What is Anatomy?
4. Digestion – breaking down ingested
Derived from the Greek words to cut
(tomy) and apart (ana).
is the study of the structure and shape of
the body and body parts and their
relationships to one another.
What is physiology?
Is the study how the body and the parts
work or function.
Levels of structural Organization:
1. Chemical Level – atoms: tiny building
blocks of matter, combine to form
molecules such as water, sugar and
proteins.
2. Cellular level – cells are made up of
molecules and the smallest units of all
living things, it varies in shape and size
(Small – parasites; Large – nerves;
Round – RBC)
3. Tissue level – tissues consist of similar
types of cells and has 4 basic tissues:
a. epithelial
b. connective
c. muscular
d. nervous/neural
4. Organ level – organs are made up of
different types of tissues and it has
extremely complex functions.
5. Organ System level – organ systems
consist of different organs that work
together closely.
6. Organismal level – human organisms
are made up of many organ systems.
Maintaining life
1. Maintaining Boundaries - every living
organism must be able to
maintain its boundaries so that its “inside
remains distinct from its outside.”
2. Movement - includes all the activities
promoted by
the muscular system – walking/swimming.
3. Responsiveness or irritability - ability to
sense changes in the
environment and then to react to them.
food into simple molecules that can be
absorbed into the blood.
5. Metabolism – refers to all chemical
reactions that occur within body cells.
6. Excretion – removing excreted or
wastes from the body.
7. Reproduction – production of
offspring.
8. Growth – increase in size, usually
accomplished by an increase by an
increase in the numbers of cells.
Survival Needs
1. Nutrients – taken via diet, contain the
chemicals used for energy and cell-
building.
Carbohydrates – are the major
energy-providing fuel for body cells.
Proteins – for grow
Fats – are essential for building cell
structures, cushion body organs and
provide reserve fuel.
Minerals and Vitamins – required for the
chemical reactions that go on in cells and
for oxygen transport in the blood.
2. Oxygen – the chemical reactions that
release energy from foods require oxygen.
20% - air we breathe is oxygen, it is made
available to the blood and body cells by the
cooperative efforts of the respiratory and
cardiovascular systems.
3. Water – accounts for 60 to 80% of body
weight. Most abundant chemical substance
in the body and provides the fluid base for
body secretions and excretions.
It is obtained chiefly from ingested foods or
liquids and is lost from the body by
evaporation from the lungs and skin and in
body excretions.
4. Body Temperature – 37C (98F) – most
body heat is generated by the activity of the
skeletal muscles.
5. Atmospheric Pressure – force exerted on
the surface of the body by the weight of air.
Homeostasis - describes the body’s ability
to maintain relatively stable internal
conditions even though the outside world is
continuously
changing.
Unchanging – ( homeo=the same, stasis=
standing still )
It indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium or
balance in which internal conditions change
and vary but always within relatively narrow
Limits.
Homeostatic Control Mechanism
- Communication within the body is
essential for homeostasts and chiefly the
nervous and endocrine system.
3 Components of homeostatic control
mechanisms.
1. Receptor – type of sensor that monitors
and responds to changes in the
environment. It responds to such changes
called stimuli.
2. Control Center –determines the level at
which a variable is to be mainted, analyzes
the information it receives and then
determines the appropriate response or
course of action.
3. Effectors – provides the means for the
control center’s response (output) to the
stimulus ( feedback- negative and positive ).
Different Terms: Anterior Body Landmarks:
1. Abdominal - anterior body trunk, inferior
to ribs
2. Acromial - point of shoulder
3. Antecubital - anterior surface of elbow
4. Axillary - armpit 5. Brachial - arm
6. Buccal - cheek area 7. Carpal - wrist
8. Cervical - neck region 9. Coxal - hip
10. Crural - leg 11. Digital - fingers/toes
12. Oral - mout 13. Orbital - eye area
14. Patellar - anterior knee 15. pelvic
- area overlying the pelvis anteriorly
16. Sternal - breastbone area 17. Tarsal
- ankle region
18. Thoracic - chest 19. Umbilical -navel
20. Pubic - genital area
Posterior Body Landmarks:
1. Calcaneal - heel of the foot 2. deltoid
- curve of shoulder formed by large
muscle
3. Cephalic - head 4. Femoral - thigh
5. Gluteal - buttock 6. Lumbar - area back
between ribs and hips
7. Occipital - posterior surface of head
8. Olecranal - posterior surface of elbow
9. Popliteal - posterior knee area
10. Sacral - area between hips
11. Scapular - shoulder blade region
12. Sural - the posterior surface of lower
leg, the
calf
13. Vertebral - area of spine 14. Plantar -
sole of the foot
Directional Terms
1. Superior (cranial or cephalad) - toward
the head end or upper part of a
structure or the body; above.
ex: The forehead is superior to the nose.
2. Inferior - away from the head end or
toward the lower part of a structure or the
body; below
Ex: The navel is inferior to the breastbone.
3. Anterior - Toward at the front of the body;
in front of
ex: The breastbone is anterior to the spine.

4. Posterior - Toward or at the backside of
the body, behind
Ex: The heart is posterior to the breastbone.
5. Medial- Toward or the midline of the
body; on the inner
side of
Ex: The heart is medial to the arm.
6. Lateral - Away from the midline of the
body, on the outer side of
Ex: the arms are lateral to the chest.
7. Intermediate- Between a more medial
and a more lateral structure.
Ex: The armpit is intermediate between the
breastbone and the shoulder.
8. Proximal - Close to the origin of the body
part or the point of attachment of a limb to
the trunk
ex: The elbow is proximal to the wrist
( meaning that the elbow is closer to the
shoulder or attachment point of the arm
than the wrist is)
9. Distal - Farther from the origin of a body
part or the
point of attachment of a limb to the body
trunk.
Ex: The knee is distal to the thigh.
10. Superficial - Toward or the body surface
Ex: the skin is superficial to the skeleton.
11. Deep - Away from the body surface
more internal
Ex: the lungs are deep to the rib cage
Body Planes and Sections
1. Section or cut – is made through the body
wall or through an organ.
2. Plane – imaginary line.
3 Types of Planes or Sections:
1. Sagittal section – is a cut made along the
lengthwise or longitudinal plane of the body,
dividing the body into right or left.
Midsagittal or Median section – if the cut is
made down the median plane of the body
and the right and left parts are equal.
2. Frontal Section or coronal section – is a
cut made along a lengthwise plane that
divides the body into anterior and posterior
parts.
3. Transverse section or cross section – is a
cut made along a horizontal plane, dividing
the body or organ into superior and inferior
parts
2 Major Largest Body Cavities
1. Dorsal Body Cavity
(BACK)
2 Subdivisions:
a. Cranial cavity –
space inside the bony skull.
b. spinal cavity
(Vertebral) – cranial
cavity to the end of vertebral
column.
2. Ventral Body Cavity
(FRONT)
- much larger than the
dorsal cavity.
- It contains all the structures within the
chest, abdomen, and visceral organs.
a. Thoracic cavity – lungs,
heart
b. Abdominal cavity –
stomach, liver & intestines.
Abdominopelvic Cavity
large and contains many organs( stomach,
liver and intestines.
2 Parts of Abdominopelvic Cavity
a. 9 Regions
- Right Hypochondriac Region
- Right Lumbar Region
- Right Iliac Region
- Epigastric Region cell
- Umbilical Region
- Hypogastric Region u. Sperm= smallest cell
- Left Hypochondriac Region
- Left Lumbar Region v. Stapes middle
- Left Iliac Region ear=smallest bone
B. Quadrants w. Kidney=1st
transplanted organ
- Right Upper Quadrant
- Right lower Quadrant x. 7m= ave length of small
- Left Upper Quadrant intestine
- Left Lower Quadrant

Human Body y. 1.5m=ave. length

intestine
206= number of bones z. 3kg= ave. wt. Of
newborn baby
639= number of
muscles 72 times= pulse rate in
one minute
20= milk teeth
37C” (98.4 f’) = normal
24(12 pairs)=number of body temperature
ribs
4-5 liters=ave. Blood
4= heart chambers volume
Aorta=largest artery 120 days= RBC
120/80=mmhg 10-15 days=WBC
7.4=blood 280 days(40
wks)=pregnancy period
I. 33= number of vertebrae
7. 26 bones=human foot
j.7=number of vertebrae in neck
8. 27 b0nes=hand
K.6 = number of bones in middle
ear 9. Thyroid gland=largest
endocrine gland
l.14=number of bones in face
10. Spleen= Largest
m.22=number of bones in skull lymphatic organ

n. 25= number of bones in chest 11. Femur = largest &

strongest bone
o.6=bones in arms
12. 46( 23 pair) =
p.72=muscles in human arms chromosomes

q.2=pumps in the heart 13. 306 = newborn baby

bones
r. skin- largest organ
14. Type O = Universal
s. Liver= largest gland donor

t. Female ovum= largest 15. Spleen= blood bank in

the body
16. Blood = river of life
17. Plasma = fluid part of
blood
Chemistry of Life
Matter - the “stuff of the universe. - with
some exception, it can been seen,
smelled and felt. - anything that occupies
space and has
Mass.
A. Solid - like bones and teeth – have
definite shape
and volume.
B. Liquids - have definite volume but
conform to the shape of the container.
C. Gases - have neither a definite shape nor
a definite volume. - The air we breathe is
composed of a mixture of gases.
2 Changes occurs in Matter
1. Physical Changes - do not alter the basic
nature of a substance.
ex: cutting food into smaller pieces.
2. Chemical Changes - do alter the
composition of the substance.
ex: the digestion of food in the body.
2. Energy -massless and does not take up
space and can be measured by its effects
on matter.
2 Types of Energy
1. Kinetic Energy - moving object
2. Potential Energy - inactive or stored
object.
Forms of Energy
1. Chemical Energy - stored food –
harvested from the foods we eat.
2. Electrical Energy - an electrical current is
generated when charged particles move
across cell membranes.
3. Mechanical Energy - as the muscles in
your legs shorten, they pull on your bones,
causing your limbs to move.
4. Radiant Energy - Ultraviolet waves are
responsible for that suntan we get at the
beach but also stimulate our bodies to make
Vit. D.
Common Elements Making Up
the Human Body
1. Oxygen - a major component of both
organic and inorganic molecules; as gas,
essential to the oxidation of glucose and
other food fuels during cellular energy is
produced.
2. Carbon - The primary elemental
component of all organic molecules
including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acids.
4. Hydrogen - a component of most organic
molecules; ionic form, influences the pH of
body fluids.
5. Nitrogen - a component of proteins and
nucleic acids (genetic material).
6. Calcium - found as a salt in bones and
teeth; ionic form, required for muscles
contraction, neural transmission and blood
clotting.
7. Phosphorus - present as a salt, in
combination with calcium, in bones and
teeth, also present in nucleic acids and
many proteins; forms part of the high-
energy compound.
8. Potassium - In its ionic form major
intracellular cation, necessary for the
conduction of nerve impulses and for
muscle contraction.
9. Sulfur
-a component of proteins ( particularly
contractile proteins of muscle ).
10. Sodium - the major extracellular cation;
important for water balance, conduction of
nerve impulses and muscle contraction.
11. Chlorine - a major extracellular anion.
12. Magnesium - present in bone; also an
important cofactor for enzyme activity in a
number of metabolic reactions.

13. Iodine - needed to make functional
thyroid hormones.
14. Iron - a component of the functional
hemoglobin molecule (which transports
oxygen within RBC) and some enzymes.
Biochemistry: chemical Composition of
Living Matter
2 Major classes of Molecules:
1. Inorganic Compounds - lack of carbon
and tend to be small, simple molecules.
ex: water, salts and acids and bases.
2. Organic Compounds - carbon-containing
compounds
ex: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and
nucleic acids.
Inorganic Compounds
1. Water – the most abundant inorganic
compound in the body:
a. High heat capacity – absorbs and
releases large amounts of heat before its
temperature changes.
b. Polarity/Solvent properties – “universal
solvent”.
c. Chemical reactivity – digesting foods or
breaking down biological molecules, water
molecules are added to the bonds of the
larger molecules = hydrolysis reactions – a
term that specifically recognizes this role of
water.
d. Cushioning - serves as a protective
function, cerebrospinal fluid – brain and
spine.
- amniotic fluid – developing fetus within the
mother’s body.
2. Minerals and Mineral Salts:
are essential to life deposited to the bone,
teeth or shells made up of calcium
carbonate and calcium phosphate.
- blood contains several minerals acting
as buffers.
3. Acids and Bases - are electrolytes
- they ionize and then dissociate in water
and then conduct an electrical current.
Characteristics of Acids:
a. have a sour taste
b. can dissolve many metals or “burn”.
c. substance that can release hydrogen ions
in detectable amounts.
“Hydrochloric acid” – acid produced by
stomach cells that aid digestion.
Characteristics of Bases:
a. have a bitter taste, feel slippery.
b. Neutralization reaction – acids and bases
are mixed, they react with each other to
form water and salt.
4. Gases:
A. Carbon dioxide carried in 3 ways:
1. 5% in solution in the plasma as
carbonic acid.
2. 10% in combination, with amino
groups of hemoglobin.
3. 85% in the form of Sodium and
potassium, bicarbonates ( blood salts ).
Forms of Sugar
A. Monosaccharides - simple sugars made
up of one 6 carbon sugars.
Ex: glucose – dextrose or grape sugar
galactose – sugar in milk.
fructose – fruit sugar
B. Oligosaccharides - double sugars made
up of 2 6 carbon sugars(12 carbon sugars ).
Ex: lactose ( milk sugar ) = glucose &
galactose.
sucrose ( cane or beet sugar ) =
glucose & fructose
C. Polysaccharides – multiple sugars or a
combination of more than 2:

1. cellulose – present in plants and consist
of 2,000 glucose
2. starch – reserve food present only in
plants.
3. Glycogen ( animal starch ) – reserve
Food present only in animals and is made
up of 12 to 18 glucose.
Forms of Fat:
A. simple lipids
1. fats – solid at 20 celsius degrees contain
a large amount of saturated fatty acids.
2. Oils – liquid at 20 celsius degrees contain
a large amount of unsaturated fatty acids.
3. True fats – can exist as a solid and liquid
under ordinary room temperature.
Ex. Butter
4. Waxes – beeswax
5. Tallow - candle
Homeostatic Imbalance
1. Atherosclerosis – deposit of fatty
substances in artery walls.
2. Arteriosclerosis – hardening of the
arteries.
Three important functions of proteins:
1) They provide energy within the
protoplasm
2) They are catalysts (enzymes) and
hormones.
The Cell ( Overview )
Cell – is the smallest and basic structure s
of life.
Cytology – is the study of cell.
Scientists who discovered about cells
Anton Van Leeuwenhooke ( 17th century )
– discovery of the cells and their structures
was scientific output of the simple
microscope.
Robert Hooke (1665) – discovered the
cell is present in the thin slices of cork
and other plant materials.
Robert Brown ( 1883 ) – discovered the
the nucleus is the central part of the cell.
Matthias Schleiden ( 1838 ) – stated that
cells are unit structures of plants.
Theodore Schwann ( 1939 ) – a zoologist
said that cells are unit structures in
animals.
Rudolf Virchow ( 1958 ) – German
Biologist who stated that every cell has
risen from other cells and that it is made
possible through cell division.
Two Different Types of Cells
Prokaryotic cells – do not have the
membrane-enclosed nucleus. Ex. (
bacteria ) = unicellular.
Eukaryotic cells have definite nucleus
and cell organelles. Ex. (plants, animals,
fungi) = multicellular
The Common Cell Organelles
1. Plasma Membrane – also called the cell
membrane.
2. Nucleus – the central part of the cell.
3. Cytoplasm – made up of a complex
mixture of materials.
Three Types of cell division:
1. Unicellular cells – undergo direct cell
division or amitosis – a simple process
involving membrane growth by duplicating
(replicating) its genetic material.
2. Multicellular cells undergo indirect cell
division that occurs only in the somatic
cells (body cells) called mitosis. The
process involved in the cell division of
somatic cells is called Mitotic Cell
Division.
3. Meiosis – development and maturation
Of gametes(male: sperm cell, female: egg
cell) or reproductive cells = Meiosis I & II
The process involved in the cell division of
reproductive cells is called Meiotic Division I
and Meiotic Division II

The Mitosis Cell Cycle:

1 .Prophase – 2 centrioles become visible

and move to opposite poles of the nucleus.

2. Metaphase - the chromosomes

migrates and aligns at the equator of the
spindle, the sister chromatids
divides/separates into 2

3. Anaphase: centromeres uncoupled

and begun moving toward opposite pole of
the spindle.

4.Telophase - new nuclear membranes

forming chromosomes become longer &
thinner and less dense.

5.Interphase Nuclear membranes

complete, chromosomes no longer visible =
cytokinesis complete