(

trHAPTHR 5

Selecting Materials

LEARNING OBJEÜTIVE§

When you have completed this chapter you will be able to

5.1 INTROBUCTION

During the formulation phase of product der¡elopment we determined the op-

erating environment and the primary functions of the product. Then during
conceptual design \^/e selecied physical effects and abstracf- embodiments that
would be functional and manufacturable. The abstract embodiments included
considerations of working geometries and materials. Finally, even though u,e
did not need to choose specific materials at that time, we made some gerreral
assumptions as to their basic properties.
For the brake rotor. for exainple. we established that the selected ma-
terial u,culd need to be strong, resist thermal rvarping, not deflect or deform
during use, and not wear cut prematul eil'. Frorn our general knou,ledge of
rnetals, poi-_vrners, ceramics, and composites we assumed that metallic mate-
rials would be considered further.
As our product design deveiops during the configuration and parametric
design phases, however, we need to select specific materials for each special-
purpose part and for standald parts having optional materials available from
suppiiers.
During configuration design we will examine product configuration and
part configuration. Product configuration includes the spatiai arrangement and
or connectivity of components, whereas part configuration considers the selec-
tion and arrangemen t of. geometric features.
Parametric design is the last phase of embodiment design. During this
phase we want to predict the brake's operating perforrnance, which depends
on the specific values of the design variables, such as rotor diameter and
otr
 g7
ChaPter 5 Selecting Materials
96 Engineering Design

In the remaining sections, we will define some fundamental mechanical

thickness. Therefore, we need to explore specific materials utilizing their basic material families and
classes'
properties in our estimates. In the brake rotor design example: properries and ptiysicat prop.rri:::..1:mine and investigate a
inadequate materials,
examine a method to screen-out
material selection'
given the following material properties: we can estimate: method to parametrically optinrize
coefficient of friction brake torque
specific heat, thermal conductivity maximum operating temperature
density rotor weight 5.2 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
that characterizes the behavior of
a
modulus of elasticity deformations
A nrechanicar property is a quantity
or applierl, forces. some of the more fre-
materiar in response to externar,
Then, in detail design we confirm our material choices and their proper- include:
qr.rrtfy used *.rhu'ical properties
area that a ma-
ties, rerunning our calculations with as-delivered material properties, and in so amount of tensile force per unit
strength is a measure of the a ductile material
doing, validate our preliminary performance estirnates.
teriar can withsrancl before it fails.
If the load is imall,
the maierial relaxes
Making material selection decisions is difficult, however, A successful the load is released
elastically elongates and then after characteúze the
product rnust work and must be manufacturable. For it to work. it must have or yieicling. we can
without permaneirt plastic elongation
the right geometry in relation to its function. For example, if the material is test ás shown in Figure 5'2' cylindrical
strength of materials using a terision tnachines'
too rveak. we can often make the shape stouter. I{owever. making a bigger tensile loads in calibrated testing
test specimens are subjected to materials behave
part will likely increase material and manufacturing costs. In fact, as we rvill purls apart. Brittle
Fracture failure is wrrán the mateliar elastically: then they
see in Chapter 6, "Selecting Manufacturing Processes," some materials and materiais behave
elastically until they fracture. Ductile
shapes are not compatible with some manufacturing processes. For example until fracture. §tress is a measure of
yield prasticarly as tlie load increases,
we cannot fusion-weid together rvood parts. I.{or can we hole-punch thermo- per unit area. o = p/A and strain is a measure of retrative
force intensit,v
these quantities in a stress-versus-strain
piastic parts. elongation, raL/L we can graph curve
Material properties, manufacturing processes. product geometry, and in Figure s.:. A brittre niateriai is shown as the
criagram, as shown cu*e cE shows
oEBcD. The
product function are interrelated (Dieter, 2000; Groover, i996). This interde- oA. A ductile material is shown as curve deformation'
pendence of product function, produci geometrv, materiai properties, and recovers some of its plastic
that the ductile rnaterial eiastically
manufacturing processes is illustrated in Figure 5.1. at which a material yields'
Yield strength" s' , is the tensile stress
tensile stress a materiai can sustain'
it is
ultimate tensile strength is tire largest
alsocalledtensilestrengttrrandisdenotedaSS,,,.
Material
Properties
tr
4
t
I

Product
Function

Manufacturing Product
Processes Geometr,v LL

A F strain=€=LLIL
SITCSS = 6 =F I

FIGURE 5.1 Interdependence of product function, material properties, manufacturing processes, to determine the amount of stress
and product geometry. FIGUREs.2Atensiontestusesstandard-sizedspecimens
a material'
re[uired to produce a given strain in
(
Chapter 5 Selecting Materials 99
( 98 Engineering Design

( amount of stress that causes rupture within 1,000 hours

at the elevated
( temPerature.
sudden dynamic shocks or
Impact strength is the ability of a material to absorb
( fracturing. The Charpy or Izod test is used to measure
i*pu.tr w:ithout
( impact strength (ft-lbs).
Coefficient of friction is a relative measure of the amount
of friction force
(
Sut --
divided by
between two surfaces. It is equal to the ratio of the friction force
( the force normal to the surface.
due to rubbing
Wear coefficient is a measure of the amount of surface removal
( J/ __
and sliding.
(
Mechanical properties are shown for a variety of materiais
in Table 5.1'

TABLE 5.1 Representative material properties

Expansion
Elastic Tensiie Yield
strengtir strengtir Elongation Hardness Dens§
Coeff.
Heat modulus
Class Member treat Mpsi kpsi kpsi % Bhn lb/in' 10-6 F

ü.1 Í/
Aluminum 10.5
}Ai4 annealed 27 14 1B 45

ZÜ14 T4 62 42 ZA 105

FIGURE 5.3 Stress-versus-strain diagrarns for brittie and ductile materials.

295 T4 32 16 8.5

356 T6 33 24 3.5
11.5
as2
Copper
c85200 38 i3 35
Shear strength is the iargest stress a material can sustain under torsion before c86200 95 48 2ü

it yields or fractures. C%ZOA 35 18 20

0.065 L4.5
Magnesium 6.5
Cornpressive strength is a measure of the amount of compressive force per 34 23
AZ91B.F
utit area that a material can witirstand before it faiis. Brittle rnaterials are Nickel 30
0.3

weak in tension compared to ductile materiais. However, when brittle ma- HastelloY as-cast 134 67 52

terials are subjected to compressive loads, their compressive strength is Inconel 6Ü0 annealed -e3. !1 45

often two or three time larger than their tensile strengih. Steei
i020 a¡rnealed 30 57.3 42.8 36.5 111 0.28 6.1
Stiffness is the resistance to stretchinq, bending, or twisting loads. Stiffness is annealed 30 108 68.5 2Z 211 0.28 (r.3
4344
(
measured by the modulus of elasti*lty 1E,¡, *Ilri.t, is the tángent siope of tire 304A anilealed 27.5 83 .10 60 0.28 B

0.16 4.9
stress-versus- strain curve. Titanium 16"5
(. 2<
JJ ?(
L.) 1A
L+
Buctility is the abiiity of a rnaterial to plasticallv cieform. It is measured by the Ti-354
Ti-65A 65 55 i8
(,' percent elongation and or percent reduction in area. a.24
Tjnc
Toughness is the ability of a m.aterial to plasticall-v deform before fracturing. 82
It AG40A 47 10
( is measured by the modulus of toughness. ZA.T2 die cast 5l 4b 7 111

Pol¡rrners
( [Iardness is the abiiity of a material to resist locaiized sulface indentation or
ABS 6 5-ZA 16
deformation. It is measured by the Brinell Hardness Number (BHN). at
J.¿+ 300 40
( PTFE
Fatigue strength is the abilitv of a material to undergo a number of cyclic ioads 12 60
Nylon 616
10-20 2A
( without fracturing. A measure of fatigue strength is the endurance limit. Polypropvlene
1B.s
5
13
Polycarbonate
which is the stress at which steels fracture when given a million ioad cycles" 19
( Polystyrene i3.5
Creep resistance is the ability of a material to resist stretching whiie under
( loads over iong time periods at elevated temperatures. It is measured by the

(
 f

100 Engineering Design Chapter 5 Selecting Materials l0'l

5,3 PHYSICALPROPERTIES
Much of the effort of materials scientists and engineers focuses on finding the
A physical property is a quantity that characterizes a material's response to
specific recipes that produce compounds that exhibit the right kind of molecu-
physical phenomena, other than mechanical forces. Physical properties of
lar structure, resulting in the right profile of properties.
representative materials are shown in Table 5.2. Some of the more frequently
Engineering materials are separated into a four principal categories:
used physical properties include (ASM, 1997):
metals, polymers, ceramics, and composites. Other materials include organics
Density is the amount of matter per unit volume. Density is directly pro- such as wood and stone. If we define these categories as "families," similar to
portional to weight. Trvo measures for density are mass density and weight Ashby (1999), then each fami§ includes a number of subfamilies that also
density. include classes and subclasses. Let's take a iook at the metals family in
Coefficient of thermal expansion is a measure of the amount a material eion- Figure 5.4.
gates in response to a change in its temperature.
Melting point is the temperature at which a solid changes to a liquid. It is a
Materiais
measure of a material's ability to tolerate elevated temperatures.
Specific heat is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a
unit mass 1 degree
Corrosion resistance is the abiiity of a material to resist oxidation, direct Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites
chemical attack, or surface degradation by galvanic currents.
Alumina Carbon fiber
?herrnal conductivity is a measure of heat ilow across a surface, per unit area,
Ferrous Thennoplastics Beryllia Ceramic matrix
per unit time, per unit of thickness, per degree of temperature difference. Diamond Glass fiber
Electricatr conductivity is a measure of the ability to conduct electricit.,v. It is Cast iron ABS Magnesia Kevlar fiber
equai to the ratio of electric current to the given voitage difference. Carbon steei Acetal Silicon carbide Metal matrix
Allo,v steel Acrylic Silicon nitride
stainless steei Nylon Zirconia
Pol.vcarbonate
5.4 MATHRIAL CLASSH§
Non-ferrous
Polyethylene
Polypr^opylene
The periodic table lists 103 elements. However" a iarge number of materials Polyst_vrene
Aluminum
are possible when these are combined in various proportions as compounds. Brass
Vinyl
Bronze
Copper
TABLE 5.2 Physical Prcrperties of Representative Materials T'herniosets
Lead
Characteristic Ilei:avior Property IJnits h{agnesium Alkyd
strong, weak ultin:ate strength Iv{Pa (ksi) I.{icke1 Epclxy
Strength
yield strengti: Tin Melamine
Eiastic strength eiastic then plastic MPa (ksi)
Titanium Phenolic
Stiffness flexible. rigid modulus of elasticity It{Pa (h'lpsi)
Tungsten Pol-vester
Ductilitl, dralvs, forms easilv % elongation dimensioniess Zinc
o/o Urethane
area reduction
Hardness resists surface indentation Brineil No. MPa (ksi)
Eiastomers
Cr¡rrosion resistance resists chemicals, oxidatiou galvanic series activit.v number
Fatigue resistance endures manv load cycles endurance iirrrit MPa (hapsi) Butvl
Conductivity ccinducts, insulates thermal (Btu/hr) I (F-ft), Fiuorocarbon
electricai Mhos Neoprene
C.reep resistance time dependent stretching creep strength MPa (ksi) Nitrile
Impact resistance shock, impact ioads Charpy energ)' N-m, (ft-ibs) Polysulfide
Densit,v heavy, Iight mass density kglm3, (slugs/ft3) Rubber
weight densit¡r N/m3, (lbslft3) Silicone

Temperature tolerance softens. or melts easii,v melting point degrees C. F

FIGURE 5.4 Material families, subfamiiies, and classes
(
$

(
,.t't
Chapter 5 Selecting Materials 103
1ü2 EnEineering Design i

hdetals can be divided into ferrous and nonferrous subfamilies. Ferrous

by Material Family
( metals contain significant amounts of iron. The classes of ferrous metals are TABLE 5,3 Approximate Material Properties
cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, and stainless steel. Within the carbon steel Ceramics Polymers
Metals
( Charactetistics
class, however, there are a couple dozen specific subciasses. The subfamily of
i

strong - C; weak:T weak

strong
( thermoplastics, for example, can be divided into classes including: ABS, acetal, Strength
somt
very some
acrylic, nylon, polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene, poiystyrene, and Elastic strength
very flexible
vinyl. And within each of these are dazens of subclasses that represent the Stiffness
very
brittle
many different compcunds or recipes, Note however, that materials in the DuctilitY ductile
hard soft
same family share a number of properties: Hardness
medium
good excellent
p0or
l\{eta§s. The rneÉn}s family of materials can be described as ductile, strong, Corrosion resistance
stiff, electrically conductive, therrnaliy ccnductive, fatigue-resistant, creep- good
Fatigue resistance
resistant, impact-resistant" heavy or rnassive, temperature-tolerant, §le- ConductivitY (heat/electric)
conductor insuiator insulator
p0or
dium-hard, but not very corrosion-resistant. Creep resistance
good

Folymers. The potr3mers fan:ily of materiais can be described as strong {Iex- Impact re.sistance good poor good

ible, electrically and thermaliy insulating, not creep-resistant, impact- DensitY high niedium low

resistant, lightweight, temperature-sensitive, scft, and corrosion-resistant. Temperature tolerance good super Poor

Therm*ptr*stle polyr:rers can be repeatedly softened by heating and har-

dened by caoiing. Thermoset pal5rrners permanently set by heating and
thus cui ing. rnechanical and physical prclperties
the engineering design specification to the
Cerax*ics" The cer*rmies family of materiais can be described as strong in qrpicaliy inciude criteria regardi*g ihe nature of the
cf material ciasses. \Á/e
compression, weak in tension. brittle, stiff, electrically and thermally insu- This screeniug will eliminate a
applied loads and the opeiating environn]ent.
Iating, not impact-resistant, medium-weight" very ternperature tolerant, remaining materiais n-lay of may
number of infeasible material classes. Those
r¡er y hard, and corrosion-resistant. processe§'
n*t be acceptable with soflle manufacturing
Composites. The c$rmpesiÉes family of materials are heterogeneous mixtures we do a secondary
To narrow the feasibie processes further, horve,ver,
of polyester or epoxy resins and fibers n:ade from rnaterials inciuding glass, including: the gecn:etric cornplexiti'
screening, considei-ing part information,
carbon, Kevlar, fibers, and metal. They can be stiff, sti-ong, light, non- As we shail discover in the
of the part, the production voiuure, and part
size.
conducting, and moderately cori osion-resistant. But, they are sensitive to witir some processes. Geome-
next chapter, certain sirapes are Rot conrpatibie
temperature
tric complexit¡, refers to the type ancl nunrbsr
*f featutres' inciuding: hoies'
*th*r. Other materials include glasses. woods, leati:er, and other natura] encrcsed cavities, and uniformity of
nctches, bossás, rotational symmetry,
materials such as cottcn, silk, cark. concrete, and hernp. processes a¡'e not feasible when
walls and/ar cross-sections" similarh¡. soirre
A sumrnar-v of typicai material properties b,v Materiai Famiiy is presented in producing sorne larger part sizes or production
quantiiies'
Table 5.3. eppro&clr, we first screen
wheii we use the mant$acturin,g-processes-.#rut
part considerati*ns, inciu<ling:
out manufacturing processes that wili not
satisfy
oI geometric compiexity" T}:e remaining
part size, productiorr quantities,
5"5 IUATERI&L SHLffiÜTÉ#ru MiHTHÜÜS some n:aterial classes' we further
feasible processes will be compatible with
Whether a parl wili satisfy its functional performance lequirements depends a S0r&entlreseb-vcomparingilrateriaipropertiestotheE,Üsrequirements.
lot on its geornetrv. The geometrv depends upon the chosen manufacturing Either approach will lead to the ,u** subset
of material classes and coñl-
successive eliminationsor
( process, rvhich in turn depends upon the selected material. However, there are patible manufacturing process since we are doing
5.4 lists the pertinent information
(
many feasible materiais and manufacturing processes to choose from. We can screenings based on the same criteria. Tabie
approach the material seiection problem using screening and rating methods. we will examine manufacturing processes in
considered for each approach.
( Screening Methods. When we use the materials-first üpproach (Dixon and the next chaPter'
Poli, 1995), we screen out materials that will not satisfy the functional Íe-
(
quirements of the part. Namely, we compare application information from
(
(
104 Engineering Design Chapter 5 Selecting Materials 105

Rating/Rankíng Methods. To refine our material choices, we can also rate

TABLE 5.4 Application and Part Information Considered during the Material-First or
Process-First Approach to Materials Screening
Material First Approach
Application Inform ation
1. Applied loads
magnitude
c)¡clic nature (fatigue)
rate (slow, impact)
duration (creep)
2. Arnbient conditions
temperature
ntoisture, humidity
chemical liqu i ds/vapors
sunlight (ultra-violet)
3. Conducting (e.lec/therm)
4. Safetyllegal (FDA, UL, etc)
5. Cost
or rank thei¡ relative performance using material indices, as proposed by
Ashby (1999). Most parts perform a basic mechanical function such as a shaft
Process-First Approach transmitting a torque or a bracket supporting a force. Functional requirements
Part Information
can be directly related to forces and moments causing tension, compression,
1. Production volume
beam bending, and column buckling. The performance of the part also
2.Part size (overall) depends upon its geometry and its material properties. Incorporating analyti-
3. Shape capability (features) ca} relations from the engineering sciences, performance functions can be
boss/depression 1D obtained in the form:
boss/depression >LD
Holes
p< flD ÍzG) f/u) (s.1) l
unclercuts (in ternai/external ) where the performance, p, depends upon the functional requirements, F, the
uniform walls
geometric parameters, G, and the material properties, M.
cross sections (uniform /regular)
rotational s¡immetry
captured cavities
Example
Develop a matelial index for an inexpensive c¡rlindrical support column'

We rvish to minimize total cost C which is a function of the weight I4i and cost per unit
weight C,, The weight is a function of cross-section area A, length l, and density p as

C=W C,, (s.z)

Example
(s 3)
For our rotary-engine powered lawn mower design rve decided to use wheels, each resulting in C - (Atp) C,,,

consisting of a rubl-ler tire fitteci tc the outer perimeter of a ci¡cular rim. Do a prelimi-
nary materiais screening for the riin usi:rg the materials first approaeh. ]§ow we need to factor in a constraint that the column does not buckle. Euler's
Exainining tairle 5.4 we see that our primary considerations should focus on ap- equation for a column whose area moment of inertia 1, of length /, reconlmends that

pliecl Ioads, anrbient conditions. conductivity, safetyilegal and cost. the load P be less than the critical buckling load P.,, as

The tl,pical larvnmower wheel lim is subjected to iight constant loads, but can ) ^-
undergo frequent impacts when humping into obiects, for exarnpple. Ceramics are P<p _ri-L]_
^'^cr (s 4)
somewhat brittle and have poor impact resistance, therebv ieaving metals, polymers P
and conlposites. 'fhe area moment of inertia for a c)'iinder is
Ambient conditions inciude significant sunlight, moderate air temperatures but
high humidit-v, water egress. and fertilizer chemical attack. Therefore, ferrous and non- I=A.2 l4n (s 5)
ferrous classes would be acceptable, along n'ith ultraviolet resistant poii/mers. and
composites. We can substitute equation (5.6) and (5.5) into (5.3) obtaining
Thermai and elecirical conducti\¡ity is not of significant importance as lveil as
safety or legal issues.
Performáflce = (5.6)
From a cost point of view. carbon steels and aluminum alioys would appear io be
Ieast costly.
We will discuss manufacturing processes screening for this example in chapter 6.
A material index M,far the inexpensive column can be defined as

Mt= I / f:= EJtz / C,,p (5.7)

(
( 106 Engineering Design
Chapter 5
(
Materials that have higher frL,index values would
( be less 1ikely to buckle than
materials with rower varues. we can see that
for similarry priced materiars.
( stiffer and iess dense materials are better.

(
(
( Hxampse

( Develop a material index for a low-cost bar

in tension.

( Minimize cost C given cost per unit weight c,, The weight is a function of area A,
ieugth /, and density p as
(

( C = (Atp) C,, (s.B)

tv

ü10
\-/ I

i Factor in a constraint so the bar does not yield

due to normal stresses as
\
I.1

a
I
I

;-¿
-) Engineering
(
F, U
.^
V
\a 11 /
( A 'Ü¡ (s e)
:u¿
iC!
jj#
¿ ,,,
,\
.+t
The resulting performance equaiion becomes A
t
(
rV

/
(

¡
Perforrn&ilce =
¿(r) f,0f,{ fu\
I\.t o, I
(s 10)
I
)

(
A material index Mrfar an inexpensive bar can be
defined as
(
Mr= o, /Cn,p (5 11)
(
For example let's compal e material A whose
strength, density and cost are are
( 1'000 MPa' 7,800 kgim3 and
$1lkg respectively. to material ts whose strengrir. densitv o ob:
( and cost are 300 Mp^, 2,900 kgim3 and g3/kg. 110 i00 i000 10 ü00

Relative Cost per Unit \¡r:lume C'¡p (Mgim3)

( Mz^ = loool(r¡(;soo))= o.i2B /( l n\
\J. I ¿l
FIGURE 5.5 Material selection chart-modulus versus costlvoiume. (Reprinted from Mareríals
\ M zn = 3ool(:¡(zaori)) = o o36
(5 13) Selectian in h(eclutnical Design,, M. F. Ashby, Copyright 1999, r.vith permission from Elsevier
Science.)
( Materials tirat have higher M, tndex rvould
be stronger ancl iess costly. Therefor.e,
we see that material A is about 3 times
( more efficient than material B.

Example
(
IJse Figure 5.5 to determine which engineering poiyrners are the least stiff and
( Plotting Young's modulus E versus relative have a reiative cost per unit weight that is lower than that of nyions.
costivolurne Cn p on a ma-
( teriai selection chart provides a graphic comparison Examining the figure we find that PP. HDPE, LDPE, and PVC have relative
of different materials, as
shown in Figure 5.5. StrengtH ,ársus relative stiff (smaller modulus, E) of the four
costs lower than the nylons. However, the least
( costivolume is shown in Figure
5'6' A thorough development of this method, are poiyriny[hlglde (PVC) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE).
íncluding many examples, is
( presented in Ashby (1999).

(
(
108 Engineering Design

Chapter 5 Selecting Materials 109

10 000
We use screening and rating methods to help us narro\{ our material
choices during the configuration design phase. The general process of screen-
ing and rating is shown in Figure 5.7. Using the materials-first approach, or the
manufacturing-processes-first approach, we examine the suitability and
compatibility of alternative materials and manufacturing processes. The
remaining materials and manufacturing prócesses can then be rated, using the
weighted-rating method, discussed in an earlier chapter. As we proceed from
screening through evaluation, we see that the number of materials and
processes decreases (shown by the decreasing width of the arrow). The
resulting i'best" mate¡ials and manufacturing processes are recommended for
detailed analysis and evaluation that occu¡s in the parametric design phase
discussed in Chapter 8.

-§

iJ
¡-
Prospective
materials
and
processes

Functional? Infeasible
hlarutfaclurable? (rejected)

il
T-1
Feasible
0.1 lt
t1
material(s)
0.1
ll
tt
and

I0000 il processes
Reiarive Cr:sr./1.1nit \krlume
Cr,p (Mgrin3)
J\
FIGURE 5'6 Materiar serection
in ihechanir:at Del',i., r¡
:lri*ltr,ensth,ersus.cosl/v.runre. (Reprinted f¡om h{aterials
{::;?:i'i F. Asrrhsl, Copyright 1eee, u,irh permission Relative
from Elsevier
per.{ormunce?
f-__--\ Poor

-"'-t/''

Example Best
material(s)
Use Figure 5.6 ro determine and
which of engineering alio¡,s that
¿he
MPa -r'ield strength' of have at ieast 500 processes
those, whictrr are the more expensive
Examining the figure we per unit weight?
find that the foirowing ailoys
miid steel' cast iron. stJeis, that are ,trong enough:
staintess steels
iss), and ñr;;;r, a¡oys (w) Furrher,
mosr expensive, rhen shinress we
i:: ;i:ij;xTffi;:,*: stáeh, wirh mild sreers
and casr FIGURE 5.7 Screening and evaluation of materiais.