Applied Mathematics

Partial Fraction Decomposition: Proper fractions Tutorial.

INTRODUCTION

𝑁(𝑥)
A partial fraction is the decomposed part of a fraction of the form where; N is
𝐷(𝑥)

the numerator as a function of X and D is the denominator as a function of X.

Partial fraction decomposition is the process of expressing single fractions into partial
7𝑥+13
fractions. E.g. Given that is a single fraction, it can be resolved (expressed) into
(𝑥+4)(𝑥−1)
3 4
partial fractions as +
𝑥+4 𝑥−1

Single fractions

There are two types of algebraic single fractions;

i. Proper fractions: An algebraic fraction is said to be proper if the degree (highest

power of X) of the numerator 𝑁(𝑥) is lower than that of the denominator 𝐷(𝑥) . e.g.

7𝑥+13 7𝑥+13
Factored form, or; Expanded form.
(𝑥+4)(𝑥−1) (𝑥 2 +3𝑥−4)

Is a proper algebraic fraction.

ii. Improper fractions: An algebraic fraction is said to be improper if the degree

(highest power of x) of the numerator 𝑁(𝑥) is equal or greater than that of the
denominator 𝐷(𝑥) . e.g.

𝒙𝟐 +𝟑𝒙−𝟏𝟎 𝒙𝟐 +𝟑𝒙−𝟏𝟎
1. Expanded form, or; Factored form.
𝒙𝟐 −𝟐𝒙−𝟑 (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏)

𝟐𝒙𝟑 +𝟑𝒙𝟐 −𝟓𝒙+𝟓𝟎

2. ;
𝒙𝟐 −𝟓𝒙+𝟔

Are algebraic improper fractions. To resolve such single fractions into partial fractions, we
need to use The Remainder Theorem. (Polynomial Division) to make them proper fractions

In this study we shall focus on partial fraction decomposition for proper algebraic fractions.

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 Rules for Denominators in Partial Fraction Decomposition
There are four (4) important rules for denominators 𝐷(𝑥) one needs to know in order
𝑁(𝑥)
to express a single fraction of the form into partial fractions.
𝐷(𝑥)

FIRST RULE
Linear Factors
𝑁(𝑥)
Given that is a single fraction with linear factors (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑).
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)(𝐶𝑥+𝑑)

Then we can say that;

𝑁(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵
≡ + 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)(𝐶𝑥+𝑑) 𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝐶𝑥+𝑑

Examples

Resolve the following into partial fractions.

7𝑥+13
1.
(𝑥+4)(𝑥−1)
4𝑥+32
2.
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−8

Solutions

7x+13 A B
1.
(x+4)(x−1)
≡ + … … … (𝑖)
x+4 x−1
𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑖) 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐿. 𝐶. 𝐷) (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1)
7𝑥 + 13 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1) × [ ≡ + ]
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥+4 𝑥−1

(𝒙 + 𝟒)(𝒙 − 𝟏)7𝑥 + 13 (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1)𝐴 (𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1)𝐵

=> ≡ +
(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥+4 𝑥−1

=> 7𝑥 + 13 ≡ (𝑥 − 1)𝐴 + (𝑥 + 4)𝐵 … … (𝑖𝑖)

To find the values of A & B, there are two methods we can use namely;
(i) Elimination method
(ii) Comparison Method

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 By Elimination
To solve for A, we have to set the factor 𝑥 + 4 = 0; 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = −4 to
eliminate B in identity (𝑖𝑖).
 7(−4) + 13 ≡ (−4 − 1)𝐴 + (−4 + 4)𝐵
 −28 + 13 ≡ (−5)𝐴 + (0)𝐵
 −15 ≡ −5𝐴
.′ . 𝑨 = 𝟑
To solve for B, we have to set the factor 𝑥 − 1 = 0; 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 1 to
eliminate A in identity(𝑖𝑖).

 7(1) + 13 ≡ (1 − 1)𝐴 + (1 + 4)𝐵

 20 ≡ (0)𝐴 + (5)𝐵
 20 ≡ 5𝐵
.′ . 𝑩 = 𝟒

7x+13 3 4
.’. (x+4)(x−1) ≡ +
x+4 x−1

Alternatively! We can find the values of A and B by Comparison method.

7𝑥 + 13 ≡ (𝑥 − 1)𝐴 + (𝑥 + 4)𝐵 … … (𝑖𝑖)

Expand the brackets on the right hand side (R.H.S) of the identity.
=> 7𝑥 + 13 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 + 4𝐵
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟.
𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒙 (Coefficients)
7 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 … … (𝑖)
𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒙𝟎 (Constants)
13 = −𝐴 + 4𝐵 … . (𝑖𝑖)
We now have simultaneous equation in A & B we can easily solve by adding
(𝑖) and (𝑖𝑖).
7 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 … … (𝑖)

+ 13 = −𝐴 + 4𝐵 … . (𝑖𝑖)

20 = 5𝐵
.’. B = 4

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 Substituting 𝐵 = 4 into equation (𝑖) we obtain the value of A as;
=> 7 = 𝐴 + 4
=> 7 − 4 = 𝐴
.′ . 𝑨 = 𝟑 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑.

Note: Unlike elimination method, Comparison method always works for any
partial fraction decomposition problem.

2.
4𝑥 + 32
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8

Check if the denominator can be factorized using the discriminant.

𝐷 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
= (−2)2 − 4(1)(−8)
= (−2)2 − 4(1)(−8)
= 36
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐷 𝑖𝑠 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟. So the
denominator can be factorized.
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑐: − 8, 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑏: − 2, 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑓: − 4, 2
=> 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑥 − 8
=> 𝑥(𝑥 + 2) − 4(𝑥 + 2)
=> (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4) 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟

4𝑥 + 32 𝐴 𝐵
𝑠𝑜; ≡ + … … (𝑖)
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4) 𝑥+2 𝑥−4
𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑖) 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐿. 𝐶. 𝐷) (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4)
4𝑥+32 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4) × [ ≡ + ]
(𝑥+2)(𝑥−4) 𝑥+2 𝑥−4

(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4)4𝑥 + 32 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4)𝐴 (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4)𝐵

=> ≡ +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 4) 𝑥+2 𝑥−4
=> 4𝑥 + 32 ≡ (𝑥 − 4)𝐴 + (𝑥 + 2)𝐵 … … . (𝑖𝑖)
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 To solve for A, we have to set the factor 𝑥 + 2 = 0; 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = −2 to
eliminate B in identity (𝑖𝑖).
 4(−2) + 32 ≡ (−2 − 4)𝐴 + (−2 + 2)𝐵
 4(−2) + 32 ≡ (−2 − 4)𝐴 + (−2 + 2)𝐵
 −8 + 32 ≡ (−6)𝐴 + (0)𝐵
 24 = −6𝐴
.′ . 𝑨 = −𝟒
To solve for B, we have to set the factor 𝑥 − 4 = 0; 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 4 to
eliminate A in identity(𝑖𝑖).
 4(4) + 32 ≡ (4 − 4)𝐴 + (4 + 2)𝐵
 16 + 32 ≡ (0)𝐴 + (6)𝐵
 48 = 6𝐵
.′ . 𝑩 = 𝟖
4𝑥 + 32 −4 8
.′ . ≡ +
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8 𝑥+2 𝑥−4
8 4
≡ −
𝑥−4 𝑥+2

SECOND RULE

Repeated linear factors

𝑁(𝑥) 1 2
Given that 2 is a single fraction with repeating linear factors (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)

Then we can say that;

𝑁(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)2
≡ + (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)2 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑎𝑥+𝑏

Examples
𝑥−4
1. Resolve into partial fractions
(𝑥−2)2

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 Solution

𝑥−4 𝐴 𝐵
2
≡ + … … . (𝑖)
(𝑥 − 2) 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2

𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑖) 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐿. 𝐶. 𝐷) (𝑥 − 2)2

𝑥−4 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑥 − 2)2 × [ ≡ + ]
(𝑥 − 2)2 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2

(𝑥 − 2)2 𝑥 − 4 (𝑥 − 2)2 𝐴 (𝑥 − 2)2 𝐵

=> ≡ +
(𝑥 − 2)2 𝑥−2 (𝑥 − 2)2

(𝑥 − 2)2 𝑥 − 4 (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 2)𝐴 (𝑥 − 2)2 𝐵

=> ≡ +
(𝑥 − 2)2 𝑥−2 (𝑥 − 2)2

=> 𝑥 − 4 ≡ (𝑥 − 2)𝐴 + 𝐵 … . . (𝑖𝑖)

To find A & B, we have to use both elimination and comparison methods because we will
not be able to eliminate B in identity (𝑖𝑖)

By Elimination

To solve for B, we have to set the factor 𝑥 − 2 = 0; 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 2 to eliminate A in

identity (𝑖𝑖)

=> 2 − 4 ≡ (2 − 2)𝐴 + 𝐵

=> −2 ≡ (0)𝐴 + 𝐵

.′ . 𝑩 = −𝟐

To find A, we have to use comparison method because we can’t eliminate B.

By comparison

𝑥 − 4 ≡ (𝑥 − 2)𝐴 + 𝐵 … . (𝑖𝑖)

Expand R.H.S

𝑥 − 4 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 − 2𝐴 + 𝐵

𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟.

𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒙 (Coefficients)

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1=𝐴

.′ . 𝑨 = 𝟏

𝑥−4 1 −2
.′ . ≡ +
(𝑥 − 2)2 𝑥 − 2 (𝑥 − 2)2

THIRD RULE

Linear and repeated linear factors

𝑁(𝑥)
Given that is a single fraction with a linear factor (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) and a repeating
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)(𝐶𝑥+𝑑)2

linear factor (𝐶𝑥 + 𝑑)2 .

Then we can say that;

𝑁(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)(𝐶𝑥+𝑑)2
≡ + + (𝐶𝑥+𝑑)2 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝐶𝑥+𝑑

Examples

Resolve the following into partial fractions.

4𝑥 2 −7𝑥−3
1.
(𝑥+2)(𝑥−1)2

10𝑥 2 −73𝑥+144
2.
𝑥(𝑥−4)2

Solutions
4𝑥 2 −7𝑥−3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
1.
(𝑥+2)(𝑥−1)2
≡ + + (𝑥−1)2 … … (𝑖)
𝑥+2 𝑥−1

𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑖) 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐿. 𝐶. 𝐷) (𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 1)2

4𝑥2 − 7𝑥 − 3 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
(𝑥 + 2) (𝑥 − 1)2 × [ ≡ + + ]
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)
2 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)2

(𝑥+2) (𝑥−1)2 4𝑥 2 −7𝑥−3 (𝑥+2) (𝑥−1)2 𝐴 (𝑥+2) (𝑥−1)2 𝐵 (𝑥+2) (𝑥−1)2 𝐶

=> (𝑥+2)(𝑥−1)2
≡ + + (𝑥−1)2
𝑥+2 𝑥−1

=> 4𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 3 ≡ (𝑥 − 1)2 𝐴 + (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)𝐵 + (𝑥 + 2)𝐶 … . (𝑖𝑖)

By elimination

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To solve for C, we have to set the factor 𝑥 − 1 = 0; 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 1 to eliminate A and B in
identity (𝑖𝑖) because the factor (𝑥 − 1) is common in both A and B.

=> 4(1)2 − 7(1) − 3 ≡ (1 − 1)2 𝐴 + (1 + 2)(1 − 1)𝐵 + (1 + 2)𝐶

=> 4 − 7 − 3 ≡ (0)2 𝐴 + (3)(0)𝐵 + (3)𝐶

=> −6 ≡ 3𝐶

.′ . 𝑪 = −𝟐

To solve for A, we have to set the factor 𝑥 + 2 = 0; 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = −2 to eliminate B and C

in identity (𝑖𝑖) because the factor (𝑥 + 2) is common in both B and C.

=> 4(−2)2 − 7(−2) − 3 ≡ (−2 − 1)2 𝐴 + (−2 + 2)(−2 − 1)𝐵 + (−2 + 2)𝐶

=> 4(4) + 14 − 3 ≡ (−3)2 𝐴 + (0)(−3)𝐵 + (0)𝐶

=> 27 ≡ 9𝐴

.′ . 𝑨 = 𝟑

By comparison

We can’t use elimination method to find B because both factors, (𝑥 + 2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 − 1) are
common in B. so we use comparison.

4𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 3 ≡ (𝑥 − 1)2 𝐴 + (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)𝐵 + (𝑥 + 2)𝐶 … . (𝑖𝑖)

Expand R.H.S

=> 4𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 3 ≡ (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)𝐴 + (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2)𝐵 + (𝑥 + 2)𝐶

=> 4𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 3 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 2 − 2𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 − 2𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 + 2𝐶

𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒙𝟐 (Coefficients)

4 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 … . (𝑖)

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = 3, We substitute A into equation (𝑖)

=> 4 = 3 + 𝐵

=> 4 − 3 = 𝐵

.′ . 𝑩 = 𝟏

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 4𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 3 3 1 −2
.′ . 2
≡ + +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 1)2

10𝑥 2 −73𝑥+144 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2. ≡ + + (𝑥−2)2 ……..(i)
𝑥(𝑥−4)2 𝑥 𝑥−4

𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑖) 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐿. 𝐶. 𝐷) 𝑥(𝑥 − 4)2

2
10𝑥 2 − 73𝑥 + 144 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑥(𝑥 − 4) × [ ≡ + + ]
𝑥(𝑥 − 4)2 𝑥 𝑥 − 4 (𝑥 − 2)2
𝑥(𝑥 − 4)2 10𝑥 2 − 73𝑥 + 144 𝑥(𝑥 − 4)2 𝐴 𝑥(𝑥 − 4)2 𝐵 𝑥(𝑥 − 4)2 𝐶
=> ≡ + +
𝑥(𝑥 − 4)2 𝑥 𝑥−4 (𝑥 − 2)2

=> 10𝑥 2 − 73𝑥 + 144 ≡ (𝑥 − 4)2 𝐴 + 𝑥(𝑥 − 4)𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 … … (𝑖𝑖)

By elimination
To solve for C, we have to set the factor 𝑥 − 4 = 0; 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 4 to eliminate A and B in
identity (𝑖𝑖) because the factor (𝑥 − 4) is common in both A and B.

=> 10(4)2 − 73(4) + 144 ≡ (4 − 4)2 𝐴 + (4)(4 − 4)𝐵 + 𝐶(4)

=> 10(16) − 73(4) + 144 ≡ (0)2 𝐴 + (4)(0)𝐵 + 𝐶(4)

=> 12 ≡ 4𝐶

.′ . 𝑪 = 𝟑

To solve for A, we have to set the factor 𝑥 = 0; 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 0 to eliminate B and C in

identity (𝑖𝑖) because the factor 𝑥 is common in both B and C.

=> 10(0)2 − 73(0) + 144 ≡ (0 − 4)2 𝐴 + (0)(0 − 4)𝐵 + 𝐶(0)

=> 10(0) − 73(0) + 144 ≡ (−4)2 𝐴 + (0)(−4)𝐵 + 𝐶(0)

=> 144 ≡ 16𝐴

.′ . 𝑨 = 𝟗

By comparison

We can’t use elimination method to find B because both factors, 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 − 4) are common
in B. so we use comparison.

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10𝑥 2 − 73𝑥 + 144 ≡ (𝑥 − 4)2 𝐴 + 𝑥(𝑥 − 4)𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 … . . (𝑖𝑖)

Expand R.H.S

10𝑥 2 − 73𝑥 + 144 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 2 − 8𝐴𝑥 + 16 + 𝐵𝑥 2 − 4𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥

𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒙𝟐 (Coefficients)

10 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 … . (𝑖)

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = 9, We substitute A into equation (𝑖)

=> 10 = 9 + 𝐵

=> 10 − 9 = 𝐵

.′ . 𝑩 = 𝟏

10𝑥 2 − 73𝑥 + 144 9 1 3

.′ . 2
≡ + +
𝑥(𝑥 − 4) 𝑥 𝑥 − 4 (𝑥 − 2)2

FOURTH RULE
Linear factor and irreducible quadratic
𝑁(𝑥)
Given that is a single fraction with a linear factor (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) and an
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)(𝑥2 +𝑐2 )
irreducible (cannot be factorized, Discriminant is not a perfect square number) quadratic
factor of the form (𝑥 2 + 𝑐 2 ) .
Then;
𝑁(𝑥) 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶 𝑁(𝑥) 𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)(𝑥 2 +𝑐 2 )
≡ + (𝑥 2 OR ≡ (𝑥 2 +
𝑎𝑥+𝑏 +𝐶 2 ) (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )(𝑏𝑥+𝑐) +𝑎2 ) 𝑏𝑥+𝑐
𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
Examples
Resolve the following into partial fractions
𝑥−4
1.
(𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 +2)

𝑥 2 −3
2.
(𝑥 2 +2)(𝑥−1)

5𝑥 2 +3𝑥+6
3.
𝑥(𝑥 2 −𝑥+3)

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 Solutions

𝑥−4 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+𝐶
1.
(𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 +2)
≡ + … … . (𝑖)
𝑥−1 𝑥 2 +2

𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑖) 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐿. 𝐶. 𝐷) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 2)

𝑥−4 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 2) × [ 2
≡ + 2 ]
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥−1 𝑥 +2

(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 − 4) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 2)(𝐴) (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 2)(𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)

=> ≡ +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 2) 𝑥−1 𝑥2 + 2

=> 𝑥 − 4 ≡ (𝑥 2 + 2)𝐴 + (𝑥 − 1)(𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶 ) … . (𝑖𝑖)

By Elimination
To solve for A, we have to set the factor 𝑥 − 1 = 0; 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 1 to eliminate B and C in
identity (𝑖𝑖) because the factor 𝑥 − 1 is common in both B and C.

=> 1 − 4 ≡ ((1)2 + 2)𝐴 + ((1) − 1)(𝐵(1) + 𝐶)

=> −3 ≡ (3)𝐴 + (0)(𝐵 + 𝐶)

=> −3 ≡ 3𝐴

.′ . 𝑨 = − 𝟏

By Comparison

To solve for B and C, we have to use comparison.

𝑥 − 4 ≡ (𝑥 2 + 2)𝐴 + (𝑥 − 1)(𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶) … . (𝑖𝑖)

Expand R.H.S

𝑥 − 4 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 2 + 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐶

𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒙𝟐 (Coefficients)

0 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 … . (𝑖)

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = −1, We substitute A into equation (𝑖)

=> 0 = −1 + 𝐵

=> 0 + 1 = 𝐵

.′ . 𝑩 = 𝟏

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 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒙 (Coefficients)

1 = 𝐶 − 𝐵 … … (𝑖𝑖)

𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐵 = 2 We substitute B into equation (𝑖𝑖)

=> 1 = 𝐶 + (−1)

=> 1 = 𝐶 − 1

=> 1 + 1 = 𝐶

.′ . 𝑪 = 𝟐

𝑥−4 −1 𝑥+2
.′ . 2
≡ + 2
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥−1 𝑥 +2

𝑥 2 −3 𝐴𝑥+𝐵 𝐶
2. ≡ + … … (𝑖)
(𝑥 2 +2)(𝑥−1) 𝑥 2 +2 𝑥−1

𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑖) 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐿. 𝐶. 𝐷)( 𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)

𝑥2 − 3 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶
( 𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) × [ 2 ≡ 2 + ]
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 +2 𝑥−1

( 𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)𝑥 2 − 3 ( 𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵) ( 𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)(𝐶)

=> ≡ +
(𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥2 + 2 𝑥−1
=> 𝑥 2 − 3 ≡ (𝑥 − 1)(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)+ ( 𝑥 2 + 2)𝐶 … . (𝑖𝑖)

By elimination

To solve for C, we have to set the factor 𝑥 − 1 = 0; 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 1 to eliminate A

and B in identity (𝑖𝑖) because the factor 𝑥 − 1 is common in both A and B.

(1)2 − 3 ≡ (1 − 1)(𝐴(1) + 𝐵)+ ( (1)2 + 2)C

1 − 3 ≡ (0)(𝐴 + 𝐵)+ ( 3)C

−2 ≡ 3𝐶

𝟐
.′ . 𝑪 ≡ −
𝟑

By Comparison

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To solve for A and B, we have to use comparison.

𝑥 2 − 3 ≡ (𝑥 − 1)(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)+ ( 𝑥 2 + 2)𝐶 … . (𝑖𝑖)

Expand R.H.S

𝑥 2 − 3 ≡ 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑥 2 + 2𝐶

𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒙𝟐 (Coefficients)

1 = 𝐴 + 𝐶 … . (𝑖)

2
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐶 = − 3 We substitute C into equation (𝑖)

2
1=𝐴−
3

1 2
+ =𝐴
1 3

𝟓
.′ . 𝑨 =
𝟑

𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒙 (Coefficients)

0 = 𝐵 − 𝐴 … (𝑖𝑖)

5
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝐴 = 3 We substitute A into equation (𝑖𝑖)

5
0=𝐵−
3

𝟓
.′ . 𝑩 =
𝟑

5 5 2
𝑥2 − 3 𝑥+3 −3
′
. . 2 3
≡ 2 +
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 +2 𝑥−1

5𝑥 + 5 2
≡ −
3(𝑥 2 + 2) 3(𝑥 − 1)

5𝑥 2 +3𝑥+6
3.
𝑥(𝑥 2 −𝑥+3)

Check if the quadratic factor can be factorized using the discriminant 𝐷 = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐

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 𝐷 = (−1)2 − 4(1)(3)

𝐷 = −11 The quadratic factor is irreducible (can’t be factored) because the discriminant is not a
perfect square number.

5𝑥2 + 3𝑥 + 6 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
.′ . ≡ + 2 … … … … (𝑖)
2
𝑥(𝑥 − 𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥 + 3)

𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑖) 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐿. 𝐶. 𝐷) 𝑥(𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 3)

=> 5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 6 ≡ (𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 3)𝐴 + 𝑥(𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶) … … (𝑖𝑖)

By Elimination Method

Let 𝑥 = 0 to eliminate B and C.

2
=> 5(0)2 + 3(0) + 6 ≡ ((0) − 0 + 3) 𝐴 + 0(𝐵(0) + 𝐶)

=> 6 ≡ (3)𝐴

.′ . 𝐴 = 2

By comparison Method
5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 6 ≡ (𝑥2 − 𝑥 + 3)𝐴 + 𝑥(𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶) … … (𝑖𝑖)

Expand R.H.S

5𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 6 ≡ 𝐴𝑥2 − 𝐴𝑥 + 3𝐴 + 𝐵𝑥2 + 𝐶𝑥

𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒙𝟐 (Coefficients)

5 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 … . . (𝑖𝑖)

5= 2+𝐵

.′ . 𝑩 = 𝟑

𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒙 (Coefficients)

3 = −𝐴 + 𝐶 … . . (𝑖𝑖𝑖)

3 = −2 + 𝐶

.′ . 𝐶 = 5

5𝑥2 + 3𝑥 + 6 2 3𝑥 + 5
.′ . ≡ + 2
2
𝑥(𝑥 − 𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥 + 3)

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 Exercises

2𝑥 2 +7𝑥+3
1. Express as a sum of partial fractions.
𝑥 3 +2𝑥 2 +𝑥
Hint: factor out the greatest common factor x in the denominator.
 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)
 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1)
 𝑥[(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1)]
 𝑥[𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 1(𝑥 + 1)]
 𝑥[(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)]
 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)2
2𝑥 2 +7𝑥+3
The problem now becomes;
𝑥(𝑥+1)2

5𝑥 2 −2𝑥−19
2. Express as a sum of three partial fractions hint; use the third rule.
(𝑥+3)(𝑥−2)2

3. In a second order kinetics, the differential rate expression is given by the equation;

𝑑𝑦 1
= (𝑎−𝑥)(𝑏−𝑥) , where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
Express 𝑑𝑥 as a partial fraction in terms of 𝑎 and 𝑏. Hint; use the first rule and

elimination method by letting x=a and x=b to eliminate A or B

𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4. When solving the second order differential equation −6 − 10𝜃 = 20 −
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑒 2𝑡 by Laplace transforms, for given boundary conditions, the following expression

for 𝐿 {𝜃} results:
39
4𝑠 3 − 𝑠 2 +42𝑠−40
2
𝐿 {𝜃} = Show that the expression can be resolved
𝑠(𝑠−2)(𝑠 2 −6𝑠+10)

into partial fractions to give:

2 1 5𝑠−3
𝐿 {𝜃} = − +
𝑠 2(𝑠−2) 𝑠 2 −6𝑠+10

END OF TOPIC

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