be used for evaporation
purposes and can function as a lid
for a beaker.
6. Crucibles – a small clay cup made of a
material that can withstand extreme
temperatures.
➢ Used for heating substances and
come with lids.
7. Funnel - used to direct liquids into
containers that have small openings.
8. Filter paper – its surface has numerous
holes through which liquid particles can
pass, while larger solid particles cannot,
so the filter paper has the function of a
filter.
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 General Chemistry
9. Graduated Cylinder – a primary
measuring tool for the volume of a liquid.
➢ There are several markings up and
down the length of the container with
specific increments.
10. Volumetric Flasks – a round flask with a
long neck and flat bottom.
➢ It is used to measure the exact
volume of liquid.
11. Pipettes - used to measure out or transfer
small quantities of liquid, in volumes of
milliliters (mL), microliters (μL).
12. Droppers – small glass tubes with
narrow tips on one end and a rubber bulb
on the other.
➢ They suck up liquid that can then be
squeezed out in small drops.
13. Micro-pipettes – measures an exact
volume of liquid and places it into
another container.
14. Burette – a glass tube that is open at the
top and has a narrow-pointed opening at
the bottom.
➢ It is used for extremely accurate
addition of liquid.
15. Ring stands, rings, and clamps
➢ The ring stand is used to suspend
burettes.
➢ Rings are used to hold beakers,
flasks, crucibles, etc.
16. Forceps – used to grab small things like
solid chemicals that are broken into
chunks, so they can be safely handled and
added to containers.
17. Spatulas – used for scraping, mixing,
flipping of solutions or objects.
18. Thermometers – used for measuring the
temperature of liquids.
19. Bunsen Burners – a mechanical
apparatus that is connected to a
flammable gas source. There is a knob to
adjust the amount of gas flow.
20. Balances – used to weigh chemicals.
21. Tripod – supports flask and beakers.
22. Beaker Tongs – designed to safely
handle hot beakers.
23. Test Tube Holder – holds test tubes.
24. Test tube – handle/contain chemicals.
25. Magnifying Glass – get a wider and
magnified view of the details of a certain
object.
26. Reagent Bottle – used for storing
powders and liquids.
27. Petri Dish – culture different
microorganisms and cells. Usually used
for cells of bacteria, fungi, and small
mosses.
28. Evaporating Dish – used for the
evaporation of liquids and solutions to
produce a solid substance or concentrated
solutions.
29. Wash Bottle – clean other laboratory
glassware.
30. Glass Slide – thin rectangular slide for
microscopic specimen observation.
31. Microscope – an instrument to observe
microscopic level of objects like cells.
32. Glass Vial – used to hold small amount
of liquids or even solids.
33. Measuring Cup – used to measure the
volume of a liquid.
34. Mortar – used to store the smaller and
finer pieces of the object by the pestle.
35. Pestle – used to crush big objects into
smaller and finer pieces.
36. Alcohol Lamp – produce an open flame.
37. Wire Gauze – used to diffuse the heat,
helping to protect the glassware.
38. Iron Clamp – used to secure funnels and
support flasks.
39. Condenser – used to cool hot vapors
from heated liquids.
40. Distilling Flask – used for distillation
and separation of mixtures.
41. Stirring Rod – used to mix chemicals
and liquids through stirring
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 General Chemistry
Centrifugation
• A method used to
Filtration separate components
• is a method of separating of a mixture with
mixtures based on different densities
differences in particle size using centrifugal
force (through
• is often used to separate an
spinning).
insoluble solid from a liquid,
which flows through the tiny • Denser particles
holes in filter paper as the move outward while
solid is retained. less dense particles
are displaced at the
• The material that passes
center.
through the filter paper is
called the filtrate while the
Evaporation
trapped material is called
residue. • is a technique used to separate the non-
volatile solid from a volatile liquid or to
retrieve a dissolved solid in a liquid.
Decantation
• A method used to
separate a mixture of
solid and liquid or a
mixture of two
immiscible liquids.
• Let the heavier material
settle at the bottom,
then slowly pour the
Crystallization
clear upper liquid layer
• A method done by cooling or evaporating
of liquid.
the mixture so that the dissolved particles
solidify into highly organized structures
or crystals.
Using Separatory Funnel
• A method used to separate a mixture of
Simple Distillation
two immiscible liquids.
• A method used to separate components of
a mixture with differences in boiling
point or volatility.

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 General Chemistry
Fractional Distillation
• A technique used to
separate the COMPOUNDS
components of a
mixture of two miscible
▪ Compounds were formed when two or
liquids with boiling
more atoms are joined together to create
point difference of less
a material with distinct properties.
than 40oC.
▪ Compounds are classified according to
• Uses a fractioning
their component and nature.
column that acts as a
▪ In an organized way of naming
minor obstruction to
compounds, they are grouped into four
the rising gas and
categories:
prevent the “not so pure”
1. Binary (2) are based on the number
vapor from passing
2. Ternary (3) of elements that made up
through. the compound
3. Acids based on the presence of
Magnetic Separation
H ion
• the method used to separate the magnetic 4. Bases based on the presence of
component of the mixture using a strong OH ion.
magnet.

Sublimation
• A technique used to
separate the components
of a solid-solid mixture,
one of which sublimes composed of two contains a
when heated. kinds of atoms polyatomic ion

Sieving
• is a technique used to separate
components of a solid-solid mixture with has H before a non- has OH after a metal
different sizes of particles. metal or a or a polyatomic ion
• the sieve allows only the particles of a polyatomic ion
specific size to pass through it, thus
filtering the coarser materials.

Chromatography
• A method used to separate constituents of
a solution by allowing a solvent to flow
through a stationary phase and carry the
components of the mixture with it.
❖ Mobile Phase carries the components of
a mixture through a long stationary
phase.
❖ Stationary Phase is the medium that is CATION ANION
designed to separate these components by loses electrons gains electrons
allowing them to travel at different rates. positively charged negatively charged

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 General Chemistry
NAMING BINARY COMPOUNDS Omit the extra “o” or “a” in the Greek prefix if the
second element is an oxide.
Type I Binary Ionic
an ionic compound in which the cation has a fixed
charge.

Type II Binary Ionic

an ionic compound in which the cation has
variable charges.

Example:
NAMING ACIDS
Acids are molecular compounds that produce ions
when dissolved in water (aqueous solution). For
example, HCI (aq) is an acid – the (aq) indicates
that the compound is aqueous or dissolved in water.

Binary Acids
Ternary Ionic Compounds are acids that contain hydrogen and a nonmetal.
contains three or more elements. The cation, the
anion, or both, is a polyatomic ion.
Base name of the Add the
Hydrogen nonmetal + ic word acid
Name of Name of
monoatomic or polyatomic
polyatomic cation anion Example:
HCI (aq) Hydrochloric acid
HBr (aq) Hydrobromic acid
Example:
Oxoacids
are acids that contain hydrogen and an oxyanion.
The names of oxoacids depend on the ending of
the oxyanion.

Type III Binary Compounds (Covalent)

molecular compounds that consist of two Example:
nonmetallic elements

Name of the
Name of the
Prefix Prefix less metal-like
more metal-
element
like element
ending in -ide NAMING HYDRATES

REMEMBER: Hydrates are compounds in which a specific

The prefix “mono-” may be omitted for the first number of water molecules are chemically bound
element. to another compound or element.

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 General Chemistry
Name of the Numerical prefix
acidic indicating the number Example:
compound of water + “hydrates” A hydrogen atom is found to be 8.400%
as massive as carbon-12. What is its mass?
Example:
Solution:
𝐻 = 8.400% 𝑎𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝐶 − 12
12.01 × 0.08400
= 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟗 𝒂𝒎𝒖

- study of mass relationships in chemical

reactions.
- involves determining desired quantitative
data based on the relationships between
reactants and products in a chemical
reaction.

ATOMIC MASS
- is the weight of an atom determined by
the number of its electrons, protons, and
neutrons.
- is the weight of an atom in atomic mass
unit or amu.
- by international agreement, carbon-12 is
set as the standard of measure for atomic
mass. (p+= 6, n0 = 6)

RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

- the mass of an “average atom” of an
element as compared to Carbon-12.

AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS

- is the average mass of all known isotopes
of an element
Average mass = Σ (fractional abundance x
isotopic mass)

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