INTRODUCTION

TRANSLATION PROBLEMS AGAIN: A TEXTBOOK

0.0 Introduction: Definitions and Boundaries

Translation as Problems and Solutions (Arabic-English): a Contrastive Linguistic Approach:

a Textbook is designed after its English twin, Translation as Problems and Solutions
(English-Arabic) (2008). The general framework and organization of the book has
undergone no drastic changes for reasons of consistency, convenience of reference and
drawing comparison between similar points in the two volumes. That is, the whole book is
organized in an introduction and five chapters investigating the major problems of
translation, starting with the less difficult and ending with the most difficult as follows:
Grammatical, Lexical, Stylistic and Phonological Problems. However, some developments
have been ventured throughout to respond to the latest challenges in the flourishing
realm of translation theory and application up to the date of publication of this book.
Chief among these developments is pragmatics and pragmatic translation. Accordingly, a
fifth Chapter on Pragmatic Problems is added in this book.

An alternative approach is to design the chapters of the book in terms of linguistic units
starting with the smallest, the word, followed by the phrase, the clause, the sentence and,
finally the largest unit, the text (as done by Rojo (2009), Ghazala (2014), Baker (1992) and
others). Yet, the design put forward in this book and its twin is as useful and practical as
the alternative one with respect to grading problems of translation from the small and
simple to the big and complicated.

As to the definition of the term, Translation, some might object that it is too familiar to
define. Well, not quite. Translation is “… a complex activity characterized by the
intervention of opposing forces that pose serious problems for translators” as rightly
argued by Rojo (2009: 14). In simple terms, the best word that may describe it in broad
terms is ‘rendering’ meaning from one language into another. However, the complication
is created by the following factors and forces:

(a) whose meaning (the source language text (SLT) author’s? The translator’s? Or,
the target language (TL) readership’s?, etc.).
(b) the kind of meaning (linguistic, cultural, pragmatic, literal, metaphorical, non-
metaphorical, literary, non-literary, expressive, surface, deep, symbolic, general,
special, specific, personal, non-personal, neutral, biased, denotative, functional,
connotative, grammatical, lexical, semiotic, stylistic, propositional, presupposed,
evoked, etc.).
(c) volume of meaning (e.g. all, most, part or fraction of it, etc.).
(d) clarity/ambiguity of meaning (clear, straightforward, direct, indirect, ambiguous,
implied, hidden, etc.).
(e) simplicity / difficulty of meaning (simple, lucid, comprehensible, smooth,
complicated, difficult, hard to follow, hard to swallow, incomprehensible, etc.).
(f) different translators of different background knowledge, levels of education and
specialism, cultures, mentalities, ideologies and belonging, etc.
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 (g) different texts
(h) different contexts.
(i) different purposes and motives.
(j) different focus
(k) different types of TL readership.
(l) different language norms
(m) different ways of expressing meaning in a different language.
(n) availability of meaning in a different language.

(See Newmark, 1988; Baker, 1992, Bell, 1991, Ghazala, 2000 & 2014 and others).

In fact, there have been several conflicting and/or ambiguous definitions for translation
provided by practitioners of translation. Among these are:

(a) "Often, though not by any means always, [translation] is rendering the meaning
of a text into another language in the way the author intended the text"
(Newmark, 1988: 5).
(b) "Translation [is] the act or process of rendering what is expressed in one
language or set of symbols by means of another language (Encyclopedia
Britannica, in Snell-Hornby, 1988: 39).
(c) "Translation [is] the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by
equivalent textual material in another language (TL)" (Catford, 1965: 20).
(d) "Translation is an expression in another language (or target language) of what has
been expressed in another (source language), preserving semantic and stylistic
equivalences" (Dubois, 1973, in Bell, 1991: 5).
(e) "The process of translation between two written languages involves the
translator changing an original written text … in the original verbal language (the
SL) into a written text … in a different verbal language (the TL)" (Munday, 2001: 5,
in Rojo, 2009: 25).
(f) "Translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural
equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and
secondly in terms of style" (Nida and Taber, 1969: 12)
(g) "Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a
representation of an equivalent text in a second language" (Hartmann and Stork:
1972, in Bell, 1991: 7).
(h) "A good translation [is] that in which the merit of the original work is so
completely transfused into another language…" (Tytler, in Bell: 1991: 11).

In one sense, and as also argued by Ghazala (2013: 12-14), all these definitions are vague,
loose or incomplete. Starting with 'change', it can involve the lack of commitment to the
process of translating as a whole. Likewise, 'replacement' (twice), might involve a kind of
entire change of the SL text. 'Expression', on the other hand, implies a TL-oriented
expression of what is translated, while 'reproduction' is SL-oriented production of what is
translated. 'Transfuse' is vague in reference, and differs from 'transfer' which implies
among other things change, or transcription of SL words into TL letters (c.f. transference /
transliteration). Only 'render' (used in two definitions) is somehow clear being neutral and
general, but making no specification of what or how.

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Still more confusing than that is 'what is translated' in the definitions that avoid stating it
clearly as meaning. This is not quite helpful for students, translators and readers who
demand elaboration of 'what is translated' in clear terms. Therefore, the definitions that
state it clearly as 'meaning' (see ‘a’ and ‘f’ above) are more reliable and comprehensible
than otherwise.

I mean to say that a good definition of translation is recommended not to hide the truth
about what we translate when we translate, i.e. MEANING in most cases. Hence, whatever
definition we suggest for ‘translation’, the key word of the definition is 'meaning'.
Differences can occur about the type(s) of meaning intended owing to focus, text, context
and other factors point out earlier. The components of meaning are generally the
components of language. Therefore, they are expected to be one and the same origin for
live languages. They are basically GRAMMAR, WORDS, STYLE, SOUNDS and Pragmatics
(which are taken as the bases for the discussion of the types of translation problems in
this work). However, a wider scope of language components is suggested in the following
list of levels of language by Simpson (2004: 5):

Levels of language Branches of language study

1. The sounds of spoken language;

the way words are pronounced. → Phonology; phonetics

2. The patterns or written language;

the shape of language on the page. → Graphology

3. The way words are constructed;

words and their constituent structures.→ Morphology

4. The way words combine with other

words to form phrases and sentences. → Syntax; grammar

5. The words we use; the vocabulary → Lexical analysis; lexicology

of language.
6. The meaning of words and sentences.→ Semantics

7. The way words and sentences are

used in everyday situations; the
meaning of language in context. → Pragmatics; discourse analysis

Other terms that need be defined articulately are translation problems, and ‘solutions to
these problems’. As to the first, a translation problem is any difficulty that forces the
translator to stop translating in order to overcome it before resuming translating. It can be
a word, a phrase, a special expression, an idiom, a metaphor, a collocation, a cultural or
other term, a grammatical structure (a complicated clause, or sentence structure), a
feature of style (e.g. formality/informality of tone, paraphrase, redundancy, rhetorical
language, irony, etc.), a sound feature (like rhyme, alliteration, foot, parallelism, rhythm,
etc.), or a pragmatic feature of implied meaning of language use. All these features will be
exemplified for abundantly in the next parts of the book. Translation problems represent
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the practical part of any translation discussion, whereas ‘solutions’ are the theoretical part
of it that is derived from the former part.

For ‘solutions’, they are essentially suggested side by side after the translation problems,
as both are the constituent components of any translation discussion. A solution to a
translation problem is any means, tool, clue, reference, authority, strategy or criterion
employed to fix it, be it linguistic, cultural, pragmatic, social, logical, stylistic or other.

0.1 Translation as Problems and Solutions Again: Defending the Approach

Theoretically speaking, any kind of approach to translation can be defendable on specific

grounds claimed by the author. However, in practice, a tested approach can be judged
better on the basis of application in translation classes at university level. After a period of
time extending up to 3-5 years maximum, which is recommended to be given to any
approach equally, it either fails, or gets the approval from students, translators, teachers
and academicians who are specialists in the field.

To the author’s knowledge, approaching translation in terms of problems and solutions

has been in application in the English-Arabic version since 1995 up to now in many Saudi
Universities and Colleges (including King Saud, King Faisal, King Khaled and King Abdul Aziz
Universities) and some Arab Universities (like The Jordanian University, Sultan Qaboos
University of Oman, Sharjah American University and Tripoli University of Libya). Since
then (1995), the date of the first edition of the book, the number of academic institutions
and students using the book has been on the increase every Semester. In 2008, a special
edition was published by Dar El-Ilm Lil-Malayin, Beirut, with considerable changes and
modifications recommended by external referees before a decision by the Academic
Council of Umm Al-Qura University was taken to accept the book as a Textbook for
students of translation course at the English Department of the University. Now, and in
th
2015, the 12 edition (By Kunooz Al-Marifa, Jeddah: Saudi Arabia) has been published for
the book.

On the other hand, to check the credibility and usefulness of the book, or otherwise, early
editions were sent to international authorities in translation like Professor Peter
Newmark, and Professor Peter Emery. In a personal documented handwritten letter,
Professor Newmark said verbatim: “The book will be most useful to Arab and Arabic
speaking students and translators. The examples (of the book) look excellent to me”
(Personal Correspondence, Surrey University, UK., 26 March 1996).In the same letter, he
urged me to add three further sections in the following edition on translating culture,
importance of punctuation in translation, and translation of institutional terms. I did that
along with a whole chapter on Phonological Problems and sentence connectors added in
the fourth edition of the book (2004). Professor Emery, who was teaching at Sultan
Qaboos University, Oman, said the following about the book: “I do believe that your book
can be very useful in undergraduate Translation Courses … in a Contrastive Linguistics
Course and in Translation Studies Course” (3 May 2005). He criticized the
oversimplification of the first points of the Chapter on Grammatical Problems, but said
that that did not affect the quality of the book.

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All these details are meant to provide practical, concrete evidence about the usefulness,
solidity and sustenance of the problem-solution approach to translation in practice to
students of translation as well as contrastive linguistics courses students in some
universities (like King Saud University few years ago) and, hence, well-established now in
several Arab Universities.

There are reasons why this approach to translation has sustained over the years in the
undergraduate courses of translation, contrastive linguistics and translation studies at
several Arab Universities. First, the whole discipline of translation is based on, and
centered around the problems of translation. There is no one single translation course at
university or college level, nor a book or a paper on translation that does not investigate
translation problems whether directly or indirectly. Indeed, and as Newmark states, what
translation theory first does is “identify and define a translation problem (no problem – no
translation theory!), and “translation theory is pointless and sterile if it does not ARISE
FROM THE PROBLEMS OF TRANSLATION PRACTICE” (my emphasis) (1988: 9). So, a
problem-solution approach is hitting the ‘bull’s eye’ of the target right away, dealing with
translation at heart, first, practically, and then theoretically. This indicates that practice
(i.e. problems) is more popular and convincing to students and other practitioners in the
field than pure theorization.

Therefore, in this book, the examples are abundant, given in a contrastive way to make it
possible for students to compare them in the two languages on the page in clear details.
Third, these examples are mainly actual and realistic in the first place, and preferred to
highly hypothetical and pre-designed examples which are obviously less convincing than
the former. Furthermore, the book is written in English with examples translated into
Arabic (in the English-Arabic version, and Arabic examples translated into English), with all
arguments and discussions in English. This has proved to be quite useful, practical and
popular among students, translators and teachers of translation alike for the simple
reason that translation is a course scheduled on the programs of English departments to
be taught in English with Arabic translations and occasional discussions in Arabic being
slotted in the teaching process in the classroom. Fifth, apart from the introduction, the
chapters that follow are set in a descending order of simplicity (starting with the simplest
and ending up with the most difficult), which suits the students’ needs and requirements
fine. Further, the book ends up with a glossary, i.e. a mini-dictionary of a bilingual list with
the most important and difficult terms of the book. Above all, the whole book is generally
written in simplified language, style and layout.

0.2 Arabic-English vis-à-vis English Arabic Problems of Translation

Though they belong to two different language families, Romance and Semitic Languages
respectively, English and Arabic have many things in common in regard to grammar,
words, style of language, sound features and effects, and pragmatic uses and implications
of language. Therefore, the general skeletal framework of the approach is claimed to be
identical in broad terms. However, the details will vary between identical, similar,
different and unfindable features of language of all types. This means that the problems of
translation are variable as well and range between identical and indecipherable, which
mean that there are untrodden areas of translation problems that require to be sorted out
by newly suggested solutions to them in English. That, in turn, would contribute to the
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theory and application of translation. Being contrastive linguistic in nature, this problem-
solution approach will juxtapose all types of language components in the two languages in
translation to make it possible for students and translators to follow and absorb all details
about translation problems and their solutions fully.

Obviously, the similar problems with the language components of the two languages can
be fixed by employing more or less the same set of solutions (e.g. some grammatical
structures; some lexical problems of synonymy, polysemy, technical terms, etc. some
stylistic problems like redundancy, repetition, irony, etc. and some phonological features
like rhyme, rhythm, parallelism, etc.), whereas different problems of translation demand
different solutions to sort out (e.g. tenses, sentence types, cultural problems, formality /
informality, word choice, passive / active, foot, alliteration, pragmatic implications, etc.).
Yet, unfindable linguistic features in either language are more problematic and, hence,
need newly suggested solutions to be put forward by translators. A case in point is the
huge number of Arabic grammatical rules (like vocative case, parsing, vowelization,
multiple types of objects, etc.) which do not exist in English language, and the translator
has to work very hard on them to solve the problems of translating them into English in a
satisfactory way, as confirmed by the discussion of chapter one later. In addition, many
unfindable lexical, stylistic and phonological features pose problems of translation that are
usually not posed in English (e.g. non-equivalent Islamic and cultural, concepts and other
terms; combining classical and modern style of language, prose rhyme style, poetic meters
and feet, etc.). Full details will be provided in the parts of the book forthcoming, taken in
contrast with English.

0.3 Theories of Translation: A Contrastive Linguistic Theory of Translation

Generally, whether they state it or not, theories of translation, lean, sometimes heavily,
on contrastive linguistics as the basis of their approach and theorization about translation.
Major issues of translation theories include equivalence (problems, types, validity,
availability in the TL, etc.), non-equivalence, translatability of different types of terms and
expressions into another language, units of translation in both languages involved (length,
applicability in the TL, validity, etc.), SL/TL readership (type, level of education,
requirements, etc. in both languages), levels of naturalness / unnaturalness in the SL and
TL, methods of translation (see below), synonymy, polysemy, collocability, figurative
language and several others. All these and other issues are considered by writers on
translation as a contrastive linguistic activity that compares the two languages involved
into account with respect to components of meaning that are coincidentally components
of language of different types (mainly grammar, words, style, sounds and pragmatics). This
contrastive approach seems unavoidable whether directly, or indirectly, explicitly or
implicitly. Hence our adoption of contrastive linguistic approach to translation in this book
directly and explicitly.

What is contrastive Linguistics? Simply, it is a linguistic activity aimed at producing a

contrastive study of a pair of languages, and founded on the assumption that languages
can be compared (James: 1980: 3). Fisiak (1981: 1-2) defines it as “ a sub-discipline of
linguistics concerned with the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of
languages in order to determine both the differences and similarities between them. …
There are two types of contrastive studies: theoretical and applied … Applied contrastive
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studies provide a framework for the comparison of languages, selecting whatever
information is necessary for a specific purpose, e.g. teaching, bilingual analysis,
translation”. It is a kind of linguistic analysis that attempts to find a common ground (the
so-called ‘tertium comparationis’) on which two languages can be compared to be able to
establish their differences and similarities. Finding this common ground between two
languages is the trickiest point in contrastive analysis (Ebeling, 1998). In contrastive
linguistics, says Jakobsen et al (1988), the aim is “to establish theoretically sound and valid
models for description; in other words, to find the appropriate tertium comparationis,
which is proper for the occasion”.

The relevance of contrastive linguistics to translation is what concerns us here. James

(1980: 178) suggests translation equivalence to be the middle ground at comparing two
languages in the light of Halliday’s (1994) three metafunctions of language: the ideational,
the interpersonal and the textual meaning. Rojo has written a book entitled: Step by Step:
A Course in Contrastive Linguistics and Translation (2009). The whole book is a contrastive
linguistic approach to translation, not dissimilar to Ghazala’s approach in the twin of this
work (2008). Rojo maintains that the translator has to know beforehand the differences in
grammatical and other structures of the SL and the TL for they result in changes in the
content of the message. So we focus on the problems that arise from the differences at
the informational level related to major language structures of different types. (pp. 200-
201). This would help us identify problems of translation relating to the lack of one-to-one
correspondence/equivalence between the TL. In turn, this may open the way for
translators to put forward good solutions to these problems in the TL text. Hence, and as
Newmark (1981: 19) also points out that contrastive linguistics can play a useful role in
providing guidelines for the trainee translator working between particular languages.
Although Mason (1982) levels criticism at the usefulness of contrastive linguistics to
translation, he admits that it may be useful at the level of langue (language) with respect
to drawing certain generalizations that “… are sufficiently powerful to support rules of
translation” (in Emery, Bath University). Applied contrastive studies compare the original
text with its translation in order to clarify similarities and differences in linguistic structure.
All generalizations on translation, including those derived from contrastive studies, should
be concluded ultimately from parole (performance). Newmark (1981: 19) rightly suggests
that “Assumptions and propositions about translation normally arise only from practice,
and should not be offered without examples of the originals and their translations”.

In addition to these arguments for the usefulness of contrastive linguistics to translation, I

may suggest the following:

(a) Contrastive linguistics is a means to an end in the positive sense. It is a tool to

elicit the mechanisms of translating from one language into another and, more
importantly, to spot the problems of translating between the two languages.
Once this tool has achieved its end, it is disposed of.
(b) Contrastive linguistics is perhaps the most effective detector of the problems of
translating from one language into another. Translation problems are spotted
and labeled into grammatical, lexical, stylistic, phonological or pragmatic in
relation to contrasting the language features of the SL and TL with one another.
(c) Contrastive linguistics is involved in every translation issue and every translation
practice. Even controversial issues like ‘the notion of equivalence’, ‘translatability
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 of cultural terms’, ‘the problem of untranslatable/unfindable words’, etc. are
eventually raised as a result of measuring the SL and TL against one another. A
case in point is ‘equivalence’ which is an indispensable practice in translation,
reflects a basic principle between languages in translation, and is based on the
presence, or absence of equivalence in the TL. Even those writers who object to
the notion of equivalence and consider it as a mirage, or a chimera (see Snell-
Horby, 1988) establish their claim of non-equivalence on the false hypothesis that
languages are all in all cultural, and culture is untranslatable or, in other words,
has no equivalence in the other languages as concluded from the comparative
studies of languages.
(d) Contrastive linguistics is an excellent tool to check the words, terms, concepts,
features of different types and meanings and implications that are not available
in the other language, which helps the translator to explore them as tricky
translation problems that need be fixed in the TL.
(e) Some translation terms are originated from a contrastive linguistic background
base. For example, ‘non-equivalence’ implies an equivalent to an SL term, etc.
that is not available in the TL; ‘unfindable words’ are words that are not a part of
the TL lexicon; ‘untranslatable’ refers to an SL word, or expression that cannot be
translated into the TL due to the fact that a ready-made word or expression
cannot be traced in the target language, and so on and so forth.
(f) Contrastive linguistics is a superordinate term for any contrastive / comparative
activity in translation, thus, including the seminal and then pioneering work
entitled, Comparative Stylistics of French and English: A Methodology of
Translation, by the two French writers, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995). It takes the
whole translation in practice as a comparative activity in action, assigning a long
chapter for a stylistic comparison of lexicon, followed by another long chapter on
grammatical structures from comparative stylistic perspective between French
and English, and a final, very long chapter on meaning (calling it ‘The Message’),
again, from a comparative stylistic outlook.
(g) The overlap between translation and contrastive linguistics is too established and
too intuitive to question. Baker (1992), for example, oddly discredits any
contrastive linguistic system to be a basis for training the translators, though the
whole book of hers is based on a comparison and contrast between English and
Arabic to conclude that many terms in the two languages have non-equivalence.
Similarly, Mason (1982) questions the ability of contrastive linguistics to be of
“any practical help in the process of translating”. He concludes the strange
conclusion that contrastive linguistics has no relevance to translating into one’s
native tongue. Well, Mason and all those who question the usefulness of
contrastive linguistics to translation might have not been aware of the
importance and inevitability of the contrastive activity involved in any translation
theory or practice either from, or into one’s native language, whether we feel it
or not, and whether we like it or not. Secondly, perhaps those linguists’ main
concern was with the structure of the language in the first place. Third, they
might have shunned the idea of one-to-one equivalent in translation that is
derived from a contrastive approach to translation (see also Emery, 1983, for
further objections).
(h) Methods of translation lean heavily, however indirectly, on contrastive
considerations that take the mechanisms of the SL and TL structures and
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 meanings as their springboard as well as bases for methodology and principles of
translating either, literally / semantically, freely / communicatively or
pragmatically. That is, a method is literal or not in comparison with the original; a
translation is free or not as a result of the comparison of the SL with the TL; a
method is pragmatic or not in the light of drawing a comparison between the SL
and the TL, and so on (see the point on translation methods below).

0.4 Methods of Arabic-English Translation

There are in the field of translation theory and practice now as many methods of
translation as one might imagine. In one, short and frustrating chapter entitled
“Translation Methods”, Newmark (1988: 45-53), introduces fast-meal thirteen methods of
translation, none of which has been discussed extensively. He divides them into two
groups, one major (including eight methods: word-for-word, literal, faithful, semantic,
communicative, adaptation, free translation, and idiomatic); another minor (subsuming
five methods relegated to an insignificant position: service, plain prose, information,
cognitive and academic).

In an extension to my discussion in the previous Volume of this Series of Translation

Textbooks (i.e. Translating General Texts: A Textbook, 2016), I would argue that many of
these Newmarkian methods do not exist but in theory, with a fractional and partial
inclusion in the major four methods: literal, free, semantic and communicative, which are
redundant and can be reduced to two methods only, as argued below. Let us take these
methods one by one (apart from the main four pointed out above and word-for-word for
being subsumed under literal translation, and are investigated in detail below):

 Faithful translation: … “attempts to be completely faithful to the intention and

the text-realization of the SL writer” (p. 46).
Comment: First, there is no considerable difference between it and semantic
translation, as Newmark himself concede (ibid.). Secondly, and more seriously,
the method might suggest that other methods especially communicative, free
and pragmatic, are faithless methods of translation, which is not acceptable as
these methods are described as no less faithful. Third, it can be subsumed
comfortably under semantic translation which is, like this one, faithful to SL
author’s intentions.
 Adaptation: )‫“(االقتباس‬the freest form of translation…used mainly for plays and
poetry…”.
Comment: Adaption is adaption, which is a completely different practice from
translation. It is, at best, a kind of summary, headlines or outline, in one sense; in
another more serious sense, it is a distorted version of the original that cannot be
described as translation of any kind.
 Idiomatic translation: reproduces the message of the original preferring
colloquialisms and idioms which do not exist in the original. It is called ‘natural
translation’ by Seleskovitch and Gilbert.
Comment: this method is vague in reference for it can means colloquial idioms as
well as idiomatic (i.e. figurative) language that is not colloquial, but literary and
rhetorical. On the other hand, it implies a reference to form of a translation,
rather than to meaning. Third, it can be a part of free translation method and
9
 practice. More oddly, calling it ‘natural translation’ has nothing to do with
naturalness of the language of the translation, but relates more to ‘everyday
language translation. More so, it has something in common with communicative
translation (see below).
 service translation: a translation from one’s language of habitual use into another
language.
Comment: the first objection to this method is raised by Newmark himself who
admits that ‘the term is not widely used, but … a term is required”. Further, the
naming is a failure for the method has no relevance to any kind of service!
Further, no one has heard of, or come across this method except in Newmark’s
books.
 plain prose translation: a kind of prosaic translation of poetry that focuses on
translating literal sense, and disregards aesthetic values, features and effects of
poetic texts.
Comment: Well, this is simply a literal translation of poetry that is usually
described as ordinary, or non-literary translation.
 information translation: it conveys all the information in a non-literary text,
sometimes rearranged in a more logical form, sometimes partially summarized,
and not in the form of a paraphrase.
Comment: this is exactly a free translation method’s practice.
 cognitive translation: it reproduces the information of the SL text, and converts
the SL grammar to normal TL transpositions (i.e. grammar shifts) reducing any
figurative feature to literal language. It is useful more as a pre-translation
procedure at translating difficult texts. A pragmatic component is added to
produce a semantic or a communicative translation. It is build up both
proposition by proposition and word by word, denoting the empirical factual
knowledge of the SL text, but finally respecting the conventions of the TL
provided that the thought-content of the SL text has been reproduced (Newmark,
1988 & 1981: 40).

(Comment: This method is quite vague and involves contradictory elements. It is

a mix-up of a semantic, communicative, free, literal and information translation.
Still worse is the author’s classification of it once as a pre-translation procedure, a
procedure of transposition and a translation procedure similar to ‘decentering’
(1981: 41). On the other hand, and as also Newmark points out, only a fraction of
it barely centers on knowledge. Further, though useful as a tertium comparationis
between texts with distant cultures and sharply different language structures
(ibid.), it is lost between the SL and the TL in the sense that it is simultaneously
biased with both and biased against both, which cannot be acceptable. By the
way, it is a completely different practice from a contemporary cognitive method
of translation in the field of stylistic approaches to and translation called
‘cognitive stylistic translation’ which unearths the meanings buried in the depths
of the SL text (see Boase-Beier, 2006 and Ghazala, 2011). The latter is an
established new style-oriented method of translation, whereas Newmark’s
method is confusing and confused.)
 Academic translation: it is practiced particularly in some British Universities,
reduces an original SL text to an elegant idiomatic educated TL.

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 (Comment: Since it is practiced in certain universities only, it cannot be looked upon
as a universally accredited method. Secondly, it is rather a kind of free translation
(called by Ghazala (2008) ‘bound free translation’, illustrated below) that is made
more bombastic, rhetorical and pedantic than the original. Besides that, it is closer to
academic style for we do not talk about academic translation, but academic style.)

Hence, all these are artificial, nonce methods of translation that, in reality, are non-
existent and impromptu. They are either subsumed under established methods, or are a
mixture of more than one recognized method in a not clearly justified manner. A final
question to Newmark that can be leveled in this critique is “where is pragmatic translation
method”? Why does he regard it as confusing (1981: 43)? And, why is he minimizing it by
subsuming it under his method, communicative translation, though the two are different
methods?

The two methods singled out by Newmark to comment on are his own two methods,
semantic and communicative. They are regarded by many translation theorists to be his
major contribution to translation theory (?). He does not add much about them probably
because he investigated them in minute details in two long chapters in a previous book of
his (Approaches to Translation, 1981). His concentration on his two methods only implies
that he prefers them to the other methods which are simply ignored by him. This is not
fair for other pairs like literal translation and free translation, the oldest and most
established methods over time, are no less popular and important than his semantic and
communicative pair. More to that, he demoralizes a basic, self-evident method, free
translation, on purpose or not, perhaps to shop for his methods, nobody knows. He
provides this pitiful definition for free translation: “Free translation reproduces the matter
without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. Usually, it is a
paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called ‘intralingual translation’, often prolix
and pretentious, and not translation at all”. This is the queerest definition ever given to a
respectable method of translation. Free translation is a well-established method beyond
any doubt. I personally believe that Newmark’s communicative method is derived from,
and implied in free translation. The same can be said of his other method of semantic
translation which is a version of literal translation of meaning. The good thing about
Newmark’s pair is his detailed account of them, as highlighted below:

0.4.1 Semantic and Communicative Translation Juxtaposed:

Communicative Translation Semantic Translation

- smoother - more complex

- simpler - more awkward
- clearer - more detailed
- more direct - more concentrated
- more conventional - pursues thought-process not the
- confirms to a particular register intention of the transmitter
- undertranslates - overtranslates
- specific - more specific than the original
- TL text-oriented - SL Text-oriented
- TL readership-oriented - SL author-oriented
11
 - concerned more with effect on TL
Readership
-emphasizes the 'force' of the
original
- better than the original.
- involves a gain in force and clarity
- required to translate the vast
majority of texts, especially non-
literary like: journalism, inform-
ative texts, textbooks, reports,
scientific and technological texts,
non-personal correspondence,
propaganda, publicity, public
notices, standardized writing,
popular / non-imaginative /
scientific fiction.
(1981: chs. 3 &5)
- concerned more with accuracy of
meaning of SL text.
- emphasizes the content of the
original.
- inferior to the original
- involve a loss of meaning
- required to translate texts where
style and meaning are equally
important and require to be
translated closely as much
lexically as grammatically, such
as: literary, religious, philosophic-
al, political, scientific (?) and
technical (?) texts.

Right after this juxtaposition, Newmark makes a serious confession that "there is no one
communicative nor one semantic method of translating a text … A translation can be
more, or less semantic – more, or less, communicative – even a particular section or
sentence can be treated more communicatively or less semantically" (ibid.: 40). This
confuses the two methods completely, for it is quite hard to imagine how the same
sentence, which represents one idea, can be translated half semantically, half
communicatively. Are these methods based on word-for-word translation so that some of
the words of the sentence are translated semantically, others are translated
communicatively? This is really difficult to accept in application.

More surprising is his abandoning of the two or any other methods in favor of the
importance of the language of the text. He says: "I unify my dual theory of semantic and
communicative translation with three propositions …". They are based on the importance
of the language of the text; (1) the more important, the more closely translated; (2) the
less important, the less closely related; and (3) the better written a text, the more closely
translated whatever its degree of importance might be. (1993: 36-37. See also 1998). A
further contradiction and confusion is caused by (3) which gives precedence to the good
style of writing over importance. One is confused as to which to give priority at
translating: importance, good writing, or communicative-semantic translation? The
application of any of the three will invalidate the remaining two.

Ironically, Newmark attends unprecedentedly and enthusiastically to a third method of

translation he assigns a long chapter for in his most celebrated book (1988: ch.7) as the
one he defends and adheres to strongly more than he did to his semantic and
communicative pair, that is, literal translation, the old-new method of translation, which
is due to investigate.

12
0.4.2 Literal vs. Free Translation

LITERAL TRANSLATION, to start with, is seriously mistaken as a reference to only one

method of translation, the infamous word-for-word translation, concerned with
translating individual words more out of context than in context. Although we translate
words, "words alone do not carry meaning", as Raffel (1994: 4) says.

In an attempt, probably, for the first time, to simplify, disambiguate and elaborate literal
translation, and at the same time to deny Newmark’s relegation of it to a second position,
Ghazala (2008) suggests dividing it into three sub-methods, following Newmark (1988:
69): (1) word-for word translation; (2) one-to-one translation and (3) literal translation of
meaning. He discusses every method in detail with numerous illustrative examples
(English-Arabic), pointing out the disadvantages of the first two, which disqualify them as
reliable methods of literal translation. However, the third method, he argues, overcomes
the demerits of the previous two and is, therefore, an appropriate method of literal
translation of meaning closely, completely and accurately, describing it as ‘direct
translation’ in the sense that the translator commits himself/herself to the referential
meaning in a straightforward way for many types of texts.

Hence, literal translation is normally taken to mean in simple terms, accurate translation
of meaning. There are no deletions, no additions, no unnecessary exaggerations or
groundless digressions from denotative meaning. Hence, literal translation is "the
accurate translation of meaning as closely, directly and completely as possible" (see also
Ghazala, 2008: 9). This is also the sense meant by Newmark in his discussion of the term
in chapter 7 (1988). He describes himself as 'literalist', that is, a partisan of literalness of
meaning, not words. In the Preface, he declares: "I am somewhat of a 'literalist', because I
am for truth and accuracy … words as well as sentences and texts have meaning, … you
only deviate from literal translation when there are good semantic and pragmatic reasons
for doing so…" (1988: xi & 73). Therefore, the literal translation of meaning is after sense
in the first place, as accurately and closely as possible, be it figurative, non-figurative,
denotative, connotative, cultural, non-cultural or other.

FREE TRANSLATION, on the other hand, is, again, misunderstood to be a method that
allows the translator to add, delete, drop, shorten, expand, adapt, conclude or change
meaning or any part of it. Another possibility of misunderstanding free translation is that
it is concerned with the message that is reshaped and reconstructed in the translator's
own way. In other words, freedom of translation is freedom of language and style, not
freedom of rendering the message. There is no play with the message, but a play with
wording it. In other words, the translator is free to change the style, but not free to
change the message. And here lies the big mistake, the mistake that a difference of the
style of expression does not affect the message.

A third mistaken common practice of free translation is the tendency on the part of some
translators to over-exaggerate, overemphasize, be over-expressive, classical / frozen
formal, or rhetorical with the aim to provoke greater effect and be more impressive. This
is due to their miscomprehension of good translation to be as much effective, rhetorical,
expressive and impressive as possible, regardless of the types of text, context, readership,
topic, historical background and register.
13
To avoid any shade of misunderstanding, I would define free translation as "a method
concerned more with the message than the fine details of meaning and its componential
constituent words in context. Its focal point is the production of (a stylistic-semantic) effect
of some kind on the TL readers to impress them more unjustifiably than justifiably by
means of exaggeration, provocation, prejudice, rhetoric, expressiveness, classical / frozen
formality, understatement, overstatement, aesthetic, pragmatic, religious, cultural, social,
ideological or other factors". These are features of style and tone before anything else.

I divide free translation into two types (see also Ghazala, 2008, ch. 1):

(a) Bound Free Translation: a little free translation that might somehow exaggerate,
undermine, etc. more than the original without abandoning its lexical /
referential meaning, with a view to produce effect or impression of some kind:
e.g. (the same examples are borrowed from Ghazala, 2016a: chapter 1)

i. Stop backbiting your friends! ‫( كال يغتب بعضكـ بعض نا‬cf. ‫(كؼ عف اغتياب‬
ٌ
!‫( أصدقائؾ‬translating the statement into a verse from the Holy Koran to
produce greater effect).
ii. Parsimony is not advisable ‫( التقتير شر مستطير‬a collocation more
rhetorical, emphatic and effective than normal (cf. ‫)التقتير غير محمكد‬.
iii. You are quite right. ‫ ( الحؽ أبمج كالباطؿ لجمج‬a proverb: rhetoric and
metaphorical) (cf. ‫ عمى حؽ‬/ ‫)أنت محؽ‬.

(b) Loose Free Translation: a greater space of freedom is exercised here by the
translator who may go beyond the referential meaning to explore the inferential
meaning, which is in other words a pragmatic meaning, allegedly tracing the
authorial intentions. Here are illustrative examples (from ibid.):

i. With due respect, you are not telling the truth !‫ أنت تكذب‬،‫( بصراحة‬cf. ‫مع‬
‫ جانبت الصكاب‬/ ‫ أنت لـ تقؿ الحقيقة‬،‫)كؿ االحتراـ‬.
ii. He keeps a low profile ‫( يكاد المريب يقكؿ خذكني‬cf. ‫يتكارل عف األنظار؛ قميؿ الظيكر‬
‫)عمنان‬.
iii. It was inexcusable of him to blurt that out ‫ لسانؾ حصانؾ‬/!‫ يا لكقاحتو‬/!‫ما أكقحو‬
‫( إف صنتو صانؾ‬cf. ‫لـ يكف لو مبرر في تفمتو بالكالـ؛ ال عذر لو في أف ييرؼ بما ال يعرؼ‬
‫ في تمفظو بكالـ ال يميؽ‬/).

Although these cannot be described as common in all types of translation, we have to

admit that no one denies their recurrence in the translation of one or two types of text
like literary and political texts. Both types of free translation method are widely applied
due to their relevance to style, tone, rhetoric, pragmatic implications and, most
importantly, TL readership.

14
It is the time now to introduce an alternative table to that of Newmark introduced earlier
with a view to combining, outlining, simplifying and merging the major methods of
translation and their characteristic features juxtaposed:

Free/Communicative Translation Method Literal/Semantic Translation Method

- priority to message - priority to meaning

- priority to effect - priority to accuracy
- faithful to TL norms and culture - faithful to SL norms and culture
- faithful to TL readership - Faithful to SL readership
- tends to translate expressive, - insists on referential / lexical /
pragmatic meaning and intentions surface
- creative meaning
- pragmatic - non-creative
- more literary - non-pragmatic
- special concern with TL style and tone - less literary
- committed to TL translation - normal concern with SL style and tone
- attempts to render the spirit - committed to SL text
-attempts to render sense

This table may confirm the claim made earlier in this section that semantic and
communicative translation methods are Newmarkian versions of free and literal methods,
however with one or two minor differences and more concentrated details. Broadly
speaking, probably, the same can be said to apply to other pairs suggested, or termed
differently, with a little change of focus, but with similar implications, including the
following:

1. Formal correspondence vs. textual equivalence (Catford, 1965)

2. Formal equivalence vs. dynamic translation (Nida, 1964, Nida &Taber, 1969)
3. Non-pragmatic vs. pragmatic translation (Bell, 1991; Hatim & Mason, 1990
&1997, Baker, 1998; Snell-Hornby, 1988; and others).
4. Non-creative vs. creative translation (Beylard-Ozeroff and others, 1998, Boase-
Beier, 2006 and Ghazala, 2013).
5. Non-idiomatic vs. idiomatic translation (Newmark, 1988).

0.4.3 Direct vs. Indirect Translation

Other methods of translation include Gutt’s DIRECT TRANSLATION vs. INDIRECT

TRANSLATION (2000 & 2005), which are developed by Ghazala (2011) as style-based
Methods. Direct translation attempts to preserve not just what the source text said, but
also how it said it. It pursues all nuances of style and stylistic choices. The translator is
concerned more with what goes on in the people's mind beyond the actual words on the
page than what they referentially mean in context. Faithfulness is to content as much as
to style. Gutt suggests that direct translation regards features of style as ‘communicative
clues’ and meanings are what these clues point to. This is clearly a cognitive stylistic
translation practice. In this sense, direct translation is an interpretive activity which retains
what features of style might mean at the overall context of the literary text, not only their
formal shape. Consequently, Gutt declares that direct translation is more difficult for the
15
reader to process, yet it is rewarding since it provides more cognitive and emotional
effects (2000) (see also Boase-Beier, 2006 and Ghazala, 2011: ch.4).

A further suggestion made by Gutt is that texts, in which style – the way of saying – plays
an important role, require direct translation, as opposed to indirect translation, which just
gives the substance, exactly like indirect quotation. More so, one thinks in a different way
in every language, for one adopts the particular mindset of that language. This ‘think-in-a-
different-way’ proposition is what we are exactly concerned with here through the
adoption of Nord’s (1997), Gutt’s (2000) and Boase-Beier’s (2004a, 2004b and 2006) two
types of translation, Direct and Indirect.

Like direct quotation, direct translation attempts to preserve not just what the source text
said, but also how it said it (Gutt, 2000). Indirect translation, on the other hand, is like an
indirect quotation. Thus, indirect translation is not to be confused with Landers’ (2001)
and Toury’s (1995) indirect translation, which refers to a translation from another
translation (such as the translation of The Holy Koran into French from an English
translation of it, not directly from the Arabic original)). His distinction between the two
types of translation is based on the degree and manner of resemblance. To Boase-Beier,
direct translation is specifically concerned with the style of the source text (2006: 46).

Yet, both types can be treated as possible and acceptable versions in the target language,
one with more concern in style in cognitive terms; another with more concern in meeting
the intended audience’s demands and the purpose of translation. So they are
recommended to be two possible variations and differences in the style of the translated
text, not as two identical or opposite versions of translation to be judged as either correct
or incorrect. The best judgment perhaps is in terms of a grading scale of good, acceptable
and possible translation, or of more convenient or less convenient to the occasion (or
purpose and to the target readership.

0.4.4 Pragmatic Translation

A final method of translation that is well-established especially nowadays with respect to

certain texts that require a kind of reading between the lines is pragmatic translation. It
has been cursorily mentioned in the previous discussion. Pragmatics is simply defined as
the study of language in use. It is the study of meaning that is not as generated by the
linguistic system, but “as conveyed and manipulated by participants in a communicative
situation” (Baker, 1992: 217& 2011). Hence, its concern is not the linguistic meaning of
words in context, but the meaning that is concluded, or construed by participants (i.e.
speaker / hearer; addresser / addressee) in communication (see also, Jeffries et al, 2010;
Wales, 1989; Leech, 1982, and others). While phonology, syntax and semantics deal with
language as a formal linguistic system of elements and rules for putting them together,
"pragmatics focuses on language as a purposeful form of behavior …*and+ deals with
speakers' 'communicative competence', the knowledge which enables them to produce
and understand utterances in relation to specific communicative purposes and specific
speech contexts" (Traugott and Pratt, 1980: 226). They add, "language use is governed by
a wide range of contextual factors, including social and physical circumstances, identities,
attitudes, abilities and beliefs of participants; and relations holding between participants"
(ibid.). In the same way, Crystal says that, in the field of linguistics, pragmatics "has come
16
to be applied to the study of language from the point of view of the user … and the effects
his use of language has on the other participants in an act of communication" (1980: 278).

These definitions of pragmatics, though useful, are loose and perhaps vague. More
recently, and with the involvement and development of pragmatic studies and stylistics,
Jeffries et al narrow down the scope of pragmatics and define it more specifically as "the
study of how context affects meaning" (2010: 101). Accordingly, pragmatics is concerned
with contextual - not textual - meaning and the importance of taking into account
contextual factors and implicatures (presupposed implications and meanings of words)
that may be generated. This definition brings us closer to the type of pragmatic meaning
we look for in translation.

Pragmatics can better be understood in practice as the study of the INTENTIONS / ‫(مقاصد‬
)‫ نواٌا‬of the speaker behind his / her words. Hence, in translation, pragmatic meaning is, in
other words, the translation of these intentions which are only contextual and lie beyond
the literal meaning of the words of the speaker. Hence, pragmatic translation is the
translation of intentions in the first place. ‘Loose free translation’ method discussed earlier
can be described in some way as pragmatic translation. In consequence, the same
illustrative examples can be employed here to a similar effect.

On the other hand, 'pragmatic implicature' involves aspects of meaning that go beyond
the literal meaning of an utterance and whose interpretations are based on the speaker's
assumption of the Co-operative Principles and its five maxims: QUANTITY (the utterance
should provide just the information required, i.e. the shorter, the better); (2) QUALITY
(that the utterance should be what one believes is true); (3) RELEVANCE (what one says
what should be relevant to the current discourse); and (4) MANNER (speakers should be
clear; and (5) POLITENESS (one should always be polite and considerate) (see Grice, 1975,
Rojo, 2009: 203-4; Baker, 1992, Munday, 2016, and others).

Thus, implicature is the kind of contextual, implied, conventional and presupposed

meaning of words in combination, that enables language users to understand statements
/ utterances like the following (quoted from Ghazala, 2014: 214):

"‫ ستنطلق الحافلة غداً صباحا ً إلى المدينة المنورة‬.‫"علينا أن نطوف طواف الوداع هذه الليلة‬

(We must do the Farewell Circumambulation tonight. The bus is leaving for Al-Madinah Al-
Munawwarah tomorrow morning)

On the face of it, and cohesively and coherently speaking, the relationship between the
two statements is not clear. However, on the basis of the notion of implicature, we,
Muslims and Arabs, can relate them strongly and comfortably to one another by
implication as follows: The speaker is performing the worship of Hajj, or Omrah at Makkah
Al-Mukarramah, of Saudi Arabia. He will leave Makkah for Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah
the following day to pray in the Prophet's Mosque and salute the Prophet there;
therefore, he has to go around the House of God, Ka'ba, seven times for the last time at
night just before his departure of Makkah, as all pilgrims do (what is termed as 'the
Farewell Tawaf' ‫(طواؾ الوداع‬. Hence, relying on our presupposed cognitive background
religious knowledge, we can relate the seemingly incoherent breakdown between the two
17
propositions on the basis of implicature, which takes us back to coherence that is achieved
only contextually through pragmatic implicature (see also Rojo: 2009: 303-4).

Pragmatic translation goes beyond the boundaries of text and context to the intentions
and purposes implied in the SLT. In other words, this type of translation looks for the
truths beyond the referential level of the text, whether these truths are cultural, social,
religious, pejorative, positive, or other. Chapter Five later will elaborate this type of
approach to translation and the pragmatic problems arising in the translation from Arabic
into English.

A word is due at the end of this essential section. Translation methods are all relative in
application. That is, in practical translation, no one translation method is solely sufficient
to translate one and the same text of any type; instead, a combination of two methods at
least would do the job appropriately. All we can do here is suggest a major method and a
minor one, or two alternative methods. Hence, we need to qualify the major method
adopted in a translation of a text with words like main/mainly, major/minor,
general/generally, etc. Practice confirms that no pragmatic translation of a text can ignore
literal translations, and vice versa; nor a communicative translation can escape semantic
translation to a measure, nor a free translation of any type can be all in all free, but is
interrupted now and then by literal or other translations, and so on. That is a fact about
translation methods of all types that we cannot deny in practice.

0.5 Linguistic Interference in Arabic-English Translation

Interference is a term used in sociolinguistics and foreign language learning. It refers to the
ERRORS introduced by speakers into one language as a result of contact with another
language. It is hugely recurrent in the process of learning a foreign language where the
native tongue interferes (Crystal: 1980: 188). It is also called ‘transfer’ which is defined by
Odlin (1994: 27) as “the influence resulting from similarities and differences between the
TL and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired”.
Brown (2007: 117) views transfer as “the interaction of previously acquired linguistic and /
or conceptual knowledge with the present learning event to facilitate a new language
learning task”, ( see also Thawabteh: 2012: RJSSM: vol.02, 07).

In translation, interference has always received special attention in translation theory and
practice. In August, 2008, there were over 650 references in Bibliography of Interpreting
and Translation (BITRA) to publications on interference in translation (handbooks and
publications are not included in the figure) (in Alixelá, 2009). Similar terms that overlap
with interference include contamination, code-switching, heterolingualism, linguistic
influence, hybridity, borrowings, interlanguage, translationese, pidginization,
Anglicization, interpenetration, infiltration interference, to name but some. Interference
could be sharper and more serious than in language learning and other situations of
foreign English teaching and learning, It is defined by Alixelá as “the importation into the
target text of lexical, syntactic, cultural or structural items typical of a different semiotic
system and unusual or non-existent in the target context, at least as original instances of
communication in the target language. Interference results from the literal transfer of the
native language structure verbatim into a TL. This definition includes several types of

18
interference: grammatical/syntactic, lexical, cultural, pragmatic and stylistic (the last is
mine), all of which are equally recurrent in translation of any SL to any TL.

There are different levels of interference: (i) ‘conservative rendering’ (or ‘otherness’) of
the entire SL text with nothing changed whether grammatically, lexically, or other, even
the order of words is retained in the TL (e.g. the translation of the Holy Koran, and some
translations of the Bible); (ii) ‘controlled rendering of SL text’ (e.g. canonical and sacred
texts). (See Schleiermacher (1813), Benjamin, 1923, in Schulte et al, 1992, Venuti, 1998
and others). (Hamburger (1994) has developed a style of translation that may “... come to
terms with the otherness of language” by way of enriching one’s own language through
the act of translation, and to move the translation toward the original source language, as
also Pannwitz suggests ("Our translations, even the best, proceed from a false premise.
They want to Germanize Hindi, Greek, English, instead of hindi-izing, grecizing, anglicizing
German. …”) (In Schulte et al, 1992: 81); and (iii) nominalization (i.e. the replacement of
foreign or idiosyncratic marks included in the source text by the most usual variants
according to target text conventions) as a strategy that eliminates ‘otherness’ from a
foreign text which should convey a different world view for the TL readers.

We may conclude from the previous theoretical account about interference that, in
translation, there are two types of interference; positive and negative. Positive
interference, on the one hand, refers to those SL foreign terms of different types usually
due to their absence from the TL, are adopted into the TL with the aim to enrich it and
give the target readers to explore new cultures. Here are examples from both languages,
Arabic and English in both directions, followed by the translation strategies through which
they are adopted into the TL:

(a) ‫( اٌىعجخ‬Ka’ba) (transliteration)

(b) ْ‫( اٌمشآ‬Koran) (transliteration)
(c) ‫( ِٕبعه اٌسح‬Muslim Hajj Rituals) (translation of sense)
(d) ‫ٌٍٍخ‬ٚ ‫( أٌف ٌٍٍخ‬The Arabian Nights) (Translation)
(e) ...‫ ثىش اٌشاصي‬ٛ‫ٍثُ؛ أث‬ٌٙ‫ثً؛ اثٓ ا‬ٌٛ‫( عٕذثبد؛ عالء اٌذٌٓ؛ صالذ اٌذٌٓ األ‬Sinbad; Aladdin; Saladin;
Al-Hazen; Razes, etc.) (naturalization)
(f) Tower of London )ْ‫( (ثشج ٌٕذ‬translation + transliteration)
(g) Big Ben )ْ‫ٍشح فً ٌٕذ‬ٙ‫( (عبعخ ثٍح ثٓ اٌش‬classifier + paraphrase + transliteration)
(h) Kimono )‫ ٌجبط ٌبثبًٔ فضفبض‬:ٍّْٛ‫( (اٌى‬transliteration + paraphrase)
(i) Disney Land )‫( (زذٌمخ دٌضًٔ الٔذ فً أِشٌىب‬classifier + transliteration + paraphrase)
(j) Robot )ًٌَ‫د؛ اإلٔغبْ ا‬ٛ‫ث‬ٚ‫( (اٌش‬transliteration: translation).

The second type of interference, which is the most problematic recurrent, and, hence,
focal, is the negative interference, which results, among other things, mainly from word-
for-word (mis)understanding of the original, as the following list demonstrates:

(1) Lack of knowledge of the structures (grammatical, lexical and cultural in

particular) of the TL.
(2) Ignorance of the fact that languages are at least partly cultural, and native
speakers of any live language might say the same meaning differently, using
different grammar and words.
(3) Poor knowledge of the linguistic mechanisms of one’s native language.
19
 (4) Confusion of formal and colloquial dialects in the mother tongue, or the TL, or
both.
(5) Wrong conclusions drawn from specific identical examples in both the SL and TL.
(6) Translation into the common/primary meaning of words.
(7) Generalization of a rule to everything else in the TL in regard to literal, word-for-
word translation from the SL.
(8) Misunderstanding the SL, or the TL meaning
(9) Misunderstanding the SL, or the TL expression
(10) Misunderstanding the SL, or the TL grammatical structure.
(11) Misunderstanding the SL, or the TL figurative sense
(12) Misunderstanding the SL, or the TL cultural implications.
(13) Translating into a wrong synonym)
(14) Ignorance of collocation in either the SL or the TL, or in both
(15) Confusing false friends with faithful friend in the SL, the TL or in both.
(16) Failing to read the pragmatic meaning between the lines.
(17) Failing to recognize an irony, and translating it into serious meaning.
(18) Missing the punch line of a humorous expression.
(19) Committing mistakes due to loss of concentration for a while at translating.
(20) Word-for-word translation of everything.
(21) Misunderstanding the SL text as vague leading to vague TL translation
etc.

To concretize some of these reasons of interference in translation in practice, here are

illustrative examples translated twice, first with interference, then without:

1. ‫( اٌىّبي هلل‬Perfection is for God → perfection is God’s/God is perfect).

 (word for word translation)
2. ‫سان‬ٚ ‫( خز اٌجبة‬take the door with you → close the door)
 (word for word translation that changes meaning)
3. ‫( ٔسٓ أصذلبء‬we friends → we are friends)
 (word-for-word translation ignoring TL grammatical structure)
4. ‫( أٌمى اٌشئٍظ وٍّخ‬the president threw a word → the president delivered a speech)
 (common meaning of words, wrong synonym and ignorance of TL
collocation)
5. ‫لذ اٌّسذد‬ٌٛ‫( خبء فً ا‬came in the specific time → he came on time)
 SL grammar into TL, and word-for-word translation, ignoring TL fixed
collocation: ‘on time’).
6. ٖ‫ال ثعذ‬ٚ ‫اف‬ٛ‫د ال لجً اٌط‬ٛ‫( ٌُ ٔغزٍُ اٌسدش األع‬we did not receive the Black Stone neither
before the circulation nor after it → we did not kiss the Black Stone either before
or after circumambulation around Ka’ba).
 (misunderstanding the meaning of ٍُ‫ اعز‬as ‘receive’, rather than its sense here
of ًَّ‫( لج‬kiss))
7. ‫ال فً إٌفٍش‬ٚ ‫( ال فً اٌعٍش‬neither in the camels nor in the caravan → worthless).
 (literal, dull translation of figurative meaning)
8. ‫لذ وبٌغٍف إْ ٌُ رمطعٗ لطعه‬ٌٛ‫( ا‬time is like the sword, if you don’t cut it, it will cut you
→ do not kill time; do not waste time)
 (literal translation of words of a proverb)
9. ‫اٌه‬ٛ‫( أغٍك خ‬close your mobile → lock your mobile).
20
  (wrong SL word : ‫ أغٍك‬should be ً‫)ألف‬
10. ‫( سافمزه اٌغالِخ‬may safety accompany you/be with you → goodbye/take care).
 (literal understanding of a TL cliché phrase)
11. ‫( رششفٕب ثّعشفزه‬we are honored to know you → nice to meet you).
 Literal translation of a cliché expression in the TL)
12. ‫( رٔجه عٍى خٕجه‬your sin is at your side → this your coffin/you are to blame/it is your
fault).
 (misunderstanding a metaphor as literal language)
13. ‫شفٕب‬ٚ ‫( عشٕب‬we lived and we saw → live and learn)
 (an SL catch phrase misunderstood in a TL literal sense)
14. ‫( ال رشىً ًٌ أثىً ٌه‬do not complain to me I cry to you → you’re telling me!)
 (an SL informal adage translated into a literal sense)
15. ‫( ِب اٌمصخ؟‬what is the story? → what is the matter?)
 (an SL informal question understood and translated literally into TL)
16. ‫الطعٍه‬ٚ ًٍ‫( اِغى‬you hold and I cut for you → scratch my back and I scratch yours).
 (literal translation of words of an SL informal idiom)
17. ً‫ال‬ٙ‫طئزُ ع‬ٚٚ ً‫( زٍٍزُ أ٘ال‬you came welcome, and you trod easily → you are most
welcome)
 (a very formal pompous phrase translated literally into English)
18. ً‫ال دٌٕبسا‬ٚ ً ‫( ال أٍِه دسّ٘ب‬I do not possess neither dirham nor dinar → I have no
money).
 (an SL formal figurative adage translated wrongly literally)
19. ‫( ِب سأٌه ثبألِش؟‬what is your opinion with the command? → what do you think of
the matter?/ what is your opinion about the matter?)
 (two literal mistakes, the preposition ‘with’, and the polysemic word ‫ أِش‬into
‘command’ instead of the contextual meaning ‘matter’ here.
20. ‫ال أزّش‬ٚ ‫ عٍى األسض ِب عٕذٖ أصفش‬ٛ٘ (he is on the floor he has neither yellow nor red
→ he is penniless/ a skint, etc.)
 (SL informal idiomatic expression in the sense of ‘bankrupt’ translated
literally into the TL)
21. ‫( ٌزّزع ٘زا اٌشخً ثصفبد زٍّذح‬enjoys this man with good adjectives → this man enjoys
good qualities)
 (a silly translation of the polysemic word ‫ صفخ‬into its grammatical sense of
‘adjective’, rather than contextual sense of ‘quality’)
22. ُ٘‫خض‬ٌٛ ‫ وبْ عٕذ اٌطغبح ضٍّش‬ٌٛ (if there was at the dictators a pronoun, it would pin
them →the dictators have no conscience to prick them).
 (again, a funny misunderstanding of ‫ ضٍّش‬in its grammatical sense of
‘pronoun’ instead of ‘conscience’)
23. ‫ب‬ٙ‫ا األشٍبء ثأعّبئ‬ّٛ‫( ع‬call things with their names → call the spade a spade)
 (a proverb misunderstood literally rather than figuratively)
24. ‫ال فضخ‬ٚ ً ‫( إْ اٌغّبء ال رّطش ر٘جب‬the sky does not rain neither gold nor silver → go and
look for a job/ supplication is not enough, you have to work)
 (a well-known symbolic saying by Omar bin Al-Khattab (God be pleased with
him) for a man who was supplicating God to give him food and sustenance
without working, misunderstood literally to refer to gold and silver instead of
its implication of urging people to work)
25. ‫شفزه رسذ‬ٚ ‫ق‬ٛ‫( شفزه ف‬I saw you up and I saw you down → you are useless)

21
  (an SL colloquial metaphorical catch phrase wrongly translated literally into
nonsense, whereas its meaning is ‘useless’).

0.6 Equivalence in Arabic-English Translation

The concept of equivalence is a reality in translation theory and practice. As Rojo says,
"Part of the controversy around the concept of equivalence arises from its apparent
inescapability", which is due to "the misleading assumption that a complete or total
equivalence is an attainable goal" (2009: 31). The truth is that "Translators usually dream
of achieving an ideal replica of the ST, but, in practice, they often have to accept that not
everything can be translated exactly into a different language" (p. 22). She makes it clear
that "Equivalence should be understood in relative sense as the closest approximation
possible to the meaning of the ST" (ibid.).

Obviously, equivalence is one of the oldest and most established notion in translation in
history, no doubt about it. It is a fact, and no one can deny it in any translation practice.
Indeed, "the word 'equivalence' is sooner or later on everyone's lips" (ibid.: 31). We do
have identical equivalence (or absolute synonymy) between any two languages (see ibid.).
In any translation practice, first and foremost, we look for an absolute equivalence, yet the
harsh reality of translation disappoints us that not everything can be translated exactly
and perfectly into another language. In the event, and if absolute equivalence is not
possible or available, we go to the next best, the closest or approximate equivalence. This
type of equivalence is what we really work on most of the time, and which we have to
strive to achieve a close resemblance for.

Some translation scholars like Snell-Hornby, Bassnett-McGuire, Robinson and others, deny
the existence of the notion of equivalence in language in the first place. They are the
proponents of the claim that "language is all in all culture". Snell-Hornby, to cite one
example, calls 'linguistic equivalence' an illusion, a chimera (1988: 42). Vermeer (1986)
preconditions the translator’s bilingual as well as bicultural knowledge to be qualified as a
translator.

Well, contrary to Snell-Hornby's, equivalence is not a mirage; it is a fact of life that is

widespread in use by translation theorists and practitioners. Even Baker who is a
disappointing antagonist of equivalence by implication is enforced to who confesses
grudgingly that equivalence is relative that can be obtained to some extent, and is
influenced by several linguistic factors (1992: 6-7). Her book confirms indelibly by
implication that equivalence does exist interlingually as much as bilingually at the different
levels of language units (words, phrases, sentences, texts, etc.) by assigning her book to
desperate tracing of non-equivalence at the level of all these units of language. She cites
very few examples that cannot be sufficient to confirm her claims about the recurrence of
non-equivalence. Indeed, this very fact confirms that the cases of equivalence are by
comparison many times greater in number than occasional instances of non-equivalence.
Equally significant is the fact that her search for non-equivalence is by implication a kind of
recognition of the existence of equivalence to compare non-equivalence with it.

There are three major types of linguistic equivalence among languages in translation:
identical, approximate and zero/non-equivalence. They are mainly lexical/sem
22
antic, grammatical/syntactic and connotative (cultural, religious, etc.).

0.6.1 One-to-one Equivalence

The translators' ultimate objective is to get hold of an identical, one-to-one TL equivalent

to words as well as meanings. This is a familiar practice among translators. A huge number
of words achieve one-to-one equivalent in both languages, Arabic and English, especially
those described by translation theorists as universal, or non-cultural. They present the
maximum degree of equivalence possible between the two languages concerned. Many
thousands of pairs of words in both languages translate each other due to their reciprocal,
non-cultural nature. All people eat, drink, sleep, pray, laugh, smile, frown, shake hands,
talk, shout, cry, play, love, hate, feel sad/happy, etc., respect, disrespect, work, drive cars,
fall ill, get angry, communicate, write, read, listen, hear, and so on and so forth. Examples
in Arabic include (see also Ghazala (2015) for hosts of examples):

‫ األنبٌاء؛ السماء؛ األرض؛ الشمس؛ القمر؛ الخٌر؛ الشر؛ الحٌاة؛ الموت؛ االتصاالت؛ الفقراء؛ األؼنٌاء؛‬ ‫هللا‬
...‫ وؼٌرها كثٌر كثٌر‬،‫القانون؛ اللٌل والنهار؛ الطعام والشراب؛ الحب والكراهٌة؛ الؽضب والرضى‬

(God; Prophets; sky; earth; sun; moon; good; evil; life; death; the poor; the rich, law; day
and night; food and drink; love and hate; anger; contentment, and so on.)

The translation of these words – which are a majority in any live language - is a
straightforward process for their one-to-one equivalent is available in the other language,
as demonstrated above. This is one fact about equivalence that nobody can deny.

0.6.2 Approximate Equivalence: Proximity Principle

Many words and expressions in Arabic and English have no one-to-one equivalent. So the
translator resorts to the nearest equivalent possible, what can be termed as 'the proximity
principle', and goes for the closest equivalence, described by Rojo as 'approximate
equivalence' (2009), and what Hatim & Mason (1990) term as 'relative equivalence' that is
understood as the closest approximation possible to the meaning of the original (see
above). Similar to this is the notion of equivalence in terms of 'acceptability', suggested by
Rojo (ibid.: 32). Also, Newmark's 'accepted translation' procedure (1988: ch. 8) is close to
Rojo's concept. Therefore, an approximate equivalent is a word or term that either gives
sense (or intended meaning) in general, or a part of it. This means that approximate
equivalence misses a part of the meaning of the original word in various ways, yet it is
recognized and comprehended comfortably, as illustrated in the following examples:

a) ‫( حج‬Hajj/pilgrimage): is an approximate translation that renders the full meaning

of the Arabic/Islamic term only in part. That is, Christians, Jews and even the
followers of pagan religions, the Buddhists and the Hindus make pilgrimage, but
are the rituals and other specific details of their pilgrimage similar to Muslim Hajj.
The same applies to other obligations like prayer )‫(صالة‬, fast/fasting )‫ (صياـ‬and
many Islamic conceptions.

23
 b) Terrorism )‫(إرىاب‬: this term does not mean the same for us and for them. There
are sharp differences among people about who are to be called terrorists and
who are not.
c) Social clubs )‫(أندية اجتماعية‬: there are social clubs in the west and social clubs in
Arab and Muslim States, but they do not have the same activities, for sure.
d) Democracy )‫(ديمقراطية‬: understood partly in Arabic as a reference to freedom of
speech and free elections of the head of State and members of the parliament.
However, in English, its sense is much wider than that (see Ghazala, 2015 for full
definition).
e) Romanticism )‫رقة مشاعر‬/‫كجدانية‬/‫شاعرية‬/‫(ركمانسية‬: translated and comprehended in
Arabic partially (in both senses of the word) as a reference to sentimentality,
emotions and delicate feelings, but its other negative references to atheism and
sexuality are left out.

Although these terms are approximate translations, they are indisputable. Hence, their
meanings should not be distorted by providing further synonyms. "Proximity translation
procedure" (see above) is extensively used in the translation of so many terms from one
language into another. These concepts of equivalence are conciliatory, practical and
applied widely and satisfactorily, more unconsciously than consciously in translation
practice. Hence, one approximate, general English, or Arabic term would be fairly good to
translate the meaning of one another satisfyingly. I would prefer one word that might be
less perfect to two or more synonyms, even though they could be more specifically
expressive of the meaning of the SL word, thus, avoiding further puzzlement and
indecisiveness for the readers.

0.6.3 Non-equivalence in Arabic English Translation

The Arabic words that have neither one-to-one, nor approximate equivalents are the most
problematic in translation into English. There are many words and phrases in Arabic that
are not readily available in English and are described in translation terminology as
untranslatable, or unfindable. Well, this does not mean that their meanings cannot be
translated into English. It is an ipso facto now that nothing in language is untranslatable,
and that “everything without exception is translatable”, as Newmark says (1988: 6, 72-73).
This basic principle in translation draws heavily on the understanding of translation as not
merely a one-to-one equivalent practice, but as a translation of the SL meaning into the TL
either identically, closely, approximately or by transference, paraphrase, etc., whichever is
applicable. That is, ‫ المشاعر‬is translated into a paraphrase as ’the Holy Sites in Makkah’;
‫ الحرمان الشرٌفان‬is translated approximately into the ‘Two Holy Mosques’, but ‫ القرآن‬is
transferred into English as ‘The Koran’, without changing the Arabic pronunciation, and
without giving its meaning. The same is said of ‫ جبة‬and ‫ حجاب‬which are transliterated ad lib
as ‘Jubbah’ and ‘hijab/hejab’ in a row. The Islamic term ‫ تعدد الزكجات‬is translated wrongly
into the English equivalent ‘polygamy / bigamy’. In fact, it has no equivalent of any kind.
More seriously, it is highly sensitive in English, as getting married to more than one wife at
one and the same time is not allowed either religiously, legally, socially and culturally.
Legally speaking, it is a crime in the English Law. Hence, English dictionaries define
'bigamy' - which is wrongly mistaken for the Arabic term – as "The crime of marrying while
24
one has a wife or a husband still living, from whom no valid divorce has been effected"
(Webster's, 1996). However, the meaning of the Arabic term has to be rendered into
English properly. So neither 'bigamy' nor 'polygamy' works for both are crimes that a
punishment is sued for those who commit either. Secondly, they are applicable to both
sexes, a husband having more than one wife, and a wife having more than one husband.
In Islam, However, getting married to more than one wife at the same time is permissible
for Muslim men only and, hence, cannot be described in any way as a crime. Translators
are required to suggest an alternative term that may retain the positive sense of the
Arabic term in English and, at the same time, be acceptable in the TL. Suggestions like:
"Islamic legal poly-marriage"; "Islamic multi-marriage" are not too bad.

We conclude from that that the number of words used to express the meaning of an SL
term that has no equivalent is not restricted, but words are preferable to be as few as
possible, and as many as required. This makes it clear that the notion of equivalence to me
is not a matter of words, but a matter of meanings that can be expressed in the TL in
different ways. This is possible in any live languages, and it is the translator’s onus to find
these ways in the TL.

0.7 The Process of Translation from Arabic into English

Usually, a translation process of any text applies similar steps, starting with a pre-
translation that is essential for the translators to comprehend the minute details and
mechanisms of the meaning of the text translated. The text to be translated is broken
down into stages, and important signposts of the translation process to come are picked
up. The ultimate aim of such analytical process is to make everything about the meaning
of a text clear, and, more significantly, spot its potential problems of translation and how
to deal with them and fix them later on in practice. So, the very first step prior to
translating any material of any type or length is its choice by the translator before giving
his/her consent to undertake it, for once consent is given, he/she must show total
commitment to work. Such choice is attitudinal / personal, ethical and academic.

The second step is reading the SL text. There are two types of reading: (1) general reading
to get the cream of a text, suitable for long texts like papers and books; and (2) close
reading with the aim to understand the text before starting translating, appropriate for
short texts (see Newmark1988: ch.1 and Ghazala, 2014: 158). Suffice it for the translator
to know the topic of the text, the type of text, its main points and contents, introduction,
beginnings of chapters, underlining the most prominent and difficult points, terms and
likely problems of translation. The third step is to check the SL Author's attitude
(positive/negative/neutral), intention (i.e. the purpose behind writing his/her text, what,
where, when and how to be used) and the TL readership. The term, ‘readership’ is a
collective reference to all readers: specialists, non-specialists, low educated middle
educated or highly educated (see Newark, 1988: 14-15).

The fourth and central step is the process of translating, which may run as follows (see
also Ghazala, 2014: 165) and Newmark, 1988: 30-32):

25
a) Translating on sentence basis, rather than on paragraph or chapter or text
basis. The sentence is the largest linguistic unit to be taken together at one
time in translation. Hence the UNIT OF TRANSLATION.
b) taking the unit of translation as the practical basis for translating the
sentence, the largest unit of translating. A translation unit is a unit of
meaning in the first place. It is the minimum linguistic unit that can be
translated as one part of meaning that can be understood somehow
independently of the preceding and the proceeding parts of the sentence.
However, when it is not possible to understand any part of the sentence
together as one unit, the unit of translating becomes the sentence. Hence,
the unit of translating can be one word, a phrase (a collocation, an idiom, a
metaphor, or an expression of some kind), a clause (finite rather than non-
finite), or optimally a sentence when the translator, to understand it, has to
read through it all due to the delay of the main verb, subject, or object until
toward the end of the sentence, complexity and complication of clause and /
or sentence structure, delayed cohesive pronoun or other reference, etc.
Here are illustrative examples:

Here is an English natural example taken from Ghazala's translation of

Newmark's A Textbook of Translation (1988: 32) (see Ghazala, 2004: 46):

“Below the sentence [as the largest unit of translation] (1), you go to clauses
(2), both finite and non-finite (3), which (4), if you are experienced (5), you
tend to recast intuitively (4 cont.) (see Chapter 8 on shifts and transpositions
(6)) as in the previous long sentence (7), unless you are faced with an obscure
or ambiguous sentence(8)”.

‫ المحددة‬،)2( ‫ تعتمد في ترجمتؾ العبارات الفعمية‬،)1( ]‫(تحت الجممة [باعتبارىا أكبر كحدة ترجمة‬
‫أمىيؿ إلى إعادة صياغتيا بديييان‬
ٍ ،)5( ‫ ىذا إذا كنت خبي انر‬،)4( ‫ كالتي تجعمؾ‬،)3( ‫منيا كغير المحددة‬
‫)) كما ىي الحاؿ في الجممة‬6( ‫ بشأف التغييرات كالتبديالت القكاعدية‬8 ‫)) (راجع الفصؿ‬4( ‫(تتمة‬
‫ ما لـ تكاجيؾ جممة مبيمة أك غامضة‬،)7( ‫ الطكيمة السابقة‬.))8(

This sentence consists of eight translation units. This means that it is

translated in eight stages, and not as one lump. In a professional translation
process in practice, our work is not haphazard by any means, and everything
in the SL text counts, but is not necessarily translated in literal terms. These
units also demonstrate how a unit might be interrupted by another unit (as
in (4) which is interrupted by (5)). However, another possibility is to join the
separate parts of four into one fluent unit as follows: ‫(كالتي تجعمؾ أميؿ إلى إعادة‬
)‫ ىذا إذا كنت خبي انر‬،‫صياغتيا بديييان‬, but in principle, it is not advisable for stylistic
reasons, as the interruptive clause, ‫ ىذا إذا كنت خبي ار‬is meant to be a
precondition for the part of the interrupted clause that follows (i.e. ‫(أمىيؿ إلى‬
ٍ
‫إعادة صياغتيا بديييان‬. In other words, if you are an inexperienced translator, you
will not be able to shift or transpose them intuitively.

26
Well, in Arabic-English translation, we have somehow different priorities in
the pre-translation process of the Arabic text. Due to the difficulties of
Arabic, and a considerable percentage of misunderstanding of it, translators
have an extra task of making sure of their proper comprehension of the
language of the Arabic text before embarking on translating it. They take it
up a unit by unit and check the difficulties of each unit minutely for
committing any foolish mistake in understanding the original Arabic would
be disastrous for the credibility of the translator. Here are examples to be
followed by many others in the next parts of the book:

1) The translator has to read the text carefully to understand it properly,

for any cursory reading would result in foolish mistakes. For example,
‫ىناؾ أشياء مرضية كثيرة في الحياة‬, with the absence of vocalization )‫ (التشكيؿ‬can
be hastily read as ‫ ىم ىرضية‬and, hence, translated into: ‘there are many
sick/sickening things in life’, but it is quite the opposite of the proper
meaning intended, which is: ‘there are many satisfying/good things in
life”.
2) If the word order is broken down in an important text like the Holy
Koran and the subject precedes the verb, the translator has to take this
into account in English as a sign of assertion of the fronted subject. e.g.
‫ اهلل يتكفى األنفس‬should be translated with a word of emphasis before or
after the subject as follows: God does take the souls…”, and a translation
without the emphatic element like: “God takes the souls…” is less
accurate than the latter. However, when the text is not all that
important, nothing is required to be added in English: e.g. ‫الصحفي سأؿ‬
‫ سؤاالن‬is translated simply into “the journalist asked a question”.
3) The translator has to, first, pick up the verb, subject and object (if the
verb is transitive) of the sentence to translate, which enables him/her to
start the sentence properly in the normal sequence of: verb-subject-
object. Here is an example: ‫العمماء‬
‫ي‬ ‫ إنما يخشى اهللى مف عباده‬should be “Verily,
those who fear God most among His servants are the scholars”.
However, a hasty translator might confuse the subject (scholars) for the
object (God), and commits a blunder by translating the verse into * “God
fears most among His servants the scholars”. Another ordinary example:
‫أفمس البنؾ المدير‬, can be translated contradictorily into either: “The bank
made the manager bankrupt”, or: “the manager went bankrupt by the
bank”. So the translator has to distinguish the subject from the object
for sure, before translating the statement.
4) The translator has to check the two nominal elements of ‫إف‬ ٌ before
he/she translates: e.g. ‫لسحر‬
‫نا‬ ‫إف مف البياف‬. The nominal subject of ‫ إف‬is in a
back position, and its predicate is left out of the sentence. The translator
has to realize that to translate it appropriately into : “Surely, some
eloquence is magic”.

27
 5) The translator has to recheck the two nominal elements of ‫ كاف‬and,
which is which and how to order the English sentence. For example, ‫كاف‬
‫ رجالن بكؿ ما في الكممة مف معنى ذاؾ الجندم الشجاع‬has its nominal subject (the
soldier) delayed until the end of the sentence, and its predicate (man)
fronted, which requires the translator to attend to as follows: “That
brave soldier was a man in the full sense of the word”.
6) The translator has to check any difficult word or expression that he is
not perfectly certain about its meaning in an Arabic-Arabic, or Arabic-
English dictionary before endeavoring to translate it a risky translation.
e.g. ‫ لًـ ىذا التمكؤ في التنفيذ؟‬. If in doubt about the meaning of the underlined
word (is it ‘stammer’? Or ‘tardiness/sluggishness), the translator has to
check a reference, first, to be absolutely sure that the word means
‘sluggishness’: “Why are you sluggish in implementation? Another
example is: ‫ال يعرؼ ككعو مف بكعو‬. The translator should not risk any version
of translation of this well-known Arabic adage before checking the
accurate meaning of the two underlined difficult words ‫ العظـ الذم‬:‫(الككع‬
)‫ العظـ الذم يمي إبياـ القدـ‬:‫ يمي إبياـ اليد؛ البكع‬which are in English: ‘wrist bone’
and ‘metatarsal bone’ in a row. Hence, the following translation: ‘He
does not know the difference between his wrist bone and metatarsal
bone” (i.e. He knows nothing; he cannot distinguish between things).
7) If language is rhetorical, the translator cannot understand it as ordinary.
Therefore, being rhetorical, ‫ شنفكا آذانكـ‬is translated into “lend me your
ears” rather than into the ordinary “listen to me carefully”, though the
latter is not bad.
8) The expression might be used figuratively. So ‫ كشيد شاىد مف أىميا‬cannot be
understood outside the context of the Holy Koran (Chapter of Joseph) in
general sense literally as: “ a witness of her family testified against her”,
for it is meant to be taken figuratively as: “He/she confessed in person
/make a personal confession”.
9) The style of the original could be ironical by implication, so translating it
into English requires attendance to that. For example, the statement:
)!‫(أتحفنا بخطبة عصماء لثالث ساعات متكاصمة‬ ‫ى‬ is ironical of the speaker who was
terribly boring by implication. Therefore, the translator has to show this
insinuation as follows: “he stunned us with a masterpiece speech for
three miserable hours dead”
10) Some phrases can be double entendre, having two meanings, one literal;
another metonymic. For instance, )‫ طار (عقميا مف الفرح‬could mean: “she
was very happy” and “she lost her senses”. Hence, the translator has to
distinguish which meaning to go for before he/she translates the
sentence.

c) Carrying out work in this fashion, a sentence by sentence, a paragraph by

paragraph, and a page by page. The translator's full preoccupation is to be
with the sentence, paragraph or, maximum, the page he/she works on,
28
 forgetting just temporarily about following pages. The only thing that makes
us forlorn the page we work on is a term, or a translation problem of some
kind that we came across before, and now we stumble with it to see how we
exactly sorted it out with the aim to be consistent in translation.
d) Stopping translating once a translation problem of any kind comes up, to
think about it in and out of context, check a dictionary, the Net, or any other
reference, no matter how long the time it takes. I mean by this to warn
translators against delaying sorting the problem out, or just underlining it to
check it later on collectively with other problems at a specific point of the
text for this will cause confusion, overloading of problems and would be time
consuming. Solving a translation problem on the spot saves time and much
more convenient to finding out about the meaning of the term or expression
concerned in its local, direct context.
e) Managing to get the best reference books and dictionaries in both languages
in question, mono-lingual, bilingual and, if possible, trilingual (English-Arabic-
French). At least, basic dictionaries have to be at the translator's disposal
from the very beginning of his/her career including updated good English-
English, Arabic-English and Arabic-Arabic dictionaries.
f) Improving and revising the translation: After finishing the translation of the
whole SL text, the translator has to revise his/her translation from the very
beginning with a view to correct mistakes, printing or other, and, more
importantly, improve his/her translation. What, how and why can be sought
for in the next type of translation skills. Newmark says: "A satisfactory
translation is always possible, but a good translator is never satisfied with it.
It can usually be improved. There is no such things as perfect, ideal or
'correct' translation. A translator is always trying to extend his knowledge to
improve his means of expression. He is always pursuing facts and words."
(1988: 6). No matter how long or short a translation might be, it has to be
reviewed and revised by the translator, with the aim of correcting spelling,
grammatical and semantic mistakes, whether intentional or not. He/she
checks the translation side by side with the original, and this is a
precondition for any proper revising. Besides that, proper revising helps the
translator find out about any missing words or parts of the text that have
been passed over unnoticed. This process of revising has to be repeated at
least twice by the same translator, preferably at two separate times. Such a
span between the two revisions would give the translator a good chance to
reconsider the translation from a distance more objectively and maturely
(for illustrative, detailed examples, see Ghazala, 2014: ch.5).

0.8 Translation as Problems and Solutions (Arabic-English): a Pre-overview

The chapters of the book that follow next are laid out in a bottom-up order with respect to
difficulty of problems of translation, starting with the less difficult, grammatical problems,
up to the difficult, lexical problems, followed by the more difficult, stylistic and
phonological problems, then, finally, up to the most difficult problems, pragmatic
problems. Following is a short account of the translation problems of each chapter,
followed by criteria for the suggested solutions to these problems in general terms. It
must be pointed out that the problems of translation picked up in the next chapters are by
29
no means exhaustive, but selective of the most prominent, problematic and common in
application:

0.8.1 Translation Problems:

CHAPTER 1: GRAMMATICAL PROBLEMS:

CHAPTER 2: LEXICAL PROBLEMS:

CHAPTER 3: STYLISTIC PROBLEMS:

CHAPTER 4: PHONOLOGICAL PROBLEMS:

CHAPTER 5: PRAGMATIC PROBLEMS:

0.8.2 Solutions to Translation Problems: Criteria

Any translation problem demands a solution. Without a solution (or solutions), there is no
great use pinpointing a translation problem, just as the diagnosis of a disease is pointless
without medication. Indeed, without solutions to translation problems, we stop translating
altogether. This is why all the problems located in this work are accompanied at the same
time by their possible solutions. In order to be acceptable, any suggested solution is made
clear, reasonable, feasible, reliable, applicable, contextual and in the right direction.
Otherwise, it will not be acceptable. This may result in a wrong, baseless translation. The
solutions proposed to translation problems are, therefore, based on the following criteria
(largely adopted from Ghazala’s twin book, 2008: Introd.):

1. The type of text: general, technical, religious, political, etc.

2. The minor linguistic context: the preceding and the following word, phrase ,
clause or sentence.
3. The major linguistic context: the whole text, which could be one sentence only,
one paragraph, a poem, a short story, etc.
4. The type of readership: uneducated, low educated, educated, highly educated
readers, specialists, children, etc.
5. The possibility of saying something in the TL or not (e.g. for ‘fat salary’ we can say
(‫)راتب ضخم‬, but not (‫)راتب سمٌن‬.
6. The possibility or not of using an identical TL grammatical structure.
7. The logical acceptability of an expression (e.g. for ‘to eat one’s words’ the logical
translation is (‫ٌعتذر‬/‫)ٌسحب كالمه‬, but not (‫ )ٌأكل كلماته‬because nobody can eat words).

30
 8. The social acceptability of an expression (e.g. for ‘good morning’ we say ( ‫صببا‬
‫ )الخٌر‬whereas (‫ )صبا جٌد‬is not accepted socially).
9. The normality or abnormality of an expression, or a grammatical structure (e.g.
‘once upon a time’ is normal, while ‘once below a time’ is abnormal. Each of
which has its functions, and should be translated into an identical Arabic version
as follows:
(‫كان ٌا ما كان‬/‫فً ٌوم من األٌام‬/‫ )ذات ٌوم‬and (‫كان ٌا ما ما كان‬/‫فً ٌوم لٌس من األٌام‬/‫)ذات ال ٌوم‬
10. The frequency or non-frequency of an expression or a grammatical structure (e.g.
‘to sow division’ is frequently translated into ( ‫ )ٌبررع الشبقا‬not into (‫)ٌببذر االنقسبام‬.
Also, “heart and soul” has the grammatical structure of ( ‫ )قلببا وقالببا‬not (‫ )قلبب وقالبب‬in
context, etc.).
11. The degree of familiarity or strangeness of an expression, or a grammatical
structure (e.g. ‘good reasons’ has the familiar translation of ( ‫ )أسبباب وجٌهبة‬whereas
(‫ )أسبباب جٌبدة‬seems strange, although both mean the same. Likewise, ‘I will verily do
it’ has the familiar Arabic grammatical structure (‫)سبوؾ أفعلهبا بالتأكٌبد‬, but ( ‫أنبا لسبوؾ‬
‫ )بالتأكٌد أفعلها‬is a little strange, etc. ).
12. The understandability or not of an expression (e.g. ‘tall order’ is understood when
translated into (‫)مهمة شاقة‬, but not understood as (‫))أمر طوٌل‬.
13. The limited applicability of the back–translation test. This test is to translate the
Arabic version back into English. When this is possible, translation is correct. For
example, ‘it is half past three’ can be translated back into English as such when it
is translated into Arabic as (‫)إنهبا الثالثبة والنصبؾ‬. But if it is translated into (‫)انتهبى الوقبت‬
or (‫)حبان وقبت الرحٌبل‬, it cannot be translated back into ‘it is half past time’, but into
‘time is up /over’ and ‘it is the time to leave’ respectively. In this case, the
translation is not acceptable.
14. Checking whether the SL writer means the referential, direct meaning of his/her
text, or the implied, hidden meaning beyond the literal meaning.
15. The presence/non-presence of a word, or an expression in the TL (e.g. cultural
and religious words and terms) that require translators to be careful with and
look for approximate equivalents to them.
16. Checking the TL appropriate style of a text and whether it is available or not in the
TL (e.g. prose rhyme and other features of classical style in religious sermons and
speeches of today, etc.).

Suggesting a solution to a translation problem can be based on one or more of these

criteria. On the other hand, one problem can have more than one solution, as much as one
solution can be applicable to solve more than one translation problem.

In practice, and in the course of the forthcoming chapters, solutions are considered side by
side with problems, though they are discussed separately for the convenience of reading and
pursuit of discussion.

0.9 SUMMARY

This chapter has introduced to the whole book. Basic points about translation, translation
theory and application have been investigated in some details. The book is the companion
of the English-Arabic translation edition (2008), the first volume of this series of
Translation Textbooks. So, in this introduction, detailed reference to that has been made.
31
The second main point discussed earlier has been the contrastive linguistic approach of
the book as one of the basics of teaching, learning and practicing translation. A further
major point has been the investigation of the main translation methods in circulation,
literal, free, semantic, communicative and pragmatic, and how useful these methods are
at translating different types of Arabic texts into English. The next crucial point surveyed
has been interference in Arabic-English translation which takes place due to several
reasons, linguistic, cultural, personal, etc. and might spoil the whole translation unless
attended to with care.

Then the problem of equivalence/non-equivalence has been investigated with respect to

the three types of equivalence, one-to-one, approximate and none equivalence. All of
these types are facts in translating texts of different types in general and pose some
demanding problems of translation to be fixed appropriately by the translator. The
penultimate essential point treated in detail has been the process of translating from
beginning to end, starting with a pre-translation stage, followed by how to start
translating unit by unit, the unit of translation, what to translate, when to stop translating
and why, how to spot problems of translation of different types and how to solve them,
how to manage to get the best references and how to revise and improve translation. This
has represented an outline of the process of translating in a simplified but professional
way. The final point has provided a brief account of translation problems discussed in each
of the chapters of the book that follow, and suggested criteria for appropriate solutions to
these problems.

32
EXERCISES

(1) Do you prefer the problem-solution approach to translation put forward above?
Why? Can you think of alternatives? What and why?
(2) What is contrastive linguistics, and how useful it can be in translation?
(3) Which translation method is more recurrent in use? Why? Which method do you
like most, and why?
(4) Can one translation method be applicable to one and the same text? Are there a
major method and a minor one that are usually applied to translating any type of
text? Explain.
(5) How serious can interference of the native language in translation? What does
the term ‘Arabic English’ mean? How proper is your English Language in
translation? Explain.
(6) Is the notion of equivalence a lie or a fact? Can we translate between two
languages without thinking about equivalent words, term, grammatical rules and
concepts in the other language? How and why?
(7) What are the main steps of translation process? Define the unit of translation,
the author’s intention, problems of translation and solutions to translation
problems?
(8) What is meant by the author’s attitude? How important is it to the translator?
(9) When can the translator intervene, and why?

33
 CHAPTER 1

GRAMMATICAL PROBLEMS (1)

1.0 Introduction

In translation, the main problems of translating different grammatical structures of both

languages, Arabic and English, are carefully considered and compared to one another.
These structures are different, sometimes sharply, while some others are not available in
the TL in the first place. Following is a contrastive investigation of the problems of
translating the most influential structures that are essential to any translator between the
two languages, followed by suggested solutions on a contrastive basis between their
grammars.

1.1 Translation of Pronouns

There are seven types of pronouns in Arabic: ‫ ومنصبوب‬،‫ ومرفبوع‬،‫ وببارر‬،‫ ومسبتتر‬،‫ ومتصبل‬،‫منفصبل‬
‫( ومجببرور‬detached / personal, attached, covert, overt, nominative, accusative and
prepositional object respectively). All types of pronouns are pro-forms replacing nouns. In
English, however, there is only one type of pronouns, that is, personal pronouns. The
problems of translating Arabic pronouns into English will be restricted to the first three
types: )‫ والمسبتتر‬،‫ والمتصبل‬،‫ (المنفصبل‬being the major types, whereas the remaining four are
parsing cases )‫ (حباالت إعرابٌبة‬which are irrelevant in English Language grammar. However,
the three Arabic types imply a reference to the three persons: ‫ والؽاببب‬،‫ والمخاطبب‬،‫( المتكلم‬first,
second and third persons). Here is the first type.

Personal/detached pronouns in Arabic are multifarious including pronouns that

demonstrate all types of feminine, masculine, singular, dual and plural. They are as follows
translated into English:
I (first person singular, feminine and masculine) ← )‫(أ) أنا (للمفرد المتكلم المؤنث والمذكر‬
WE (first person plural, feminine and masculine) ← )‫(ب) نحن (لجمع المتكلم المؤنث والمذكر‬
YOU (for all forms of Arabic second )‫ أنببتن (للمخاطببب بصببٌؽة المختلفببة‬/‫أنتم‬/‫أنتمببا‬/ِ‫أنت‬/‫(ت) أنت‬
person pronouns)
HE (for animate) and it (for inanimate) third ← )‫(ث) هبو (للمفبرد الؽاببب العاقبل وؼٌبر العاقبل‬
person masculine singular reference
SHE (for animate) and it / they (for ← )‫(ج) هً (للمفرد وجمع المؤنث الؽابب العاقبل وؼٌبر العاقبل‬
inanimate) third person feminine singular and plural reference
THEY / both (of them) (for animate and ← )‫( ) همببا (للمثنببى الؽابببب العاقببل وؼٌببر العاقببل‬
inanimate third person masculine and feminine plural/dual reference
THEY (for animate and inanimate third person )‫(خ) هببم (لجمببع المببذكر الؽابببب العاقببل‬
masculine and feminine plural reference)
THEY (for animate and inanimate third person )‫(د) هببن (لجمببع المؤنببث الؽابببب العاقببل‬
masculine and feminine plural reference)

The problems of translating Arabic personal pronouns are not quite hard to follow in
English due to the lack of distinction between gender and plural, singular and dual forms
of personal pronouns of the second and third persons in particular. However, the
34
animate/inanimate reference of the third person singular, feminine and masculine in
English can be sometimes confusing, when an inanimate reference is changed into
animate. That is, an Englishman might call his dog ‘he’ (instead of ‘it’), and his cat ‘she’ (to
replace ‘it’) out of personification and special regard for his possessions, whereas an Arab
never does that.

Another problem might be caused by the dual )‫ (المثنبى‬which is not available in English in a
distinguished form, except for ‘both’ )‫كلتبا‬/‫ (كال‬which is used restrictedly to the latter.
Otherwise, it is translated comfortably into the plural third person pronoun, ‘they’.

Related to these pronouns is their use emphatically, illustratively or redundantly as

follows:
Surely God is the All-provider (emphasis) ‫) إن هللا هو الررا‬1(
So when you took me up, You were the watcher of over ‫) فلمبا تبوفٌتنً كنبت أنبت الرقٌبب‬2(
them (emphasis)
This is the truth (illustration) ‫) هذه هً الحقٌقة‬3(
that you see me less than you in wealth and children ‫) إن ترنبً أنبا أقبل منب مباال وولبدا‬4(
(illustration)
the translator is a human being in the first place ‫) المتببرجم هببو إنسببان قبببل كببل شببًء‬5(
(redundancy)

Usually, these pronouns do not pose a problem of translation into English except in the
case of emphasis (1-2) where translators do not give heed to it.

Attached pronouns, on the other hand, are a group of letters that are affixed to the verbs,
nouns or prepositions. They include nine letters:
ُ
I wrote/write ← )‫(كتبت‬ ‫ت‬ُ )1(
you wrote/write ← )‫ت (كتبت‬-
you wrote/write← )ِ‫ت (كتبت‬ ِ -
they wrote/write ← )‫) واو الجماعة (كتبوا‬2(
we wrote/write ← )‫) نا (كتبنا‬3(
my book; you write ← )‫ تكتبٌن‬،ً‫) ي (كتاب‬4(
his book; he asked him← )‫) هـ (كتابه؛ سأله‬5(
her book; he asked her← )‫) هـا (كتابها؛ سألها‬6(
your book; he asked you; to/for you; you ← )) ‫كتاب ب ِ ؛ سببأل ؛ إلٌ ب ؛ علٌ ب‬/ ‫(كتاب‬ )7(
should/ on you/one’s responsibility
they/both of them wrote/write← )‫) ا (كتبا‬8(
they wrote/write ← )‫) ن (كتبن‬9(

Obviously, attached pronouns are not a part of English grammar. Hence, they are
translated into nouns (e.g. one’s responsibility (7)), separate personal (1-3; 8-9) or
possessive pronouns (4-7). In other words, they are translated into their grammatical
functional equivalents of any possible and permissible form, regardless of the number or
types of words in English. A translation problem might arise with some of these pronouns
when vocalization )‫ (التشبكٌل‬is ignored. For example, due to the absence of vocalization, the
following sentence: ‫ سمعت صوتا‬can be potentially translated into:

35
 (i) She heard )‫ت‬ ْ ‫(سمِع‬
(ii) ُ ْ‫(سمِع‬
I heard )‫ت‬
(iii) You heard (for masculine) )‫(سمِعْ ت‬
(iv) You heard (for feminine) )ِ‫(سمِعْ ت‬

However, the context can be a good guide. The same confusion of pronoun reference for
the same reason above could occur in the translation of examples like: ‫قابلنبا الشبخا المطلبوب‬,
which may be translated into either:

“We met the man in charge” (for ‫)قابٍمنا‬

Or:
“The man in charge met us” (for ‫(قابمىنا‬

The confusion here is caused by the nominative pronoun ’‫ ‘نبا‬which is indicative of the
subject (i.e. the doer of the action) and the accusative ’‫ ‘نبا‬which is the object due to the
fact that this attached pronoun can occur with verbs to replace the object, and nouns as a
genitive case )‫(مضاؾ إلٌه‬.

As to the third type, covert pronouns )‫(الضبمابر المسبتترة‬, it refers to those cases where the
pronoun is not stated, but understood by implication as a reference to one of the personal
pronouns as follows:
I write ) ُ‫ (أكتب‬-
we write )‫ (نكتب‬-
write! (masculine imperative) ) ْ‫ (اُكتب‬-
he write )‫ (كتب‬-
ْ
she wrote )‫(كتبت‬ -
write! (feminine imperative) )ً‫ (اكتب‬-

The potential danger is the translation of some of these pronouns into the verb without
stating the covert pronoun in English: e.g. ‫كتبب‬, ُ‫‘ → أكتبب‬wrote’ (instead of ‘he wrote’) &
write (rather than ‘I write’). That said, mistakes like these are expected to be committed
by some students and trainee translators at early stages only.

1.2 Translation of Demonstrative and Relative Pronouns )‫(أسماء اإلشارة واألسماء الموصولة‬

Demonstrative pronouns (or demonstratives), first, are called ‘names’ in Arabic, whereas
they are ‘pronouns’ in English. They are mainly the following including the initiating
letter ’‫ ‘هبـ‬which is used recurrently for ‘drawing attention’ with the original ،‫ ذٌبن‬،‫ ذان‬،‫ ذه‬،‫ذا‬
...‫ أوالء‬،‫ تان‬،‫ته‬:
This )‫) هذا (مفرد مذكر للقرٌب العاقل وؼٌر العاقل‬1(
This ))‫) هذه (مفرد مؤنث للقرٌب العاقل وؼٌر العاقل‬2(
These/both of these )‫هاذٌن (مثنى مذكر للقرٌب العاقل وؼٌر العاقل‬/‫) هذان‬3(
These/both of these )‫هاتٌن (مثنى مؤنث للقرٌب العاقل وؼٌر العاقل‬/‫) هاتان‬4(
These )‫) هؤالء (للجمع المذكر والمؤنث العاقل وؼٌر العاقل‬5(
That )‫ذان (مفرد مذكر للبعٌد العاقل وؼٌر العاقل‬/ ‫ذل‬/ ‫) ذا‬6(
That, those )‫ وجمع ؼٌر العاقل‬،‫تٌ (مفرد مؤنث للبعٌد العاقل‬/ ‫) تل‬7(
Those, that )‫) أولب (للجمع المذكر والمؤنث العاقل وؼٌر العاقل‬8(

36
 Here, there, over there )‫ هنال (للمكان القرٌب والبعٌد واألبعد‬، ‫ هنا‬،‫) هنا‬9(

Here are examples to discuss one or two problems of translating demonstratives:

This is a gift from my Lord/this is by the grace of my Lord ً‫ هذا من فضل رب‬.1
this is all in all incomprehensible/ All this is inscrutable ‫ كل هذا ؼٌر مفهوم‬.2
These are two signs from your Lord ‫ فذان برهانان من رب‬.3
Those are the messengers that God ‫ تل ب الرسببل فضببلنا بعضببهم علببى بعببض‬.4
preferred some of them to others
Lo! You are those who love them and they do ‫ ها أنتم أوالء تحبونهم وال ٌحبونكم‬.5
not love you!
I never talk to such a person ‫ ال أكلم هكذا شخصا أبدا‬.6
For each of all those, one will be questioned ‫ كل أولب كان عنه مسؤوال‬.7
those are the really successful ‫ أولب هم المفلحون‬.8
I marry you either of these two daughters of mine ‫ أُنكِح إحدى ابنتً هاتٌن‬.9
You are neither here, nor there, nor over ‫ أنت لست هنا ولست هنبا ولسبت هنالب‬.10
there.

Apart from 4, which exceptionally uses the demonstrative of an inanimate plural,

demonstrative are not problematic to translate directly into their English equivalents, as
illustrated above. However, the animate/inanimate plural confusion may be come across
in Arabic (e.g. ‫تل الكتبب‬/‫ هبذه‬may be replaced with ‫تلب الكتبب‬/‫)هؤالء‬, but usually not in English.
The possible mistake that might be committed at translation the plural reference of those
two pronouns into singular. e.g. ‫‘* → هبذه الكلمبات صبعبة‬this words are difficult’, which has to
be ‘these words are difficult’.

As to relative pronouns, again, they are described as ‘nouns’ in Arabic, but they are
‘pronouns’ in English. They are various in Arabic, as illustrated in the following list:

who (animate, male and female), which )‫) الببذي (للمفببرد المببذكر العاقببل وؼٌببر العاقببل‬1(
(inanimate and that (for both)
who (animate, male and female), which )‫) التببً (للمفببرد المؤنببث العاقببل وؼٌببر العاقببل‬2(
(inanimate and that (for both)
who (animate, male and female), which )‫اللبذٌن (للمثنبى المبذكر العاقبل وؼٌبر العاقبل‬/‫) اللذان‬3(
(inanimate and that (for both)
who (animate, male and female), which )‫اللتٌن (للمثنبى المبذكر العاقبل وؼٌبر العاقبل‬/‫) اللتبان‬4(
(inanimate and that (for both)
who (animate, male and female), which )‫الببذٌن (للجمببع المببذكر العاقببل وؼٌببر العاقببل‬
ِ )5(
(inanimate and that (for both)
who (animate, male and female), )‫اللبواتً (للجمبع المؤنبث العاقبل وؼٌبر العاقبل‬/ً‫الالب‬/ً‫) الالت‬6(
which (inanimate and that (for both)
who (animate, male and female), which (inanimate and that ) ‫) األولبى (للجمبع المطلب‬7(
(for both)
who (animate, male and female), that(for both) )‫) من (للعاقل‬8(
which (inanimate, male and female), that(for both) )‫) ما (لؽٌر العاقل‬9(
who (animate, male and female), which (inanimate and that )‫ذو (للعاقبل وؼٌبره‬/‫أي‬/‫) ذا‬10(
(for both)

37
More details are provided by translating some examples into English:

The two students who were distinguished were honored ‫ُكرِّ م الطالبان اللذٌن تفوقا‬ )1
The students who worked hard were distinguished ‫تفو الطالب الذٌن اجتهدوا‬ )2
We received the electronic devices ) ‫وصبلتنا األجهبرة اإلكترونٌببة التبً طلبناهببا مبن الٌابببان‬ )3
(that) we ordered from Japan
The specialist lady doctors who had ‫وصلت الطبٌبات المتخصصات الالتً تعاقدن مع المستشفى‬ )4
contracts with the hospital arrived in
Who is responsible for this grave mistake? ‫من المسؤول عن هذا الخطأ الجسٌم‬ )5
Whosoever is on it (earth) will perish one day .‫كل من علٌها فان‬ )6
Whoever among them says: ‘Verily I am .‫ومن ٌقل منهم إنً إله من دون هللا فذل نجرٌبه جهبنم‬ )7
a god beside Him (Allah/God)’, that one shall recompense in Hell.
He did all that required from him/what he should do/ everything ‫طلب منبه‬ ُ ‫فعل كل ما‬ )8
required
who is that you honored? ‫من ذا أكرمت؟‬ )9
who is to intercede with Him except with His ‫مببن ذا الببذي ٌشببفع عنببده إال ب ذنببه‬ )10
permission?
who is that man who conquered Syria? / who conquered Esh-Sham ‫من ذا فبت الشبام؟‬ )11
(Syria)?
to test you whoever the best in deeds ‫لٌبلوكم أٌكم أحسن عمال‬ )12
ride of the horses whichever strong/the strongest ‫اركب من الخٌل أٌها هو أقوى‬ )13
who is more misguided than ‫ومن أضل ممن ٌدعو من دون هللا من ال ٌستجٌب له إلبى ٌبوم القٌامبة‬ )14
the one who worship other than God the one that does not respond to him until
doomsday?
Is the one that does not create like the One Who creates? ‫أفمن ٌخل كمن ال ٌخل ؟‬ )15
and to God prostrate all creature over earth ‫وهلل ٌسجد له من فً السبموات ومبن فبً األرض‬ )16
and in heavens
so marry whoever you choose from women ‫فانكحوا ما طاب لكم من النساء‬ )17
the one who works hard succeeds/ who succeeds is the one who ‫ٌفلب أي مجتهبد‬ )18
works hard
the one who saved us came / who saved us came ‫جاء ذو أنقذنا‬ )19
learn whatever/what you benefit from/is useful to you. ‫تعلم ما ٌنفع‬ )20
whose book is this? ‫لمن هذا الكتاب؟‬ )21
Whose is the kingdom this day (of Judgment)? It is .‫لمبن الملب الٌبوم هلل الواحبد القهبار‬ )22
God’s, the One, the Subduer

Obviously, there are not as many relative pronouns in English as in Arabic. There are only
five: who, whom, which, that and whose. The last one is used for possession, ‘that’ for
animate and inanimate male and female references, ‘whom and who’ are for animate
singular and plural references, and finally, ‘which’ is for inanimate singular and plural,
male and female references. The problem that translators of these pronouns into Arabic
face is the possibility of misunderstanding some of them. For instance, ‫ مبن‬and ‫ مبا‬can be
mistaken for question words (see the next point); ‫ أي‬can be misunderstood as ‘any’ in
English (hence, the possible wrong translation of 18 above into any hard worker
succeeds), and the misconception of ‫ مبن ذا‬as two separate words that mean ‘who’ and
‘this’ (as Al-Hilali and Khan (1996) do in their translation of the Holy Koran, translating 10
mistakenly into :”who is he that…”; and the mistranslation of 11 into : “who is this one

38
who conquered Syria?), for, here, the two words are one question particle in Arabic
grammar.

The second potential problem is the confusion of animate with the inanimate reference of
‫ مبن‬and ‫( مبا‬as in 14-15 underlined) which are translated into ‘that’ to avoid any mistake in
reference. The pronoun, ‘that’ is, by the way, a good solution to resort to in case one is in
doubt about the animate or inanimate reference of the relative pronoun.

1.2 Translation of Questions: Question words and Rhetorical Questions

In comparison to English, questions are formed differently in Arabic. So care should be

taken by their translators into English. In formal Arabic, all types of questions require
question words to start and mark them. First, here are these words (which are called in
Arabic ‘question nouns/particles’ (1-10), or articles (11-12)):

who ‫ من ذا‬،‫) من‬1(

what ‫ ماذا‬، ‫) ما‬2(
when ‫) متى‬3(
shall you not do that? Won’t you do that? )‫) أال (أال تفعل ذل ؟‬4(
or (what?) )‫) أم (ماذا؟‬5(
did you not say that? ) ‫) ألم (ألم تقل ذل‬6(
have you not done it? )‫) أما (فعلته؟‬7(
where ‫) أٌن‬8(
wherever ‫) أٌنما‬9(
whence ‫) من أٌن‬10(
whither ‫) إلى أٌن‬11(
when ‫) أٌان‬12(
how ‫) كٌؾ‬13(
when, where from ‫) أنى‬14(
how much, how many, how long, how far, how good/bad (etc.), how )‫) كم (االستفهامٌة‬15(
wide, how high, etc.
which ‫) أي (االستفهامٌة‬16(
zero equivalent )‫) همرة االستفهام (أ‬17(
shall I do it or not? ‫) أأفعله أم ال؟‬18(
zero equivalent ‫) هل‬19(
would you/will you/he/she…? ّ ‫) هال‬20(

Like English, and for convenience of discussion and translation, questions in Arabic can be
divided into three types: (i) Yes/No questions; (ii) question-word questions and (iii)
rhetorical questions:

(i) Yes/no questions: e.g.

have you changed your address? ‫هل ؼٌرت عنوان ؟‬ )1(

would you lend me a sum of money? ‫هل ل أن تقرضنً مبلؽا من المال؟‬ )2(
Do you understand (me)? ‫هل فهمت علً؟‬ )3(
Are you going to accept the offer/will you accept the offer? ‫هل ستقبل العرض؟‬ )4(
Are you the driver of this car? ‫أأنت ساب هذه السٌارة‬ )5(
39
 Do you hear me? ‫) أتسمعنً؟‬6(
Has time come? Hasn’t time come/ Is time not due? ‫) أما آن األوان؟‬7(

The translator will understand soon that the form of the question in English is a yes/no
question, which requires the question to start either with one of the following verbs, ‘be’,
‘have’, ‘do’ and ‘modals’. The problem for him/her is to decide which verb, verb form and
tense to use. It should be pointed out that the two Arabic articles, )‫ (هبل‬and (‫ (أ‬have no
equivalents in English. This means that none of the four types of verbs used to translate
them is equivalent to them, as some students might think on the fragile basis of word-for-
word translation.

(ii) Question-word questions: e.g.

where is the humanity? Where is mercy? ‫) أٌن اإلنسانٌة؟ أٌن الرحمة؟‬1(
when does the class end? ‫) متى تنتهً الحصة؟‬2(
how much time/how long do you need to finish the ‫) كم تحتاج من الوقبت لتنهبً المشبروع؟‬3(
project?
how old is that boy? ‫) كم سن هذا الصبً؟‬4(
How many are the members of the Council? ‫) كم عدد أعضاء المجلس؟‬5(
how much money do you want? ‫) كم ترٌد من النقود؟‬6(
how high is the building? ‫) كم ارتفاع المبنى؟‬7(
where did you get/earn this from ‫) من أٌن ل هذا؟‬8(
Who is knocking at the door at this time of ‫) مبن الطبار فبً هبذه السباعة المتبأخرة مبن اللٌبل؟‬9(
the night
which color do you like? /what is your favorite color? ‫) ما هو لون المفضل؟‬10(
what do you say? ‫) ما قول ؟‬11(
What did you say? I didn’t hear you well. .‫) ماذا تقول؟ لم أسمع‬12(
why did you hide the truth? Why? ‫) لماذا أخفٌت الحقٌقة؟ لماذا؟‬13(
why did you take my mobile? In what capacity did you take … ‫) بأي ح تأخذ جوالً؟‬14(
who is leaving for London tomorrow? ‫) من ذا مسافر إلى لندن ؼدا؟‬15(
what is the matter?/what is going on? ‫) ما القضٌة؟‬16(
what is innocence? ‫) ما البراءة؟‬17(
what about the poet laureate? What are the characteristics of …? ‫) ما أمٌر الشعراء؟‬18(
who is the poet laureate now ‫) من أمٌر الشعراء اآلن؟‬19(
how is soap made? ‫) كٌؾ ٌصنع الصابون؟‬20(
when is the Day of Judgment? ‫) أٌان ٌوم الدٌن؟‬21(
where did you get this from? ‫) أنى ل هذا؟‬22(
how do you do that and you were ordered not to do it? ‫) أنى تفعل ذل وقد نهٌت عنه؟‬23(
which woman did you marry; to which woman did you get ‫) أي امببرأة تروجببت؟‬24(
married?

There could be a problem of translation if the translator misunderstands the question

word (see especially 3-7, 14, 16, 18, 22 and 23). Take, for example, the question word )‫(مبا‬
of 18 which can be translated hastily into ‘who’ rather than ‘what’. Here, it is not asking
about the name of the poet laureate, but, rather, about his characteristics and what
makes him/her a poet laureate. However, the question word of 19 can be used if the
name of the person concerned is aimed at by the question. By analogy, )‫( (أنبى‬of 22-3) has
the two meanings of ‘where’ and ‘how’, which requires attendance by the translator. As to
40
the examples of )‫( (كبم‬3-7), they show that the Arabic question word has several meanings
depending on whether the question is about age, price, length, height, width, time, and so
on.
Another potential problem of translation related to these words is the literal, word-for-
word translation of the statement headed by some of them. A good example is 16, above,
which might be translated by some literally wrongly into ‘what is the case?’. Again, the
student translator has to be heedful.

The third type of questions is )‫البالغي‬/‫(السػؤاؿ اننكػارم‬, i.e. Rhetorical Questions which can
have several variations and complications in translation, as illustrated in the following
examples (adopted partly from Ghazala (2014)):

Have you seen the water ‫) أفػرأيتـ المػاء الػذم تشػربكف؟ أأنػتـ أنزلتمػكه مػف المػزف أـ نحػف المنزلػكف؟‬1(
that you drink? Do you bring it down from the rain clouds? Or, We do? / have you
observed the water you drink? / See you the water you drink?...
Is not God verily the best of Judges? / isn't it that God is the ‫) ألػيس اهلل بػأحكـ الحػاكميف؟‬2(
Most Just of Judges?)
Do you not love (wish) that God should forgive you?) ‫) أال تحبكف أف يغفر اهلل لكـ؟‬3(
(Do we take the Muslims to be like the wrongdoers?) ‫) أفنجعؿ المسمميف كالمجرميف؟‬4(
(Is not He who responds to the distressed one ‫) أمف يجيب المضطر إذا دعػاه كيكشػؼ السػكء؟‬5(
when he calls on him, and who removes the evil?
Does not God certainly know best those who are grateful / is ‫) أليس اهلل بأعمـ بالشػاكريف؟‬6(
not God the best to know the grateful?
Do not you see how they wonder in every way? / do you ‫) ألـ تر أنيـ في كػؿ كاد يييمػكف؟‬7(
not see that they rove as bereft of their senses through every valley? (Sale, 1734)
Have you heard the tiding of the overwhelming Event? / Has ‫) ىػؿ أتػاؾ حػديث الغاشػية‬8(
there come to you the narration of the overwhelming?
(Has the message been sent to him alone among us? / is it ‫) أألقػي عميػو الػذكر مػف بيننػا‬9(
that the reminder is sent to him alone from among us?)
Or, He has daughters only and you have sons? / or, are the ‫) أـ لػو البنػات كلكػـ البنػكف؟‬10(
daughters for him and the sons for you?
Is it for you the males, and for Him the females? ‫) ألكـ الذكر كلو األنثى؟‬11(

These examples take the form of yes-no questions that otherwise may require an answer
with yes, or no. Yet, they are rhetorical questions posed by God the Almighty and do not
require an answer by us, His servants. They are rather decisive statements that render
decisive messages to people. This can be clear if they are translated into statements
pragmatically, as suggested in the Chapter 5 below in this work. However, the
grammatical forms of these rhetorical questions can be reserved in English which has
identical forms that may equally reflect the SL significant pragmatic-stylistic functions of
rhetoric, hidden divine authority, decisiveness, assertion and derision.

41
1.3 Translation of the Vocative )‫(النداء‬

A vocative is defined in English as “a nominal element added to a sentence or clause

optionally, denoting the one or more people to whom it is addressed, and signaling the
fact that it is addressed to them. A basic function of vocative in English is to seek attention
of the person addressed, and to single him out from others. Secondly, it expresses the
attitude of the speaker towards the addressee. There are no particles or any type of
conjunction or word that may mark it. A vocative in English can be:

(a) a single name with or without title ((Mr. Smith, John);

(b) the personal pronoun, ‘you’;
(c) standard appellatives (like mother, father, uncle, (my) darling / dear / honey,
mom(my) / mum(my), dad(dy), auntie, Madam, Ladies and Gentlemen, Mr.
Chairman, Mr. President, doctor, etc.)
(d) A nominal clause (e.g. come out here)
(e) Items under (a), (b) or (c) above with the addition of modifiers (e.g. my dear Mr.
Smith; young Tom; you over there; you guys, old man / fellow, young man /
woman, etc.).

Rather than using words, English uses intonation and stress, instead. It is represented by
intonation, the most characteristic of which is two tones: fall-rise for an initial vocative;
and rise for a medial or final vocative (as vocative can be initial, medial or final). Almost
that’s all about vocative in English. It is around a page in the famous book of Quirk and
Greenbaum (1973: 182-3).

Hence, this form of sentence structure does not exist in English grammar. There are no
equivalents for the Arabic vocative particles, and the interjection, 'O!' is mistaken for a
vocative particle in English, as English, as pointed out above, has a zero vocative particle.
Therefore, translators may drop the particle in English, followed by a nominal of some
kind (see above) and, instead, use an optional exclamation mark after the vocative name,
or, if necessary, start with the second person pronoun 'you' as an indication of a direct
address, and by way of compensation for the missing vocative particle in English:

The Arabic particles of vocative are seven:

)‫ هيا‬،‫ آ‬،‫ أ‬،‫ وا‬،‫ أيا‬،‫ أي‬،‫(يا‬

)‫ (يػا‬is used for all types of vocative, near, far or in between. On the other hand, )‫ أ‬،‫ (أم‬are
used for near vocative, whereas )‫ آ‬،‫ ىيػا‬،‫ (أيػا‬are for far vocative. The seventh )‫ (كا‬is for
lament. Further, )‫ (يػا‬is used exclusively with the Name of God the Almighty, and to appeal
for help. It is also used along with )‫ (كا‬for lamenting, though the latter is more frequent
than it.

Yet, not all of these particles are of equal degree of currency in use. Even Arabic grammar
books have focused on the first two and the fourth, ignoring the rest in giving examples
and concluding rules (a case in point is Al-Ghalayeeni, 1999. Therefore, the following

42
examples exemplify for the most recurrent particles of the vocative in Arabic to translate
into English.

My (dear) son! !‫) يا كلدم‬1(

My dear son! !‫) أم بني‬2(
God!, My God! !‫) يا أهلل‬3(
Dear me!; Oh, my God; My God! !‫) يا إليي‬4(
My Generous and Noble God; God, the Generous and Noble ‫) يا ذا الجكد كالكرـ‬5(
Oh, dear! Oh, dear; Oh, dear how disastrous! What a disaster! !‫) يا لميكؿ‬6(
Fatimah! ‫فاطـ‬
‫) يا ى‬7(
my dear friend! ‫) يا صا ًح‬8(
Help! Help! !‫) كاغكثاه‬9(
Mu’tasem/Caliph, Help me!, ‫) كامعتصماه‬10(
Woe to me! !‫) كاكيمتاه‬11(
Alas; what a pity!; unfortunately !‫) كاحسرتاه‬12(
Woe to me! ‫) كاحر قمباه‬13(
(My) God, forgive me and have mercy on me! ‫) الميـ اغفر لي كارحمني‬14(
God, forgive us and have mercy on us! ‫) الميـ اغفر لنا كارحمنا‬15(
(My servants! Fear me at heart) ‫) يا عبادم فاتقكف‬16(
You, soul at peace (at rest)!... ‫) يا أيتيا النفس المطمئنة‬17(
You, who believe!... ‫) يا أييا الذيف آمنكا‬18(
You, enwrapped in your garments! / you, wrapped up! ‫) يا أييا المزمؿ‬19(
You, to whom the Koran has been sent! You are ‫) يػا أييػا الػذم نيػزؿ عميػو الػذكر إنػؾ لمجنػكف‬20(
certainly insane!
My son! Do not associate others with God, ‫) يػا بنػي ال تشػػرؾ بػاهلل إف الشػػرؾ لظمػـ عظػػيـ‬21(
surely polytheism is a grievous iniquity.
My Lord, gladden my heart ‫) رب اشرح لي صدرم‬22(
ً ‫ كاسػتغفرم ل‬،‫) يكسؼ أعرض عػف ىػذا‬23(
Joseph, turn away from this, and you, woman, ask ‫ػذنبؾ‬
forgiveness for your sin
I wish I had died before this and had fallen into ‫) يػا ليتنػي مػت قبػؿ ىػذا ككنػت نسػيان منسػيان‬24(
total oblivion
Mightiness of God, who does justice to the oppressed?‫) يا عزة اهلل مف ينصر المظمكـ‬25(
Dear Dad; My dad! Daddy?‫) يا أبت‬26(
Son of Mother! ‫) يا ابف َّأـ‬27(
Son of Adam! ‫) يا ابف آدـ‬28(
(children of Adam) ‫) يا بني آدـ‬29(
You, heavy sleeper! !‫) يا نكماف‬30(

43
 You, villain! ‫) يا لي ىكع‬31(

Apparently, the vocative particles disappear in English due to their absence from English
grammar. Instead, the start with the names or objects called upon might compensate for
them somehow, though with a little loss of meaning of the emphatic, emotive, impressive
and insinuative style of the original Arabic vocative. The Arabic vocative is not just a
grammatical form or style of addressing others directly. It is much more than that. First,
addressing God is not like addressing humans, for the vocative forms of calling upon God
have a special emotive, affectionate, submissive and humble tone of supplication (3-5, 14-
15, 16). In other words, the so-called illocutionary functions of pragmatic communication
of the Arabic vocative are lost in English. On the other hand, calling upon people can be
respectful (16, 25), affectionate (1,2, 8, 26), regretful (24), lamenting (6, 11-13) sadly
desperate (24), humorous (30), cynical (31) normal (21, 23, 28-29) and emphatic (2, 3-5,
14-15, 16-20).

The solution to the problems of translating the Arabic vocative into English is to drop the
vocative particle and translate the vocative statement into sense, using the English forms
of vocative, and an optional exclamation mark at the end of the statement by way of
compensating for the loss of vocative particles in English.

1.4 Translation of Negation: Negative Articles

Negation is more complicated in English than Arabic. However, the two languages meet at
some points, as demonstrated below. Unfortunately, Arabic grammar books and
references do not assign special sections for discussing negation; they only explain the
uses and semantic implications of ‘Negative Articles’ )ً‫(حروؾ النف‬. They are:

ّ ،‫ أبدا‬،‫ ؼٌر‬،‫ بل‬،‫ لٌس‬،‫ الت‬،‫ إن‬،‫ ما‬،‫ لن‬،‫ كال‬،‫ لمّا‬،‫ لم‬،‫(ال‬
)...‫ البتة‬،‫قط‬
(The last three are preceded by a negative particle and used for strong negation).

Here are examples, followed by discussion of problems of translating these particles in

context:

do not pose your nose into others’ business; this is none of ! ٌ‫ال تتدخل فٌما ال ٌعن‬ )1
your business!
he never hesitates to say the truth, himself not ‫ال ٌتوانى فً قول الح ولو على نفسه‬ )2
excluded
The disbeliever neither believed the Messenger of God nor ‫فال صد وال صلى‬ )3
prayed to God
neither this nor that ‫ال هذا وال ذا‬ )4
He is neither here nor there; he is insignificant ‫ال هو فً العٌر وال فً النفٌر‬ )5
you are not to blame; it is not your fault ٌ‫ال لوم عل‬ )6
Never…never…never! !‫ال وألؾ ال‬ )7
well said; you are quite right; that’s true ‫ال فض فو‬ )8
the tyrant has not fallen down yet/gone yet ‫لم ٌسقط الطاؼٌة بعد‬ )9
they did not approve partition ‫لم ٌوافقوا على التقسٌم‬ )10
I didn’t do that/it ‫لم أفعل ذل‬ )11

44
 the delegation has not arrived in yet ‫لما ٌصل الوفد‬ )12
they have not tasted God’s torture yet ‫ب‬ ِ ‫لما ٌذوقوا عذا‬ )13
Nobody believed him ‫ما صدقه أحد‬ )14
I have nothing ‫ما عندي شًء‬ )15
I no longer tolerate that; I have had enough of that; I am fed up! ‫ما عدت أطٌ ذل‬ )16
I am no reader; I do not know; I am illiterate ‫ما أنا بقارئ‬ )17
This is no man/ no human ‫ما هذا بشرا‬ )18
Blood is thicker than water ‫ما ٌصٌر الدم ماء‬ )19
nobody came but Anas; None has shown up but Anas ‫إن جاء إال أنس‬ )20
No one is better that anyone else but in faith ‫إن أحد خٌرا من أحد إال بالتقوى‬ )21
A liar never wins/will never prevail ‫لن ٌفل الكذاب أبدا‬ )22
I did not and will never harden my relations ‫لم ولن أقطع صلة الرحِم‬ )23
Nay/certainly not, I have no idea ‫ ال علم لً باألمر‬،‫كال‬ )24
Nay, it (this Chapter ) is an admonition ‫ إنها تذكرة‬،‫كال‬ )25
He (Moses) said: “ Nay, my Lord is with me and will guide ‫قال كال إن ربً معً سٌهدٌن‬ )26
me”
We are not in the habit of dismissing the poor ‫لٌس من شٌمنا أن نرد السابل‬ )27
You (Messenger of God) are not sent (to us by God) ‫لست مرسال‬ )28
We are not against the decision ‫لسنا ضد القرار‬ )29
there is/was no escape ‫والت حٌن مناا‬ )30
when there is no chance to regret; when regret is useless; it is too ‫والت ساعة مندم‬ )31
late to regret
Nay, God is your Protecting Lord ‫بل هللا مواللكم‬ )32
Nay, God has cursed them for their disbelief so that ‫بل لعنهم هللا بكفرهم فهم ال ٌؤمنون‬ )33
they will never believe in God
God warns you to go back to it, never ever. ‫ٌعظكم هللا أن تعودوا لمثله أبدا‬ )34
There is no restriction on ‫لٌس على األعمى حرج وال على األعرج حرج وال على المرٌض حرج‬ )35
the blind, nor on the lame, nor on the sick, nor on yourself
we see him neither at night nor during the day; we do ‫ال نراه ال فً اللٌل وال فً النهار‬ )36
not see him either at night or during the day; he keeps a low profile day and night
It is not possible/ it is irrelevant to set the criminals ‫ؼٌر وارد إطال سرا المجرمٌن‬ )37
free
that is not true/right ٌ‫هذا ؼٌر صح‬ )38
It is impossible to go back in time/history ‫من المستحٌل أن ٌعود الرمن إلى الوراء‬ )39

There are several problems of translation posed by the negative forms of some of these
examples. The first problem is the misunderstanding of some negative particles especially
those that are not recurrent in use like ،‫ بل‬،‫ الت‬، ْ‫( إن‬of 19-20, 29-30, and 31-32
respectively). So to set the problem of translating these articles, the translator is supposed
to know their meanings in the Arabic grammar.

Another problem is exhibited by the possibility of confusing some negative articles with
other potential meanings of them in other contexts. A case in point is )‫ (ما‬which can also
be used as a relative pronoun (e.g. ‫ ما( قلت كل ما عندي‬means ‫الذي‬, the thing which…); as a
question word in the sense of ‘what’ (see above); and as a functionless article after ‫( إذا‬if)
(e.g. ‫ركبت ال ُمنى ونسٌت الخطر‬ ‫( إذا ما طمحت إلى ؼاٌ ٍة‬if you have the ambition to achieve a
target……….you will be prepared to take the risk and ignore danger: ( ‫ (ما‬is meaningless).

45
The translator can solve the problems caused by such possible confusion by checking the
meaning of the article in context carefully.

A third problem might be posited by the literal translation of each of these articles into
one version applied to all texts and contexts, which may not be possible in English. For
instance, ‫ ال‬cannot be always translated into ‘no/not’ only; other negative words are used
in different contexts, as illustrated above (see 1-8 for translations of )‫(ال‬, and 14-19 for the
translations of )‫ (مببا‬in different contexts). Further, the solution to the problem of
translating a negative article could be to translate it in a positive context (see ‘8’ which is
translated into a positive statement), or into a negative statement that is understood
semantically and by implication as negative (e.g. the translation of 31 into zero-negative
article versions: “when regret is useless; it is too late to regret”, both of which can be
understood easily as negative statements).

A fourth problem is the blind translation of a negative form that may not be a part of the
SL in the first place. For example, while double negative is allowed in Arabic, it is not so in
English. Hence, the translation of 36 into double negative as: “we do not see him, neither
at night nor during the day” is not acceptable in formal English; only in informal English.

The last three examples are intended to demonstrate that negation can be sometimes
achieved semantically by means of using a word that implies the negativity of the whole
statement. And this is not restricted to Arabic Language, English as other live languages
have this feature as well.

Finally, a contrastive table can be produced for negative particles in both languages
concerned:

English Negative Particles Arabic Negative Particles

1) (do/be) not,
2) No/not followed by noun)
3) never, neither … nor , are not, is
not , Never…never…never!
4) has not (yet), did not, have not
5) has/have not yet
6) Nobody, nothing, no longer, have
had enough, fed up, no reader,
do not, no man.
7) No … but, none … but, no one …
but
8) Never, will not, did not and will
never.
9) Nay, not at all/ by no means/
certainly/absolutely not
10) (Are) not, no.
(no/not for normal denial, ‫ال النافٌبة‬ )1
↔ ،or negation)
(no/not negating all ‫ال النافٌبة للجبنس‬ )2
gender following it)
(no/not for strong ‫ال الناهٌبببببة‬ )3
prohibition, followed by jussive
with the meaning of imperative
↔
↔ ،‫لم‬ )4
↔ ،‫لمّا‬ )5
↔ ،‫ما‬ )6
↔ ،‫) إن‬7
↔ ،‫) لن‬8
↔ ،‫) كال‬9
↔ ،‫) لٌس‬10
↔ ،‫) الت‬11

46
 11) No, not ↔ ،‫) بل‬12
12) Nay ↔ ّ ‫ق‬/ ‫) أبدا‬13
،‫البتة‬/‫ط‬
13) Never, never ever
14) Neither…nor, not/no …either…or. ↔ ‫ وال‬... ‫ وال؛ ال‬... ‫) لٌس‬14
15) No, not
16) (nothing else; only this ↔ ‫) ؼٌر‬15
*(The strongest three particles are : ،‫ لن‬،‫كال‬
)‫البتة (مسبوقة بلن‬/‫قط‬/‫ أبدأ‬،‫ال الناهٌة‬ ↔ ‫) ال ؼٌر‬16

1.5 Translation of Adjectives )‫الصفات‬/‫(النعوت‬

Due to several differences between adjectives in Arabic and English grammars, and to the
numerous types of Arabic adjectives, the problems of translating them are begging
discussion. There are three established facts about adjectives in both languages. First,
while adjectives follow nouns in Arabic, they precede them in English. Secondly, adjectives
in Arabic generally follow nouns in all grammatical forms of singular/dual/plural, gender
(feminine / masculine), parsing cases of nominative, causative and genitive (e.g. ‫طالبب‬
‫جاء الطبببببالب‬/‫طالبات مجتهبببببدات‬/‫طالبتان مجتهبببببدتان‬/‫طالببببببة مجنهبببببدة‬/‫ طبببببالب مجتهدون‬/‫طالبان مجتهبببببدان‬/‫مجتهبببببد‬
)...‫اجتمعت ببالطالب المجتهبدٌن‬/‫رأٌت الطبالب المجتهبدٌن‬/‫المجتهبدون‬. However, in English they have one
form only and are not grammatically in concord with the different forms of their nouns
(e.g. ‘hard working’ is used with all grammatical forms of ‘student’). The third fact is that,
in both languages, adjectives do not occur on their own in a sentence, and when they do,
they should be with a definite article and will change into nouns in Arabic (e.g. ‫→ رجبل قبوي‬
‫ )القوي‬and into collective nouns in English (e.g. a strong man → the strong ‫)األقوٌاء‬.

As to types of adjectives, they are mainly three (1-3), and nine in total in Arabic:

(1) ً‫( النعت النسب‬Relative Adjectives): indicating one characteristic of the noun: e.g. ‫سافر‬
‫( مهنبد اللطٌبؾ‬the polite Muhannad left) (politeness is one of Muhannad’s epithets);
ً‫( عاد المدٌر الذك‬the intelligent manager has come back).
(2) ً‫( النعببت السبببب‬Causative adjectives): implying a reference to an epithet of a
characteristic of the noun qualified by the adjective: e.g.‫( سبمعت القبارئ الجمٌبل صبوته‬I
heard the bright voiced reciter; I heard the recite of the bright voice); ‫ساعدت الرجبل‬ ُ
ُ‫( الكبٌر سنه‬I helped the old man).
(3) ً‫( النعبت الحقٌقب‬Genuine adjectives): normal adjectives that follow the grammatical
features of the nouns they qualify: e.g. ‫طالب مجتهد؛ طالبة مجتهدة؛ طالب مجتهبدون؛ طالببات‬
‫ مجتهببدات‬, etc. (see these and other examples and their translations above).
However, the causative type of adjective is irregular in this regard for it does not
have the same grammatical form of the noun preceding it, but the noun following
and qualifying it: e.g. ‫ فتٌبات طوٌبل أببوهن‬،‫ ِف ْتٌبان طوٌبل أببوهم‬،‫ فتٌبان طوٌبل أبوهمبا‬،‫فتى طوٌل أبوه‬
(rather than ‫ فتٌبات طبوٌالت أببوهن‬،‫ ِف ْتٌبان طبوال أببوهم‬،‫ فتٌان طوٌالن أبوهمبا‬،‫( فتى طوٌل أبوه‬a lad
of a tall father, two lads of a tall father, lads of a tall father; girls of a tall father).
However, these causative adjectives do not break the rules of Arabic grammar of
concord between the adjective and the noun, but the irregular point about them
is that they precede, rather than follow, the nouns they qualify. On the other
hand, if the nouns qualified by the causative adjectives have no attributive
pronouns, they have a grammatical concord with the first nouns which are
qualified by them now: e.g. the same examples can be cited: ‫ الفتٌان‬،‫الفتى الطوٌل األب‬
47
 ‫ الفتٌبات الطبوٌالت األب‬،‫ ال ِف ْتٌبان الطبوال األب‬،‫( الطبوٌالن األب‬the lad of a tall father, the two
lads of a tall father, the lads of a tall father; the girls of a tall father, etc.).
(4) ‫ أو مبا كبان اسبم جمبع‬،‫( نعبت المفبرد والجمبع لؽٌبر العاقبل‬Singular/plural adjectives): e.g. ‫خٌبول‬
‫سابقات‬/‫صالحون ;سابقة‬/ ‫( قوم صال‬competing horses; (a) good people).
(5) )‫( النعت المشتر (فً التأنٌث والتذكٌر‬Zero-gender adjectives): e.g. ‫ امرأة‬/ ‫ رجال‬/ ‫ رجالن‬/ ‫رجل‬
‫نساء عدل‬/‫ امرأتان‬/ (upright man/two men/men/woman/two women/women).
(6) ‫( نعبت الجملبة الفعلٌبة‬Verbal sentence adjectives): e.g. ‫( جباء طالبب ٌحمبل كتاببا‬i.e. ‫جباء طالبب‬
‫( )حامل كتابا‬a student came carrying a book/a student carrying a book came)
(7) ‫( نعت الجملة االسمٌة‬Nominal sentence adjectives): e.g. ‫( هذه فتاة أبوها كرٌم‬i.e. ‫هذه فتباة كبرٌم‬
)‫( أبوهببا‬here is a girl whose father is noble/generous; this is a girl of a
noble/generous father).
(8) ‫( النعبت المقطبوع‬Zero-qualifier adjectives): An adjective qualifying a deleted noun, a
clause, etc.: e.g. ‫( البرحمن‬i.e. ‫( )هبو البرحمن‬He is the Most Gracious); ‫( الحمبد هلل‬i.e. ‫الحمبد‬
‫( )كابن هلل‬praise is to God); ‫( وامرأته حمالة الحطب‬i.e. ‫( )أذم امرأته حمالة الحطبب‬and perish his
wife, the carrier of thorny wood); ‫( العظبٌم‬i.e. ‫( )أسبب هللا العظبٌم‬I glorify the Great
God/God the Great); ‫( الرجٌم‬i.e. ‫( )لعن هللا الشٌطان الرجٌم‬God damn the Cursed Satan).
(9) ‫( النعبت المسترسبل‬Consecutive adjectives qualifying the same noun): e.g. ً‫أقبدم لكبم رامب‬
‫( الطٌبب الكبرٌم الخلبو‬I introduce to you the kind-hearted, noble-minded and well-
mannered Rami).

(Some of these types may accidentally interface with some forms of adjectives coming
netx). These types display some problems of translation. We start with the problem of
translating 1, and 3 are normal and a majority that are similar to the English type
‘attributive adjectives’, so they are not problematic to translate into English, of course,
bearing in mind the opposite positioning of the adjective in English. The second type can
accept more than interpretation, though it is not difficult to get the intended meaning at
the second reading. The problem lies in the possibility of confusing the qualification of the
‘pre-positive’ adjective as whether to the preceding or proceeding noun in ‫الرجبل الجمٌبل‬
‫صبوته‬. The term ‘prepositive’ is coined after the well-known English term ‘postpositive
adjective’ as the latter refers to the adjective that breaks the rules and follows – rather
than precedes – the noun like: ‘the attorney general’ (rather than the normal ‘general
attorney’); ‘court martial’ (replacing the normal ‘martial court’), etc. Accordingly, in the
example above, ‘beautiful/bright’ can be translated mistakenly as a qualifier of ‘man’ into
‘the bright man’s voice’, rather than properly into ‘the man of bright voice’. A similar
problem is posed by ‘7’ ‫هبذه فتباة كبرٌم أبوهبا‬, where ‫ كبرٌم‬is used irregularly pre-positively. The
problem can be sorted out into possible versions as follows: (i) (here is a girl whose father
is noble/generous; and (ii) this is a girl of a noble/generous father).

The eighth type is sometimes quite problematic for the translator as he/she is required to
supply SL missing word(s) of the original in the TL translation. The most useful factor in
solving the problem of translation here is parsing )‫(اإلعبراب‬, i.e. the grammatical function of
the adjective: is it a comment/predicate for a deleted topic/subject? An adjective of
deleted object and verb? A deleted comment of a stated topic/subject )‫?(خببر محبذوؾ للمبتبدأ‬,
etc. The four examples provided up have the following functions for the missing words: (1)
a comment/predicate for a deleted topic/subject; (2) A deleted comment of a stated
topic/subject; (3-5) An adjective of deleted objects and verbs. This indicates that the
process of filling in the missing words in the TL is not haphazard, or idiosyncratic, but,
rather, limited and organized.
48
The last type ‘9’ suggests how a series of consecutive adjectives can be translated into
English. Again, there are two possible versions that are equally good: The first is
attributive and suggested above: “I introduce to you the kind-hearted, noble-minded and
well-mannered Rami”. The second is postpositive: “I introduce to you Rami, the kind-
hearted, noble-minded and well-mannered). This indicates that types of adjectives are not
necessarily stuck to in the target language even when they are available, especially when
other equally good, or even better options are available, as many translations of the
examples above may confirm.

Following is a table juxtaposing the main types of adjectives in Arabic and English:

English main types of adjectives Arabic main types of adjectives

1) Attributive (→ 1& 2) 1) ً‫( النعبت النسبب‬Relative Adjectives) →
attributive
2) Predicative (zero) 2) ً‫( النعبببت الحقٌقببب‬Genuine / normal
adjectives) → attributive
3) Postpositive (→ 3 as pre-positive 3) ً‫( النعبت السببب‬Causative adjectives /
in Arabic) pre-positive) → postpositive

(Sources: Al-Ghalayeeni, 1998 (in Arabic), Allerton, (1979) and Quirk et al, 1973)

Next is a discussion of the translation of the different types and forms of Arabic adjectives
into English in relation to their translation problems in a contrastive way. First, the forms:

There are several forms of adjectives in Arabic including:

(a) Present participial adjective: )‫(صفة اسم الفاعل‬: ‫( إنسان جاهل‬ignorant man/person).
(b) Present participial verbal adjective )‫ الصفة الفعلٌبة‬:‫(صفة اسم الفاعل‬: e.g. ‫( عبالم منتفِبع ببالعلم‬a
scholar benefiting from knowledge; a scholar putting knowledge in use).
(c) Past participial adjective )‫ الصبفة الفعلٌبة‬:‫(صبفة اسبم المفعبول‬: e.g. ‫( عبالم منتفبع بعلمبه‬a scholar
benefited from his knowledge: a scholar whose knowledge is put in use)
(d) Intensive present participial adjectives ()‫ الصبفة المشببهة‬:‫) صبفة اسبم الفاعبل‬: ‫رجبل جهبول؛‬
‫( طالبب كسبول‬a very ignorant man; a very lazy/lousy student); ‫أب صببور‬/‫( أب صبابر‬a
patient father/a very patient father), etc.
(e) Infinitive) )‫(مصدر‬: e.g. ‫( قاض عدل ;رجل ثقة‬trusted man/man of trust; just judge)
(f) Demonstrative )‫(اسم إشارة‬: e.g. ‫( اقرأ الكتاب هذا‬read this book)
(g) Thu (‫( )ذو‬in the sense of owner): e.g. ‫( شٌخ ذو علم‬a learned Sheikh)
(h) Relative pronoun with a definite article )‫(اسبم موصبول مقبرون بألبـ‬: (e.g. ‫هنأْنبا الفرٌب البذي‬
))‫( فبار (أي الفرٌب الفبابر‬we met the winning/victorious team; we met the team who
won).
(i) Number of nouns qualified by the adjective )‫( (مبا دل علبى عبدد المنعببوت‬e.g. ‫اشببترى‬
‫( جواالت ثالثة‬he bought three mobiles).
(j) Relative adjective )‫)صفة ٌاء النسبة‬: e.g. ‫( رأٌت سابحا ٌابانٌا‬I saw a Japanese tourist).
(k) Adjective as a simile (‫(صفة دالة علبى تشببٌه‬: e.g. ) ‫محنب‬/‫( تحبدثت إلبى دبلوماسبً ثعلبب (أي ماكر‬I
talked to a cunning diplomat)

49
 (l) Indefinite ‫ مببا‬as an adjective )‫("مببا" النكببرة كصببفة مبهمببة‬: e.g. ‫( أكلببوا طعامببا مببا‬they ate
food/some food)
(m) The use of ‫ كل‬and ‫ أي‬as adjectives: e.g. ‫( أنبت رجبل كبل الرجبل‬you are a real man; what
a man you are!); ‫أٌما رجل‬/‫( أنت رجل أي‬you are a real man! / What a man you are!)
(n) Comparative vs. superlative adjectives )‫التفضبٌل‬/‫(صبفات المفاضلة‬: e.g. ‫( األخ األكببر‬the
older brother); ‫( أكبر أخ‬the oldest brother).
(o) Confusing adjectival forms: e.g. ً‫( عربب‬Arabic/Arab/Arabian?) ً‫( أنبا عربب‬I am an
Arab), ‫ثقافة عربٌة‬/‫( لؽة‬Arabic Language/culture), ‫( شبه الجرٌرة العربٌة؛ الصبحراء العربٌبة‬The
Arabian Peninsula; The Arabian Desert).
(p) Confusing noun-adjective forms: e.g. ‫( بخٌبل‬miser/miserly?‫( هبذا رجبل بخٌبل‬this man is
miserly) ‫( ال أحد ٌحب البخٌل‬No one likes the miser/the miserly man); ‫( أنت جببان‬you are
a coward); ‫( هذا تصرؾ جبان‬this is a cowardly act).
(q) Rare relative adjective form: e.g. ً‫( جسبمان‬for ً‫( جسبم‬bodily); ً‫( روحبان‬for ً‫روحبب‬
(spiritual): ً‫( كمال جسمان‬body building); ‫( أجواء روحانٌة‬spiritual atmospheres).
(r) “as…as” adjectival similes” )‫(صفات تشبٌهٌة‬: e.g. ‫( عدّاء أسرع من الببر‬a runner as fast as
lightning/faster than lightning); ‫( مشببروب أحلببى مببن السببكر‬a drink as sweet as
sugar/sweeter than sugar).
(s) Irregular gender adjectives )‫(صبفات ؼٌبر موحبدة للجنسبٌن‬: e.g. ‫ولود‬/‫عباقر‬/‫( امبرأة حامل‬not
‫ولودة‬/‫عاقرة‬/‫( )حاملبة‬pregnant/ infertile/fertile woman); ‫( أم رؤوم‬not ‫طفبل معجبرة ;)رؤومبة‬
(miraculous child); ‫( رجل إمَّعة‬flunky/hypocritical man), etc.
(t) Zero-gender adjectives)‫(صفات موحدة للجنسٌن‬: e.g. ...‫ مهبذار‬،‫ صببور‬، ٌ‫ جبر‬،‫امرأة ؼٌبور‬/‫رجل‬
(jealous, wounded, very patient, garrulous man/woman).
(u) Nominal adjectives )‫(صبفات اسبمٌة‬: e.g. ‫( عبقبري = رجبل عبقبري‬a genius); ‫= طفلبة موهوببة‬
‫( موهبة‬a talented child; a talent).

As to the problems of translating Arabic adjectives into English of all forms and types, they
can be summed up in the following discussion. The second example, ‘b’, is sometimes
mistranslated into a past participial adjective (i.e. benefited) instead of the present
participial form ‘benefiting’ for there is a thin line of difference between the two forms in
Arabic: ‫ مُنتفِبع‬and ‫مُنتفبع‬. The confusion of the present participle )‫ (اسبم الفاعبل‬and the past
participle )‫ (اسبم المفعبول‬forms is a common mistake in both languages as far as foreign
students are concerned (e.g. In Arabic:...‫مبرتهن‬/‫مرتهن‬
ِ ،‫منتحل‬/‫ منتحِل‬،‫مفتعل‬/‫ مفتعِل‬،‫مستخرج‬/‫مستخرج‬
ِ .
In English: cutting/cut, closing/closed, breaking/broken, affecting/affected, and so on and
so forth). Both are verbal forms.

Example ‘d’ puts forward the problem of translating present participial intensive
adjectives )‫( (الصبفات المشببهة‬i.e. adjectives made like the present participle form (fa’el )‫)فاعبل‬
and derived from it). They are sixteen forms in Arabic, but only twelve of them are used
for exaggeration. Here they are:
The mighty (c.f. strong) )‫) فعّال (جبار‬1
the most virtuous/graceful (c.f. virtuous/graceful) )‫) ِم ْفعال (مِفضال‬2
very honest/truthful (c.f. honest/truthful) ) ٌّ‫) ِفعٌّل (صد‬3
erudite (knowing) )‫) فِعالة (فِهامة‬4
needy (c.f. poor) )‫) ِم ْفعٌل (مسكٌن‬5
gluttonous/heavy eater (c.f. eater) )‫) فعول (أكول‬6
knowledgeable/well-informed/learned (c.f. knowing) )‫) فعٌل (علٌم‬7
over-cautious (c.f. cautious) )‫) فعِل (حذِر‬8
formidable/mighty (c.f. great) )‫) فُعّال ( ُكبّار‬9
50
 the most Holy (c.f. holy) )‫) فُعّول (قدّوس‬10
The Self-Sustainer/the ever-existing (c.f. sustainer/existing) )‫) فٌْعول (قٌّوم‬11
great scholar (c.f. scholar) )‫) فعّالة (عالّمة‬12

The examples and their translations show that these forms of adjectives are exaggerative,
intensive and emphatic compared to the normal form of the present participle of /Fa’el/.
This component of meaning of exaggeration and/or emphasis is ignored by many
translators, which is not acceptable for, say, ‫ أكبول‬is different from ‫ صبدٌّ ;آكبل‬means more
than ‫ عالمة ;صاد‬is wider in knowledge than the ordinary ‫عبالم‬, and so on. Hence, translators
are required to attend to these types of adjectives more carefully than usual.

The fifth example (e) above is confusing to students of translation and some translators
due to the nominal forms of the adjectives, ‫( ثقبة‬trust), and ‫( عبدل‬justice). These forms are
used as adjectives as well, and have to be translated into adjectives, as done above. In ‘g’,
the problem of translation is different in that the two words in Arabic ‫ ذو علبم‬might be
understood and translated as two separate words in English too, which is mistaken. First,
‘thu’ does not have an equivalent lexical word, but can be translated into the preposition,
‘of’, or dropped when translated together with the ensuing word (i.e. ‘of knowledge’ →
knowledgeable/learned).

Example ‘h’ demonstrates how an adjective can be a relative clause in the original ‫(البذي‬
)‫فبار‬, to confirm that word for word, or clause-for-clause translation is not required, though
a choice can be sometimes available. Example ‘k’ exhibits a problem of translation that
involves two options between figurative and non-figurative versions (i.e. ‘fox’ and
‘cunning’), but the intended one is the non-figurative adjective connoted by the figurative
noun (i.e. cunning). In any case, we can use both equally depending on type of text and
context (that is, we can translate the Arabic example above into either ‫ دبلوماسبً مباكر‬or
‫)دبلوماسبً ثعلبب‬. The (‫ )مبا‬of ‘j’, functioning as an indefinite adjective, can be freely translated
into nothing, or any word that may mean something indefinite, be it an adjective or not in
the target language.

Example ‘n’ poses the problem of translating comparative and superlative forms of
adjectives. The problems is not posed by the grammatical form of either, but, rather, by
which form to choose correctly in context, especially when the context is vague. For
example, the statement: ‫ هبذا أخبً األكببر‬can mean either a reference to ‘my older brother’ as
well as to ‘my oldest brother’. A good solution, if context is not helpful, is to go for a
middle-ground version as ‘my grand brother’. On the other hand, there are fixed phrases
of comparison that are always superlative in grammar and meaning. A case in point is the
very popular phrase ‫ هللا أكببر‬which is wrong to translate into the comparative form as ‘God
is greater (than anybody else)/the greater) for nothing is greater than God, and God is
incomparable. Hence, the only good translation is ‘God is the greatest’.

Example ‘o’ indicates how problematic the translation of a word of two different forms as
an adjective and a noun in the TL. In addition to the example given above, a further
problem of translation is caused by some comparative/superlative forms of adjectives,
which are also forms of nouns of the same word. Examples include words with the mold
)‫‘( )أفعبل‬af’al), especially color words like ... ،‫ أحمبر‬،‫ أسبود‬،‫( أببٌض‬white, black, red, etc.). These
words do not have a comparative form in Arabic, so a general comparative word should be
51
used before them as follows: )‫احمرارا مببن كببذا‬/‫سببوادا‬/‫أشببد بٌاضا‬/‫( (أكثر‬blacker/whiter/redder
than…). However, there are exceptions like: ‫( أسببود مببن ؼببراب البببٌن؛ أبببٌض مببن الببثل‬literally:
blacker than the crow; whiter than snow). Yet, in English, these collocational cultural
similes (or proverbs) have their cultural equivalents as the following: as black as ebony/a
pitch/coal/ace of spades; as white as snow/porcelain/fleece/ivory/lily). Other examples
ْ
include three non-color words: ‫ حببب‬،‫ شببر‬،‫( خٌببر‬instead of ‫ أحببب‬،‫ أشببر‬،‫(أخٌببر‬, due to their
frequent use. The first two in particular are used in the same form as normal nouns and
comparative adjectives, sometimes confusingly for translators. The grammatical context
can be a good guide, but not always, as illustrated below:

The strong believer is .‫ وفببً كببل خٌببر‬،‫المببؤمن القببوي خٌببر وأحببب إلببى هللا مببن المببؤمن الضببعٌؾ‬ )1
better and more lovable to God than the weak believe, and in both there is good
I am better than him .‫أنا خٌر منه‬ )2
And verily the Hereafter is better for you than this World .‫ولآلخرة خٌر ل من األولى‬ )3
This is better (off); this good; good ‫هذا خٌر‬ )4
Say: Do I bring to you the far more evil tidings than that, ‫قبل أفبأنببكم بشبر مبن ذلكبم النبار‬ )5
Hell!
The best lines (of congregational prayer) in reward are ‫خٌر الصفوؾ أولها وشرها آخرهبا‬ )6
the first, and the least in reward are the last.
What a difference between good and evil; there is a huge ‫شبتان ببٌن الخٌبر والشبر‬ )7
difference between good and evil.
We don’t know which is good and which is evil; we don’t ‫ال ندري أٌهمبا خٌبر وأٌهمبا شبر‬ )8
know which is better and which is worse than the other
The worst among people is the corrupt; the worst people are the ‫شبر النباس المفسبد‬ )9
corrupt
the best thing for man is the forbidden thing; forbidden ‫أحب شبًء إلبى اإلنسبان مبا مُنعبا‬ )10
fruit is sweet.

The three words are translated with care into either a noun or a comparative/superlative
adjective each. When we understand that there is some kind of comparison is involved,
the latter for is the appropriate one, whereas if comparison is not implied in the context,
the former is the proper form and meaning. We may notice that ‫ خٌبر‬is translated into
‘good/better/best’, whereas ‫ شبر‬is translated variably into ‘evil/bad/worse/worst/ or least’.
A further exception to the rule of comparative/superlative forms is their use in a non-
comparative meaning, which is not easy to attend to. However, context can be helpful. For
example, in the sentence, ‫ اسبتقبلنا الضبٌوؾ أكببرهم وأصبؽرهم‬is meant to be originally: ‫اسبتقبلنا‬
‫الضبٌوؾ كبٌبرهم وصبؽٌرهم‬. Hence the following translation: “We received all the guests, the
young and the old” (not *‘the younger and the older’). Similarly, in the Koranic verse: ‫وهبو‬
)27 :‫ وهبو أهبون علٌبه (البروم‬،‫البذي ٌببدأ الخلب ثبم ٌعٌبده‬, the underlined statement is not meant to be
taken in comparison to something else in the sense of ‫( هبٌن وأهبون‬easy and easier) (as Al-
Hilali and Khan do in their translation of the Holy Koran (1996)) for nothing to God is
described in a comparative way as easy, easier, difficult or more difficult for everything is
equally easy to Him. Hence, the translation into English: “and it is easy for Him”. The same
can be said about the translation of ‫ أعلبم‬in the verse: ‫ ربكبم أعلبم بكبم‬which is not to be
translated comparatively into (*Your Lord is more informed/know more about you), but,
rather, normally into (Your Lord does know everything about you/knows you well).

52
Example ‘r’ tackles the problems of translating collocational similes, which are treated as
cultural proverbs in translation. So they have two potential versions of translation, one as
comparative phrases, another as cultural phrases that equate between the two
components of each simile, as illustrated above (see the next Chapter on Lexical Problems,
and Ghazala (2012) for further details).

As to the last three examples of the first group, ‘s’, ‘t’ and ‘u’, they exhibit more or less the
same problem of translation of zero gender and opposite gender adjectives, but only in
Arabic. Yet, they may not be difficult to deal with in English Language whose adjectives are
unmarked by gender. Therefore, it is all the same whether the gender is marked, zero or
irregular in Arabic; all are translated into one and the same form of English unmarked-
gender-adjectives, as illustrated in the translations of the examples above.

1.6 Translation of Adverbs

Some claim that Arabic has no adverbs in the sense as they are in English (e.g. Allerton,
1979). This is not true for Arabic has adverbs but not in the same way as English. There are
differences and similarities between English and Arabic adverbs that have to be
investigated in the next discussion of the translation of Arabic adverbs into English.

An adverb in Arabic is described in classical grammar books and in parsing as ‫ مفعبول فٌبه‬or,
currently, ‫ظبرؾ‬. Arabic adverbs are mainly adverbs of time and place. Both types are
classified into either )‫( (مبهمبة أو محبددة‬vague or clear in reference), )‫)متصبرفة أو ؼٌبر متصبرفة‬
(variable or invariable in semantic use and grammatical form), )‫( (مبنٌبة أو معرببة‬variable or
invariable in syntactic form), etc. However, in our discussion of translating them into
English, we will restrict our discussion to them as adverbs in general in a contrastive way,
whether or not they have equivalents in English, and whether or not other types of them
may exist in the two languages and what these are, and, more significantly, what
translation problems they pose to translators and how they can sort them out by them.
Following is a list of Arabic adverbs of time and place side by side with their English
translations:

Arabic adv. of place & English Arabic adv. of time & English
translations translations
where ‫أٌن‬ when ‫متى‬
wherever ‫أٌنما‬ at ‫عند‬
over, above ‫فو‬ when ‫عندما‬
under, underneath, below ‫تحت‬ when/at ‫حٌن‬
down, below ‫أسفل‬ then, at that time ‫حٌنبذ‬
between ‫بٌن‬ when, whenever ‫حٌنما‬
in front of, before, facing ‫أمام‬ at the moment when ‫وقت‬
in front of, in the front, ‫ق بدّام‬ while, whereas, in the ‫بٌنببببا‬/‫بٌنما‬
before meantime
behind ‫خلؾ‬ in the meantime ‫أثناء‬
beyond, behind ‫وراء‬ then (only then), at that time ‫عندبذ‬
right ‫ٌمٌن‬ at that time, then ‫وقتبذ‬
left ‫ٌسار‬/‫شمال‬ at that time, then ‫آنبذ‬
(at/to the) east ‫شر‬ since, for, because (of) ‫مذ‬/‫منذ‬
53
 (at/to the) east ‫ؼرب‬ since then ‫منذبذ‬
without, in front of, facing ‫دون‬ when ‫إذا‬
within, inside ‫داخل‬ when ‫إذ‬
outside, off ‫حارج‬ now ‫اآلن‬
where ‫حٌث‬ before ‫قبل‬
wherever ‫حٌثما‬ after ‫بعد‬
toward ‫نحو‬ when ‫أٌان‬
where, wherefrom ‫أنى‬ during, in the course of, at the ‫إبان‬
here ‫هنا‬ time of
there ‫هنا‬ at, when ‫لدى‬
there ‫ثمة‬/‫ثم‬ at, when ‫لدن‬
toward/towards ‫تجاه‬ never, never ever ‫قط‬
forward ‫إلى األمام‬ time, long time ‫أمد‬
backward ‫الوراء‬/‫إلى الخلؾ‬ ever, forever, never ‫أبدا‬/‫أبد‬
tomorrow ‫ؼدا‬
today ‫الٌوم‬
yesterday ‫أمس‬
yesterday ‫البارحة‬/ ‫البار‬
(in the) morning, (in the) .‫ مسبباء‬،‫صببباحا‬
evening
at night, during the day ...‫ نهارا‬،‫لٌال‬
day and night, round the ‫لٌال نهبارا‬/‫لٌل نهبار‬
clock, 24 hours
(for) one hour, one day ‫ ٌوما‬،‫ساعة‬
daily, monthly/per month, ...‫ شبهرٌا‬،‫ٌومٌبا‬
a month

Apart from a handful of adverbs that might be used with different meanings in other
contexts (e.g. ‫ إذا‬is usually used as ‘if’, etc.) or as both types of adverb in two different
context (e.g. "‫( "أنبى لب ِ هبذا؟‬where did you get this from? And "‫( "أنبى جببت؟‬when did you
come?), these adverbs are not quite problematic to translate into English for, generally,
they have ready-made equivalents. Yet, the problems of translating Arabic adverbs are
related to the different adverbs in English that are not available in Arabic in the same
form, but in different forms with different grammatical forms and classes of words. In
other words, normal words and phrases of grammatical forms other than adverbs in
Arabic are translated into Adverbs in English. Before giving further details and examples,
here are the types of verbs in English Language Grammar:

1.6.1 Types of English Adverbs

To allow for furthering the discussion of translating Arabic adverbs into English, and to
give an opportunity for a sharper contrastive outlook, the next table includes the majority
of the types of English adverbs:

Types of English adverbs Examples Arabic translation

1) Adverbs derived →innocently, comfortably, ‫ بشببببكل‬،‫مرتاحببببا‬/ ‫ بارتٌا‬،‫←ببببببراءة‬
from adjectives of mainly, happily, sadly, ،‫بحرن‬/‫ لؤلسبببببؾ‬،‫ بسبببببعادة‬،ً‫ربٌسببببب‬
the suffix –ly (they unexpectedly, powerfully, ‫ علببى‬،‫ بكببل قببوة‬،‫بشببكل ؼٌببر متوقببع‬
54
 ‫)‪are a majority‬‬ ‫‪blindly, occasionally, etc.‬‬ ‫عماها‪/‬بشكل أعمى‪ ،‬عرضٌا‬
‫‪2) Adverbs of time‬‬ ‫‪→tomorrow, yesterday, to-‬‬ ‫←ؼببدا‪ ،‬أمببس‪ ،‬اللٌلة‪/‬هببذه اللٌلببة‪ ،‬بعببد‬
‫‪night, a week tomorrow,‬‬ ‫أسببببوع اعتببببارا مبببن ٌبببوم ؼبببد‪ ،‬آخبببر‬
‫‪last time, now, etc.‬‬ ‫مرة‪ ،‬اآلن‬
‫‪3) Adverbs of place‬‬ ‫‪→here, there, far, near,‬‬ ‫←هنبببا‪ ،‬هنبببا ‪ ،‬بعٌدا‪/‬بعٌبببد‪ ،‬قرٌببببا ‪/‬‬
‫‪inside, outside, etc.‬‬ ‫قرٌب‪ ،‬داخل‪ ،‬خارج‬
‫‪4) Adv. of frequency‬‬ ‫‪→ always, frequently, often,‬‬ ‫←دابمببا‪ ،‬مببرارا وتكببرارا‪ ،‬ؼالبببا‪/‬فً‬
‫الؽالبببببب‪ ،‬عبببببادة‪ ،‬أحٌانبببببا‪/‬فً بعبببببض‬
‫‪usually, sometimes, etc.‬‬
‫األحٌان‬
‫‪5) Adverbs of manner‬‬ ‫…‪→quietly, easily, quickly‬‬
‫←بهدوء‪ ،‬بسهولة‪ ،‬بسرعة‪/‬سرٌعا‬
‫‪6) Adverbs of degree‬‬ ‫‪→entirely, partly, quite,‬‬ ‫←كلٌا‪/‬بشبببببكل كلبببببً‪ ،‬جربٌا‪/‬بشبببببكل‬
‫‪very, wholly, etc.‬‬ ‫جربببببً‪ ،‬تمامببببا‪ ،‬جببببدا‪ ،‬إجماال‪/‬بشببببكل‬
‫كلً‬
‫‪7) Adv. of certainty‬‬ ‫‪→Certainly, undoubtedly,‬‬ ‫←بالتأكٌد‪ٌ/‬قٌنا‪ ،‬مبن دون(أدنبى) شب‬
‫‪definitely, absolutely, etc.‬‬ ‫‪/‬الشبببب ‪ ،‬بالتأكٌبببببد‪/‬حتما‪ ،‬إطالقا‪/‬مببببببة‬
‫بالمبة‪/‬بكل مبا فبً الكلمبة مبن معنبى ‪/‬‬
‫قطعا‬
‫‪8) Adv. of contrast‬‬ ‫‪→yet, however, though, on‬‬ ‫←مبببع ذلببب ‪ ،‬علبببى أٌبببة حبببال‪ ،‬ببببرؼم‬
‫‪the contrary, in fact,‬‬ ‫ذل ‪/‬مع أن‪ ،‬على العكبس (مبن ذلب )‪،‬‬
‫‪nevertheless, etc.‬‬ ‫على الرؼم من ذل‬
‫‪9) Adv. of addition‬‬ ‫‪→also, besides, in addition,‬‬ ‫←أٌضببا‪ ،‬إلببى جانببب ذلب ‪ ،‬باإلضببافة‬
‫‪and, moreover, further, etc.‬‬ ‫إلببى ذلبب ‪( ،‬و) العطبببؾ‪ ،‬رٌببادة علبببى‬
‫ذل ‪ ،‬أٌضا‪/‬رد على ذل‬
‫‪10) Adv. of conclusion‬‬ ‫‪→in conclusion, finally, to‬‬ ‫←فبببً الختبببام‪ ،‬أخٌبببرا‪ ،‬ختامبببا‪ ،‬فبببً‬
‫النهاٌة‬
‫‪conclude, at the end, etc.‬‬
‫←مبببببببببن الواضببببببببب ‪ٌ/‬تضببببببببب أن‪،‬‬
‫‪11) Adv. of conviction‬‬ ‫‪→obviously, clearly, of‬‬
‫بوضبببو ‪/‬من الواضببب ‪ ،‬طبا‪/‬ببببالطبع‪،‬‬
‫‪course, admittedly, etc.‬‬
‫بصراحة‪ٌ/‬جب أن نقر‪/‬نعترؾ‪...‬‬
‫‪12) Summarizing‬‬ ‫‪→in sum, in summary, in‬‬ ‫←باختصار‪/‬بالمختصببببببببر المفٌببببببببد ‪/‬‬
‫‪adverbs‬‬ ‫…‪fine, to sum up, in a word‬‬ ‫خالصة القول‪/‬ربدة الكالم [ألي منها]‬

‫‪13) Ordinal adverbs‬‬ ‫‪→ first(ly), second(ly), etc.‬‬ ‫←أوال‪ ،‬ثانٌا‪...‬‬

‫‪14) Causal adverbs:‬‬ ‫‪→adverbs of:‬‬ ‫←ظروؾ السببٌة‪:‬‬
‫‪-reason‬‬ ‫‪→for this reason, it follows,‬‬ ‫‪-‬لهبببببببذا السببببببببب‪ ،‬مبببببببن األسبببببببباب‪،‬‬
‫…‪because (of), due to, etc.‬‬ ‫بسبب‪/‬ألن‪ ،‬بسبب‪ٌ/‬عود السبب لـ‪...‬‬
‫‪-result‬‬ ‫‪-as a result, consequently,‬‬ ‫‪-‬نتٌجة لذل ‪ ،‬بالتالً‪،‬‬
‫‪in consequence, hence,‬‬ ‫نتٌجة لذل ‪/‬وبالتالً‪ ،‬لبذا‪ ،‬لبذل ‪ ،‬لهبذا‪/‬‬
‫‪therefore, thus, etc.‬‬ ‫وهكذا‬
‫‪-condition‬‬ ‫‪-in that case, under the‬‬ ‫‪-‬فبببً تلببب الحالبببة‪ ،‬فبببً ظبببل تل ‪/‬هبببذه‬
‫‪circumstances, in the event‬‬ ‫الظروؾ‪ ،‬فً حال‪/‬إذا ما‬
‫‪-purpose‬‬ ‫‪-so that, in order that, for‬‬ ‫‪-‬بحٌبببببث‪ ،‬لكً‪/‬لؽبببببرض كبببببذا‪ ،‬لهبببببذا‬
‫الؽببرض‪ ،‬آخببذا ذل ب بالحسبببان‪ ،‬لهببذه‬
‫‪this purpose, with this in‬‬
‫الؽاٌة‪/‬الؽرض‬
‫‪mind, to this end, etc.‬‬

‫‪15) Intensifying‬‬ ‫‪→adverbs like:‬‬ ‫←من هذه الظروؾ‪:‬‬

‫‪adverbs:‬‬
‫‪-emphasizers‬‬ ‫‪-really, indeed, simply, etc.‬‬ ‫‪-‬فعال‪/‬حقٌقة‪ ،‬فعال‪/‬بالتأكٌد‪ ،‬ببساطة‬
‫‪-amplifiers‬‬ ‫‪-completely, heartily, fully‬‬ ‫‪-‬بشبببكل كامبببل‪ ،‬بببب خالا‪/‬من القلبببب‪،‬‬
‫‪55‬‬
 ‫بالكلٌة‬/‫كلٌة‬
-Downtoners -kind/sort of, almost, all ‫ تقرٌببببببا‬،‫أكببببباد‬/‫ تقرٌبا‬،‫تقرٌببببببا‬/ً‫ٌعن‬-
but, to some extent ‫ إلى حد ما‬،‫الكل‬
16) Temporal adverbs: →including:
-sequential -first, next, then, after that, :‫←من ضمنها‬
subsequently, afterwards… ،‫بعدببببذ‬/ ‫ بعبببد ذل‬،ً‫ ٌلببب‬/ً‫ التبببال‬،‫أوال‬-
-simultaneous -at the same time, (just) ‫ بعد ذل‬، ‫ ٌلً ذل‬، ‫بعد ذل‬
،‫فً ذات الوقببببت‬/‫فببببً الوقببببت نفسببببه‬-
then, simultaneously, etc.
،‫ فبببببببببً تلببببببببب اللحظبببببببببة‬/ ‫عندببببببببببذ‬
‫ترامنا مع‬/‫بالترامن‬
-precedent -earlier, before that/then, ‫ فبً وقبت‬/‫ سابقا‬، ‫ قبل ذل‬، ‫قبٌل ذل‬-
previously ‫ساب‬
-immediate -at once, just before, ‫بعبد‬/‫ توا‬،‫ قبٌل‬،‫حاال‬/‫على الفور‬/‫فورا‬-
thereupon, on which, etc. ‫على ذل‬/‫ بناء علٌه‬،‫ذل مباشرة‬
-present -at this point, here, now… ‫ اآلن‬،‫ هنا‬،‫حالٌا‬/‫عند هذه النقطة‬-
-past -up to now, so far, up to this ‫ حتببببى هببببذه‬،‫ حتببببى اآلن‬،‫حتببببى اآلن‬-
point, hitherto, heretofore, ‫ حتبى‬،‫اآلن‬/‫ حتى الٌوم‬،‫اللحظة‬/‫النقطة‬
so far, as yet, etc. ‫اآلن؟هذه اللحظة‬
-future -from now on, henceforth, ‫(اعتبببببارا) مببببن اآلن فصبببباعدا [ألي‬-
henceforward, etc. ]‫منها‬
-interrupted -soon, later, presently,
formerly, sometime earlier ،‫ سبببابقا‬،‫ حالٌبببا‬،‫ الحقبببا‬،‫عببباجال‬/‫حاال‬-
-durative -meanwhile, all this time, in ‫قبٌل ذل‬
the meantime, etc. ‫ فببً كببل‬،‫فً هببذه األثنبباء‬/‫ف بً األثنبباء‬-
‫ فً ؼضون ذل‬،‫ذل الوقت‬
-terminal -by this time, until then, up
‫ حتبببى ذلببب‬،‫بحلبببول هبببذا الوقبببت‬/ً‫ف‬-
till that time, etc.
‫ حتى ذل الوقت‬،‫الوقت‬
-punctiliar -next moment, at this point ،‫ فبً هبذه اللحظبة‬،‫فً اللحظة التالٌبة‬-
/moment, the previous ‫(فً) اللحظة السابقة‬
moment, etc.
-conclusive -finally, in conclusion, as a ،‫ نقطبببة أخٌبببرة‬،‫ فبببً الختبببام‬،‫أخٌبببرا‬-
final point, at first…finally )‫ أختم (بالقول‬،‫ أخٌرا‬... ‫بداٌة‬/‫أوال‬
17) Relative adverbs →when, where, why ‫ لماذا‬،‫حٌث‬/‫ أٌن‬،‫عندما‬/‫←متى‬
18) Negative adverbs →seldom, hardly, rarely ‫نادرا‬/‫ من النادر‬،‫ قلما‬،‫قل‬/‫←قلما‬

1.6.2 Commentary on the English and Arabic Types of Adverbs:

Obviously, the two languages concerned have sharply different types of adverbs. Apart
from similarities with respect to adverbs of time and place, the only two types in Arabic,
they have many differences illustrated in the second table above. As illustrated in the
table, the majority of English adverbs are not translated into equivalent adverbs in Arabic
due to their absence from the latter. Many are prepositional phrases (e.g. ،‫ علبى نحبو‬،‫بشبكل‬
)...‫ فبً الختبام‬، ‫ بعبد ذلب‬،‫ فً الوقت نفسه‬،‫ ;بكذا‬some others are circumstantial nouns )‫( (حبال‬e.g. ،‫كلٌبا‬
)...‫ نبادرا‬،‫ عباجال‬،‫ مرتاحبا‬،‫ ;سبرٌعا‬others are complete sentences: either nominal (e.g. ،‫مببة بالمببة‬
)... ‫نقطببة أخٌببرة‬،‫خالصببة القول‬, verbal (e.g. ‫ أخببتم بببالقول‬،‫ ٌجببب أن نقببر‬،‫ )ٌعببود السبببب لكببذا‬or nominal-
prepositional/adverbial (e.g. ‫ بعببد أسبببوع اعتبببارا مببن ٌببوم ؼببد‬،‫)بكببل مببا فببً الكلمببة مببن معنببى‬, and still
others are translated into verbs (e.g. ‫ أخبتم‬،ً‫)ٌعنب‬, etc. This means that the number of
adverbs in English grammar outweighs their number in Arabic, yet their translations into a
variety of options is possible, though the process is probably more complex than
56
otherwise. Allerton rightly remarks that the absence of many of the English adverbs in
Arabic is “…hardly felt owing to the inherent flexibility and expressiveness of language”.
However in translating, “… one feel(s) a certain awkwardness which is unusual in a
language potentially so succinct (and almost telegraphic) as Arabic” (1979).

That said, and to take the point contrastively in Arabic, there are a number of ways of
expressing and translating phrases and expressions into adverbs in English. Here are
illustrative examples:

(a) By prepositional phrases: e.g. ‫ → عباد بسبرعة‬He came back quickly; ‫هللا موجبود فبً كبل‬
‫ → مكان‬God is everywhere; ٌ‫ → ؼط فً نوم عم‬He slept heavily; ‫ → لؤلسؾ‬sadly
(b) By the use of certain verbs: e.g. ‫ → كبدت أؼبر‬I almost drowned; ‫ → أحسبنت‬you did
well/well done; ‫ → ما كدت أرا‬I scarcely saw you
(c) By accusatives like: ‫ → سبرعان مبا‬quickly/ soon/no sooner … than; ‫( → كثٌبرا مبا‬very)
often; ‫ → قلٌال ما‬little;
(d) Circumstantial accusative )‫(حال‬: e.g. ‫→ هرع مسرعا‬he ran quickly/fast; ‫افعل ذلب جهبد‬
‫ → وطاقتب‬do that in the best way possible; ‫ → تبسبم ضباحكا‬he smiled amusingly; ‫ثبم‬
‫ → ولٌتم مدبرٌن‬then you turned back in flight; ‫ → تفرقوا شذر مذر‬helter-skelter
(e) Specificative )‫ (تمٌٌبر‬starting with ‫( كبم‬how…): e.g.‫ → كبم رجبال سبافر؟‬how many people
have left; ‫ → كبم مالب ؟‬How much money have you?; !‫ → كبم أنبت عظبٌم‬how great you
are?
(f) By the absolute object ) ‫(المفعول المطل‬: ‫ → ضربوه ضربا مبرحا‬they beat him hard; ‫أحبها‬
‫ → حبا جما‬He loved her very much/dearly; ‫ → ؼضبت ؼضبا شدٌدا‬she was very angry.
(g) By the emphatic ‫إن‬:
→ Verily God is Forgiving and Merciful;‫إن هللا ؼفور رحٌم‬-
→ Surely your words are impressive;‫إن كالم مؤثر‬-
→ Indeed it is raining heavily‫إن المطر ٌهطل بؽرارة‬-
(h) By the emphatic ‫لـ‬:
→ certainly I shall punish you; ‫ألعاقبن‬-
→ for sure I will not attend the class today;‫ألؼٌبن عن الحصة الٌوم‬-
→ verily your Lord will give you so that you shall be well-‫ولسبوؾ ٌعطٌب ربب فترضبى‬-
pleased.
(i) By oath words:
→ by your life; ‫لعمر‬-
→ by God;‫وح ِ هللا‬-
→ by God‫أقسم باهلل‬-
(j) By the emphatic ‫ → بلى‬certainly not
(k) By the very emphatic ‫ → كال‬by no means; not at all; never!
(l) By the semi-verbal particle ‫ → لعل‬perhaps; probably; most likely
(m) By the semi-verbal particle ‫ → لٌت‬would that
(n) By accusative single words like:
→ once; at one time;‫تارة‬-
→ suddenly; out of a sudden;‫فجأة‬-
→ for sure;‫ٌقٌنا‬-
- for certain; certainly;
→ supposedly;‫فرضا‬-
→ accidentally/by accident;‫مصادفة‬-
→ inevitably‫ → حتما‬by mistake; ‫ → خطأ‬especially; ‫خصوصا‬/‫خاصة‬-
57
 (o) By the strong negative ‫ → ما‬never: e.g. ‫ → ما رأٌته‬I never saw him
(p) By special phrases:
→ well said; ‫ال فُض فو‬- e.g.
→ well done; ‫سلمت ٌدا‬-
→ you are quite right;‫صدقت بما نطقت‬-
→ you are quite right; on target;‫أصبت كبد الحقٌقة‬-
→ willy-nilly;‫شبت أم أبٌت‬-
→ he works day and night/round the clock;‫ٌعمل على مدار الساعة‬-
→ never mind; ‫ال تقل‬-
(q) By proverbs and adages:
→ I am not long for this life;‫ما عاد فً العمر بقٌة‬-
He said a trash; ‫ٌهرؾ بما ال ٌعرؾ‬-
(r) By collocation: e.g.
→ I will do my best;ً‫سأفعل كل ما فً وسع‬-
→ sooner or later; ‫عاجال أم آجال‬-
→ by any means;‫بأي وسٌلة كانت‬-
→ secretly and publicly/in secret and in public;‫سرا وعالنٌة‬-
→ wholly and heartedly;‫من أعما القلب‬-
→ wholeheartedly;‫قلبا وقالبا‬-
→in short/shortly;‫خالصة القول‬-
→ cry bitterly;‫أجهش بالبكاء‬-
→luckily/fortunately/happily;‫لحسن الحظ‬-
→ easily led‫سهل االنقٌاد‬-
(s) By idioms: e.g. ‫→ فرٌسة للش‬under a cloud; ‫ → على مرمى حجر‬at arm’s length
(t) By metaphors: e.g.
→ by hook or by crook;‫اقبضوا علٌه حٌا أو مٌتا‬-
→ he fought tooth and nail/ferociously;‫قاتل قتال األسود‬-
→ they beat them bitterly;‫هرموهم هرٌمة نكراء‬-
→ at death’s door‫على شفا حفرة من الموت‬-
etc.
.
1.7 Translation of )‫( (الحال‬Circumstantial Accusative)

One of the unique grammatical features of Arabic is the circumstantial accusative. It is

mainly a form of adjective, a nominal adjective whose syntactic function is to describe
more accurately the condition of the subject / noun it qualifies. It is always in the
accusative case. It is translated variably into English, though the adjective form is more
likely than other forms. Here are examples for different types of )‫ (حبال‬in Arabic side by
side with their translations, followed by discussion:

The team/was victorious / (has) won ‫خرج الفرٌ منتصرا‬ )1

the team was beaten/has been beaten ‫خرج الفرٌ مهروما‬ )2
I passed by my friend who was dejected/by my dejected friend ‫مررت بصدٌقً مكتببا‬ )3
the athlete ran like eagle/as fast as an eagle ‫جرى العداء ؼراال‬ )4
I saw you running fast ‫رأٌت مسرعا‬ )5
and We did not create the heaven and the earth in vain ‫وما خلقنا السماء واألرض العبٌن‬ )6
do not pray while you are drunk ‫التقربوا الصالة وأنتم سكارى‬ )7
the traveler came back safe and sound ‫رجع المسافر سالما ؼانما‬ )8
58
 vegetables are eaten fresh ‫ُتؤكل الخضار طارجة‬ )9
here is the moon shining in the sky ‫هذا القمر طالعا‬ )10
he showed up out of a sudden/unexpectedly ‫طلع علٌنا بؽتة‬ )11
I like the boy to be punished when guilty ‫ٌعجبنً تأدٌب الصبً مذنبا‬ )12
my brother walked in dark night/in darkness ‫شقٌقً ساري اللٌل مظلما‬ )13
you make difficult things easy ‫أنت مسهل األمر صعبا‬ )14
would one of you like to eat the flesh of his dead ‫أٌحبب أحبدكم أن ٌأكبل لحبم أخٌبه مٌتبا؟‬ )15
brother?
and we shall take out from their breasts any hard ‫ونرعنا مبا فبً صبدورهم مبن ؼبل إخوانبا‬ )16
feelings toward one another to be brothers
I am pleased with the determined attitude of the manager ‫ٌسرنً موقؾ المدٌر حارما‬ )17
follow up the religion of Abraham, the monotheist ‫اتبع ملة إبراهٌم حنٌفا‬ )18
and the day I will be raised up to life again ‫وٌوم أُبعث حٌا‬ )19
he revealed to you the Book detailed/in full details ‫أنرل إلٌكم الكتاب مفصال‬ )20
He believed in God the Only/the Only God ‫آمن باهلل وحده‬ )21
the student immediately came back ‫رجع الطالب عوده على بدبه‬ )22
come in one after the other ‫أُدخلوا األول فاألول‬ )23
the guest came on foot ‫جاء الضٌؾ ماشٌا‬ )24
I read the book chapter by chapter/in full ‫قرأت الكتاب بابا بابا‬ )25
verily We revealed it an Arabic Koran ‫إنا أنرلناه قرآنا عربٌا‬ )26
as sultanas, grapes are sweeter than molasses ‫العنب ربٌبا أطٌبُ منه دبسا‬ )27
Her ring is gold/golden/made of gold ‫هذا خاتمها ذهبا‬ )28
How do I prostrate to who You created out of clay? ‫أأسجد لمن خلقت طٌنا‬ )29
I talked to him; I talked to him face to face ‫كلَّم ُته مشافهة‬ )30
keep (your) quiet; keep silent ‫ص ْه ساكتا‬ )31
the banner of right is high for us; right is rated high amongst us ‫عندنا الح خفاقا لواؤه‬ )32
a helpless man rushed in/came in a hurry and we helped ‫جاءنبا مسبرعا مسبتنجد فأنجبدناه‬ )33
him
five days (have) passed hard on us, we suffered five hard ‫مبرت علٌنبا خمسبة أٌبام شبدٌدة‬ )34
days
The Messenger of God, peace ‫صلى الرسول صلى هللا علٌه وسلم قاعدا وصلى وراءه رجال قٌامبا‬ )35
be to him, prayed sitting down while men behind him prayed standing up
We send not messengers but givers of glad ‫ومبا نرسببل المرسبلٌن إال مبشببرٌن ومنبذرٌن‬ )36
tidings and warners
the teacher came when the sun was already shining, the ‫حضبر المعلبم والشبمس طالعبة‬ )37
teacher attended after the sun had shone
Faisal came carrying his book ‫جاء ٌحمل كتابه فٌصل‬ )38
I will carry on working hard/ as a hard worker ‫ألُثابرنَّ مجتهدا‬ )39
Congratulations!; I congratulate you ‫هنٌبا ل‬ )40
do not do evil and do not be corrupt on earth ‫ال تعثوا فً األرض مفسدٌن‬ )41
all the invited guests have showed up, all of them ‫حضر المدعوون كلهم جمٌعا‬ )42
those brothers are cooperative; those are the cooperating ‫هببم اإلخببوة متعبباونٌن‬ )43
brothers
I saw the teacher running ‫رأٌت المعلم ٌركض‬ )44
and when Moses returned to his people, sad and ‫ولما رجع موسى إلبى قومبه ؼضببان أسِ بفا‬ )45
grieved …
he is my next-door neighbor ‫هو جاري بٌت بٌت‬ )46

59
The following conclusions can be drawn from these examples about the translation of
)‫ (الحال‬into English:

The FIRST conclusion is that there is no one-to-one equivalent for circumstantial accusative
in English, so the translator concentrates on rendering its meaning in accordance with
English grammatical structures that may accommodate it.

The SECOND conclusion is that there is a possibility of translating the circumstantial

accusative into a relative clause (e.g. ‫( → مكتبببا‬who was dejected) (3)). However, other
options are not excluded (e.g. ‫( → مكتببا‬by my dejected friend).

THIRD, many circumstantial cases are translated into adjectives (e.g. 8, 14, 15, 21, 31, 32,
34, 41), or adjectival phrases (e.g. ‘hard worker’ (39)).

FOURTH, some examples are translated into a participial: present participle (e.g. (5, 10, 35,
38) or past participle (e.g. 17).

The FIFTH conclusion is that a good number of the examples are translated into adverbs
and adverbial/prepositional phrases (or adverbials) that are mainly adverbials of manner,
answering the question HOW: e.g.

- 5 (adverb),
- 6 (prepositional),
- 7 (adverbial clause),
- 8 (adverbial phrase),
- 10 (prepositional),
- 11 (adverb/adverbial phrase),
- 12 (adverbial clause),
- 13 (prepositional),
- 20 (prepositional),
- 24 (prepositional),
- 25 (prepositional),
- 29 (prepositional),
- 30 (adverbial),
- 33 (prepositional),
- 34 (adverb),
- 46 (adverb)

The FINAL conclusion is that although the circumstantial accusative has no one-to-one
equivalent in English, it can be translated mainly into an adverbial of some kind, an
adjectival, or any other grammatical form that may fit the grammatical structure of
expressing its meaning in English. In other words, the translator is expected to give priority
to the SL appropriate meaning in any grammatical form that is more appropriate in the TL.
He/she has to understand the circumstantial term properly in Arabic, first, for
misunderstanding it would be disastrous in English. For example, ‘22’ might be
misconstrued as ‘back and forth; ‘37’ can be misunderstood as ‘while the sun is rising’;
whereas ‘46’ may be translated wrongly literally into ‘home after home’. In general, the

60
circumstantial accusative is likely to be confused with ‫( التمٌٌببر‬the ‘specificative’) (see
below), and, hence, the translator is required to be careful.

1.8 Translation of )‫( (التمييز‬the Specificative)

The specificative in Arabic grammar is an indefinite accusative noun used to specify the
type of thing intended by the preceding noun. For example, in the statement "‫"عنبدي خمسبون‬
(I have fifty), we do not know fifty of what: is of riyals, dollars, books, pens, or what? So
‘fifty’ is not specified by any of these, and the statement is by far vague and incomplete. A
specifier is required to make it clear and complete as much grammatically as semantically:
Hence, ‫( عندي خمسبون كتاببا‬I have fifty books). It can be distinguished by identifying it with the
answer to the question about the specified noun: ‘what?”, or ‘in what terms?’.

Yet, how to translate it into English is a different story, as illustrated in the translation into
English of the next list of miscellaneous Arabic examples of different uses, occurrences
and grammatical types of specificative , followed by their discussion:

the pilgrim was delighted/felt contented ‫) طاب الحا ّج نفسا‬1(

she bought thirty dresses ‫) اشترت ثالثٌن ثوبا‬2(
five students came/attended ‫) جاء خمسة طالب‬3(
how many cars have you? ‫) كم سٌارة عند ؟‬4(
they picked up one quintal honey ‫) جنوا قنطارا عسال‬5(
whosoever does good of an atom ‫ ومن ٌعمل مثقال ذرة شرا ٌره‬،‫) فمن ٌعمل مثقال ذرة خٌرا ٌره‬6(
in weight shall see it, and whosoever does evil of an atom in weight shall see it
she has a jar of water ‫) عندها جرة ماء‬7(
they have the same number of camels you have ‫) لهم مثل ما لكم إبال‬8(
even though we bring the like of it in aid ‫) ولو جبنا بمثله مددا‬9(
he has a gold/golden ring ‫) عنده خاتم ذهبا‬10(
they purchased a rotl of oil ‫) ابتاعوا رطال من رٌت‬11(
my friend enjoys good characters/manners ‫) حسن صدٌقً خلقا‬12(
may God overwhelm/fill in your heart with joy; may God make you ‫) مؤل هللا قلب فرحبا‬13(
happy
How courageous this youth!; what a brave young man! !‫) ما أشجعه شابا‬14(
how generous! What a generous man he is! ‫) هلل دره كرٌما‬15(
my head has gone ablaze with grey hair ‫) اشتعل الرأس شٌبا‬16(
how nice the odor of musk is ‫) ما أطٌب المس رابحة‬17(
and we caused springs to gush from earth ‫) وفجرنا األرض عٌونا‬18(
I have much more money than you; I am richer than you; my ‫) أنبا أكثبر منب مباال‬19(
wealth is greater than yours
I stuffed my wardrobes with books; my wardrobes are stuffed with ‫) مؤلت خرابنً كتبا‬20(
books
then take four birds ‫) ف ُخ ْذ أربعة من الطٌر‬21(
there were in town nine evil men ‫) وكان فً المدٌنة تسعة رهط‬22(
how many books did you buy/have you bought? ‫) كم كتابا اشترٌت‬23(
you bought how many books? How many books did you buy ‫) كم اشترٌت كتابا‬24(
How much dollars did you pay? How much did you pay in dollars? ‫) كم دوالرا دفعت؟‬25(
how many days did you not attend? ‫) كم ٌوما ؼبت؟‬26(
61
 how long did you jump in meters? How many meters did you jump? ‫) كم مترا قفرت؟‬27(
How many prizes did you win? ‫) كم جابرة نِلت؟‬28(
how many scholars did you see/meet? ‫عالم رأٌت؟‬ ٍ ‫) كم‬29(
How many a time/how often you disobeyed me/my orders! !‫) كم مرة عصٌت أمري‬30(
How often you disobeyed me! !‫) كم عصٌت أمري‬31(
how many books you wrote! !‫ب ألَّفت‬ ٍ ‫) كم كتا‬32(
How many a book you wrote! !‫) كم من كتاب كتبت‬33(
how many poets’ collections did you read? ‫) دٌوان كم شاعرا قرأت؟‬34(
ُ
How many are the countries I have traveled to! !‫سافرت‬ ‫) إلى كم بلد‬35(
how many countries did you travel to? ‫) إلى كم بلد سافرت؟‬36(
and how many a Prophet fought and along with him ‫) وكأٌِّن من نبً قاتل معبه ربٌبون كثٌبر‬37(
fought large bands of religious learned men
How many a creature that bears not its provision, ‫) وكأٌن من دابة ال تحمل ررقها هللا ٌررقها‬38(
and God does provide for it and for you.
we asked him so and so/some questions ‫) سألناه كذا وكذا سؤاال‬39(
the passengers are such and such men ‫) المسافرون كذا وكذا رجال‬40(
he hosted such and such pilgrims ‫) أُكرم كذا وكذا حاجا‬41(
why are/were you filled with terror?; why are you so ‫) عبببالم ُملِببببت رعببببا؟‬42(
terrified/scared?
if you had caught sight of them, you would have fled from them ‫ولٌت منهم فرارا‬ ُ )43(
he makes a fool of himself ‫) سفه نفسه‬44(
and how many a town have We destroyed that ‫) وكبم أهلكنبا مبن قرٌبة بطبرت معٌشبتها‬45(
flourished in insolent ease
the number of months ordained by God are twelve ‫) إن عدة الشهور عند هللا اثنا عشر شهرا‬46(
months

1.8.1 Problems of Translating the Specificative into English and Solutions

Based on the translation of the examples which are picked up at random, the first problem
is that this grammatical feature is not a part of English grammar. Hence, the translator has
to be aware of that and, rather than wasting his/her time investigating the grammatical
functions of the parsing of the specificative in Arabic, he/she turns to translate its meaning
in its English grammatical and semantic context.

Several problems are caused by the absence of specificative in English Language for no
specific rule or category can be applied to its different uses. In many cases, it is treated as
a normal word that might be one of the following categories of the sentence in the
previous examples, listed in a descending order of recurrence (i.e. from the most
recurrent down to the least recurrent):

 Object (e.g. 1,2,3,5,6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 27, 29, 32, 33, 34, 36,
37, 39, 41, 45)
 Compliment (e.g. 1, 7, 14, 15, 17, 22, 40, 42, 44, 46)
 Prepositional/adverbial phrases (e.g. 9, 13, 16, 20, 25, 26, 27, 31, 42)
 Subject (e.g. 1, 19, 38)
 Verb (e.g. 43)

62
The statistics show that the specificative is more recurrent as an object than other
categories of the sentence in English, yet, other options also recur. The problem for the
translator is to go for the appropriate option both grammatically and semantically. It
might be quite astonishing that the specificative can be translated into a verb, though
occasionally.

A further potential problem of translating the specificative is into English is the translator’s
confusion of the particle ‫( كبم االسبتفهامٌة‬as a question particle) and ‫( كبم الخبرٌبة‬as a predicate).
That is, the latter is translated into: ‘how many / how much / what a…!’, etc. indicating
number/quantity of people, things, times, etc., by way of informing, exclaiming, or
admiring. The former, on the other hand, is translated into: ‘how much/how many/how
long, how far/how wide/how small/how big/how good/how bad’, etc. by way of
questioning about, number, quantity, distance, age, width, height, length, etc. (see
translation of questions earlier for more details).

The general rule recommended to apply to translating the specificative is to consider the
meaning of the specificative word in context, and translate it into English in accordance
with English Language grammar and meaning, giving no heed to the difference in
grammatical form and function between the TL and the SL.

1.9 Translation of Verbs

In Arabic, there are several types of verb:

1.9.1 Main / Ordinary Verbs

All verbs are main verbs except the types that follow. These verbs have their equivalents
in English with few exceptions. For example, verbs like ‫ جباع‬،‫ شببع‬،‫ حبرن‬،‫ سبعد‬،‫ ؼضبب‬،‫مبرض‬
have no one-to-one equivalents in English. Instead, they are translated into a verb +
adjective as follows (be/feel ill/angry/happy/sad/hungry). However, the quadrilateral form
of some of these verbs have on-to-one equivalent as follows: ‫ أجباع‬،‫ أشببع‬،‫ أحبرن‬،‫ أسبعد‬،‫أؼضبب‬
(anger, bless, sadden, satiate, starve). However, they are unlike verbs that have one-to-
one equivalents like ...‫ عمببل‬،‫ لعببب‬،‫ سببمع‬،‫( أكببل‬eat, hear, play, work, etc.), which are
overwhelming in number.

1.9.2 Imperfective Verbs )‫( (األفعال الناقصة‬e.g. ‫)كان وأخواتها‬

They are thirteen verbs: ‫ مبا‬،‫ مبا فتبا‬، ‫ مبا انفب‬،‫ ما رال‬،‫ ما دام‬،‫ لٌس‬،‫ صار‬،‫ بات‬،‫ أضحى‬،‫ أمسى‬، ‫ أصب‬،‫كان‬
)‫ ظبل‬، ‫ببر‬. Translating them into English has nothing to do with ‘imperfective’ verbs’ or
English ‘modals’, as some wrongly think. They are translated on individual bases either
into equivalent verbs, verb ‘Be’, or an adverb as follows:

- Verb ‘Be’: ‫( كان‬e.g. ‫( كان المطر ؼرٌرا‬rain was heavy)

- One-to-one general equivalent: ‫ أضببحى‬،‫ أمسببى‬،‫ بببات‬، ‫( أصببب‬similar in general
sense of a new change of state) (e.g. ‫أصب الماء ملوثا‬: water became polluted).
- Adverbs: ‫ مبا ببر‬،‫ مبا فتبا‬، ‫ مبا انفب‬،‫ مبا رال‬،‫( مبا دام‬e.g. ‫( مبا رال القتبال مسبتمرا‬fight is still
going on; ‫( ما دمت موافقا لماذا تجادل‬since you agree, why do you keep arguing?)
- Normal equivalent: ‫( ظل‬e.g. ‫( ظل الصبً واقفا‬the boy remained standing up)
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 - Contextual equivalent: ‫( ظببل‬e.g. ‫( ظببل وجهببه مسببودا‬his face turned/became
blackened).

These verbs usually precede a two-noun nominal sentence: a topic and comment/subject
and predicate )‫(مبتبدأ وخببر‬, which are in the nominative case. They change the nominative
)‫المرفببوع‬/‫ (الرفع‬into nominative for the topic and accusative )‫المنصببوب‬/‫ (النصب‬for the
comment, and, thus, the nominal sentence changes into a verbal sentence. However,
there are cases where this rule is broken and, in effect, cause some problems of
translation to students and translators. Here are illustrative examples to discuss:

(The disbelievers from ‫) لبم ٌكبن البذٌن كفبروا مبن أهبل الكتباب والمشبركٌن منفكبٌن حتبى تبأتٌهم البٌنبة‬1
among the people of the Scripture and the polytheists were not leaving until they
had had evidence” → (delayed predicate of ‘kana’)

(you should have attended all the classes) → ‫) كببان علٌب أن تحضببر كببل المحاضببرات‬2
(different meaning in a different context)
(to get the best of something) → (a well-known adage ‫) لبم ٌكبن باإلمكبان أحسبن ممبا كبان‬3
which is understood and translated into a general, idiomatic phrase)
(it was incumbent upon Us to render the believers ‫) وكبان حقببا علٌنببا نصب ُر المببؤمنٌن‬4
triumphant) → (a fronted predicate retained as in the original for it is a part of a
Koranic verse which is translated accurately both in form and content)
(Rain was heavy/heavy was rain) → (the translator has an option ‫) ؼرٌبرا أمسبى المطبر‬5
to retain the foregrounding to mark a deviance and emphasis , or to bring it back
to normal, depending on context)
(and they were doing wrong to themselves) → (disrupted ‫) وأنفسبهم كبانوا ٌظلمببون‬6
structure that can be brought and translated back into normal)
is unusually ‫( كبان‬if their aversion is hard for you…) → (‫) إن كبان كببر علٌب إعراضبهم‬7
followed by a verb, but, in English, the sentence is translated normally and
comfortably)
(The following morning God brought back their bounty to ‫) فأصببحوا قبد أعباد هللا نعمبتهم‬8
them) → (the second nominal element is not stated, but the sentence is
that is used literally ‫أصب‬translated into normal structure and contextual sense of
here)
(Ahmad is still lazy) → (disrupted structure translated into normal ‫) كسوال ما رال أحمب ُد‬9
TL structure)
(He started to rave) → (the imperfective verb is translated ‫) أضبحى ٌهبرؾ بمبا ال ٌعبرؾ‬10
into its functional meaning of ‘start’, followed by a verb phrase ‘to rave’ which
gives the intended sense of the SL proverbial phrase)
( a scholar and an ignorant man are never alike) → ‫) لٌس سواء عالم وجاهل‬11
(the predicate of ‫ لٌس‬is in a fronted position, which permissible in the SL, but in the
TL, it is taken back to its normal back position)
(Fahd keeps his quiet/Fahd is still silent/holding his tongue) → (the ‫) صبامتا مبا دام فهبد‬12
same as the previous one, but the translation of its meaning into English is
idiomatic (keep his quiet).
(they were our noble neighbors) → (irregular use of the verb in ‫) جٌبران لنبا كبانوا كبرام‬13
Arabic classical poetry, but it is rendered normally into English).

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 (They deserved to be in the ‫مشبكور‬
ِ ‫لهبم هنبا بسبعً كبان‬ ‫) فً ؼرؾ الجنة العلٌا التبً وجببت‬14
highly-rated Rooms of Paradise due to their rewarding deeds) → (‘kana’ is
translated contextually into ‘deserve’ along with the prepositional phrase)
(How just Omar is/was!) → !‫) ما كان أعدل عمر‬15
(‫ كان‬can be a dummy verb in English that means zero, and does not imply
a reference to the past. The sentence is translated as though it reads as
follows: !‫ما أعدل عمر‬. However, the other option of translating it into ‘was’
is possible.
(do this if you can’t do anything else) → ‫) إفعل هذا إن كنت ال تفعل ؼٌره‬16
(‫ كان‬is followed by a clause, but in English, it disappears to leave a room for the
two conditional clauses of ‘if’ in the present tense to flow fluently)
(wasn’t I your neighbor?) → (a question into a question)‫) ألم أ جاركم؟‬17
(the mirror did not reflect handsomeness) → ‫) لم ت المرآةُ أبدت وسامة‬18
(a clause following the contracted ُ ‫( ت‬i.e. ‫)كان‬, which makes the translation of
the sentence into a normal structure)
(I never knew reading; I am quite illiterate; I don’t know how to read at ‫) ما كنت بقارئ‬19
for assertion, so the English ‫ كان‬is attached to the predicate of )‫(ب‬all) → The letter
translation has to take this into account in a translation that cannot trace the
imperfective verb and its past tense for it might refer to the past as well as the
present tense. In fact, several versions can be suggested for this sentence in
English).
(God is surely the best of all judges) → ‫) ألٌس هللا بأحكم الحاكمٌن؟‬20
(the letter )‫ (ب‬is attached to the predicate of ‫ كبان‬for stronger emphasis. The rhetorical
question of the original is translated pragmatically into an emphatic statement rather than
into a question for God is no doubt the best of Judges, so there is no need to ask a
question about indelible facts)

Commenting on these examples, the two nominal elements following the group of verbs
of ‫ كبان‬are either disrupted, delayed until later in the sentence, replaced with verbs or the
whole meaning of the structure is changed in a new context. We conclude that these
imperfective verbs do not have ready-made one-to-one equivalent in English, and the
translator is required to check the context of the imperfective verb and translate it
contextually rather than individually. From a contrastive viewpoint, these verbs can be
translated in general terms into English as follows:

Arabic imperfective verbs Their English Equivalents

(1) ‫كان‬ (1) Be + lexical verbs
(2) ‫أصب‬ (2) Lexical verb (Become/turn) +
morning NP
(3) ‫أمسى‬ (3) Lexical verb (start, become)
(4) ‫أضحى‬ (4) Same as (3)
(5) Lexical verb (Turn, become)
(5) ‫بات‬ (6) Lexical verb (become, turn up)
(6) ‫صار‬
(7) ‫لٌس‬ (7) Negative particle (not, no, etc.)
(8) ‫ما دام‬ (8) Lexical verb (remain) + adv.
(9) ‫ما رال‬ (since / still, as long as)
(10) ‫ما انف‬
(9) (10-12) still, is still)
65
 (11) ‫ما فتا‬ (13) Lexical verb (continue(d) to,
(12) ‫ما بر‬ remained, turned, became)
(13) ‫ظل‬

I restress the point that ‘modal auxiliaries’ are wrongly translated into )‫(أفعببال ناقصببة‬
‘imperfective/defective verbs’ for, in comparison to the Arabic imperfectives above, they
are an entirely different group of verbs, with different forms, meanings and functions in
both languages, as illustrated in the next list:

English Auxiliary verbs )‫(األفعال المساعدة باإلنجلٌرٌة‬

(i) Auxiliaries as full verbs)‫ربٌسٌة‬/‫( (األفعال المساعدة كافعال كاملة‬BE, HAVE, DO)
(ii) Modal auxiliaries )‫( (األفعبال المسباعدة المتعبددة الصبٌػ والوظبابؾ‬will, would, shall, should,
can, could, may, might, must, ought to, dare, need)
(iii) Primary auxiliaries (see 'a').)‫(األفعال المساعدة الربٌسٌة‬
(iv) Quasi/semi- auxiliaries )‫( (األفعال شبه المساعدة‬used to, be going to, etc.)
(v) Marginal auxiliaries )‫( (األفعال المساعدة الصٌؽٌة الثانوٌة‬see 'a' and 'd')
(vi) Epistemic modals )‫اإلدراكٌبة‬/‫( (األفعبال المسباعدة المعرفٌة‬e.g. "If he couldn't be there",
etc.)
(vii) Non-epistemic modals )‫ؼٌر اإلدراكٌبة‬/‫( (األفعبال المسباعدة ؼٌبر المعرفٌبة‬e.g. "He can't have
been there", etc.)

There are ten main auxiliary verbs (or modals / modal auxiliaries) in English: ‘can,
could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought to’. They create several
problems of translation for two major reasons:

(1) They do not have one-to-one single semantic equivalent in Arabic. Moreover,
there is no grammatical class of verbs called modal auxiliaries )‫ (أفعاؿ مساعدة‬in
Arabic. The so-called Arabic 'imperfective / defective verbs' )‫ (أفعاؿ ناقصة‬are
different.
(2) They have several, complex and complicated functions in English. Here is a
short list with the main functions of each of these verbs (mostly adopted from
Quirk et al (1973: 52-57):

1. 'CAN': present ability, possibility, permission; willingness; ‫(يستطيع‬

)‫ ٌستطٌع أن بالتأكٌد‬،‫لك سمحت‬/‫ ىؿ بانمكاف‬،‫ يمكف أف‬،‫بمقدكره‬/‫أف‬
2. 'COULD': past ability/possibility, present/future permission; present
possibility, willingness; ،‫هل لً أن‬/ً‫ هل تسم ل‬،‫ تمكن من أن‬،‫(استطاع أن‬
)...‫ بمقدوري بالتأكٌد أن‬،‫أستطٌع أن‬
3. 'MAY': permission, possibility; )...‫ب مكانً أن‬/‫ ٌمكن أن‬،...‫(هل ب مكانً أن‬
4. 'MIGHT': possibility/probability; )‫ من المحتمل‬/‫قد‬/‫(ٌمكن أن‬
5. 'SHALL': future (restricted use), willingness, intention, insistence,
(legal)obligation; ‫ من‬/‫ سوؾ أفعل ٌقٌنا‬،‫ سأفعل‬،‫ بالتأكٌد سوؾ‬،)‫سوؾ(نادرة اآلن‬
))‫ ٌجب أن (فً القانون‬، ‫دون ش‬
6. 'SHOULD': less categorical obligation, logical necessity, putative use,
contingent use, formal real conditions; ‫ كان علٌ أن (تفعل‬،‫ البد أن‬،‫(ٌنبؽً أن‬
)‫شٌبا لكن لم تفعله‬
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 7. 'WILL': future (preferable in use to 'shall'), certainty, willingness,
insistence, prediction; ‫ سأفعل‬،‫توكٌد‬/‫ ٌقٌن‬،‫ س للمستقبل القرٌب والبعٌد‬/‫(سوؾ‬
)‫ ٌُفترض‬،‫ سأفعل بكل تأكٌد‬،‫ٌقٌنا‬
8. 'WOULD': past future, request, probability, willingness, insistence,
contingent use in the main clause of a conditional use,
volition(especially with 'would rather'); ،‫إذا أمكن‬/‫ لو سمحت‬،... ‫(كان سوؾ‬
‫ لحصل كذا‬/‫لكان‬... ‫ لو كان‬،‫حبذا لو‬/‫من المحتمل‬
9. 'MUST': more categorical obligation / compulsion, logical
necessity; )‫الرم‬/‫ ٌلرم‬/ً‫من المنطق‬/‫ من الضروري‬،)‫(ٌجب أن (وجوب قوي‬
10. 'OUGHT TO': less categorical obligation, logical necessity /‫(ٌتوجب أن‬
)...‫الالرم أن‬/‫ من الضروري‬،)‫على (وجوب أضعؾ من سابقتها‬

In Arabic, the translator's concern and skill is manifested by drawing a comparison

between these verbs and their counterparts in Arabic, if any. Here are some points of
comparison:

First, there are no auxiliary verbs, the literally called )‫ (أفعال مساعدة‬in Arabic. Some of
them are lexical verbs (e.g. ً‫ ٌنبؽ‬،‫ ٌجب‬،‫ ٌقدر‬،‫ ٌتمكن‬،‫ ٌمكن‬،‫(ٌستطٌع‬, others are just particles
(e.g. ‫ ربما‬،‫ قد‬،‫ سوؾ‬/ ‫(سـ‬, as illustrated in the Arabic translation of them.

Second, they are not translated into one-to-one Arabic equivalents, but into their implied
meanings and multi-functions of possibility, permission, obligation, request, probability,
insistence, necessity, futurity, etc.

Third, the absence of one-to-one equivalent in Arabic does not obstruct their translation
satisfactorily and accurately. Therefore, translators and students should not insist on
browsing Arabic language for one-to-one equivalent for any of them. After all it will be
futile for simply it is not there, and the term ‫( أفعببال ناقصببة‬imperfective verbs) are a
completely different category of verbs in Arabic, as demonstrated below. After all, the
term 'modality' is not found in Arabic but only partly and loosely as one of the following
terms: ‫ تعبٌبر المتحبدث عبن موقبؾ‬،‫ ذرابعٌبة‬،‫ شبرطٌة‬،‫ منظبور‬،‫ موقبؾ‬،‫ توجهٌبة‬،‫ موقفٌبة‬،‫ صبٌؽٌة‬،‫مشبروطٌة‬. The
English term includes all these senses at the same time. These translations are expressive
of the different meanings and functions of modal auxiliaries.

1.9.3 Exclamation Verbs )‫( (أفعال التعجب‬e.g. !‫أكرم به‬

ِ ،‫أقب ْح‬
ِ ،‫أحبب‬
ْ !‫ ما أحسن‬،!‫(سبحان هللا‬

Exclamation has several forms in Arabic, some of which have one-to-one equivalent, some
have zero-equivalent. Here are examples:

Glorified is God !‫سبحان هللا‬ )1(

Oh, Great God!‫هللا أكبر‬ )2(
Oh, God; Dear me !ً‫ٌا إله‬ )3(
God/Allah! !‫ٌا هللا‬ )4(
Oh, God, what a great scholar he is! ‫هلل دره عالما‬ )5(
Oh, God, how great you are! !‫هلل أنت‬ )6(
What a boy! !ً‫ٌا ل من صب‬ )7(
What a great man he is! !‫حسب به رجال‬ )8(

67
How stupid that you disbelieve in God Who gave ‫) كٌبؾ تكفبرون بباهلل وكنبتم أمواتبا فأحٌباكم‬9(
you life from death!
Oh, sad Laila! What a pity, Laila! !‫) واها للٌلى ثم واها ثم واها‬10(

Obviously, these special several forms of exclamation are translated by implication into
usually special, different semantic equivalent forms in English. However, our point here is
concerned with the verbs of exclamation, which are two forms (or root measures) only in
Arabic:

(1) ‫ما أفعل‬

(2) ‫أفعِل به‬

These are applied to trilateral radical/root verbs that cannot be imperfective, or participle-
like adjectives )‫ (صبفات مشببهة باسبم الفاعبل‬of the mould ‫( أفعبل‬e.g. ‫ أشبٌب‬،‫ أعبرج‬،‫ أصبفر‬،‫( أحمبر‬red,
yellow, limp, gray). There are exceptions, but exceptions are exceptions. Here are
illustrative examples:

How Generous God is! !‫ما أكرم هللا‬ )1

How delicious/sweet this fruit is! !‫ما أطٌب هذا الثمر‬ )2
How faithful he is; what a man of faith he is! !‫ما أشد إٌمانه‬ )3
How pretty/lovely this little child is! !‫ما أُحٌالها من طفلة‬ )4
How good is patience! !‫ما أجمل الصبر‬ )5
How splendid you are! ! ‫ما أروع‬ )6
How black his eyes are! !‫أشدد بسواد عٌنه‬ )7
What a great friend he is! ! ٌ‫أعظِ م به من صد‬ )8
How ugly ignorance is! !‫أقب بالجهل‬ ِ )9
how submissive I am to truth! ! ‫ما أكثر إذعانً للح‬ )10
What a man! !‫ما أرجله‬ )11

The problems of translating these examples into English can be sorted out as shown in the
translations above. That is, the two forms of ‘Arabic exclamation verbs are translated
semantically and interchangeably into either of the following two English forms without
taking heed to the Arabic literal forms:

(i) How + adj.

(ii) What + adj./noun

1.9.4 Praise and Dispraise Verbs )‫ (أفعال المد والذم‬...،‫ ال حبذا‬،‫ ساء‬،‫ ببس‬/ ّ‫ حب‬،‫ حبذا‬،‫(نعم‬

These verbs have special forms in Arabic. They are two groups:

(1) Verbs of praise: ّ‫ حب‬،‫ حبذا‬،‫( نعم‬all are in the sense of praising somebody)
(2) Verbs of dispraise: ‫ ال حببذا‬،‫ سباء‬،‫( بببس‬all imply a similar sense of criticism of
somebody).

Interestingly, none of these verbs has one-to-one-equivalent either in form or in meaning

in the TL. However, they can simply be translated into ‘like’ and its synonymous words and
phrases (for the first group), and ‘dislike’ and its synonyms (for the second). Which word
68
or phrase to use is determined by the context of the text, as illustrated in the following
examples for both groups in a row:

And excellent will surely be the home of the pious ‫ول ِنعم دار المتقٌن‬ )1
How excellent is the teaching of God to you ‫إن هللا ن ِعمّا ٌعظكم به‬ )2
how excellent is the family’s nephew ‫ِنعم ابن أخت األسرة‬ )3
What a good friend Salem is ‫نعم الصدٌ ُ سالم‬ )4
how excellent is the book’s company ‫أال حبذا صحبة الكتاب‬ )5
how great the school days are?‫أحبب بأٌام الدراسة‬ )6
Evil indeed is the place to which they are led. ‫ببس الورد المورود‬ )7
Worst is the judgment they draw; their judgment is the worst of all ‫ساء ما ٌحكمون‬ )8
How bas/terrible anger is; anger is abhorrent/deplorable ‫الحبذا الؽضب‬ )9
How evil the dictator of Syria is; the Syrian oppressor is ‫بببس البربٌس طاؼٌبة الشبام‬ )10
horrendously evil.

The translations demonstrate, first, that the parsing cases and grammatical forms of the
original are irrelevant in English due to their absence from English grammar. Secondly,
these verbs are translated into sense in an English normal (which is less emphatic), or
exclamatory structure, which is more emphatic of the implications of the original. We may
understand that by understanding the difference between the two statements describing
the same person, the first of which is normal; the second is emphatic:

(i) He is great/a great man

(ii) How great that man is/ that man is really great

1.9.5 Wishfulness Verbs )‫( (أفعال الرجاء‬e.g. ... ‫ اخلولق‬،‫ حرى‬،‫(عسى‬

Like the verbs of ‫كبان‬, the verbs of wishfulness are imperfective. They indicate that an
action is impending, and about to take place. They have no one-to-one equivalent in
English, so they are translated into sense in any form of verb, or phrase that may render
their meaning. These include all words and phrases of probability, likelihood and
wishfulness like: probably, perhaps, likely, wish to, etc. However, there are exceptions
when they are used for certainty that can be concluded from the context of the Arabic
texts. Here are examples:

(so that) your Lord may /will mercy you ‫عسى ربكم أن ٌرحمكم‬ )1(
may God bring them all to me; I am very hopeful that God ‫عسى هللا أن ٌأتٌنً بهم جمٌعا‬ )2(
will bring…
God will verily raise you to a high position (of ‫عسى أن ٌبعث رب مقاما محمودا‬ )3(
intercession) of praised glory
Sinners may repent (one day); we wish that sinners repent ‫اخلول العاصً أن ٌتوب‬ )4(
The sick man may recover/get well ‫حرى المرٌض أن ٌشفى‬ )5(

The most likely English words and expressions to translate Arabic ‘wishfulness verbs’ are
those related to hopefulness and likelihood in a positive sense (e.g. may, hopeful(ly), wish,
etc. However, an exception to this rule is the translation of these verbs into a sense of
certainty when they mean that something is going to take place for sure in the future.
Example (3) implies inevitability of realization of God’s promise to His Messenger,
69
Mohammad peace be to him ‘to raise him to a high position of intercession on the Day of
Judgment.

1.9.6 Imminence Verbs )‫( (أفعال الشك‬e.g. ‫ كرب‬،‫ أوشك‬،‫)كاد‬

These verbs give the sense and impression that something is/was about to happen. Due to
their absence from English lexicon, they are translated into phrases of imminence, as in
the following:

The suspicious person is/was about to confess ً‫كاد المرٌب ٌقول خذون‬ )1(
The morning is/was about to break/on the verge of ‫كرب الصب أن ٌنبل‬ )2(
breaking
the child is/was about to break the secret ‫أوش الطفل أن ٌبو بالسر‬ )3(
They almost understand nothing; they barely ‫ال ٌكادون ٌفقهون قوال‬ )4(
understand an utterance
we are/were about to ‫كدنا نؽر‬ )5(
I am almost certain that he is a liar ‫أكاد أجرم أنه كاذب‬ )6(

Obviously, there are no equivalent verb forms or structures for these Arabic verbs in
English, but equivalent words, phrases or expressions (underlined). Another point which is
important to note is the double reference of these verbs to present and/or past, not only
to the past, as their past forms may indicate.

1.9.7 Inception Verbs )‫( (أفعال الشروع‬e.g. ... ‫ انبرى‬،‫ قام‬،‫ ابتدأ‬،‫ بدأ‬،‫هب‬
َّ ،‫ أنشأ‬،‫ جعل‬،‫(شرع‬

These verbs are used to mean that somebody has just started, or was just about to start
doing something. When, used in this sense, they are translated functionally into English as
lexical verbs, or phrases that express this meaning of incepting an action. However, some
of these verbs have different meanings in different contexts and, hence, they are treated
as full verbs, rather than imperfective verbs. For example, ‫ جعبل‬may also mean ‘change,
make’ among other meanings. Here are translated examples for inception verbs:

The man started to cry out of joy ‫جعل الرجل ٌبكً من شدة الفر‬ )1(
He started to read the names on the list ‫أخذ ٌقرأ األسماء المسجلة فً القابمة‬ )2(
He began to pray/praying ً‫أنشأ علً ٌصل‬ )3(
They began to fight ‫قاموا ٌتقاتلون‬ )4(
They launched a discussion; they started/initiated a ‫انبببروا ٌتناقشببون‬ )5(
discussion; they began to discuss something
The workers incepted a protest; the laborers ‫فً االحتجباج‬/‫شرع العمال ٌحتجبون‬ )6(
started a protest

As the translations show, inception verbs are translated into the lexical verbs of beginning
an action: ‘start, begin, incept, launch and initiate’, depending on collocation and word
combination. These verbs are interchangeable in the Arabic original in the sense that any
of the examples above cab be comfortably started with any of the other verbs of the other
examples. Hence, they do not pose a big problem of translation into English. The only
problem for the student/translator is the possibility of misunderstanding the intended
70
sense of some of them like ‫( جعبل‬see above), ‫( أخبذ‬take), ‫( أنشبأ‬compose), ‫( قبام‬stand up), etc.
So, before translating, and as pointed out in the Introduction earlier, the translator has to
read the Arabic carefully to avoid misunderstanding anything.

1.9.8 Innermost Verbs: Verbs of Certainty )‫ أفعبال الٌقبٌن‬:‫( (أفعبال القلبوب‬e.g. ،‫ أرى‬،‫ درى‬،‫ علبم‬،‫رأى‬
)... ،‫ خبَّر‬،‫ نبّأ‬،‫أعلم‬

These are described as ‘innermost verbs’ because they are expressive of innermost, ‘heart’
perception of their meanings. This means that there is a distinction to be drawn between
the innermost and outermost (i.e. ordinary) senses of the verb. For example, ‫ رأى‬has two
senses, innermost and visual,; the latter takes one object, but the former has two objects.
That said, the translation of both is the same into English (i.e. see) for reasons explained
below following the examples. Innermost verbs are two types: verbs of certainty, and
verbs of uncertainty/reckoning. By The way, the verbs of these and transformation groups
take two objects that are originally of the nominal structure, ‘topic and comment’ ‫(أصبلها‬
)‫مبتبدأ وخببر‬. That is they can stand independently as a nominal structure of a grammatically
and semantically complete sentence. We start with discussing examples of verbs of
certainty:

I saw God great ‫رأٌت هللا كبٌرا‬ )1(

He saw the moon shining/rising up ‫رأى القمر بارؼا‬ )2(
To our knowledge you are not miserly ‫ال نعلم بخٌال‬ )3(
we used to know you generous ‫علمنا كرٌما‬ )4(
I knew about the good news; I heard of the good news ‫علمنا الخبر سارا‬ )5(
I have found the book the best friend ‫وجدت الكتاب خٌر جلٌس‬ )6(
We found her saying right; we realized that what she said was true ‫ألفٌنا قولها صوابا‬ )7(

By way of illustration, the sentences can be taken back to their origins as nominal
structures of ‘topic and comment’ as follows:

God is great ‫هللا كبٌر‬ )1(

The moon is shining/rising up ‫القمر بارغ‬ )2(
You are not miserly ‫أنت بخٌل‬ )3(
You are generous/noble ‫أنت كرٌم‬ )4(
the news is good ‫الخبر سار‬ )5(
The book is the best friend ‫الكتاب خٌر جلٌس‬ )6(
Her saying is right / what she says is true ‫قولها صواب‬ )7(

As to their translation, one-to-one equivalents are sometimes available in English, but this
does not mean that translators are obliged to stick to them when other equally good
options are in stock (e.g. 5, 7). On the other hand, the translation of ‘1’ and ‘2’ are not
affected by the innermost and visual ‫ رأى‬for both are translated into ‘saw’.

 Innermost Verbs: verbs of uncertainty/reckoning/likelihood )‫ أفعبال الظبن‬:‫(أفعبال القلبوب‬

(e.g. ...،‫ رعم‬،‫ خال‬،‫ ظن‬،‫)ألفى‬

71
 These verbs indicate the likelihood of an action to take place. Further, they can
usually be used to express reckoning, and, in another context, may be expressive of
likely certainty, as illustrated in the following examples:

I thought you were a man, but you disappointed me ً‫) ظننت رجال لكن خذلتن‬1(
I thought it was easy (but it was not) ‫) ظننت األمر سهال‬2(
I believe it is easy ‫) أظن األمر سهال‬3(
she thinks/believes she has a name to be called with ‫) تخال أن لها اسما تنادى به‬4(
I believe / I am sure that he is a lover ‫) إخاله عاشقا‬5(
I reckoned/reckon that praying is a peace of mind (and it is)‫) حسبت الصالة طمأنٌنة‬6(
a man who does not know them thinks them rich due to ‫) ٌحسبهم الجاهل أؼنٌاء من التعفؾ‬7(
their modesty
They claimed that the Angels are females ‫) جعلوا المالبكة إناثا‬8(
He thinks/thought that money is happiness/happiness lies in money ‫) عد المال سعادة‬9(
We thought of him an old man, so he got angry ‫) رعمناه شٌخا فؽضب‬10(
presume that he is dead and forget him ‫) هبْه مٌتا وانس أمره‬11(
I claim that I know something about translation ‫) أرعم أننً أعرؾ شٌبا عن الترجمة‬12(

The English translations of these Arabic verbs of reckoning confirm that equivalent words
are available in the TL (think, claim, suppose, presume, reckon, figure, believe, etc.). Yet,
as to whether the verb is positive / negative, reckoning or certainty, it is the translator’s
responsibility to understand that from the context of the text. For example, ‘1’ tells about
itself as negative, whereas the second does not, but in comparison to the third, we may
conclude that from the use of the past in the former as indicative of negative reckoning,
whereas the latter is positive due to the use of the present tense which implies positive
reckoning here. As to ‘4’, it is certain reckoning with a style of expressing anger, or irony,
for nobody does not know his/her name. ‘5’ and ‘6’ are positive by implication as well as
the use of present simple, whereas ‘8’ is not true reckoning by context. ‘9-10’ imply false
reckoning as a result of concrete experience, while ‘11’ is expressive of a premeditated
hypothetical presupposition. The last example is translated literally into English and
understood as certain reckoning out of the speaker’s/writer’s modesty. It is a favorable
style of writing to express the writer’s modesty despite the fact that he / she is certain of
what he/she says.

1.9.9 Transformation Verbs )‫( (أفعال التحوٌل‬e.g. ... ،‫ تخِذ‬،‫ وهب‬،‫ جعل‬،‫ اتخذ‬، ‫ تر‬،ّ‫ رد‬،‫(صٌَّر‬

Like those of the innermost verbs, these verbs require two objects whose origin is ‘topic
and comment’ nominal structure (see above). Many of them have direct equivalents of
some kind in English, as the next examples may demonstrate:

they made their friend an enemy, and their enemy a ‫صٌروا العدو صبدٌقا والصبدٌ عبدوا‬ )1(
friend
She changed her gray hair black; she dyed her white hair ‫ردت شبعرها األببٌض أسبودا‬ )2(
black.
We left him strong ‫تركناه قوٌا‬ )3(
God took Abraham an intimate friend ‫واتخذ هللاُ إبراهٌم خلٌال‬ )4(
They made their life a hell ‫جعلوا حٌاتهم جحٌما‬ )5(
I took you a friend ‫تخِذت صدٌقا‬ )6(
72
 God made me your ransom ‫) وهبنً هللا فدا‬7(

These verbs take two objects that are originally ‘topic and comment’ on the condition that
they mean ‘change’. However, if they are used in normal senses that do not involve some
kind of change, they take only one object. This is the major problem that might confront
the translator of these verbs. Here are examples for some of these verbs in their direct,
normal sense:

I returned the book to my friend ً‫رددت الكتاب إلى صدٌق‬ )1(

We left the job in that establishment ‫تركنا العمل فً تل المؤسسة‬ )2(
She dedicated her life to her children ‫وهبت حٌاتها ألوالدها‬ )3(
We made/created from water every living thing ًٍ‫وجعلنا من الماء كل شً ٍء ح‬ )4(
The president took new decisions ‫اتخذ الربٌس قرارات جدٌدة‬ )5(

The translation of these verbs is straightforward and hardly poses a difficult problem. It is
the translator’s responsibility to distinguish the contextual meaning of these verbs.

1.9.10 "Give" Set of Verbs ))‫( (أفعال أعطى وأخواتها‬e.g. ‫ علَّم‬،‫ ألبس‬،‫ كسا‬،‫ سأل‬،‫ منع‬، ‫ من‬،‫)أعطى‬

These verbs comprise one group on the basis of their grammatical function of requiring
two objects called the first and the second. These objects are not a nominal structure of
‘topic and comment’ )‫ (لبٌس أصبلها مبتبدأ وخببر‬by origin (e.g. we cannot say in Arabic ‫هبم دروس؛‬
...‫ المبدرس سبؤال‬،‫( مجلبس اإلدارة جبابرة‬see examples below). This is the difference between these
verbs and those of ‘innermost and transformation’ groups discussed above, whose objects
are originally a ‘topic and comment’ nominal structure. In English, many of them take two
objects as well, direct (i.e. the first) and indirect (i.e. the second), as confirmed by these
examples:

He gave them lectures; he lectured them; he gave them a ‫أعطباهم دروسبا فبً األخبال‬ )1(
lesson
the board of directors granted him a prize/ reward ‫منحه مجلس اإلدارة جابرة‬ )2(
The headmaster denied children their toys ‫منع المدٌر األطفال األلعاب‬ )3(
She dressed the poor man a dress ‫ت الفقٌر ثوبا‬ ِ ‫كس‬ )4(
They dressed the bride a white dress; they dressed the bride ‫ألبسوا العروس ثوبا أببٌض‬ )5(
in white
we taught him a craft ‫علمناه حرفة‬ )6(
The female student asked the teacher a question ‫سألت الطالب ُة المدرس سؤاال‬ )7(

Interestingly, all these verbs have one-to-one English equivalent each: direct and indirect.
Hence, their translation into English is not quite problematic. However, the fact that their
two objects are not originally nominal structures is irrelevant in their translations.

1.9.11 Imperative Verbs )‫( (أفعال األمر‬e.g. ...،‫ إقرأ‬،‫ اِسمع‬،‫(اِفعل‬

There is nothing special or problematic about the translation of Arabic imperative verbs
into English for any Arabic imperative form, be it singular, dual, masculine or plural of all
types, male or female. For example, all forms of the verbs of ‫ قرأ‬in the imperative (i.e. ،‫(اقرأ‬
‫ اقرأن‬،‫ اقرؤا‬،‫ اقرآ‬،ً‫ اقرب‬are translated into one form of English imperative verb, ‘read’.
73
Added to these verbs are three grammatical imperative forms: nominal (1-13), adverbial
(14-18), prepositional (18-19) and letter (20) imperative verbal constructions ( ،‫اسبم فعبل أمبر‬
)ً‫ وفعبل أمبر حرفب‬،‫ وفعبل أمبر جبري‬،ً‫وفعل أمر ظرفب‬. The first is the most recurrent type. These are
verbal structures used in Arabic to function as imperative. Here are examples:

respond/answer ‫ اعزدت‬:ٍِٓ‫) آ‬1(

hush, keep silent/quiet ‫ اعىذ‬:ْٗ‫) ص‬2(
َّ :ِْٗ )3(
stop it ‫وف‬
carry on; continue talking ‫ صد ِٓ زذٌثه‬:ِٗ ٌِ‫) إ‬4(
stop, enough ‫ اوزف‬: ِّ‫) ثظ‬5(
stop it; keep away/off ‫ اثزعذ‬،‫ف‬ َّ ‫ ُو‬:ً‫ب‬ٌِٙ‫) إ‬6(
َ
come on/hurry up to (prayer) ًِْ‫ ألج‬:‫ً عٍى اٌفالذ‬ َّ ‫) ز‬7(
do something/it ٗ‫ ائز‬:‫ًَ األِش‬ٍّٙ‫) ز‬8(
come on, do it ً‫ أَ ْلج‬:‫) عٍى األَِش‬9(
hurry up to something ًِّ‫ عد‬:‫ثبألَِش‬ٚ ‫) إٌى األَِش‬10(
hurry up, be quick ‫ أعشع‬،‫) ٍ٘ب = ٍْ٘ذ‬11(
come (on) ‫ رعبي‬:ُّ ٍُ٘ )12(
slow down; wait ‫ ارئذ‬:َ‫) رَ ٍْذ‬13(
(come on and) take it ٖ‫ خز‬: َّٓ‫ٌذٌه) اٌث‬/‫ٔه (عٕذن‬ٚ‫) د‬14(
don’t move, stop ‫ اثجذ‬:‫) ِىبٔه‬15(
advance, proceed, go/come forward; َ‫ رمذ‬:‫) أَِبِه‬16(
get back, stay behind‫ رأَخش‬:‫سا َءن‬ٚ )17(
keep away from me; leave me alone ‫ رٕ َّر‬:ًٕ‫) إٌٍه ع‬18(
hold on to your brother; don’t leave your brother alone ِٗ‫ اٌض‬:‫) عٍٍه أَخبن‬19(
Take your right; take it .ٖ‫ خز‬:)‫٘ب‬/‫) ٘بن زمه (٘ب َء‬20(

As the translations demonstrate, these Arabic imperative constructions are treated as

imperative verbs in English. In other words, they are translated semantically and
functionally because, simply, they are not available in English.

1.9.12 Passive and Active Verbs (e.g. ...‫ ُسمِع‬/‫ سمع‬،‫هُرم‬/‫ هرم‬،‫ع ُِرؾ‬/‫ عرؾ‬،‫كرم‬ُ
ِ ‫أ‬/‫ أكرم‬،‫قٌل‬/‫)قال‬

The passive and active forms of verbs in Arabic and English are different from one
another, and it is not problematic to distinguish between them. What is problematic is the
translation of Arabic passive constructions into English. The difficulty relates to the
complicated forms of passives in English in different tenses. This point is developed
further at discussing tense later in this chapter. However, for the time being, few
examples can be suggested for illustration.

a lot of fuss has been said; (was said; had been said) ‫قٌل لؽط كثٌر حول القضٌة‬ )1(
At the exam, man is honored or dishonored (will be ‫ ٌُكبرم المبرء أو ٌهبان‬،‫فبً االمتحبان‬ )2(
honored…)
If why is/was known, no wonder then ‫بطل العجب‬ ُ ،‫إذا عُرؾ السبب‬ )3(
ِ
our team was (has been/had been) beaten unexpectedly ‫هُرم فرٌقنا هرٌمة ؼٌر متوقعة‬ )4(
the speaker is not/cannot be heard at the back of the ‫ال ٌُسبمع الخطٌبب فبً آخبر المسبجد‬ )5(
mosque
The disbelievers will be driven to hell in groups ‫وسٌ الذٌن كفروا إلى جهنم رمرا‬ )6(

74
The problem for the translator with these examples is, first, to know very well the passive
forms of verbs in English, and, secondly, the appropriate English tense of the passive verbs
to be used, which is, sometimes, not marked clearly in Arabic, as the underlined options
above may confirm. The last example is quite a problem for it is simple past in Arabic with
a future reference, being a unique use in the Holy Koran only. More on that is forthcoming
in this chapter. As to which to use, passive or active, is a matter of style, which is
investigated exhaustively later in Chapter Three on ‘Stylistic Problems’ (the style of passive
vs. active).

1.9.13 Non-augmented/Root vs. Augmented/Derivative Verbs )‫(األفعال المجردة‬

Non-augmented verbs are those with their trilateral, or quadrilateral root letters only,
with nothing prefixed to, suffixed to, or inserted in between (e.g.)‫ دحبرج‬،‫ صبحا‬،‫ كسبب‬،‫نبام‬. On
the other hand, augmented verbs are derived from root verbs (e.g. ،‫ ٌصبحون‬،‫ اكتسبب‬،‫ٌنبام‬
‫)تبدحرج‬. They do not pose a real problem of translation into English as far as grammar is
concerned, and, lexically, as main verbs, they have their equivalents in English. Still, there
is a problem posed by the difficulty of translating them into English.

1.9.14 Inflectional Verbs )‫(األفعال المتصرفة‬

Inflectional verbs are the great majority of verbs in Arabic. They are flexible verbs that are
derivatives or source of derivation . In other words, they are the augmented and non-
augmented verbs in language (e.g. ...‫ سببنلملم‬،‫ ٌلملببم‬،‫ لملببم‬،‫ ٌعمببل‬،‫ اسببتعمل‬،‫ عمببل‬،‫ علمنببا‬،‫ ٌعلببم‬،‫)علببم‬,
except for non-inflectional verbs (see below) . They are translatable into English either in
identical, or different form.

1.9.15 Non-inflectional Verbs )‫( (األفعال الجامدة‬e.g. ...،‫ نعم‬،‫ ببس‬،‫ هل ّم‬،‫(عسى‬

These verbs have one stationary, unchanged form in all texts and contexts. So they resist
derivation, and are not related to a specific time or place. Although they do not one-to-
one equivalent in English, they do not pose a real problem of translation for they are
translated comfortably into their sense (see above).

1.9.16 Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs )‫(األفعال الالرمة والمتعدٌة‬:

Transitive and intransitive verbs are sometimes difficult to discern in both languages. Still
more problematic is the distinction between different types of transitive verbs:

a) Mono-transitive )‫(أفعببال متعدٌببة لمفعببول واحببد‬: one object in both languages (the
majority of verbs)
b) Di-transitive )‫(أفعبال متعدٌبة لمفعبولٌن‬: two objects in both languages (e.g. in Arabic:
verbs of 1.9.8, 19.9 and 1.9.10 above).
c) Tri-transitive )‫(أفعبال متعدٌبة لثالثبة مفاعٌبل‬: Three objects in Arabic only (e.g. ،‫ أعلبم‬،‫أرى‬
)‫ ٌحبببدَّث‬،‫ ٌخ ِّببببر‬،‫ ٌخببببر‬،‫ ٌن ِّببببا‬،‫ ٌ ْنببببا‬،‫ ٌُعلِبببم‬،‫ ٌُبببري‬:‫ حبببدَّث (مضبببارعها‬،‫ خ َّببببر‬،‫ أخببببر‬،‫أنببببأ‬. Here are
translated examples:

I showed my friend the truth crystal clear ‫) أرٌت صدٌقً الحقٌقة ساطعة‬1(
He informed us of the news clearly ‫) أعلمنا الخبر واضحا‬2(
75
 she broke the scandalous secret to her husband ‫ت روجها السر فاضحا‬ ْ ‫) نبأ‬3(
The manager told them the decision in full ‫) أخبرهم المدٌر القرار كامال‬4(
I told him about the subject in detail ‫) حدّثته الموضوع مفصال‬5(

In English Language, There are verbs that may take two objects (e.g. buy, give, make,
etc.: e.g. ‘they bought her a present’). However, there are no tri-transitive verbs that
take three objects, so the translator has to manage an appropriate structure in English
that is semantically-based, as illustrated in the translations above.

To give interested readers the chance to compare the types of verbs in the two
languages concerned, a brief account of types and sub-types of English main verbs are
provided in the list below (see Quirk et al, 1973; Palmer, 1974 and Crystal, 1980):

English Main /Lexical/Full Verbs:

(a) Intensive verbs (e.g. the girl is a student)

(b) Extensive verbs (e.g. John searched the room; it rained steadily all day)
(c) Transitive verbs (say, eat, write, etc.)
(d) Intransitive verbs (sleep, come, stay, etc.)
(e) Monotransitive verbs (see 'c')
(f) Ditransitive verbs (give, buy, send, etc.)
(g) Complex transitive verbs (they made him a president)
(h) Compound verbs (e.g. make up, take to, run out, etc.)
(i) Regular lexical/full verbs (e.g. like, call, walk, etc.)
(j) Irregular lexical/full verbs (e.g. speak, cut, drive, etc.)
(k) Imperative verbs (do something, stop it, come here, etc.)
(l) Static/stative verbs (e.g. believe, adore, hear, consist of, lack, owe, etc.)
(m) Dynamic verbs (e.g. play, rain, read, change, grow, arrive, leave, lose, etc.)
(n) Finite verbs (e.g. go, ride, respect, etc.)
(o) Non-finite verbs (e.g. going, to go, gone, etc.)
(p) Phrasal verbs (e.g. different lexical meaning put on (shoes, a hat, etc.)
(q) Prepositional verbs (e.g. the same lexical meaning: put (something) on the table,
etc.
(r) Active verbs (they gave him the sack, she punished him, etc.)
(s) Passive verbs (e.g. he was given the sack, she should be punished, etc.)
(t) Quasi/pseudo-passive verbs (e.g. these shirts wash well, the meat cuts easily,
etc.)
(u) Catenative verbs (two full verbs, the first is catenative: e.g. He kept talking; I want
to say something; she saw him drive her car, etc.).
etc.

Having access to a good number of these verbs in the SL as well as the TL, the students
and translators will be armed with more data that would help them solve the problems of
translation more conveniently between Arabic and English.

76
1.10 Translation of Tense

Tense and aspect mark a major grammatical difference between Arabic and English.
Tense (past, present and future) is marked in both languages, whereas aspect
(complete, incomplete, progressive action) is essentially marked clearly only in
English, but completely absent from Arabic grammar. Due to the overlap between
them, tense and aspect are combined together under the topic of 'Tense' for
convenience of discusion and reference.

A major difference between the two languages concerned is in the number of tenses
in each. While Arabic has only two major tenses, PAST (ً‫)الماض‬, and PRESENT
(‫)المضارع‬, in English, there are up to eighteen tenses (see Quirk et al, 1973: 40-52).
However, the most common of which are twelve:

PAST TENSES:

(a) Past simple: (e.g. They worked) (ASPECT: action in the past)
(b) Past progressive: (e.g. They were working) (ASPECT: continuing at the time of
expressing it in the past
(c) Past perfect: (They had worked) (ASPECT: lasted for a duration of time and
completed in the past)
(d) Past perfect progressive: (e.g. They had been working) (ASPECT: still
continuing over a duration of time at the time of expressing it in the past)

PRESENT TENSES:
(a) Present simple: (e.g. They work) (ASPECT: habitual, permanent and timeless
action)
(b) Present progressive: (e.g. They were working) (ASPECT: continuing at the
time of speaking in the present)
(c) Present perfect (e.g. They had worked) (ASPECT: started in the past and
continued for a duration of time and has justed finished)
(d) Present perfect progressive: (e.g. They have been working) (ASPECT: started
in the past and continued over a span of time and is still continuing up to the
present time of expressing it)

FUTURE TENSES:
(a) Future simple: (e.g. They will work) (ASPECT: unspecified time of action in
the future)
(b) Future progressive: (e.g. They will be working) (ASPECT: continuing in the
future at the time of speaking)
(c) Future perfect (e.g. They will have worked) (ASPECT: started in the future
over a span of time and completed later at the time of speaking)
(d) Future perfect progressive: (e.g. They will have been working) (ASPECT: will
continue for a duration of time and still continuing at the time of speaking)

Theoretically speaking, these tenses can be described as crystal clear, but they are
not so in practice when they are used to translate the only two tenses in Arabic,
77
simple past and simple present into English. Translators have confused the time
reference and aspect of tenses in English, due to the absence of marking them in
Arabic. Therefore, they have to work hard to deduce their time and aspect reference
accurately. More points of discussion are raised in relation to the translation of the
following examples in terms of the two major tenses in Arabic: Past and Present:

1.10.1 Translating the Past Tense

The Arabic past tense is translated into the following English tenses:

(a) Past Simple: e.g. (From the Holy Koran and Prophetic Tradition):

God created the heavens and earth ‫) خل هللا السموات واألرض‬1(

Then He established Himself upon the Throne ‫) استوى على العرش‬2(
.(‫) قل لو كان البحر مدادا لكلمات رببً لنفبد البحبر قببل أن تنفبد كلمبات رببً ولبو جبنبا بمثلبه مبددا )الكهبؾ‬3(
Say: "If the sea were ink for the Words of my Lord, the sea would be
exhausted before the Words of my Lord were exhausted, even if We brought
the like of it again"
The (‫) نهببى رسببول هللا صببلى هللا علٌببه وسببلم عببن الشببراء والبٌببع فببً المسببجد )أبببو داود والترمببذي‬4(
Messenger of God prohibited buying and selling in the mosque
A questioner asked about a torment about to befall (‫) سأل سابل بعذاب واقع )المعارج‬5(
(We (have) created man from drops of (‫) إنا خلقنا اإلنسان مبن نطفبة أمشباج نبتلٌبه )اإلنسبان‬6(
mixed semen in order to try him
Verily, We (have) prepared for (4 :‫ )اإلنسبان‬.‫) إنبا أعتبدنا للكبافرٌن سالسبل وأؼبالال وسبعٌرا‬7(
the disbelievers iron chains and a blazing Fire
That they ascribed a son to the Most Gracious (‫) أن دعوا للرحمن ولدا )مرٌم‬8(
And Indeed We gave (have given) Moses the (‫) ولقببد آتٌنببا موسببى الكتبباب )السببجدة‬9(
Scripture
And indeed We have sent to Thamood 45 :‫) ولقبد أرسبلنا إلبى ثمبود أخباهم صبالحا )النمبل‬10(
their brother Saleh
was there not a period of time .‫) هل أتى علبى اإلنسبان حبٌن مبن البدهر لبم ٌكبن شبٌبا مبذكورا‬11(
when man was a thing not worth mentioning?
And they said: The Most Gracious begot a son!(‫) وقالوا اتخذ الرحمن ولدا )مرٌم‬12(
Indeed you brought forth an abominable thing ‫) لقد جبتم شٌبا إدا‬13(

(b) Past Simple / Present Simple

(God) The Almighty said / says ‫( قال تعالى‬1)

The Messenger of God said / says ‫( قال رسول هللا‬2)

(c) Present Simple

And God is All-knower and All-wise(‫وكان هللا علٌما حكٌما )البقرة‬ (1)
Even though we hate it? (88 :‫أولو كنا كارهٌن )األعراؾ‬ (2)
And to Him belongs whatever reposes in ((13 :‫ولبه مبا سبكن فبً اللٌبل والنهبار )األنعبام‬ (3)
the night and in the day
And when the foolish address them badly, (‫وإذا خاطبهم الجباهلون قبالوا سبالما )الفرقبان‬ (4)
they say peace.
78
And when they sail in a ship, (65 :‫( ف ذا ركبوا فً الفل دعوا هللا مخلصٌن لبه البدٌن )العنكببوت‬5)
they invoke God, sincerely exhibiting unto Him their pure faith
God's blessings and peace be to him ‫( صلى هللا علٌه وسلم‬6)
When the sky will be cleft asunder (‫( إذا السماء انفطرت )االنفطار‬7)
No calamity befalls on the earth (22 :‫( ما أصاب من مصٌبة )الحدٌد‬8)
God guarantees for the one who goes (‫ )رواه مسبلم‬...‫) تضبمن هللا لمبن خبرج فبً سببٌل هللا‬14(
out for fighting in the Cause of God …
Whoever is (‫( من رضً باهلل دٌنا وباإلسالم دٌنا وبمحمد نبٌا نبٌا ورسوال وجبت له الجنة )رواه مسلم‬9)
pleased with God as his Lord, withIslam as his religion and with mohammad
as God's Messenger, surely he will be entitled to enter Paradise
So whoever reprents after his crime and does ‫( فمبن تباب وأصبل فب ن هللا ٌتبوب علٌبه‬10)
righteous deeds, thev Verily, God will pardon him
Whosoever performs Hajj and ‫( مبن حب فلبم ٌرفبث ولبم ٌفسب عباد مبن ذنوببه كٌبوم ولدتبه أمبه‬11)
does not have intercourse with his wife, or commit sin, he returns as free
from his sins as on the day when he was born

Present Perfect / present simple

the prayer of both of you has been / will be verily answered ‫قد أجٌبت دعوتكما‬ (1)
Surely, the Messenger of God has been (‫لقد كان لكم فً رسول هللا أسوة حسنة )األحراب‬ (2)
the best example for you
God has now heard the statement of she who (‫قد سمع هللا قبول التبً تجادلب )المجادلبة‬ (3)
is arguning with you
And My mercy has embraced eveything (‫ورحمتً وسعت كل شًء )األعراؾ‬ (4)
God has assigned a higher 67 ) ‫فضَّبل هللا المجاهبدٌن ببأموالهم وأنفسبهم علبى القاعبدٌن درجبة‬ (5)
rank for those who strive hard and fight with their wealth and lives above
those who sit back at home.
And believe in what has been revealed to (‫برل علببى محمببد )محمببد‬ ِّ ‫وآمنببوا بمببا ُنب‬ (6)
Mohammad
Past Perfect:
You had nearly ruined me ‫إن كدت لتردٌن‬ (1)
‫ولو أنا أهلكناهم بعذاب من قبله لقالوا ربنا لوال أرسلت إلٌنبا رسبوال فنتببع آٌاتب مبن قببل أن نبذل ونخبرى‬ (2)
And had We destroyed them with a chastisement before this, they (134 :‫)طبه‬
would surely have said: "If you had sent us a Messenger, we would certainly
have followed Your revelations, before we were humiliated and disgraced".
Moses said: (93-92 :‫ )طبه‬.‫تتببعن أفعصبٌت أمبري‬ ِ ‫ أال‬.‫إذ رأٌبتهم ضبلوا‬ ‫قال ٌا هبارون مبا منعب‬ (3)
Aaron, What prevented you when you saw them going astray from following
my orders? Have you then disobeyed my orders

Present Progressive:

they listen to it while they are playing (2 :‫( استمعوه وهم ٌلعبون )األنبٌاء‬1)
The reckoning of mankind is (1 :‫( اقتبرب للنباس حسبابهم وهبم فبً ؼفلبة معرضبون )األنبٌباء‬2)
ever approaching while they are turning away in heedlessness
Surely you, (98 :‫( إنكبببم ومبببا تعبببببدون مبببن دون هللا حصبببب جهببببنم أنبببتم لهببببا واردون )األنبٌببباء‬3)
disbelievers, and what you are worshipping other than God are but the fuel
of Hell. Certainly, you will / going to enter it

79
 Such is the seizure of your Lord (102 :‫( وكبذل أخبذ ربب إذا أخبذ القبرى وهبً ظالمبة )هبود‬4)
when He seizes the townships while they are doing wrong.
God has now heard the statement of she who is ‫( قبد سببمع هللا قبول التببً تجادلب‬5)
arguing with you

Future Simple:

Verily, those who believe .‫إن البذٌن آمنبوا وعملبوا الصبالحات كانبت لهبم جنبات الفبردوس نبرال‬ (1)
and do righteous deeds, shall have the Gardens of Paradise as their dwelling
place.
So whoever will be thrust away (185 :‫ )آل عمبران‬... ‫فمبن ُرحبر عبن النبار وأُدخبل الجنبة‬ (2)
from Fire and admitted to Paradise…
And the Trumpet will be blown (‫ونفخ فً الصور )الرمر‬ (3)
Those who disbelieve will be driven to Hell (‫رمبرا )الرمبر‬.‫وسٌ البذٌن كفبروا إلبى جهبنم‬ (4)
in groups
Those who are pious will be escorted to (‫وسٌ الذٌن اتقبوا ربهبم إلبى الجنبة رمبرا )الرمبر‬ (5)
Paradise in groups
And the dwellers of Paradise will call (44 :‫ونادى أصحاب الجنة أصحاب النبار )األعبراؾ‬ (6)
out to the dwellers of Fire
And their Lord will give them a pure drink (21 :‫وسقاهم ربهم شرابا طهورا )اإلنسان‬ (7)
And truly you (94 :‫ولقد جبتمونبا فبرادى كمبا خلقنباكم وتبركتم مبا خولنباكم وراء ظهبوركم )األنعبام‬ (8)
will have come unto Us alone as We created you the first time, and you left
behind all that which We had bestowed on you

Future Perfect:

So whoever will be thrust (185 :‫( فمبن رحبر عبن النبار وأدخبل الجنبة فقبد فبار )آل عمبران‬1)
away from Fire and admitted to Paradise will have succeeded

1.10.2 Translating the Present Tense

The Arabic present tense is translated into English into one of the following tenses:
Timeless Present Simple:
You who believe, do not (‫ٌا أٌها الذٌت آمنوا ال ترفعوا أصبواتكم فبو صبوت النببً )الحجبرات‬ (1)
raise your voice above the Prophet's voice
They deem it a favor to you that they embraced (‫ٌمنبون علٌب أن أسبلموا )الحجبرات‬ (2)
Islam
The faithful servants of the Most (‫وعبباد البرحمن البذٌن ٌمشبون علبى األرض )الفرقبان‬ (3)
Gracious are those who walk on earth meekly
Not equal among you are those (10 :‫ال ٌسبتوي مبنكم مبن أنفب قببل الفبت وقاتبل )الحدٌبد‬ (4)
whospent and fought before the conquest of Makkah
Every dead man's (‫كل مٌت ٌخبتم علبى عملبه إال المبرابط فبً سببٌل هللا )رواه أببو داود والترمبذي‬ (5)
actions come to a halt with his death except the fighter in the Cause of God
on the frontier
Future simple

And cetainly your Lord will give you, and you (‫( ولسبوؾ ٌعطٌب ربب فترضبى )الضبحى‬1)
will surely be well-pleased
80
 Evil shall not touch them, nor shall they grieve (‫( ال ٌمسهم السوء وال هم ٌحرنون )الرمبر‬2)

He (Noah's son) said: I will betake (43 :‫قبال سبووي إلبى جببل ٌعصبمنً مبن المباء )هبود‬ (3)
myself to some mountain that will save me from water
And amongst them there (15 :‫ )اإلنسبان‬.‫وٌطاؾ علٌهم بونٌة من فضة وأكواب كانت قبوارٌرا‬ (4)
will be passed round vessels of silver cups of crysta
No doubt, to our Lord shall we return ‫ راجعون‬/ ‫إنا إلى ربنا منقلبون‬ (5)
Shall we really be returned to our former (10 :‫أإنبا لمبردودون فبً الحبافرة )النارعبات‬ (6)
state of life?
And that there is no deity by He (God) Will you .‫وأن ال إلبه إال هللا فهبل أنبتم مسبلمون‬ (7)
then submit to God (and become Muslims)?
Present Progressive

God said: "Do not be afraid. Verily I am with you, ‫قال ال تخافبا إنبً معكمبا أسبمع وأرى‬ (1)
hearing and seeing / I see and hear you
So turn away from them and wait, (30 :‫فبأعرض عبنهم وانتظبر إنهبم منتظبرون )السبجدة‬ (2)
they too are waiting
The (46 :‫النار ٌعرضون علٌها ؼدوا وعشٌا وٌوم تقوم السباعة أدخلبوا آل فرعبون أشبد العبذاب )ؼبافر‬ (3)
Fire they are being exposed to in their graves morning and evening, and on
the Day of Judgement it will be said to the Angels: Cast the people of
Pharaoh into the severest chastisement
Their hearts are being diverted (3 :‫الهٌة قلوبهم وأسروا النجوى )األنبٌاء‬ (4)

Past Perfect Progressive

And while the Ark (42 :‫( وهً تجري بهم فً موج كالجبال ونادى نو ابنه وكان فً معبرل )هبود‬1)
had been moving on with them upon waves like mountains, Noah called out
to his so who had kept himself at a distance.
…while they (his parents) had been (17 :‫( وهمببا ٌسببتؽٌثان هللا وٌل ب آ ِمببن )األحقبباؾ‬2)
invoking God for help: "Woe to you! Believe in God!"

Obviously, the previous list of tenses and examples demonstrates how complex and
complicated indeed the translation of the Arabic tense into English. Well-known
translators of the Holy Koran without exception have differences in this regard. Many
of them do not attend accurately to ASPECT. The only exceptions are the translation
of the Arabic present tense into simple present and the translation of the past tense
denoting a reference to the Hereafter into future in most cases. However, they
mistranslate the Arabic past tense mainly into present perfect even though its
reference has no effect or relevance to the present time, but happened a long time
ago.

Many of the examples translated into past simple tense above are found to have
been mistranslated haphazardly into the present perfect tense by three Muslim
translations of the Holy Koran into English by Al-Hilali and Khan (1996), Pickthall
(1982) and Zidan (1996), and others). This is partly due to the misunderstanding of
the reference of the two Arabic particles, ‫ لقد‬،‫ قد‬as being only to the near past (the
former) and the far past (the latter) which is claimed to be equivalent to the English
present perfect tense. In fact, this is true only if the aspect of the tense of verb
81
concerned has a relevance of some kind to the present time, otherwise it is not true.
These two particles may have an emphatic implication only, with the aspect of the
tense used being limited to a specific time in the past.

Some English tenses have almost been absent from some translations of the Holy
Koran, including 'the present progressive, the future progressive, the past perfect,
the present and past perfect progressives and the future perfect progressive. We
have to admit that the last three tenses are used only occasionally in English
Language, but they are not completely absent from use, though.

One unique tense in the grammar of both languages concerned, and perhaps in most
live languages is the use of the past tense to refer to future events. Apart from
conditionals and subjunctives which are hypothetical, the past tense is impossible to
use to refer to future events in the normal sense. That is, we cannot say, for
example, *"She had an operation next week / ‫"أجرت عملٌة األسبوع القادم‬. However, in the
Holy Koran, the past tense is used to refer to the future events that will definitely
take place on the Day of Judgement, and this is unique to the Koran for it is the
Words of God Who is the All-knower of the past present and future. Fortunately, all
the translators of the Koran have attended to this point properly (see above for
illustrative examples).

As to how to solve the problems of translating Arabic tense into English, the
following steps can be consulted:

(a) Check the aspect of the Arabic tense, which represents the time and
duration of the action of the verb involved: long, short, far, near, etc. The
following juxstapositional figure may be of some help:

Aspect of Arabic tense Equivalent English tense form

(1) timeless present
(2) limited time present
(3) limited time past
(4) habitual action
(5) far past
(6) near past
(7) past with present time
effects
(8) happening over short
duration
(9) happening over long
duration and close to
present time
(10) happening over long
duration not close to the
present time
(11) involving two actions
following one another
82
(1) present simple
(2) present progressive/simple
(3) past progressive / simple
(4) present simple
(5) past simple
(6) present perfect
(7) present perfect
(8)present / past simple)
(9) present perfect / present
perfect progressive)
(10) past perfect / past perfect
Progressive
(11) past simple for first
action, and past perfect
for the second
 (12) conditionals (12) the three well-known
forms
(13) future reference 13) future simple / future
progressive/future erfect,
and, rarely, future perfect
progressive
Aspects of Arabic tense and their equivalent English tense forms

For example, the verse: ‫ لقد جاءكم رسول من أنفسكم‬denotes a far future related to the time
in history of God's Revelation to His Prophet, Mohammad, peace be to him.
Accordingly, the past simple tense is applicable here (i.e. Surely,there came to you a
Messenger amongst yourselves). However, the verse: ‫لقد كان لكم فً رسول هللا أسوة حسنة‬
means that the Messenger of God was and is still the best example for us. Therefore,
the tense of verb is rather present perfect as follows: “Surely, the Messenger of God
has been the best example for you”) (see examples above for more illustrations).

(b) Check if the statement is a direct quotation, usually starting with ‫ ٌقبول‬/ ‫قبال‬
(‫'( )جملة مقول القبول‬say / said'), in which case, tense will be translated in relation
to the time of the statement, and not in relation to the time of translating:
For example, at translating this verse: ‫وقبال الرسبول ٌبا رب إن قبومً اتخبذوا هبذا القبرآن‬
(30 :‫( مهجببورا )الفرقببان‬The Messenger of God said: "Lord, my people have
forsaken this Koran", the tense of the statement is present perfect for the
time of speaking has been quite near to the action of 'forsaking'. Otherwise,
the tense should be 'past simple' here.
(c) When two possibe interpretations of aspect are equally applicable (e.g. near
past / far past), go for either.
(d) Timelessness is expressed in English by the present simple tense, but it is
indicated in Arabic by both Arabic tenses, past and present. So, the tense of
verb is irrelevant to timelessness. Translators are required to check this
aspect on its own, which can be reflected by statements about the following:
(i) God's Glorified Names and Attributes of any type; (ii) rhetorical questions
(see above); (iii) general statements about Islam, Muslims, believers, faith,
guidance, indisputable facts about this World and the Hereafter,
characteristics of believers, disbelievers, wrongdoers, men, wom, social
affairs (like marriage, divorce, legacy, etc.), life, death and so on and so forth;
and (iv) descriptive statements, or accounts. For instance, ‫وكبان هللا علٌمبا حكٌمبا‬
has nothing to do with tense or aspect of verb ‫( كبان‬was) for God is always All-
Knower and All-Wise regardless of time and space. Generally, the Arabic
present tense is a good indicator of timeless present simple tense in English.
Examples are provided in abundance above as well as the whole book.
(e) The difference of Arabic tense in the same verse, or statement does not
necessitate translating all of its verbs into the same tense. Priority is given to
aspect (or (duration of) time) of the tense of each of these verbs. For
example, in the following verse: : ‫لقد رضً هللا عن المؤمنٌن إذ ٌباٌعون تحت الشجرة )الفت‬
(18, the two verbs exhibit two different tenses, past and present,
respectively. It might be claimed that the translator has to commit himself /
herself to the tense of the original, but this is not recommended for the
second is expressive of the past tense too with the sense of 'when they
83
 swore allegiance to' as follows: "Indeed, God was well-pleased with the
believers when they swore allegiance to you under the Tree".
(f) After all, the translator's common sense, discretion, skill in Arabic Language
and wide experience will be decisive in this connection.

84
 CHAPTER 1

GRAMMATICAL PROBLEMS (2)

1.11 Translation of Objects

There are several types of objects in Arabic grammar that might be as much confused
as confusing at translating them into English. The first and most recurrent and
frequent in use is )‫( (المفعكؿ بو‬the object of the subject of a sentence). That is why we
start our discussion with it.

1.11.1 Translating )‫( (المفعول به‬Object: Direct and Indirect)

Although this type of object is common in both languages and, usually, has one-to-
one equivalent, there are cases where it can be used unusually, unexpectedly or
uniquely in the SL that may urge attending to carefully in translation into the TL.
There are two types of object in Arabic: ‫( صريح‬stated) and ‫( غير صريح‬unstated).
Further, there are verbs that require one object, others take two, and still others may
have three. In addition, the object is always in the accusative case; it can be
ommitted, foregrounded or backgrounded, occuring before the verb or the subject.
Also, its veb can be dropped. On the other hand, there are semi-objects where the
object has a certain function for which it is either deleted or precedes the verb
suchlike: )‫( (التحذير‬warning/alarming), )‫( (انغراء‬attraction), ‫( االختصاص‬specification),
‫( االشتغاؿ‬substitute function), ‫( التنازع‬grammatical syllepsis), ‫القكؿ المتضمف معنى الظف‬
saying of reckoning), and ‫( انلغاء كالتعميؽ في أفعاؿ القمكب‬nullification and suspension of
innermost verbs).

Having given a very rough idea about some intricacies of the Arabic object, and due
to grammatical and parsing differences and functions that do not exist in the TL, we
may start with translated examples for the different types, cases, uses and
occurrences of the object in Arabic grammar, followed by a detailed discussion of the
problems of translating it into the TL and their potential solutions.

I (have) read a book ‫) قرأت كتابان‬1

I did nothing; I didn’t do anything ‫) لـ أفعؿ شيئان‬2
They gave the poor money ‫اء ماالن‬ ‫) أعطكا الفقر ى‬3
The manager informed the employees of ‫األمر السامي جميان‬
‫ى‬ ‫المدير المكظفيف‬
‫ي‬ ‫أعمـ‬
‫ى‬ )4
the royal decree explicit(ly)
You only we worship, and only You we ask for help ‫) إياؾ نعبد كاياؾ نستعيف‬5
I held/hold your hand ‫ؾ‬
‫أمسكت بيد ى‬
‫ي‬ )6

85
 We learned that you are coming ‫) عممنا أنكـ قادمكف‬7
Your Lord has neither forsaken )‫ مفعػكؿ بػو محػذكؼ‬:‫مػا كدعػؾ ربػؾ كمػا قمػى (قػالؾ‬ )8
you nor hated you
We did not )‫ مفعػػكؿ بػو محػػذكؼ‬:‫ إال تػػذكرة لمػػف يخشػػى (اهلل‬،‫مػا أنزلنػػا عميػػؾ القػػرآف لتشػقى‬ )9
reveal the Koran unto you to cause you distress, but as a reminder to
those who fear
Where are those partners )‫ مفعكؿ بو محذكؼ‬:‫أيف شركائي الذيف كنتـ تزعمكف؟ (شركاء‬ )10
of Mine that you pretended
have heard what he )‫ مفعػػكؿ بػػو محػػذكؼ‬:‫ سػػمعت (مػػا قػػاؿ‬،‫ػمعت مػػا قػػاؿ؟ نعػػـ‬ ‫ىػػؿ سػ ى‬ )11
said? Yes, I have.
What did your Lord reveal? They )‫ فعػؿ محػذكؼ‬:‫مػاذا أنػزؿ ربكػـ؟ قػالكا خيػ انر (أنػزؿ‬ )12
said: That which is good
Who do you want / Your father/dad )‫ فعؿ محذكؼ‬:‫الدؾ(أريد‬ ‫مف تريد؟ ك ى‬ )13
most welcome )‫ فعؿ محذكؼ‬:‫ ككطئت‬... ‫) أىالن كسيالن (حممت‬14
Majed wrote the letter; it was Majed who wrote the ‫) كتػب الرسػالةى ماج هػد‬15
letter; who wrotethe letter was Majed
Eisa hit Mosa ‫) ضرب مكسى عيسى‬16
My brother helped my son ‫) ساعد ابني أخي‬17
Huda married/got married to Yahya ‫) تزكجت يحيى ىدل‬18
The Lord of Abraham tried him; Abraham’s Lord tried him; ‫اىيـ ربيػو‬ ‫ابتمػى إبػر ى‬ )19
Abraham was tried by his Lord
Surely those who fear God most of His servants ‫العمماء‬
‫ي‬ ‫إنما يخشى اهللى مف عباده‬ )20
are the scholars/the men of knowledge.
the day when the wrong-doers will have no ‫يػػكـ ال ينفػػع الظػػالميف معػػذرتييـ‬ )21
excuse/the day when excuse will not be of any use to the wrong-doers
his father reproached/rebuked him ‫أنىَّبو أبكه‬ )22
I met Said; Said I met ‫التقيت‬
‫ي‬ ‫) سعيدان‬23
So some you disbelieved and others you killed; you ‫) ففريقػان كػذبتـ كفريقػان تقتمػكف‬24
disbelieved some and you killed others
the truth I say; I say the truth ‫الحؽ أقكؿ‬ ‫ى‬ )25
whoever God misguides, nobody else can guide ‫) مػف يضػمؿ اهلل فمػا لػو مػف ىػاد‬26
him
whatever religion you follow, your children will ‫ػدم مػػف تتبػ ٍػع يتبػ ٍػع بنػػكؾ‬
‫) ىػ ى‬27
follow you suit/ your children will follow the religion you follow; children
are what you make them
which of God’s verses do you deny? ‫فأم آيات اهلل تنكركف؟‬ ‫) ى‬28
what did you do, my son? ‫فعمت يا كلدم؟‬
‫ى‬ ‫) ما‬29
I did what? ‫فعمت ماذا؟‬
‫ي‬ )30

86
As for the orphan, do not oppress, and .‫ كأمػا السػائؿ فػال تنيػر‬،‫) فأمػا اليتػيـ فػال تقيػر‬31
as for the beggar, do not; therefore, do not be harsh to the orphan, and
do not repluse the beggar
We know God Merciful; we know God as (is) Merciful ‫) عممنا اهللى رحيمان‬32
I thought/reckoned that the full moon was ‫ظننػت طالعػان البػدر‬/‫ظننػت البػدر طالعان‬ )33
rising; I reckoned the full moon to be rising
I gave Farid the money; I gave the money to Farid; Money ‫الما ىؿ أعطيتو فريدان‬ )34
was what I gave to Farid
give the arrow to its master; give credit where credit is ‫أعػط القػكس بارىييػا‬ )35
due
beware of the lion! (function: warning) )‫األسد! (تحذير‬
‫ى‬ ‫ألسد‬
‫ا ى‬ )36
give me/us help!; help us! (appeal) )‫) النجدةى النجدةى (إغراء‬37
observe your prayer carefully; pray! (appeal) )‫) الصالةى الصالةى (إغراء‬38
we, the Arabs, honor our guest/guests )‫الضيؼ(اختصػاص‬ ‫ى‬ ‫ نكػرـ‬- ‫ػرب‬
‫ الع ى‬- ‫نحػف‬ )39
(specification)
I ask You, God, a successful operation )‫(اختصػاص‬.‫ أرجك نجاح العممية‬- ‫ اهللى‬- ‫بؾ‬ )40
(specification)
Saleh I received; I received Saleh; Saleh )‫صػالحان اسػتقبمتو (اشػتغاؿ‬/‫ػالح اسػتقبمتيو‬
‫ص ه‬ )41
(substitute function) was who I received
the boy took the hand of the old man; the boy )‫العاجز أخذ الصبي بيده (اشتغاؿ‬ ‫ى‬ )42
helped the old man; the old man was given a helping hand by the boy
I passed by Makkah; Makkah was what I passed by; it )‫مررت بيا (اشتغاؿ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫مكةى‬ )43
was Makkah that I passed by
if I come across Salem )‫إذا سالمان لقيتو(اشتغاؿ‬ )44
do not insult the orphan; the orphan do not insult )‫اليتيـ ال تينو (اشتغاؿ‬
‫ى‬ )45
God, I resign myself to You/myself I resign to )‫) الميػـ أمػرم سػممتو لػؾ (اشػتغاؿ‬46
you!
May God forgive Walid )‫) كليدان غفر اهلل لو (اشتغاؿ‬47
A man alone among us , shall we follow? Shall )‫أبشػ انر منػا كاحػدان نتبعػو؟ (اشػتغاؿ‬ )48
we follow a man alone among us
bring me molten copper to )‫ آتػكني قطػ انر أفرغػو عميػو (تنػازع‬/ ‫غ عميػو قطػ انر‬ ٍ ‫آتػكني أيفػر‬ )49
pour over it
Is it on Friday you said that Fahd is )‫ػكـ الجمعػػة تقػكؿ فيػػد مسػػاف انر (قػكؿ ظػػف‬ ‫أي ى‬ )50
leaving?; did you say that Fahd is leaving on Friday?
is it after )‫شممي بيـ؟ أـ تقكؿ البع ىػد محتكمػان؟ (قػكؿ ظػف‬ ‫الدار جامعةن‬ ‫و‬
‫ىأبعد يبعد تقكؿ ى‬ )51
long departure you say home is gathering ……….us together again? Or
you say departure is inevitable
the snow is falling, I think; I )‫ػثمج حسػبت سػاقط (إلغػاء كتعميػؽ‬ ‫ال ى‬/ ‫ػبت‬
‫ػثمج سػاقط حس ي‬ ‫ال ى‬ )52
figure the snow will fall
we learned that Hala is surely honest )‫عمًمنا لىيالةي صادقةه (إلغاء كتعميؽ‬ )53
87
 I guess Sharif in not negigent )‫يؼ ميمالن (إلغاء كتعميؽ‬ ‫ ما شر ه‬:‫خمت‬‫ي‬ )54
I )‫ػياميا (إلغػ ػػاء كتعميػ ػػؽ‬ ً
‫ لتػ ػػأتىي َّف منيتػ ػػي‬:‫ػت‬
‫إف المنايػ ػػا ال تطػ ػػيش سػ ػ ي‬ ‫كلقػ ػػد عممػ ػ ي‬ )55
realized that my death is coming……….for death makes no tmistake; I
know very well that I am dying one day…….and the arrows of death
never miss the target (nullification and suspension of innermost verbs)
to show/test which of the two )‫ أم الحزبيف أحصى لما لبثكا أمدان (إلغاء كتعميػؽ‬:‫لنعمـ‬ )56
disputant parties would count best the length of time they spent there
(nullification and suspension of innermost verbs)
and they ask you to make sure: “ Is it true”? )‫ أحؽ ىك (إلغػاء كتعميػؽ‬:‫كيستنبئكنؾ‬ )57
(nullification and suspension of innermost verbs)
do not do something you don’t know )‫ال تأت أم انر لػـ تعػرؼ مػا ىػك؟ (إلغػاء كتعميػؽ‬ )58
what it is (nullification and suspension of innermost verbs)
Did you ever think about whether this is )‫فكػرت أصػحيح ىػذا أـ ال؟ (إلغػاء كتعميػؽ‬ )59
right or wrong? (nullification and suspension of innermost verbs)

1.11.1.1 Problems of Translating the Arabic Object Element into English

The first problem is the difficulty of setting one rule to apply to translating the Arabic
object into English due to its complexity and multiplicity of grammatical function, number,
positioning and use which may not be matched in English grammar. Though the sentences
with one object can be translated directly into equivelent English structures (see specially
1, 16, 17), and though the verbs with two objects in the two languages can be also
translated into the same grammatical forms (see 2), several other objects of different
position, function and use are not necessarily translated into English objects.

English grammar has two (O)bjects maximum in a sentence. They are either direct and
indirect objects (e.g. they gave him (Indirect O) a present (Direct O)), or direct object and
object complement (e.g. they made him (DO) president (OC)). Further, an object can be a
finite clause (e.g. He said that he was ill), a non-finite clause (e.g. She likes to talk), or
followed by a clause as a complex transitive object complement (e.g. We expected Mary
to be married to John) (see Quirk et al (1973: 358-64 for further details). In Arabic, and as
illustrated in ‘7’ above, the object that is not stated but implied is translated into an
English finite object clause (i.e. ‘that you are coming’). However, in all cases, in English
grammar there are no three objects in one and the same sentence, as in example ‘4’,
which includes three objects. The first two objects can be translated into two objects, if
and when available, followed by an adverbial of some kind (i.e. explicitly/in an explicit
way), or into one object followed by any kind of fitting grammatical structure, then an
adverbial (e.g. a prepositional phrase like ‘of/about the royal decree’).

A further problem of trandslation is posed by the fronted object in Arabic which is unusual
in both the SL and TL grammars, for the position of the object is third after the verb and
the subject of the sentence. However, it can be foregrounded for reasons of emphasis and
focus, in which case there are two options available to the translator: either to translate it
fronted to reflect the same stylisitc effect of the original, or to translate it into its normal
position, whichever appropriate. We learn that a fronted object is usually expected to
88
occur in a literary or religious text, otherwise it is brought back to normal (see 5, 23-26,
28, 31, 34, 43-44, 47-49, 51, 53).

A puzzling problem of translation related to our topic is when it is deleted altogether. The
translator is expected to be extra careful in his/her contextual guess of the proper deleted
object which is most likely retrieved in the TL for reasons of clarity (e.g. 8-10). Similar to
this problem is the omission of the verb of the object, where mistakes of guessing are
higher in percentage than the previous case of object-deletion. The translation is required
to be discreet enough to retrieve the right verb of the object in the TL (see 12, 13, 37-39).
Although 12 and 13 are not hard to retrieve, 14 is not exactly so as two verbs, and not only
one, are required in Arabic in proper grammar. However, in English, it is translated into a
cliché expression as ‘you are most welcome’, thus, ignoring the SL structure entirely. As to
37, it is vital to retrieve the deleted verb of the original in English, and has to be a verb of
warning, and any other type of verb is not accepted. By contrast, a verb of temptation is
required for the objects of 38 and 39, and any verb contrary in sense to that required here
is written off the expectations of the translator.

A real problem of translating the object is when it is positioned between the verb and the
subject, hence, unusually preceding the subject of the sentence, instead of normally
following it. Examples 15-22 are illustrative of the point. Mistakes can be committed by
some student-translators and translators out of rush, or due the absence of
vocalization )‫(التشكيؿ‬. So, by way of further illustration, translating these examples
according mistaking the subject for the object and the object for the subject would result
in big mistakes like the following:

*The letter wrote Majed ‫) كتب الرسالة ماجد‬1(

*Mosa hit Eisa ‫) ضرب مكسى عيسى‬2(
*My son helped my brother ‫) ساعد ابني أخي‬3(
*Yahya married Huda ‫) تزكجت يحيى ىدل‬4(
*Abraham tried his Lord ‫) ابتمى إبراىيـ ربو‬5(
*Surely God fears most His servants the men of ‫العمماء‬
‫ي‬ ‫اهلل مف عباده‬
‫) إنما يخشى ى‬6(
knowledge.
*the day when the wrong-doers will not benefit ‫) يكـ ال ينفع الظالميف معذرتييـ‬7(
from their excuse
*he reproached his father ‫) أنَّبو أبكه‬8(

All these are wrong translations and can be described as primitive when many
serious basic mistakes are committed. Examples 19 and 20 are the most serious of all
for they change the meaning of two Korannic verses basically and dangerously into
blasphemies. To avoid such terrible translations, translators are required to be
overcautious at translating objects precedening the subjects of sentences.

89
1.11.2 Translation of )‫( (المفعول المطمق‬the Absolute Object)

The absolute object is a verbal noun form in the accusative case, used to emphasise
the main verb of the sentence that precedes it and is derived from it (hence its full
ِّ
title ‫المؤكد لمفعؿ‬ ‫( المفعكؿ المطمؽ‬the absolute object emphasising the verb of the
sentence). However, it is four types:

 Emphatic of meaning of its verb (e.g. ‫( )ككمـ اهلل مكسى تكميما‬God did talk to
Moses inwords)
 Numerical (e.g. ‫ ( )شربت شربتيف‬I drank twice)
 Indicating type of action (e.g. ‫( )تصرؼ تصرؼ األمراء‬He behave like a pince)
 Replacing its verb (e.g. ‫( )صب انر عمى الشدائد‬patience (is required) in dilemmas; be
patient in dilemmas.

As far as English grammar is concerned, it has not such type of object. Therefore, it is
translated into English mainly as an adverbial of intensity or degree. Yet, other forms
can also be used by translators, as illustrated in the translation of the following
miscillaneous examples for the different types and uses of absolute object in Arabic
grammar:

he rebuked him vehemently ‫) كبخو تكبيخان‬1

the earth will be shaken severely ‫) يرجت األرض رجان‬2
in praise and thankfulness of God ‫) حمدان هلل كشك انر‬3
I hear and obey; at your service; at your )‫) سمعان كطاعة (أم أسمع كأطيع‬4
disposal; at your finger’s tip
I slept like a child ‫) نمت نكـ األطفاؿ‬5
the police hit the thief several times ‫) ضربت الشرطة المص ضربات‬6
he greeted us warmly; his said a big hello ‫) سمَّـ سالمان‬7
mention God very often/as many times as ‫اذكركا اهلل ذك انر كثي انر‬/ ‫) اذكركا اهللى كثي انر‬8
you can
Surely, I will chastise him such ‫) فإني أعذبو عذابان ال أعذبو أحدان مف العالميف‬9
chastisement that I never inflict on anybody else in the world
He stood up ‫) قاـ كقكفان‬10
and devote yourself to Him (God) wholeheartedly / wholly ‫) كتبتؿ إليو تبتيالن‬11
and heartedly
he retracted/pulled back/receded/retreat/drew back ‫) رجع القيقرل‬12
scourge each of them with one hunderd ‫) فاجمدكا كؿ كاحد منيما ثمانيف جمدة‬13
lashes
what kind of living are you leading? ‫أم عيش تعيش؟‬
َّ )14

90
 and the wrongdoers will verly know the ‫) كسيعمـ الذيف ظممكا أم منقمب ينقمبكف‬15
terrible overturning they will have/the terrible punishmment that awits
them
wherever you go I go/follow you suit; any where you go I ‫أسر‬
ٍ ‫) أم سير تسير‬16
go
so do not incline wholly toward … ‫) فال تميمكا كؿ الميؿ‬17
I said that; I said that statement ‫القكؿ‬
‫ى‬ ‫قمت ذلؾ‬
‫) ي‬18
for sure, Hell will be their recompense an ample ‫) فإف جينـ جزاؤكـ جزاء مكفك انر‬19
recompense
nice to meet you again; ‫) قدكمان مباركان‬20
you keep breaking your promises ‫اعيد عرقكب‬ ‫) مك ى‬21
patiently not impatiently; to do something patiently, not ‫) صب انر ال جزعان‬22
impatiently
away with oppressors!, to hell with dictators/tyrants ‫) سحقان لمظالـ‬23
how dare you say such insolence against God? ‫أجرأةن عمى اهلل؟‬ ‫) ي‬24
out of lethargy and negligence? )‫ال (أخمكالن كاىماالن؟‬
‫) خمكالن كاىما ن‬25
I will do that with pleasure ‫ ككرامة كمسرة‬،‫) أفعؿ ذلؾ‬26
I praise God the best of praise ‫) أحمد اهلل حمدان‬27
and they say: “forbidden and unlawful” )‫) كيقكلكف حج انر محجك انر (حرامان محرمان‬28
here I am! At your service ‫) لبيؾ كسعديؾ‬29
alternstely; successively; in succession )‫) دكاليؾ (مداكلة بعد مداكلة‬30
I never ever do it! !‫) ال أفعمو بتان كبتاتان كبت نة كالبت ىة‬31
you who believe/you believers, ask ‫) يا أييا الذيف آمنكا صمكا عميو كسممكا تسميم نا‬32
God to mercy him (the Messenger of God) and greet him warmly in the
best possible way
The following conclusions about the translation of absolute object into English can be
drawn from these translations about the problems of translating them:

First, absolute object is translated into an adverbial of some kind: of degree (1, 2, 7, 8, 11,
17, 22, 30, 31, 32), of manner (e.g. 5, 8, 25, 23, 24, 26, 32) and of prepositional phrases (3,
4, 13, 23, 29, 30, 32). Other examples are translated into numbers (e.g. 6, 8, 13); yet
others are translated into nouns (e.g. 9, 14, , 18, 19, 21, 27). Yet few others are translated
into vebs, or verb phrases (e.g. 4, 12, 16, 18), adjectives (e.g. 28) and collocations and
cliché phrases (e.g. 4, 5, 11, 20, 24, 26, 29). This is practical evidence that the absolute
object has no ready-made equivalent in English, so it is translated contextually in different
grammatical forms, whichever more appropriate to rendering its meaning in the SL.

Another conclusion drawn from the previous translations is that the absolute object is not
always emphatic, as also stated in Arabic grammar books. That is, although several
examples are assertive of the action of the verb of the sentence (e.g. 1,2, 7, 8, 11, 23, 24,
27, 31, 32), other occurrences are translated variably into normal, non-assertive

91
translations (e.g. 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 13, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 25, 26, 30). Hence, an emphatic
translation of the absolute object in all texts andcontexts is not recommended.

1.11.3 Translation of )‫له‬/‫( )المفعول ألجمه‬Causative Object)

This type of Arabic object, causative object, is used to indicate the cause of an action that
takes place at the same time and has the same subject. It expresses the following
innermost meanings: glorification, degradation, respect, fear, courage, desire,
intimidation, diffidence, shyness, sympathy, apathy, , knowledge, ignorance, etc. It is also
used to reflect material senses such as : reading, writing, sitting, standing, walking,
sleeping, awakening, and so on. It is generally used in )‫( (حالة النصب‬the accusative case).

Owing to its absence from English grammar, its translation is discussed through Arabic
examples for its different types and uses, along with their translations into English:

he migrated hoping/with the hope to ‫ىاجر رغبةن في النجاة مف المكت في بمده‬

‫ى‬ )1(
escape death in his country
hoping to escape death in his country, he ‫) رغبةن في النجاة مف المكت ىاجر‬2(
migrated
and the earth He set for all the creatures ‫األرض كضعيا لألناـ‬
‫) ك ى‬3(
he came to play/for the sake of playing ‫) جاء لمعب‬4(
she went abroad for studying/to study/with the purpose to ‫فرت لمدراسة‬
ٍ ‫) سا‬5(
study
we loved him for his defence of the truth ‫) أحببناه لدفاعو عف الحؽ‬6(
his father taught him good manners to set him right ‫) أدبو أبكه إصالحان لو‬7(
and do not kill your children ‫كال تقتمكا أكالدكـ مف إمالؽ‬/‫) كال تقتمكا أكالدكـ خشيةى إمالؽ‬8(
for fear of poverty
ً
they thrust their fingers in ‫حذر المكت‬ ‫) يجعمكف أصابعيـ في آذانيـ مف الصكاعؽ ى‬9(
their ears to avoid thunder in fear of death
he lowers his eyes ‫فال ييكمَّـ إال حيف يبتسـ‬ ‫كيغضى مف ميابتو‬ ‫ ي‬،‫حياء‬
‫ن‬ ‫) ييغضي‬10(
out of shyness, and others lower their eyes out of his charismatic awe,
so that he is not spoken to except when he smiles
people stood up in respect for the scholar/the man ‫) كقؼ الناس احترامان لمعالًـ‬11(
of knowledge
they dispelled wrong doing out of ‫ لخشية اهلل‬/‫مف خشية اهلل‬/‫) ترككا المنكر خشيةن هلل‬12(
fear of God/ for fear of God
and surely some of them (rocks) tumble down ‫) كاف منيا لما ييبط مف خشية اهلل‬13(
out of fear of God
they spend their money for the sake of pleasing ‫) ينفقكف أمكاليـ ابتغاء مرضاة اهلل‬14(
God
I do not lag behind in war out of cowardice ‫الجبف عف الييجاء‬ ‫ى‬ ،‫أقعد‬ ‫) ال‬15(

92
The examples confirm one main conclusion about sorting out the problems of translating
the Arabic causative object into English: the possibility of translating most cases into
adverbial causative phrase/clause headed by ‘for, due to, out of, in, etc.’. Since this type of
object expresses the reason/cause behind doing something, translators can change it
comfortably into an adverbial clause of reason of some kind in English. They cannot and
should not translate it into an equivalent object of any kind due to its absence from
English grammar. Above all, the translators’ concern is with meaning, and adverbial causal
phrases can do the job appropriately. However, when an adverbial of reason does not
work, any other possible grammatical form can be used at leisure by translators to render
meaning (e.g. hoping to (1

1.11.4 Translation of )‫( (المفعول معه‬the Comitative Object)

This type of object is supplementary preceded by the additive conjunction )‫( (ك‬and) in the
sense of )‫( (مع‬with), to indicate that something has accompanied the action of the
sentence simultaneously. It is )‫( (منصكب‬in the accusative case) in Arabic. Again, due to the
absence of an equivalent in English grammar, the problems of translating it into English
and their solutions are investigated through the following translated examples:

I walked along /along with the river ‫النير‬

َّ ‫سرت ك‬
‫ي‬ )1
what goes wrong between you and Said?/what is the matter ‫ما لؾ كسعيدان؟‬ )2
with Said
the passengers travelled with the fall of the night/when ‫الميؿ‬
‫ى‬ ‫ك‬ ‫سافر الركاب‬ )3
the night fell
the troops returned at sun rise/when the sun rose ‫الشمس‬
‫الجند ك ى‬
‫ي‬ ‫عاد‬ )4
ً
So go on with your associates and scheme ‫فأجمعكا أمركـ كشركاءكـ ثـ كيدكف‬ )5
against me / so devise your plot, you and your partners
but those who before them had homes along with ‫انيماف‬
‫ى‬ ‫) كالذيف تبكؤكا الدار ك‬6
faith
go with Mohammad ‫) اذىب كمحمدان‬7
He helped him along his father ‫) أحسف إليو كأباه‬8
and fear God to who you are answerable and ‫األرحاـ‬
‫ى‬ ‫كاتقكا اهلل الذم تساءلكف بو ك‬ )9
the rights of the womb relations
I do not like wealth to be matched and ‫البطر‬
‫اء ك ى‬‫ال يعجبني الثر ي‬ )10
preconditioned with thanklessness and vanity
never be tempted with affluence tarnished with ‫الذؿ‬ َّ ‫غد العيش ك‬‫ال يغرٌنؾ ر ي‬ )11
humiliation
I am going with Fatimah ‫أنا ذاىبة كفاطمةى؟‬ )12
how do you feel about tomorrow’s test? ‫االختبار غدان‬
‫ى‬ ‫) كيؼ أنت ك‬13
what happened to you with Murad?; how is it going ‫) ما حصؿ لؾ كمرادنا‬14
between you and Murad?

93
It is remarkable that none of the Arabic comitative objects are translated into an object of
any kind. Rather, all examples are translated into prepositional phrases (especially ‘with-
phrase) and adverbial phrases. Few of them are translated into different grammatical
form (see 13), which can be described as quite occasional. However, the real problem is
raised by the possible confusion of the sense of the article )‫ (ك‬as the popular “and” with its
sense here as )‫“ (مع‬with”. This is pretty likely to be committed by translators. Yet, there is
a clear difference between the two senses of the said conjunction, as illustrated in the
next hypothetical readings of some of the examples above that can be easily confused,
and then to be compared to one another:

the passengers and night travelled ‫سافر الركاب كالمي يؿ‬ -

the troops and the sun returned ‫الشمس‬
‫الجند ك ي‬‫ي‬ ‫عاد‬ -
So go on with your associates and scheme ‫فأجمعكا أمركـ كشركاءكـ ثـ كيدكف‬ً -
against me / so devise your plot, you and your partners
but those who before them had homes along with ‫انيماف‬
‫ى‬ ‫كالذيف تبكؤكا الدار ك‬ -
faith
go with Mohammad ‫اذىب كمحمدان‬ -
I do not like wealth and affluence ‫البطر‬
‫اء ك ي‬
‫ال يعجبني الثر ي‬ -
never be tempted with affluence and humiliation ‫غد العيش كالذ يؿ‬
‫ال يغرٌنؾ ر ي‬ -
I and Fatimah are going together ‫أنا ذاىبة كفاطمةي؟‬ -
how about you and the test tomorrow? ‫االختبار غدان‬
‫ي‬ ‫كيؼ أنت ك‬ -
what happened to you and Murad? ‫اد‬ ‫ما حصؿ لؾ كمره‬ -

To make the difference in the meaning of the two versions sharper, the following
table is suggeted to juxtapose them:

‫كاك المعية‬ ‫كاك العطؼ‬

the ‫سافر الركاب كالمي ىؿ‬ )1 the ‫) سافر الركاب كالمي يؿ‬1
passengers travelled with passengers and night
the fall of the night travelled
the troops ‫الشمس‬ ‫الجند ك ى‬
‫ي‬ ‫عاد‬ )2 the ‫الشمس‬
‫الجند ك ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫) عاد‬2
returned at sun rise/when troops and the sun
the sun rose returned
I do ‫البطر‬
‫اء ك ى‬ ‫ال يعجبني الثر ي‬ )3 I do ‫البطر‬
‫اء ك ي‬ ‫) ال يعجبني الثر ي‬3
not like wealth to be not like wealth and
matched and affluence
preconditioned with
thankness and vanity
َّ ‫غد العيش ك‬
‫الذؿ‬ ‫ال يغرٌنؾ ر ي‬ )4 ‫غد العيش كالذ يؿ‬
‫) ال يغرٌنؾ ر ي‬4
never be tempted with never be tempted with
94
 affluence tarnished with affluence and
humiliation humiliation
I am going ‫) أنا ذاىبة كفاطمةى؟‬5 I and ‫) أنا ذاىبة كفاطمةي؟‬5
with Fatimah Fatimah are going
together
how ‫االختبار غدان‬
‫ى‬ ‫) كيؼ أنت ك‬6 how ‫االختبار غدان‬
‫ي‬ ‫) كيؼ أنت ك‬6
do you feel about about you and the test
tomorrow’s test? tomorrow?
what ‫) ما حصؿ لؾ كمرادان؟‬7 what ‫اد؟‬‫ه‬ ‫ر‬ ‫كم‬ ‫) ما حصؿ لؾ‬7
happened to you with happened to you and
Murad? Murad?

So, translators are recommended to be precautious and avoid confusing the two meanings
of the conjunction )‫(ك‬.
‫ ى‬That said, we have to admit that the difference is so delicate to spot
at times. Examples 1, 5, 6 and 9 of the first group are a case in point. In the event, there
are two possible solutions to this tricky problem: the first is to check the vocalization if and
when provided. The second is to check whether the two nouns involved are of the same
type of words that can be added to one another or not. That is, ‫النير‬ ‫سرت ك ي‬
‫ي‬ (1), ‫األمر كالشركاء‬
(of 5); ‫( الدار كانيماف‬of 6) and ‫( اتقكا اهللى كاألرحاـ‬of 9) are normally not matchable to add to one
another, which means that the article )‫ (ك‬is used in the sense of “with” )‫(كاك المعية‬.

1.12 Sentence and Clause Structure

Students of translation and many translators may have general knowledge of English and
Arabic sentence structure, but they stumble at specific details. In Arabic, for example, they
know that there are parts of speech, long sentences, short sentences, prepositions and
prepositional phrases, and adverbs. As to the clause, it is vaguely defined in Arabic, but
made clear in English. The notion of 'clause' has recently witnessed huge developments in
linguistic and stylistic studies. A clause is characterized by having a verb of either type or
both, finite and/or non-finite. When noun phrases and verb phrases combine, or function
together, they form clauses. The normal and simplest type of clause is a noun phrase, a
verb phrase and a third optional grammatical category (an object, a complement, an
adverbial or a prepositional phrase). Writers like Wright and Hope go further to regard the
clause as the kernel, the largest linguistic unit, and do not recognize the existence of
sentences. When they exist, they exist only in written texts and orthographical
conventions. The sentences are brought down to, and replaced by, clauses that are the
core of grammar (2003: 93). However, the sentence remains the basic and largest
linguistic unit that has recently been challenged by the concept of discourse as the largest
linguistic unit, as the majority of linguists. On the other hand, two major points have been
attended to exceptionally in cognitive stylistics, marking two of the influential
developments of the clause now: Transitivity and Modality. There is no space to develop
these two new trends in stylistic and linguistic analyses (see Simpson, 2004; Perez, 2007;
Ghazala, 2011 and others for full details).

95
In Arabic, instead, the main concentration is usually on vowelization / parsing )‫(انعراب‬,
rhetoric, prosody and explanation of difficult words and phrases, the so-called
practice/application )‫(التطبيؽ‬, with the exception of one or two modernized Arabic studies
and approaches (Like Tammam Hassan's, 1977) which are limited in application in Arab
universities, colleges and departments of Arabic Language.

However, Arab students and translators are better off in English in this respect for there
are highly advanced linguistic developments in this field, as just pointed out above. In a
good translation class with a good specialist teacher, the students are enlightened about
sentence and clause structure in both languages in a comparative way, with the larger
amount of information coming in from English into Arabic, including terminology like
complex / simplex sentences, embedding, ellipsis, embedded / elliptical sentences,
subordination, modification, qualification, pre-/post-modification, coordination, finite /
non-finite / relative / causative clauses, right-branching / left-branching / mid-branching /
interruptive clauses, subordinate / main clauses, transitivity, modality, etc. The list is so
long indeed. All these and other linguistic terms have now established equivalents in
Arabic (see Baalbaki (1990); Ghazala (1996 / 2000) and others). These details enrich the
students' grammatical skills and lexicon in both languages at one and the same time, and
enhance their abilities to translate better and more confidently.

1.13 Sentence Types

The major sentence type of English is the verbal type, normally with the subject first,
followed by the (main) verb, then the object / complement (whichever applicable). On the
other hand, the major Arabic sentence types are two (1&2), with two minor types (3&4):

a. Verbal Sentences )‫( (الجمؿ الفعمية‬V+S+O/C)

b. Nominal Sentences (Topic+Comment) )‫(الجمؿ االسمية‬
c. Functional Sentences )‫( (الجمؿ التي ليا محؿ مف انعراب‬seven types).
d. Non-Functional sentences )‫( (الجمؿ التي ال محؿ ليا مف انعراب‬nine types).

There are variations on (nominal (a-d) and verbal (e-h)) sentence types: e.g.

a. 'Inna sentence )‫إف كأخكاتيػا‬

ٌ ‫(جممػة‬: )‫(إف‬
ٌ set of semi-verbal particles + a sentence (a
particle of the set+topic (accusative) + comment (nominative)).
b. Prepositional sentence type )‫ػار كالمجػػركر‬ ٌ ‫(جممػػة الجػ‬: A prepositional phrase
pertaining to an embedded comment, followed by a belated topic.
c. Adverbial sentence type )‫(الجممػة الظرفيػة‬: An adverb of time/place related to an
embedded comment, followed by a belated topic.
d. Fronted comment and belated topic sentence type )‫(جممة تقديـ الخبر‬.
e. Passive voice sentence type )‫(جممة المبني لممجيكؿ‬
f. Fronted Object+V+O sentence type )‫(جممػػة المفعػػكؿ بػػو المقػػدـ‬: An embedded
verb+O+V+O

96
 g. 'Kaana' sentence)‫(جمم ػػة ك ػػاف كأخكاتي ػػا‬: )‫ (ك ػػاف‬set of so-called 'defective /
imperfective verbs+sentence (a verb of this set+topic (nominative) +
comment (accusative)).
h. Conditional sentences )‫(الجمؿ الشػرطية‬: A conditional particle (e.g. ،‫م ٍف‬/
‫إف ى‬/‫ال‬
ٍ ‫لػك‬/‫لك‬/‫إذا‬
.‫ )إلخ‬+topic+V, or V+S+O/C. etc.
i. Imperative sentence type )‫(جممة صيغة األمر‬

These variations and complications of the sentence types in Arabic offer a great
opportunity to students of translation to explore a good deal about these types, matched
or compared with the major English sentence types. It may be a daunting task for the
teacher to be highly educated in Arabic grammar to be able to explain these types in
contrast with their English equivalents.

1.14 Change of the Grammatical Class of Words

This is a useful exercise for developing and refining the translators and the students' skills
and abilities to practice almost freely the change of the grammatical class of words, so
that they learn much about the flexibility of translation, Arabic Language and the overlap
among the different classes of the same word (i.e. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs in
particular). Changing the class of words is described by Newmark and others as
'transposition and modulation' )‫( (التبػػديؿ كالقمػب‬1988: 85-89). Transposition is defined by
Vinay and Darbelnet as a translation procedure that involves a change in the grammar
from SL to TL. Modulation, on the other hand, is defined by them as "a variation through a
change of viewpoint, of perspective and … of category of thought" (1995). This is a
common practice in translation, especially when an equivalent class of an English word in
Arabic is not available (e.g. 'willy nilly /whether you like it or not': ‫(شػاء أـ أبػى‬, or a certain
class is meant for one reason or another (e.g. understanding is the precondition for
translating properly ‫( الفيػـ شػرط مسػػبؽ لمترجمػة السػميمة‬nominalization)/ ‫أف تفيػـ شػرط مسػبؽ لكػي تتػػرجـ‬
‫( بشػكؿ سػميـ‬verbalization),etc.). One of the interesting exercises is to give students a drill on
how to translate the same examples twice: one into verbal sentences; another into
nominal sentences. The results will be surprising and sometimes unexpected (see
Newmark, 1988: ch. 8, and Ghazala, 2006). Following is a provisional list of possible
transpositions and modulations of word class from English into Arabic that are recurrent in
the translation from the former into the latter. Exceptions are always lurking there, and
the list is by no means final. I will extend the table to include other grammatical changes
like tense:

97
Source Language Target Language Example Translation
SL adverb -TL prepositional -quickly ‫ بشػػكؿ س ػريع‬/ ‫ بسػػرعة‬-
phrase / circums-
‫ عمػػى‬/‫ عمػػى نحػػك س ػريع‬/
tantial accusative
‫ سريعان‬/ ‫جناح السرعة‬
-SL adj. + n. -TL n. + adj. -easy target ‫ ىدؼ سيؿ‬-

-SL (to) infinitive -TL verb / verb + -(to) study ‫لدراسة‬/‫ دراسة‬/‫ يدرس‬-
-SL verb phrase prep. Phrase -visit, kill / ‫ قتؿ‬،‫قاـ بزيارة‬/‫ زار‬-
‫قاـ بقتؿ‬
-SL perp. phrase -TL prep. phrase / -by force
circumstantial ‫قس انر‬/‫عصبان‬/‫ بالقكة‬-
-SL adj. n. +n. -TL genitive/adj. -word order ‫ النسػػؽ‬/ ‫ ترتيػػب الكػػالـ‬-
+noun
‫الكالمي‬
-SL n. + n. -TL genitive /perp. -translation books ‫ كت ػ ػػب‬/ ‫ كت ػ ػػب ترجم ػ ػػة‬-
Phrase ‫حكؿ الترجمة‬
‫ كتاب جامعي‬،‫جالٌية‬-
-SL compounds -TL one, or more -dishwasher, text-
words book
-SL gerund -TL n. -worshipping God ‫ عبادة اهلل كاجبة‬-
is a must ‫ يغادر‬/ ‫ عمي مغادر‬-
-SL participial –ing -TL verb/adj./n. -Ali is leaving

-SL pres. Participle -TL causative phr. -having failed, she ‫نظ انر ألنيػ ػ ػػا‬/‫ بمػ ػ ػػا أنيػ ػ ػػا‬-
/v. was shocked ،‫ أصػيبت بصػػدمة‬،‫رسػبت‬
‫فصدمت‬
‫رسبت ي‬

-SL empty verb -TL nominal sent. -We are Muslims ‫ نحف مسممكف‬-
sentence ‫ج ٌف‬/‫غضب‬/
‫ي‬ ‫ مرض‬-
-SL adj./zero verb -TL verb -(he was) ill/angry
/mad
-SL passive -TL passive/active -she was surprised ‫أصػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػػابتيا‬/‫ يد ًىشت‬-
‫الدىشة‬
-SL passive -TL active only -We were lost ً -
‫أضعنا الطريؽ‬/‫ضعنا‬
-SL plural -TL plural/singular -furniture ‫ أثاث‬/ ‫ مفركشات‬-
/ ‫أخب ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػػار‬-‫ خب ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػػر‬-
-SL singular only -TL singular/plural -news/information
/ evidence -‫دليػػؿ‬/‫معمكمات‬-‫معمكمػػة‬
‫أدلة‬
‫ ش ػ ػ ػ ػػائع (ل ػ ػ ػ ػػيس غي ػ ػ ػ ػػر‬-
-SL double neg. -TL positive -not uncommon
-SL positive -TL negative -minor details ‫شػ ػ ػ ػػائع) تفاصػ ػ ػ ػػيؿ غيػ ػ ػ ػػر‬
)‫ميمة (تفاصيؿ ثانكية‬

98
-SL one word -TL 2-3-4 words -indispensable ‫ ال‬/ ‫ ال غنػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػػى عنػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػػو‬-
‫يمك ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػػف االس ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػػتغناء‬
‫أساسي‬/‫عنو‬
-SL 2-3-4 words -TL one word -I saw him ‫ رأيتو‬-

-SL conjunction -prep. phrase -yet/however ‫ عمى أية حاؿ‬-

-SL adjective TL adj./n. phrase -comfortable, ‫ قابؿ لمترجمة‬،‫ مريح‬-
translatable
-TL feminine.
‫ تعسفية‬،‫ ركمانسية‬-
-SL '-ism' terms Jargon ‫(المص ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػ ػػدر‬ -Romanticism,
dogmatism
)‫الصناعي‬
-Assad is the ‫ األسػ ػ ػ ػػد أبشػ ػ ػ ػػع مجػ ػ ػ ػػرـ‬-
-SL concrete -TL abstract world's ugliest ‫بحؽ اننسانية جمعاء‬
criminal

-SL abstract -TL concrete -shame on Assad, ‫ عػػار عمػػى األسػػد قاتػػؿ‬-
the killer of ‫األطفاؿ‬
innocence
- SL part -TL whole -London declared
‫ أعمنت بريطانيا‬-

-SL whole -TL part -The States said ‫ قاؿ البيت األبيض‬-

-TL past tense

-SL simple past, -she passed/had ‫ نجحت‬-
present / past passed/has passed
perfect
-TL one word ‫ يصافح‬-
-SL collocation -shake hands
-SL one word -TL collocation -trace ‫ يقتفي أثر‬-

By way of commenting on these examples, it should be pointed out that some of them are
partly related to grammar in some way (e.g. abstract/concrete, part/whole, collocations,
less/more words and compounds). However, the majority are grammatical. Further, they
are sample examples for possible major changes in the translation of grammar and lexico-
grammatical features both directions.

1.15 Translation of Word Order

Words are arranged in a particular order in sentences. Crystal defines word order as a
reference to "the sequential arrangement of words in a language. Languages are
sometimes classified in terms of whether their word order is relatively 'free' (as in Latin) or
'fixed' (as in English)" (1980: 384). To Baker, "The syntactic structure of a language
imposes restrictions on the way messages may be organized in that language" (1992: 110).
Obviously, there are restrictive rules that govern the mobility of the specified positions of
words in their sentential sequence; and unless there is a good reason, their order is not
changed. Further, the change of the positioning of words is sometime not permissible in

99
the grammar of language. That is, the normal English word order is: S(subject) / V(verb) /
O(object) / C(complement). Although this order can, on special occasions, and for special
reasons, be changed into V / S / O / C (e.g. read John a book), and perhaps into O / C / S /
V. (e.g. a book John read), it is not allowed to have the sequence of O / V / S (e.g. *a book
read John). By analogy, in Arabic, the word order of the verbal sentence type is flexible
enough to change the normal word order, V / S / O )‫ (ق أر عمي كتابان) (فعؿ – فاعؿ – مفعكؿ بو‬into S
(topic) / V / O) )‫ مفعكؿ بو‬/ ‫ فعؿ‬/ )‫(فاعؿ(مبتدأ‬, (e.g. ‫(عمي ق أر كتابان‬, or into O / V / S / ‫ فعؿ‬/ ‫(مفعكؿ بو‬
)‫( فاعؿ‬e.g. )‫)كتابان ق أر عمي‬, but usually not into (O / S / V )‫ فعؿ‬/ ‫ فاعؿ‬/ ‫( (مفعكؿ بو‬e.g. ‫(كتابان عمي ق أر‬.
Consequently, the change of the position of a word in the sentence sequence would result
in some change of meaning in some way. Rojo goes further and declares that "… in
English, by changing the order of elements, we can alter the function of a whole clause…"
(2009: 196).

Comparing the two languages involved, the word order of clauses and sentences is mainly
different. That is, the primary and fixed English word order is S / V / O / C, whereas the
primary Arabic word order is V / S / O / C. However, for a good reason (e.g. emphasis,
prominence, respect, etc.), Arabic is more flexible than English and allows for a word order
identical with English: S / V / O / C, in which case the subject turns to be a topic )‫(مبتدأ‬. At
translating into either direction, the main TL word order should be respected even though
a word order identical to that of the SL is allowed for special reasons. This is evident in
English-Arabic translations where many translators translate into a word order equivalent
to English (i.e. Noun + Verb …), which marks a point of weakness and lethargy on the part
of the translator. Following is a detailed investigation of the translation of the different
types of word order manifested in the types of Arabic sentence.

As stressed earlier, there are two major types of sentence in English, nominal and verbal.
One of the main differences between English and Arabic grammar is that English has
verbal sentences only (in the sense that every grammatical English sentence should
contain a main verb preceded by a subject)‫)(فاعؿ‬, whereas Arabic has both verbal and
nominal sentences. A nominal sentence requires no verb of any kind. In general, it consists
of two nouns, the first is called 'Topic / Subject' )‫المسند إليو‬/‫(المبتدأ‬, and the second is called
'Comment /Predicate' )‫المسند‬/‫(الخبر‬. Although English sentences start with a noun, this noun
is called 'subject' )‫المسند إليو‬/‫(الفاعؿ‬, followed by the main verb of the sentence and an
object, or a complement (the last three categories are called 'Predicate' )‫(المسند‬. There is no
English sentence that can be described as grammatically well-formed unless it contains a
main verb (an auxiliary verb is not enough, there must be a main / lexical verb), what is
known in Arabic as 'verb', for there are no auxiliaries in its grammar. In this sense, if
English sentences were translated in the same word order, there would be no verbal
sentences in Arabic, only nominal sentences. Here is a short list with the main sentence
types in Arabic (see the list above). There is no need to discuss all of the types of the
Arabic sentences – and, hence, word order - for some of them (e.g. b, c, g, h, i) are not
quite problematic as they have one-to-one direct English equivalent. Therefore, only
major and problematic types pertaining to Islamic texts are surveyed in the next
discussion.

100
 1.15.1 Verbal Word Order / Sentences: V + S + O/C

This is the major word order of the verbal Arabic sentences. Generally, it is translated
into a reverse typical fixed English word order: S + V + O/C. Generally, it is not
problematic in translation: e.g. (Most examples are from the Holy Koran, as Arabic
grammar books mainly do):

God gives a parable/ sets an example) )75 :‫) ضرب اهلل مثالن (النحؿ‬1(
(Establish prayer) ‫) أقـ الصالة‬2(
(and He (God) taught Adam the names of all things) ‫) كعمـ آدـ األسماء‬3(
(So, they defeated them with the Will of God) ‫) فيزمكىـ بإذف اهلل‬4(
(God listens to those who praise Him) ‫) سمع اهلل لمف حمده‬5(
(The Hour (Hereafter) has drawn near, and the moon was ‫) اقتربػت السػاعة كانشػؽ القمػر‬6(
split asunder)
(Mankind / People were one whole Nation) ‫) كاف الناس أمة كاحدة‬7(
(Beware of oppression for oppression is darkness) .‫) اتقكا الظمـ فإف الظمـ ظممات‬8(
(I I swore allegiance to the Messenger )‫) بايعػت رسػكؿ اهلل عمػى السػمع كالطاعػة (البخػارم كمسػمـ‬9(
of God for listening and obedience)
(Abu Hurairah reported that the Messenger of God :‫) ركل أبػك ىريػرة أف رسػكؿ اهلل قػاؿ‬10(
said:)

The normal order of words in Arabic: V+S.O/C is converted into the normal order of
English: S+V.O/C. Any translation that keeps the Arabic word order in English is not
acceptable, except on very few occasions of emphasis. Therefore, the translation of the
last example, for instance, into "Narrated Abu Hurairah" (V+S) (as some inaccurate
translations of the Prophetic Tradition like al-Hilali and Khan's (1996) do) is not accurate
for this is a violation of the basic normal order of words in the English sentence, which
should be S+V here.

1.15.1.1 Deviant Verbal Word Order

1.15.1.1.1 Delayed Subject / Object & Subject / Object Reversal

(from the far end of the town a man came ‫كجػاء مػف أقصػػى المدينػة رجػؿ يسػػعى‬ )1
running)
(And they appointed to God, )136 :‫كجعمػكا هلل ممػا ذ أر مػف الحػرث كاألنعػاـ نصػيبان (األنعػاـ‬ )2
out of the tillage and the cattle He created, a share)
(In the eyes of the polytheists )137 :‫زيف لكثير مف المشركيف قتؿ أكالدىـ شركاؤىـ (األنعاـ‬ )3
their associates made alluring to them the killing of their children)
(and when Abraham was tested by his Lord) ‫اىيـ ريبو‬ ‫كاذ ابتمى إبر ى‬ )4
(The learned servants of God do fear Him) ‫العمماء‬
‫ي‬ ‫) يخشى اهللى مف عباده‬5

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As to the first two examples, the delayed subject and object are reflected in the
translation into English to background it to an end-focus position: 'a man came running'
(of 'a') and 'share' (of 'b').

The subject )‫( (شػػركاؤىـ‬associates), of the third example, on the other hand, is in a
background position not to receive an end focus, but to avoid awkward grammar in
Arabic. That is, the normal word order ( i.e. v+s+o) looks like the following: ‫زيػف شػركاء‬
‫المشػركيف قتػؿ أكالد المشػركيف لممشػركيف‬, which includes a monotonous repetition of ‫ مشػركيف‬three
times in an awkward grammatical structure. Consequently, in English, there is no need to
disrupt the normal word order (i.e. s+v+o), with no ambiguity of reference of 'they',
whereas in Arabic, reference would be confusing as whether it is to 'associates' or
'polytheists': (‫شركاء المشركيف قت ىؿ أكالدىـ ليـ‬
‫ي‬ ‫(زيف‬.

The fourth and fifth examples have the subject and object reversed, again for grammatical
rather than stylistic reasons. The normal word order of both (v+s+o) would disrupt the
statements grammatically as well as semantically as follows:

ً
- ‫العمماء مف عباد اهلل اهللى‬
‫ي‬ ‫يخشى‬
- ‫اىيـ‬
‫اىيـ إبر ى‬‫رب إبر ى‬
‫ابتمى ي‬

Awkwardness is obvious owing to the undue, stumbled repetition of 'God' and 'Abraham'
respectively.

1.15.1.1.2 Object Foregrounding

(You alone do we worship, and to You alone do we turn for ‫(أ) إيػاؾ نعبػد كايػاؾ نسػتعيف‬
help
(and for the moon we have appointed phases) ‫(ب) كالقمر قدرناه منازؿ‬
(and the earth we stretched out)‫(ت) كاألرض مددناىا‬
(and the mountains He fixed firmly) ‫(ث) كالجباؿ أرساىا‬
)84 :‫ (الزمر‬He (God) said: "The truth, and the truth I pronounce) ‫الحؽ أقكؿ‬
‫فالحؽ ك ى‬
‫ي‬ ‫(ج) قاؿ‬

This group of examples has a special case of fronting the OBJECT in Arabic. This is an
unusual word order, but it is not necessarily unfamiliar or non-recurrent. Now the English
translations are generally committed to foregrounding the object as in the original to
receive a greater attention, as also in the original. By the way, the foregrounded
positioning of the objects in the original has nothing to do with the end rhyme of the
delayed verbs, as the Holy Koran makes no concessions of any kind.

1.15.2 Nominal Sentences’ Word Order: Topic & Comment

Nominal sentences consist of two nouns each: a topic and a comment (or subject and
predicate). The verb is left out of the nominal structure of sentences. The normal word
order of such sentences is the 'topic', first, followed by the 'comment'. Most nominal
102
sentences abide by this order. However, the English translation cannot stand without a
verb for, as indicated above, all English grammatical sentences should have a main verb.
Most likely, in normal cases, the copula verb, 'Be' in the present simple tense (i.e. am / is /
are) is the linking verb between topic and comment. Here are examples:

(God is most kind with His servants) ‫) اهلل لطيؼ بعباده‬1(

(Mohammad is the Messenger of God) ‫) محمد رسكؿ اهلل‬2(
(Christ is but a Messenger) ‫) ما المسيح إال رسكؿ‬3(

1.15.2.1 Deviant Nominal Word Order

1.15.2.1.1 Comment-less / topic-less nominal sentences:

Some nominal sentences are without comments, in which case the latter are hidden, or
implied. This is a frequent formal nominal practice in Arabic sentences. However, in
English, formally, the subject and predicate have to be stated clearly. Perhaps it is not
problematic to guess or compensate for the missing word: e.g.

(The truth is from your Lord) ‫) الحؽ مف ربؾ‬1(

(God is the only Deity; There is no deity but God) ‫) اهلل ال إلو إال ىك‬2(
(It (the Koran) is the Book we revealed to you) ‫) كتاب أنزلناه إليؾ‬3(
(He is the Most Gracious / God is the Most Gracious) .‫ عمـ القرآف‬.‫) الرحمف‬4(
There are three people who God will not talk to )‫(مسػمـ‬... ‫) ثالثػة ال يكمميػـ اهلل يػكـ القيامػة‬5(
on the Day of Judgment

In the first two examples, the compensation for the missing comment / the predicate )‫(كػائف‬
is not difficult to retrieve, using the equating verb (is). However, in 3-5, retrieving the
missing topic is a little more difficult than in 1 and 2. We have to work hard to guess it,
although it is possible to use the dummy pro-form (it is / there is). Yet, a safer side is to
recover it in full lexical form (i.e. 'The' Koran', 'God', and 'people' respectively), followed by
(is/are), as illustrated in the examples.

1.15.2.1.2 Double Topics and One Comment

This is one of the unusual types of nominal word order. It is used frequently in Islamic
texts, especially the Holy Koran, to put more stress on the topic concerned: e.g.

(and the guardians of those who disbelieve are verily the ‫) كالػذيف كفػركا أكليػاؤىـ الطػاغكت‬1(
Satan / have the Satan as their guardians)
(and those who disbelieve in our signs shall surly ‫) كالػذيف كفػركا باياتنػا ىػـ أصػحاب المشػأمة‬2(
be those of the left hand)
(and those who disbelieve certainly have their deeds like a ‫) كالذيف كفركا أعماليـ كسراب‬3(
mirage in a desert / and the deeds of those who disbelieve are like…)
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At translating examples like these, we have two options: either to reconstruct the two
topics as a genitive structure, as in 1 and 2 (e.g. the guardians of those who disbelieve /
and the deeds of those who disbelieve); or to foreground the first and background the
second (see 'those who disbelieve have ….guardians' / those who disbelieve have their
deeds…). As to the third example, it poses no problem for the second topic )‫ (ىـ‬is
automatically translated into the equative verb (are). Yet, in all cases, the emphasis
implied' in doubling the topic should be attended to ( c.f. the insertion of 'verily, surely
and certainly' in succession), which is not done by most translators of the Holy Koran in
particular.

1.15.2.1.3 Topic + Verbal Comment

(God bitterly mocks them) ‫) اهلل يستيزئ بيـ‬1(

(God only takes the souls ‫) اهلل يتكفى األنفس‬2(
(God surely chooses Messengers from Angels ‫) اهلل يصػطفي مػف المالئكػة رسػالن كمػف النػاس‬3(
and people

The topic – which is normally a subject following a verb - is fronted to receive a greater
emphatic focus and assertive tone. Originally, these nominal sentences are supposed to
be verbal with the word order: v+s+o. However, due to the unusual significance of the
subject, it is foregrounded to become a topic in a nominal structure. Although this is not
the normal case in Arabic grammar, it is permissible, anyway. In English, this is the normal
word order. Therefore, the Arabic abnormal order has to be translated into the normal
English order with a word of emphasis to be added before the verb to reflect the emphasis
of the original.

1.15.2.1.4 Fronted Comment by Implication

A prepositional phrase can start a nominal sentence, functioning as a fronted comment by

implication. Such a structure is translated into a different sentence structure and word
order. e.g.

(Is it in God that you doubt? / Is there a doubt in God?) ‫) أفي اهلل شؾ‬1(
(In their hearts is sickness / they are sick at heart) ‫) في قمكبيـ مرض‬2(
To God is your return / Your return is to God ‫) إلى اهلل مرجعكـ‬3(
To God belongs all that in heavens and on earth / all ‫) هلل مػا فػي السػمكات كمػا فػي األرض‬4(
that in heavens and on earth belong to God

The fronting of the functional prepositional phrases is meant to be assigned more

importance and urgency than the postponed topic. Hence, at translating them into
English, the assertive word order of the original is recommended to be retained, as
illustrated in the first translations of the examples above. However, the second versions of
translation are acceptable, but less emphatic than the original.

104
1.15.2.1.5 Unusual (Inn ‫)إن‬
ْ Nominal Sentence Structure

Among the unusually complicated sentence structure in Arabic syntax related to word
order in particular is the particle, /inn/, which unusually functions as a contrastive /
negative particle, meaning 'but'. The point here is that such a structure is exceptionally
assertive and decisive, which has to be borne in mind at translating it into English.

(but surely all – everyone of them will be brought ‫لمػا جميػع لػدينا محضػركف‬ ٌ ‫كا ٍف كػؿ‬ )1(
before us / everyone of them shall be summoned before us)
Not even one of the beings in the ‫إف كػؿ مػػف فػػي السػػمكات كاألرض إال آتػػي الػػرحمف عبػػدان‬
ٍ )2(
heavens and the earth but must come to the Most Gracious as a servant / there is
none in the heavens and the earth but comes unto the Most Gracious as a slave)
(Definitely, there is no human being but has a protector ‫إف كػؿ نفػس لمػا عمييػا حػافظ‬ ٍ )3(
over him / there is no soul but has a protector over it)
(There is not even one of you but will pass over it (Hell) / Not one ‫كا ٍف مػنكـ إال كاردىػا‬ )4(
of you but will pass over it
And surely, to everyone of them your Lord )111 :‫كا َّف كػالن لمػا ليػكفينيـ ربػؾ أعمػاليـ (ىػكد‬ )5(
will repay their deeds in full

The examples reveal a complex and complicated nominal structure that need be treated
with care in English. Although the general formula 'there is no /not / none' can be useful
to start with in many examples, other forms of negation can be applicable as well (e.g. 'not
one of', 'but surely / verily', etc.). The trickiest point for the translator is perhaps to
understand such an unusual sentence structure properly in Arabic before translating it, for
understanding is naturally the prerequisite for translating anything into another language.
There might be some misunderstanding of the initial /inn/. Further, preoccupied with
taking down the complex structure into pieces to construe its meaning, and due to its
negative form, the translator might ignore its strongly emphatic stylistic implications
(hence the insertion of emphatic words like 'even, definitely’, etc. above).

As to the last example, it does not imply any negative sense, but rather greater emphasis,
for the particle here is the emphatic /inna/, not /inn/. Indeed, this type of sentence
structure is one of the unfindable structures in English, and, naturally, any translation
would fall short of its full meaning.

1.16 Translation of )‫ (الجمل الشرطية‬Conditional Sentences: Conditional Particles

Conditional sentences in Arabic are several in number and various in forms, due to the
huge number of conditional particles, parsing cases, and grammatical functions.
Sometimes, they can pose serious problems of translation to translators who may not
have a good background about them in Arabic grammar. Usually, students of translation
and translators into English have the misconception that they are the same as in English,
i.e.:

105
  REAL )‫ (محقؽ‬: two forms: present simple and past simple:
- if you study hard, you will pass )‫ فسكؼ تنجح‬،‫اجتيدت‬
‫ى‬ ‫(إذا‬
- if you studied hard, you would pass )‫)(لك اجتيدت لنجحت‬
 UNREAL )‫مستحيؿ التحقؽ‬/‫(غير محقؽ‬: one form: past perfect:
- if you had studied hard, you would have passed ‫لػػك أنػػؾ كنػػت‬
)‫ لكنت نجحت‬،‫)اجتيدت‬.
‫ى‬

The same can almost be said of the conditional particles which are taken by analogy to
English to be only )‫لك‬/‫( (إذا‬for “if”). However, in English, there are other conditional
particles like: “unless, if and only if, in case, provided (that, providing (that), etc. Still, in
Arabic, there are many conditional particles other than the two just mentioned, as
illustrated by the following investigation of the translation of Arabic conditional
statements and particles:

The Arabic conditional particles )‫ (أحرؼ الشرط‬including bi-verbal conditional jussive particles
)‫)(أحرؼ جزـ فعميف‬are as follows: ،‫ ٌأياف‬،‫ متى‬،‫ ميما‬،‫ ما‬،‫ ىمف‬،‫ إذ ما‬،‫إف‬
ٍ ،‫ لما‬،‫ أما‬،‫ لكما‬،‫ لكال‬،‫(إذا (ما) ؛ لك‬
)‫أيان (ما‬/
ٌ ‫أم‬/
ٍّ ‫ أم‬،‫ كيفما‬،‫ حيثما‬،‫ أنى‬،‫أيف‬

They are translated and discussed in relation to the following examples:

If you sleep early, you will get up early; sleep early, and ‫ تصحك بػاك انر‬،‫) إذا نمت باك انر‬1
you get up early
if faith is lost, there will be no peace ‫) إذا انيماف ضاع فال أماف‬2
if you came, I would meet you ‫) إذا جئت قابمتؾ‬3
if you came, I might meet you ‫) إف جئت قابمتؾ‬4
if you visited me, you would find me ‫) لك زرتىني لكجدتني‬5
if you visit us, we will be happy to meet you ‫تزرنا لسررنا بمقائؾ‬
ٍ ‫) لك‬6
Had there been gods other than God therein in the ‫) لػك كػاف فييمػا آليػة إال اهلل لفسػدتا‬7
heavens and the earth, they would have been thrown into turmoil
had you agreed, you would have not regreted it; if you agreed, ‫ػت لػـ تنػدـ‬ ‫) لػك كافق ى‬8
you would not regret it
if your Lord had so willed, they would not have ever done it ‫) كلك شاء ربؾ ما فعمكه‬9
if We willed, We could make it salty ‫) لك نشاء جعمناه أجاجان‬10
had it not been for God’s mercy, we would have been ‫) لػكال رحمػػة اهلل ليمكنػػا‬11
perished
if I were not to blame, I would not attend. ‫أحض ٍر‬
‫ي‬ ‫لـ‬ ‫) لكال المالمة‬12
if our team wins the match, we will all ‫ سػنحتفؿ بػذلؾ جميعػان‬،‫) إذا مػا كسػب فريقنػا المبػاراة‬13
celebrate

106
 your condition will get worse unless you ‫ إف لػـ تشػرب الػدكاء حالتػؾ‬،‫سػكؼ تسػكء حالتػؾ‬ )14
take the medicine
and if one of the polytheists seeks from you ‫كاف أحػد مػف المشػركيف اسػتجارؾ فػأجره‬ )15
protection, then grant it to him
once/whenever/if you come, we will be pleased to meet ‫ػعد بمقائػؾ‬ ٍ ‫ نس‬،‫ػأت‬ً ‫إذ مػا ت‬ )16
you
whosoever does evil will be recompensed for ‫جز بو‬ ‫ي ى‬‫ي‬ ‫ا‬
‫ن‬ ‫سكء‬ ‫يفعؿ‬
ٍ ‫ىمف‬ )17
and whatever good you do, God will know it. ‫يعممو اهلل‬ ٍ ‫كما تفعمكا مف خير‬ )18
whatever sign you bring to us to ‫ فمػا نحػف لػؾ بمػؤمنيف‬، ‫ميمػا تأتنػا مػف آيػة لتسػحرنا بيػا‬ )19
enchant us, we will not believe in you
whenever you do what I ask to, you will get ‫ تن ٍػؿ مػا تريػد‬،‫متػى تفع ٍػؿ مػا طمبػت منػؾ‬ )20
whatever you want
if any one respects himself, people will respect ‫يحترمػو النػاس‬
ٍ ‫ػرـ نفسػو‬
ٍ ‫أم امػرئ يحت‬ )21
him; anyone who respects himself will be respected by people
whichsoever name you call upon, to Him belong ‫أيػان مػا تػدعكا فمػو األسػماء الحسػنى‬ )22
the Glorified Names
whatever God ordains, it will take place instantly ‫يقع‬ ٍ ‫يأمر بو اهلل‬
ٍ ‫أياف ما‬ )23
whenever we help him, he thanks anyone else but us; we ‫يشكر غيرنػا‬
ٍ ‫نساعده‬
ٍ ‫) أياف‬24
help him and he thanks others
wherever you are, death will overtake you ‫) أينما تككنكا يدرككـ المكت‬25
whenever we straighten up, God will guide us to ‫) حيثمػا نسػتقـ يكف ٍقنػا اهلل إلػى الخيػر‬26
good
as you treat me, I (will) return in kind ‫أكف‬ ٍ ‫تكف‬ٍ ‫) كيفما‬27
and whatever good you do, God will know it ‫يعممو اهلل‬ ٍ ‫) كما تفعمكا مف خير‬28
whatever it may be, )‫ ميمػا يكػف مػف شػيء فػال يقػكؿ إال الحػؽ‬:‫كليد فال يقك يؿ إال الحػؽ (أم‬
‫) أما ه‬29
Walid does say nothing but the truth
when he helped me, I thanked him ‫) لما ساعدني شكرتو‬30
but when He delivered them to the shore, they ‫) فممػا نجػاىـ إلػى البػر إذا ىػـ يشػرككف‬31
associated others with Him
unless you say the truth, you will surely pay the ‫ ستدفع الػثمف غاليػان‬،‫) إف لـ تقؿ الحقيقة‬32
price/you will pay the price very soon
unless you say the truth, you will pay the ‫ سػكؼ تػدفع الػثمف غاليػان‬،‫) إف لػـ تقػؿ الحقيقػة‬33
price

There are three key problems of translation posed by the translation of these conditional
statements. The first problem is created by the particle used in the original in regard to its
meaning e.g. ...‫ ميما‬،‫ كيفما‬،‫ حيثما‬،‫ أياف‬see above)). The translator has to take care translating
them appropriately into English as they are exactly in Arabic, for any mistake would be
serious.

107
The second problem is caused by the likely possibility of using the same particle in two or
more different senses (e.g. 30)). So, translators have to recognize the meaning required in
its context.
The third and trickies problem of translating Arabic conditionals into English is the
tense implied in the tense of verbs following the particle. Usually, when one of the SL
verbs is in the present tense, the English conditional is REAL in the present that
presupposes conditional cases that can be potentially real and timeless (see 1, 6, 13,
15, 16-29). Yet there are exceptions when a present simple tense is used in Arabic to
refer to the past due to their reference to the past (e.g. 2, 18, 31). Yet, the most
problematic case is when the past simple is used in the original, for it can be
interpreted in two different senses; the first REAL past (e.g. 3-5, and 12, are clear
cases, but 8 and 30 are not).

The second tense is the UNREAL conditional in the past perfect tense on which
translators have no consensus. The examples translated above into this unreal case
are : ‘7’ and ‘9’ which are parts of two verses from the Holy Koran and ‘11’ which is a
religious fact for humanity. They are translated differently by Muslim translators. Yet,
the more likely translation of these verses are provided in the list above for they
refer to unreal, impossible and highly hypothetical cases that have never taken place.
For example, ‘7’ hypothesizes the impossible existence of any diety other than God.
Similarly, ‘9’ is another highly hypothetical case that had never occurred for we
understand from the verse that God did not will that. Likewise, ‘11’ hypothesizes an
impossible thing that never happens, that is, God’s mercy never wanes, and we
survive and have not perished because of this mercy. Finally, the last two examples
(32 &33) are not the same for the )‫ (س‬of ‫ ستدفع‬of 32 generally means imminent
future (hence the addition of ‘surely’ or ‘very soon’), whereas ‫ سكؼ تدفع‬of 33 implies
usually in the future, but necessarily soon.

Finally, the parsing jussive case of the two verbs of conditional particles in Arabic is
irrelevant in English due its absence in English grammar. Further, in case an alternative
version is available in form in English, it would be advisable to use.

1.17 Semi-verbal Structures: ‫( إن‬Inna) Group of Semi-verbal Letters

These particles are described in Arabic as ‘letters that are similar to verbs’. They are six:
)‫ لعؿ‬،‫ ليت‬،‫لكف‬
ٌ ،‫كأف‬ٌ ،‫أف‬ٌ ،‫(إف‬
ٌ (inn, anna, ka-anna, lakinna, laita, la’alla). They are named so
because: (i) like Arabic past tense verbs, they all have an end fat-hah mark of vocalization
)‫( ;(فتح آخرىا‬ii) they imply the meaning of a verb as follows: assertion )‫ ( (تأكيد‬inna, anna),
similitude )‫( (تشبيو‬ka-anna), reparation )‫( (استدراؾ‬lakinna), wishfulness )‫( (تمني‬laita) and
hopefulness/request )‫( (ترجي‬la’alla). These semi-verbs start an originally nominal structure
of ‘topic and comment’. Yet, they have no equivalent letters or particles in English, so they
are translated into their meanings as lexical words and phrases, as clarified in the
following examples:

verily, God is All-forgiving and All-merciful ‫) إف اهلل غفكر رحيـ‬1(

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 Do not you know that God is all-able ‫) ألـ تعمـ أف اهلل قدير‬2(
Her face is like light/as shining as light ‫) كأف كجييا نكر‬3(
Our neighbors are good but miserly ‫) جيراننا طيبكف لكنيـ بخالء‬4(
I wish today was/ were off/ a holiday ‫اليكـ إجازة‬
‫) ليت ى‬5(
I wish I was/were dead before this moment ‫) يا ليتني مت قبؿ ىذا‬6(
Would that youth come back one day ‫) أال ليت الشباب يعكد يكم نا‬7(
For sure, there are clouds in the sky ‫) إف في السماء غيكم نا‬8(
I have no doubts that you are a noble man ‫) ال أشؾ أنؾ صاحب كاجب‬9(
(so that) I would hopefully do good deeds ‫) لعمي أعمؿ صالحان‬10(

The lexical meanings of these examples are rendered into English only, regardless of the
grammatical structures of the original, owing to its absence from the TL grammar.
However, these particles are taken into account in the TL either functionally (1 and 8), or
semantically/lexically (the rest of the examples, including zero-equivalents of ‘inna/anna
of 2 and 9), as illustrated in the next table:

SL examples TL functional meaning TL semantic/lexical meaning

‫أف‬/
ٌ ‫إف‬ٌ → → → -Assertion (verily, surely, for -Zero-equivalent
sure, certainly, etc.)
----------------------------------- -similitude (like, as, as…as
‫كأف‬ → → →
etc.)
----------------------------------- -reparation/contrast (but,
‫لكف‬ → → → yet, however, etc.)
----------------------------------- -wishfulness (I wish, would
‫ليت‬ → → → that, etc.)
----------------------------------- -hopefulness, request, may,
(hopefully, would (hope-
‫لعؿ‬ → → → fully), probably, more
likely, etc.)

1.18 Translation of )‫( (االستثناء‬Exception)

Exception is the exclusion of somebody or something from what precedes. The excluded
noun is called )‫( (المستثنى‬the exceptive/excepted), while the noun excluded from is
described as )‫( (المستثنى منو‬the excepted from). It is mainly in the accusative case, with few
exceptions, though in Arabic. Yet, the parsing mark is irrelevant in its translation into
English due to its absence from its grammar. Instead, focus is on the appropriate exceptive
particle and the appropriate noun to be excepted in the text concerned.

There are eight exceptive particles in Arabic:

)‫ال يككف‬ ،‫ليس‬ ،‫حاشا‬ ،‫عدا‬ ،‫خال‬ ،‫غير‬ ،‫سكل‬ ،‫(إال‬

109
In addition, there are further two semi-exceptive particles: ‫ ال سيما‬and ‫ىب ٍي ىد‬

However, in English, there are major four particles:

(1) but, (2) except (for), (3) save, (4) apart from

and exceptive words and phrases like:

- ‘with the exception of’,

- ‘with … being an exception’,
- ‘with … being excluded’,
- ‘aside from’,
- ‘other than’
- ‘not counting’,
- ‘exclusive of’,
- ‘other than’,
- ‘excluding’,
- ‘excepting’,
- ‘leaving out’,
- ‘omitting’
- ‘only’

Nevertheless, the first four, especially the first two, are very popular and recurrent in use,
yet, in principle, any of the previous particles, words and phrases can translate any of the
eight Arabic exceptive particles. More details and discussion about the problems of
translating these particles into English in context can be raised by the following examples:

and your Lord commanded that you shall not worship any ‫) كقضى ربؾ أال تعبدكا إال إياه‬1
but Him
all guests showed up but Khaled ‫) حضر الضيكؼ إال خالدنا‬2
I owe you forty four/fifty but six ‫) لؾ عمي خمسكف إال ستة‬3
You, wrapped in garments, stand in prayer all night save ‫يا أييا المزمؿ قـ الميؿ إال قميالن‬ )4
a short while
We did not reveal the Koran to you to ‫ إال تذكرة لمف يخشى‬،‫ما أنزلنا عميؾ القرآف لتشقى‬ )5
distress you, but as an admonition to those who fear
Then remind people of God. You are only to ‫ لست عمييـ بمسيطر‬.‫فذكر إنما أنت مذكر‬ )6
remind, and you are not their overseer
All students pass except the lazy ‫ينجح الطالب إال الكسك ىؿ‬ )7
and no one of you shall look back ‫أحد إال ام أرىتؾ‬
‫يمتفت منكـ ه‬
ٍ ‫) كال‬8
and ‫ إال الذيف آمنكا كعممكا الصالحات كقميؿ ما ىـ‬،‫) كاف كثي انر مف الخمطاء ليبغي بعضيـ عمى بعض‬9
most surely many partners do wrong to each other except those who have faith
and do righteous deeds, and how few they are!
they would have not done it but only few of them ‫) ما فعمكه إال قميؿ منيـ‬10
no one else did this but you ‫) ما فعؿ ىذا أحد إال أنت‬11
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 no one but you, my friend, is the champion; you are the sol ‫) ليس إالؾ يا صديقي بطالن‬12
.e champion )13
and who else that forgives sins but God? ‫) كمف يغفر الذنكب إال اهلل‬14
and who despairs of his Lord’s Mercy except those ‫) كمف يقنط مف رحمة ربو إال الضالكف؟‬15
who have gone astray?
nobody claims that but a liar; who else claims that but a ‫كاذب‬‫ه‬ ‫) ما أحد يدعي ذلؾ إال‬16
liar?
Raed is nothing save a petty thing ‫) ليس رائد بشيء إال شيئان تافيان‬17
I passed by no one except Suhaib ‫) ما مررت بأحد إال صييب نا‬18
I have no one but my Lord as a partisan ‫) ما لي إال ربي ناصر‬19
Do not say anything about God but the truth, Say nothing ‫) ال تقكلكا عمى اهلل إال الحؽ‬20
about God but the truth
God will not allow except that His Light shall be perfected ‫) يأبى اهلل إال أف يتـ نكره‬21
nobody came but your brother, Ahmad ‫أحمد‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ما جاء إال أخكؾ إال‬ )22
Everybody left except for Thaer, Ibrahim and ‫ إال سمطانان‬،‫اىيـ‬ ‫ إال إبر ى‬،‫غادر الجميع إال ثائ انر‬ )23
Sultan
A town that has no bosom friends ‫العيس‬ ‫ال‬ ‫ا‬
‫ك‬ ، ‫اليعافير‬ ‫ال‬ ‫إ‬ ‫أنيس‬ ‫بيا‬ ‫ليس‬ ‫و‬
‫كبمدة‬ )24
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
but antelopes and camels
all masters came but their attendants ‫جاء السادة إال خدميـ‬ )25
nothing talks in war but flames of fire ‫ألسف النيراف‬
‫) ال يتكمـ في الحرب إال ي‬26
nobody other than Ali showed up; no one else came but Ali; ‫أحد‬ ‫غير عمي ه‬
‫) ما جاء ى‬27
only Ali came
I saw none/nobody save/but/other than you ‫) ما رأيت أحدان سكاؾ‬28
I took nothing but a handful of grain ‫) ما أخذت سكل حفنة مف القمح‬29
the warehouse went on fire save/but the computer ‫) احترؽ المستكدع غير أجيزة الحاسب‬30
sets
‫و‬
all children went to sleep except Saleem ‫) ناـ األطفاؿ حاشا سميـ‬31
everybody prayed but Hammam ‫) صمى الحضكر ما خال ىماـ‬32
‫و‬
all players took part but/save Majed ‫ماجد‬ ‫) شارؾ الالعبكف ما عدا‬33
all libraries are closed but that of the ‫) أغمقت المكتبات أبكابيا ليس مكتبةى الجامعة‬34
University/the university library
all athletes competed but Salem ‫) تنافس العداؤكف ليس يككف سالم نا‬35
‫و‬
every child is lovable, especially a bright one like ‫نجيب مثمؾ‬ ‫ كال سيما طفؿ‬،‫) كؿ طفؿ يي ىحب‬36
you
my neighbor is wealthy but miserly ‫ بيد أنو بخيؿ‬،‫) جارم ثرم‬37
I am the best one who has ever spoken Arabic, ‫ بيد أني قرشي‬،‫) أنا أفصح مف نطؽ بالضاد‬38
but I belong to the Tribe of Quraish

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Commenting on the English translation of these examples, one may say that they are
representative of all uses, types and grammatical/parsing types of exception in Arabic
grammar. The translator’s usual task is to consider the meaning and grammatical structure
and function of exception in Arabic context, first, before translating it into English. Once
he/she has done that, he/she has to attend carefully to translating it and its preceding
exceptive particle appropriately in English context of grammar and meaning.

The problem of translating Arabic exceptive particles into English is not quite difficult as
both languages have them variably and conveniently. However, the translator cannot
translate them between the two languages as one-to-one equivalent, for any exceptive
particle in the TL can translate any particle in the SL if appropriate in the SL text and
context both semantically and grammatically. The only exception in the Arabic group of
exceptive particles is the semi-particle, ‫ال سػيما‬, which is not translated in the sense of
exception, but in the sense of ‘specialness’ as ‘especially to distinguish, rather than except,
the noun that follows it (see 36 above).

On the other hand, more than one version of translation is sometimes available in English
Language. In other words, a literal, appropriate translation can be accepted on equal
terms with an alternative, non-literal one (consider in particular examples 12, 19 and 26
earlier).

1.19 Translation of the Plural

The Arabic plural forms are more variant and more complicated than English plurals:

a. Animate masculine regular plural and its variations )‫( (جمػع المػذكر السػالـ العاقػؿ‬e.g.
‫مترجمكف‬-‫(مترجـ‬
b. Animate feminine regular plural and its variations )‫( (جمػع المؤنػػث السػػالـ العاقػػؿ‬e.g.
‫مترجمات‬-‫(مترجمة‬
c. Inanimate masculine & feminine plural )‫( (جمػع المػذكر كالمؤنػث غيػر العاقػؿ‬e.g. – ‫بػػاب‬
)‫أبكاب؛ شجرة – أشجار‬
d. Irregular plural (fem. & masc.) (unpredictable forms))‫( جمػع التكسػير (المػذكر كالمؤنػث‬e.g.
)‫ عنػادؿ‬- ‫( → (رجػؿ – رجػاؿ؛ امػرأة – نسػاء؛ سػفينة – سػفف؛ عنػدليب‬man/men; woman/women;
ship/ships; nightingale/nightingales)
e. The plural of few number (4 forms) )‫( جمػع القمػة (أربعػة أكزاف‬e.g. ‫ صػبية‬،‫ أعمػدة‬،‫ أجػداد‬،‫(أنفػس‬
→ (souls; grandfathers/ancestors; (some) boys
f. The plural of large number (16 forms) )‫ كزنػان‬16( ‫( جمػع الكثػرة‬e.g. ،‫ ًقطىػع‬،‫ يغ ىػرؼ‬،‫ يذ يرع‬،‫يح يمػر‬
)‫ أنبيػػاء‬،‫ كرمػػاء‬،‫ قيضػػباف‬،‫ ًغممػػاف‬،‫ قمػػكب‬،‫ رقػػاب‬،‫صػ ٌػكاـ‬ َّ
‫ ي‬،‫ يركػػع‬،‫ قػػردة‬، ،‫ مرضػػى‬،‫ بػػررة‬،‫( → غ ػزاة‬many
donkeys; many arms; many rooms, many pieces; many invaders; many righteous
believers; many patients; many monkeys; many kneelers/prostrators; many
fasters; many necks; many hearts; many lads/pages/valets; many bars/beams;
many generous men; many Prophets)

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 g. The plural of ultimate plurals (19 forms) )‫ كزنان‬19( ‫( منتيى الجمكع‬e.g. ،‫ أنامػؿ‬،‫ دنػانير‬،‫دراىـ‬
،‫ صػحائؼ‬،‫ صػياديح‬،‫ صػيارؼ‬،‫ طػكاحيف‬،‫ خػكاتـ‬،‫ ينػابيع‬،‫ يتػامى‬،‫ مصػابيح‬،‫ مساجد‬،‫ تسابيح‬،‫ تجارب‬،‫أضابير‬
‫ػي‬
ٌ ‫ ك ارس ػ‬،‫ فت ػػاكل‬،‫ تػ ػراؽ‬،‫( → ع ػػذارل‬dirhams; dinars; fingers; files; experiments;
glorifications; mosques; lamps; orphans; springs; rings; mills; exchange(s);
chanters/singers; scrolls/sheets; virgins; clavicles; fatwas/religious counsel;
chairs)
h. The noun/singular plural )‫( (اسػـ الجمػع‬e.g. ...‫ ضػأف‬،‫ خيػؿ‬،‫ قػكـ‬،‫( → (جػيش‬army; people;
horses, lamb/lambs)
i. Gender noun plural )‫( (اسػـ الجػنس الجمعػي‬e.g. ...‫ تػرؾ‬،‫ عػرب‬،‫ بطػيخ‬،‫ تمػر‬،‫ سػفرجؿ‬،‫→ (تفػاح‬
apples; quince; dates; (water/sweet) melons; Arabs; Turks)
j. The plural of the plural )‫( (جمػػع الجمػػع‬e.g. ...‫ طيػػر‬،‫ أزاىيػػر‬،‫ جمػػاالت‬،‫ رجػػاالت‬،‫→ (بيكتػػات‬
many houses; many men; many camels; many flowers; many birds)
k. Zero-singular plural )‫( (الجمع الذم ال مفرد لو‬e.g. ...‫ أبابيػؿ‬،‫ تعاشػيب‬،‫ تعاجيػب‬،‫ تجاكيد‬،‫→ (تباشير‬
good omens; useful rains; miracles/wonderments; groups/sects)
l. Different-singular plural )‫( (الجمع عمى غير مفػرده‬e.g. ،‫ أباطيػؿ‬،‫ حػكائج‬،‫ مالمػح‬،‫ مسػاكئ‬،‫محاسػف‬
)...‫( → أحاديػػث‬advantages / merits; disadvantages / demerits; countenances /
features; needs; wrongs / wrong things; sayings / chats / talks)
m. Identical plural and singular form )‫( (ما كاف جمعان كمفردان‬e.g. )...‫ كلػد‬،‫ ضػيؼ‬،‫ عدك‬،‫ يج ينب‬،‫يفمؾ‬
→ (ark(s)/ship(s); impure/impurity; enemy; guest(s); son(s))
n. Plural of compounds )‫( (جمػع المركبػات‬e.g. ‫ ذكات‬،‫ ذكات القعػدة‬،‫ بنػات آكل‬،‫ ذكك عمػـ‬،‫بنػك عبػاس‬
)...‫( → الحجػة‬sons of Abbas; scholars/men of knowledge; jackals; Thul-Qidahs;
Thul-Hijjahs)
o. Plural of proper names/nouns )‫( (جمػػع األعػػالـ‬e.g. ‫ زيػػد – زيػػدكف كأزيػػاد‬،‫ محمػػدكف‬- ‫محمػػد‬
)...‫ أحمػد – أحمػدكف كأحامػد‬،‫( كزيػكد‬Mohammad - Mohammads; Zaid - Zaids; Ahmad –
Ahmads)

On the other hand, the dual form is basic in Arabic, but absent from English grammar. The
problem for the students of translation is not only how to know all these forms of Arabic
plural, but also and, mainly, how to form the dual and plural of all forms, especially the
concord of the rest of the sentence, with the feminine forms being the most awkward
(e.g. "All feminine students did their homework and passed their final exams except for
two lousy ones":)‫(كتبػػت الطالبػات كميػف كاجبػاتيف كنجحػف فػي اختبػػاراتيف النيائيػة إال اثنتػيف كسػكلتيف‬. Usually
they replace it by either the masculine plural (i.e. ‫(كتبػت الطالبػات كميػـ كاجبػاتيـ كنجحػكا فػي اختبػاراتيـ‬
‫النيائيػة إال اثنتػيف كسػكالت‬. They also substitute the masculine plural for the inanimate plural
(e.g. "Pet animals do no harm to their owners nor hurt each other": ‫ال تػؤذم الحيكانػات األليفػة‬
‫( أصػػحابيـ كال يػػؤذكف بعضػػيـ بعض ػان‬instead of ‫)ال تػػؤذم الحيكانػػات األليفػػة أصػػحابيا كال تػػؤذم بعضػػيا بعضػػا‬.
Adding to the problems of achieving the dual form in Arabic is the fact that even verbs and
adjectives follow the plural as well as the dual forms of nouns in a way identical with these
examples. English, however, is different in this regard as the plural forms are restricted to
nouns only, and adjectives and adverbs have zero-plural forms (see below).

113
With the recurrence of examples containing plural and dual forms of different types of
nouns, verbs and adjectives, the students of translation can improve their practical use of
awkward forms in particular. Any argument is preferably put forward in a comparative and
contrastive way.

To push the discussion further, in English, there are two major forms of plural for nouns:

a. Invariable noun plurals (concrete/abstract and count/non-count): nouns that

have only one plural form in English Language (e.g. scissors, scales, trousers,
pants, tongs, tweezers, shorts, customs, the Middle Ages, archives, ashes, arms,
savings, manners, outskirts, thanks, fireworks, goods, letters, valuables, riches,
headquarters, police, etc.) ‫ سػػركاؿ‬،‫ ممقػػط نسػػائي‬،‫ ممقػػط‬،‫ سػػركاؿ قصػػير‬،‫ بنطػػاؿ‬،‫ مي ػزاف‬،‫(مقػػص‬
،‫سػػمكؾ‬/‫ أخالؽ‬،‫ مػػدخرات‬،‫سػػالح‬/‫ أسمحة‬،‫ رمػػاد‬،‫المحفكظات‬/‫ األرشػػيؼ‬،‫ العصػػكر الكسػػطى‬،‫ جمػػارؾ‬،‫رياضػػة‬
)...‫ شرطة‬،‫ مركز رئيسي‬،‫ ثركة‬،‫ مجكىرات‬،‫ آداب‬،‫بضائع‬/‫ بضاعة‬،‫ ألعاب نارية‬،‫ شك انر‬،‫الضكاحي‬

b. Variable noun plurals: which are three types:

i) Regular plurals: by adding 's' to singular (book - books, car - cars, hero -
heroes, potato - potatoes, point of view - points of view, passer-by –
passers-by, woman doctor - women doctors, attorney general - attorney
generals, sit-in- sit-ins, assistant director - assistant directors, etc.) -‫(كتػاب‬
،‫ كجيػػة نظػػر – كجيػػات نظػػر‬،‫حبػػات بطاطػػا‬/‫بطاطا‬-‫ بطاطػػا‬،‫أبطػػاؿ‬-‫ بطػػؿ‬،‫سػػيارات‬-‫ سػػيارة‬،‫كتػػب‬
،‫ النائػ ػػب العػ ػػاـ – الن ػ ػكاب العػ ػػامكف‬،‫ دكتػ ػػكرة – دكتػ ػػكرات‬،‫عػ ػػابرك سػ ػػبيؿ‬/‫عػ ػػابر سػ ػػبيؿ – مارة‬/‫مار‬
ٌ
)‫ مساعد المدير – مساعدك المديريف‬،‫اعتصاـ – اعتصامات‬
ii) Irregular plurals: unpredictable form (man-men, mouse- mice, analysis-
analyses, knife-knives, formula-formulae, radius – radii, stratum – strata,
tempo – tempi, rich man – the rich, measles – measles, mumps –
mumps, etc.) – ‫ صػيغة‬،‫ سكيف – سػكاكيف‬،‫ تحميؿ – تحميالت‬،‫ فأر – فئراف‬،‫(رجؿ – رجاؿ‬
،‫ الحص ػػبة – الحص ػػبة‬،‫ أغني ػػاء‬- ‫ غن ػػي‬،‫ زخ ػػـ – زخ ػػـ‬،‫ طبق ػػة – طبق ػػات‬،‫ أش ػػعة‬- ‫ ش ػػعاع‬،‫ص ػػيش‬
)... ‫أبك كعب‬/‫أبك كعب – النكاؼ‬/‫النكاؼ‬
iii) Plurals in form, singular in grammar: linguistics, news, mathematics,
stylistics, billiards, darts, Athens, Brussels, Wales the United Nations,
etc.) ‫ لعبػػة‬،‫ البميػػاردك‬،‫عمـ األسػػاليب‬/‫ أسػػمكبية‬،‫رياضػػة‬/‫ رياضيات‬،‫ أخبػػار‬،‫لغكيات‬/‫(عمػػـ المغػػة‬
)... ‫ (منظمة) األمـ المتحدة‬،‫ كيمز‬،‫ برككسؿ‬،‫ أثينا‬،‫الدارتس‬/‫األسيـ المريشة‬
iv) Zero plural for verbs.
v) Zero plural for adjectives. (See Quirk et al (1973: ch. 4):

1.19.1 Comments on Translating Arabic Plurals into English

Taking it comparatively, translating Arabic plurals into English cannot be approached

literally in terms of one-to-one equivalent. It is true that some types of plural are in
principle identical, including regular, irregular, and few invariable types (see in particular
k/a &b (ii), m/b (iii) and n/b (i)), but they cannot be described as similar or identical in

114
translation. For example, although ...‫ صػػيش‬،‫ نسػػاء‬،‫( رجػػاؿ‬men, women, formulae) are
irregular in both languages, many other examples and types are not (e.g. ،‫ مالمػح‬،‫سػفف‬
...‫غممػاف‬: irregular) (ships, features, lads: regular). Further, some Arabic types (especially e,
f, g, j) have no literal equivalents in English, so the translator has to do something to
express them like, say, adding words that indicate small, or big numbers (e.g. few, some,
several, many, a lot of, so many, a huge number, etc.). This is one of the common mistakes
among students and translators who usually translate a plural into a plural giving no heed
to the number involved in the SL text. Hence, when some nouns have more than one form
of plural: one for normal number, another for a big number (e.g. )‫سػجد‬/‫ساجدكف‬‫ي‬ ‫ركػع؛‬/‫)راكعكف‬,
they require be distinguished from one another in English (i.e. kneelers/many kneelers;
prostrators/many prostrators).

On the other hand, some plural forms are misleading including those which are plural in
the SL but singular in the TL, or vice versa. For example, ‫ معمكمػات‬،‫ نصػائح‬،‫ أخبػار‬،‫ أدلػة‬are plural
in Arabic, whereas they are singular in English: evidence (not evidences*), news (is) (not
are*), advice (not advices*), and information (not informations*) for the simple reason
that the second versions are not a part of English grammar). The same applies to the other
direction of translation, when singular forms are misunderstood and translated as plurals:
e.g. linguistics → ‫لسػانيات‬/‫( لغكيات‬rather than ‫)عمػـ المغػة‬, stylistics → ‫( أسػمكبيات‬which should be
)‫عمـ األسػمكب (األسػاليب‬/‫ ;أسػمكبية‬phonetics → ‫( صػكتيات‬instead of ‫)عمػـ األصػكات‬. Unfortunately, the
first and the third have sustained as plural forms, though they are not quite correct,
whereas the second has been abandoned in favor of the other two good versions.

A further problem of translating plurals is the misunderstanding of the plural forms of ‘m’
as singular, thus, translating them into: ‘ship, impure, enemy, guest, son/boy’ in all texts
and contexts. For example, ‫ كلػد آدـ‬could be mistranslated into the son/child of Adam,
which should be the sons/children of Adam; whereas ‫ إسػماعيؿ كلػد إبػراىيـ‬must be translated
into singular as ‘Ismael, the son of Abraham’. This can be taken as a reminder for
translators to check the appropriate form of the noun as whether it is singular or plural in
context.

Generally, the recommended solution to the translation of Arabic plurals into English is to
check its proper form in the former, and translate it into the latter’s form that is available
and most appropriate in it. The resort to one-to-one equivalent in the SL is the exception
not the rule due to the many differences between the two languages involved.

1.20 Translation of )‫( )اإلضافة‬the Genitive)

The genitive case is widely used in both languages, Arabic and English. It represents a close
relation between two nouns. While in Arabic, it has one form as: Noun (or the head noun
phrase) followed by a noun in the prepositional object case )‫(حالػة الجػر‬, whereas in English,
it is two types: the (-’s) genitive (the building’s gate), and the (-of) genitive (e.g. the gate
of the building). This means that the two nouns of the English genitive may interchange
with a difference of form, focus and meaning, while in Arabic, it is one invariable form that
115
may have several grammatical and semantic functions and types in relation to parsing
cases. Surprisingly, the two languages have similar background concepts of genitive as
being by origin a possessive prepositional phrase (i.e. the use of ‘of’ in the (-of) genitive in
English, which is identical with the Arabic origin of the genitive (e.g.‫)بكابػةه لمعمػا ًرة ↔ بكابػة العمػارة‬
(see Quirk, et al (1973: 94(, and Al-Ghalayeeni, 1999: 205). Equally surprising is the
classification of the genitive into several similar types in both languages. The English types,
first, which are as follows (see ibid, 1973: 206):

Types of Genitive Analogues

(a) Possessive genitive
- My son’s wife - my son has a wife
- Mrs. Johnson’s passport - Mrs Johnson has a passport
- cf. the gravity of the earth - The earth has a gravity
(b) Subjective genitive
- The boy’s application - The boy applied
- His parents’ consent - His parents consented
- cf. the rise of the sun - The sun rose
(c) Objective genitive
- The family’s support - (…) supports the family
- The boy’s release - (…) released the boy
- cf. a statement of the facts - (…) stated the facts
(d) Genitive of origin
- The girl’s story - The girl told a story
- The general’s letter - The general wrote a letter
- cf. the wines of France - France produced the wines
(e) Descriptive genitive
- a women’s college - A college for women
- a summer’s day - A summer day / a day in the
- a doctor’s degree summer
- c.f. the degree of doctor - A doctoral degree/a doctorate
(f) Genitive of measure and
partitive genitive
- ten days’ absence - The absence lasted ten days
- an absence of ten days - The tower is (of) a certain
- the height of the tower height
- part of the problem - The problem is divisible into
part
(g) Appositive genitive
the city of York - York is a city
the pleasure of meeting you - Meeting you is a pleasure

By analogy, the Arabic genitive has six types:

‫التقدير‬ ‫أنكاع انضافة‬

‫ىػػذه سػػيارةه لعبػػد العزيػػز؛ عممػػت بنصػ و‬
‫ػيحة‬ - (possessive genitive/-‫) إضػ ػػافة الميػ ػػة‬1
This car is for Abdul Aziz; ‫لمطبيب‬ ‫ ىػ ػػذه سػ ػػيارةي عبػ ػػد‬:to/-for genitive)

116
I took the advice of/by the ً ‫العزيػػز؛ عممػػت بنصػ‬
This is ‫ػيحة الطبيػػب‬
doctor Abdul Aziz’ car; I took the doctor’s
advice
This door is ‫ػاب مػػف حديػ وػد‬
‫ىػػذا بػ ه‬ - :(epexegetical genitive)‫) إضػػافة بيانيػػة‬2
made of iron This is an iron door ‫ىذا باب حديد‬
Ahmad is a ‫ػؽ فػي المدرس ًػة‬
‫أحمػد رفي ه‬ - :(adverbial genitive) ‫) إضػ ػػافة ظرفي ػ ػػة‬3
mate at school Ahmad is the ‫ػؽ المدرس ػػة‬
‫أحم ػػد رفي ػ ي‬
school(‘s) mate
she wiped ‫مس ػػحت دمعػ ػان ك ػػالمؤلؤ‬ - (genitive of similitude) ‫) إضافة تشبييية‬4
tears like pearls She wiped the ‫ػحت لؤلػ ىػؤ الػػدم ًع‬
ٍ ‫ مسػ‬:
pearls of tears
points ‫المكاطف التي تكصػؼ بالضػعؼ‬ - :(semantic genitive) ‫) إضػ ػػافة معنكيػ ػػة‬5
described as weak ً
points of weakness ‫الضعؼ‬ ‫مكاطف‬
Assad is a killer ‫األسد قاتػ هؿ لألطفػاؿ‬ - ‫ األسػػد‬:(formal genitive) ‫) إضػػافة لفظيػػة‬6
of children ً ‫قاتػ يؿ األطف‬
Assad is the children’s ‫ػاؿ‬
killer

Following are miscellaneous examples for various forms, types and parsing cases of Arabic
genitive, translated into English:

‫) ىذا حصاف سبا و‬1

this is a race horse ‫ؽ‬
this is Ramez’s horse ‫) ىذا حصاف رامز‬2
‫) ذاؾ سكار و‬3
that is a gold/golden bracelet ‫ذىب‬
ً ‫) سير‬4
staying up at night is exhausting ‫الميؿ مضف‬
you, my two prison inmates ‫) يا صاحبي السجف‬5
the people’s food and drink ‫) مأكؿ الناس كمشربيـ‬6
I met Sameer’s peer ‫) قابمت نظير سمير‬7
a good brother might be born from another mother ‫) رب أخ لؾ لـ تمده أمؾ‬8
ً ‫ميضكـ الحقك‬
back up an oppressed people ‫ؽ‬ ‫ى‬ ‫) انصر شعبان‬9
keep company with a man of character ‫ؽ‬ً ‫الخمي‬
‫حسف ي‬
‫ى‬ ‫) عاشر رجالن‬10
those who received Sara are many/ Many people received Sara ‫) المستقبمك ساروة كثر‬11
some of his fingers were amputated ‫قيطعت بعض أصابعو‬ )12
‫يكـ تجد كؿ و‬
the day on which every soul will find what she ‫نفس مػا عممػت مػف خيػر يمحضػ انر‬ )13
did in this World presented before it.
the first hour prayer, early time prayer )‫صالة األيكلى (أم صالة الساعة األكلى‬ )14
the Hereafter life Abode, Abode of the life of the )‫ػاة اآلخػرة‬ ً ‫دار اآلخػرة (أم دار الحي‬
)15
Hereafter
ً
beside the western place/mountain )‫المكاف الغربي‬ ‫بي (أم جانب‬
ِّ ‫جانب الغر‬
‫ي‬ )16
117
 great/serious issues; the issues that are great )‫) عظائـ األمكر (أم العظائـ مف األمكر‬17
the noblest/most generous of people )‫) كراـ الناس (أم الكراـ مف الناس‬18
ً
Friday ‫الجمعة‬ ‫) يكـ‬19
the Month of Ramadan ‫) شير رمضاف‬20
ask the )‫) كاسػ ػػأؿ القريػ ػػة التػ ػػي كنػ ػػا فييػ ػػا كالعيػ ػػر التػ ػػي أقبمنػ ػػا فييػ ػػا (أم أىػ ػػؿ القريػ ػ ًػة كأصػ ػػحاب العيػ ػ ًػر‬21
(inhabitants of the) village where we were and the (leaders of the) camel
a man like Mohammad does not say that, nor says his ‫ كال أخيػو‬،‫) مػا مثػؿ محم وػد يقػكؿ ذلػؾ‬22
brother; neither Mohammad nor his brother says that
neither Mohammad nor his brother says that ‫) ما مثؿ محمد كال أخيو يقكؿ ذلؾ‬23
in between the man’s arms and his front ‫) بيف ذراعي كجبية الرجؿ‬24
in between the man’s arms and his front ‫) بيف ذراعي الرجؿ كجبيتو‬25
he was at arm’s length from…; he was in nearness most near; ‫) فكاف قاب قكسيف أك أدنػى‬26
he was very close
I sat in the middle of people/ amid people ‫القكـ‬ً ‫) جمست كسط‬27
‫) كالت ساعة و‬28
it is too late to feel regret ‫مندـ‬
close relations/relatives; kith and kin; next-of-kin ‫) أكلك األرحاـ‬29
men of reason; men of understanding ‫) أكلك النيى‬30
pregnant women; those women who are pregnant ‫) أكالت األحماؿ‬31
he did his best; he exerted all efforts ‫) بذؿ قصارل جيده‬32
both gardens bore fruit; each of the two gardens yielded its ‫) كمتػا الجنتػيف آتػت أكميػا‬33
produce
bot opinions are good; both of the opinions are preferable ‫) كال الرأييف راجح‬34
I heard both witnesses; I heard both of the witnesses/of them ‫) سمعت كال الشاىديف‬35
‫) ذكاتا و‬36
(both gardens are) lush with branches ‫أفناف‬
here I am at your service! )‫) لبيؾ كسعديؾ (أم إجابةن لؾ بعد إجابة كاسعادان لؾ بعد إسعاد‬37
and so on and so forth )‫) كىكذا دكاليؾ (أم تداكالن بعد تداكؿ‬38
which of the two parties was best at calculating the ‫) أم الحػزبيف أحصػى لمػا لبثػكا أمػدان‬39
length of time of their stay there
all invitees/ all of the invitees showed up ‫) جاء كؿ المدعكييف‬40
and God promised each of the )...‫ككالن كعد اهلل الحسػنى (أم كػؿ فريػؽ مػف المجاىػديف كالقاعػديف‬ )41
two parties, those fighting for God’s Cause and those sitting at home
and we favoured some Prophets to )‫كفضػمنا بعػػض النبيػػيف عمػػى بعػػض (أم عمػػى بعضػػيـ‬ )42
others
all members/ all of the ‫ جػػاء جميػػع األعضػػاء‬:‫جميع ػان (عكض ػان عػػف‬/‫جػػاء األعضػػاء جميعيـ‬ )43
members came to the meeting
this is the Day on which the truthful will profit )‫ػكـ ينفػع الصػادقيف صػدقيييـ (أم يػكـ ن ٍفػ ًع‬
‫ىػذا ي ي‬ )44
from their truth

118
and remember the time when you were few in )‫) كاذكػػركا إذ أنػػتـ قميػ هؿ (أم كقػػت قمػػتًكـ‬45
number
sit where knowledge is; sit in the place where ‫) اجمس حيث العمـ مكجػكد(أم مكػاف كجػكًد العمػـ‬46
knowledge is

The following notes can be made about these translations of Arabic genitive in English:

 The Arabic genitive can be translated into normal English ‘of-genitive’ (see 10, 12.
15, 30, 33-36, 39-43)
 It can be translated into the possessive genitive when an animate noun/name is
involved for reasons of emphasis and important (e.g. 2, 6,7, 24-26)
 It is not necessary to insist on translating the Arabic genitive into one-to-one
equivalent English genitive, as confirmed by the translation of the greater
number of the previous examples are translated into either of the following
constructions:

- adjectival noun+noun (e.g. race horse (1), gold/golden bracelet,(2), prison

inmates (5) etc.);
- adjective+noun (e.g. close relations (29), pregnant women (31), etc.)
- number+noun (e.g. both opinions (34), both witnesses (34), both gardens
(33, 36), few in number (45), etc.)
- determiner+noun (e.g. some Prophets (42), all members (40, 43), every soul
(13), (etc.)
- collocations (staying up at night(3), kith and kin (29), exert efforts (32), etc.)
- one word (e.g. Friday (19), etc.)
- clause (e.g. those women who are pregnant (31))
 Perhaps the most difficult forms of genitive to translate are when it is implied.
Examples include 14-18, 37-38, 41, 44-46 which have to be considered and
reconsidered carefully by translators before translating them. Although some can
be translated literally, by implication, figuratively or directly (see especially 21).
Others might be ambiguous grammatical forms that translators have to search
for to be able to translate appropriately. Two particular examples (37and 38), can
be picked up, which are taken back to their original form in Arabic grammar, and
then translated into sense.

1.21 Translation of Apposition and Explicative Apposition )‫(البدل وعطف البيان‬

Apposition, to start with, is similar to coordination )‫ (العطػػؼ‬in linking units with

grammatical affinity. Generally, appositive units should be identical in reference or, else,
the reference of one must be included in the reference of the other. In Arabic, however,
apposition may also occur between contrastive units of different reference, as illustrated
below. In appositive constructions, normally, a special focus is intended to be on
apposition in the statement concerned. That is, in the sentence:

(My friend, Ghassan, died) ‫تكفي صديقي غساف‬ -

119
Focus here is on the appositive name, Ghassan, not on ‘friend’ for the latter is common
and not specifying anyone. What concerns the speaker as well as the audience is which
friend died.

In English, to start with, there are several indicators and types and sub-types of
apposition. Indicators of apposition usually precede the appositive unit. They include the
following:

That is to say, that is, i.e.: namely, viz, to wit (legal), in other words, or, or rather, or
better, and, as follows, for example, for instance, say, including, included, such as,
especially, particularly, in particular, notably, chiefly, mainly, mostly; of, etc.

As to types and sub-types of apposition, they are as follows:

1) Non-restrictive apposition
(a) Appellation (e.g. The chief of staff (that is to say), Major general Thomson)
(b) Designation (Major General Thomson (that is to say), the chief of staff)
(c) Identification (a chief of staff (namely), Major General Thomson)
(d) Reformulation (she drew a triangle, or three-sided, figure)
(e) Attribution (e.g. The scholar, an imposing figure, attracted the audience)
(f) Inclusion (famous novelists (Hemingway, Dickens, Hardy) are read
worldwide)
2) Restrictive apposition: three forms
(1) The first appositive is more general than the second and preceded by a
definite determiner (e.g. the novel, The Old Man and the Sea)
(2) The second appositive is preceded by the determiner ‘the’ and is more
general than the first (e.g. Ernest Hemingway, the American novelist)
(3) The same as the first form, but with the omission of the determiner (e.g.
American novelist, Ernest Hemingway)

BY analogy, Arabic apposition is four types:

‫ صػراط‬.‫( (اىػدنا الصػراط المسػتقيـ‬fully identical apposition) )‫) البػدؿ المطػابًؽ (أك بػدؿ الكػؿ مػف الكػؿ‬1
)‫الذيف أنعمت عمييـ‬
))‫خمسة منيـ‬/‫معظميـ‬/‫( حضر الطالب نصفيـ‬partly identical apposition) ‫) بدؿ البعض مف الكؿ‬2
)‫(نفعنا العالً يـ ًعممو‬
‫( ى‬inclusive apposition) ‫) بدؿ االشتماؿ‬3
:(contrastive apposition) ‫) البدؿ المبايًف‬4
)‫ عمؾ‬،‫( (رأيت أباؾ‬corrective apposition) ‫بدؿ الغمط‬ -
)‫ المدينة‬،‫( (سافرت إلى مكة‬forgetfulness apposition) ‫بدؿ النسياف‬ -
)‫ المسطرة‬،‫الكتاب‬
‫ى‬ ‫( (ىات‬refraining / alternative apposition) ‫بدؿ انضراب‬ -

Now to the examples of Arabic apposition which are translated into English, followed by
discussing the problems of translating them and the relevance of the types of apposition
in the two languages pointed out above to sorting out these problems:

120
Guide us to the right path, the path ‫ صراط الػذيف أنعمػت عمػييـ‬،‫اىدنا الصراط المستقيـ المستقيـ‬ )1(
of those on who you have endowed your grace
We shall drag him by the forelock, a lying sinful ‫ ناصػية كاذبػة خاطئػة‬،‫لنسػفعان بالناصػية‬ )2(
forelock
I heard the speech, in part/half of it; I heard a part/half of the ‫سػمعت الخطػاب نصػفو‬ )3(
speech
the word is three parts in Arabic: a noun, a verb and ‫ اسػـ كفعػؿ كحػرؼ‬:‫الكممة ثالثػة أقسػاـ‬ )4(
a particle
we made use of the scholar, his knowledge, that is/the scholar’s ‫نفعنػا العػالـ عممػو‬ )5(
knowledge
I liked Hamza, his courage; I liked Hamza’s courage. ‫أحببت حمزةى شجاعتىو‬ )6(
but then again they were blind and deaf, many of them; ‫ كثيػر مػنيـ‬،‫) ثػـ عمػكا كصػمكا‬7(
many of them were blind and deaf
they ask you about fighting in the inviolable month; ‫ػاؿ فيػو‬ ‫ قت و‬،‫) يسػألكنؾ عػف الشػير الحػراـ‬8(
they ask you about the inviolable month regarding fighting in it
and verily, it is an obligation toward God on ‫) كهلل عمى الناس ًحج البيت مف استطاع إليو سبيال‬9(
all people to make the pilgrimage to the House, whoever has (those who have)
the financial and health means to make the journey
cursed were the men of the Ditch, of fire ‫ػار ذات الكقػػكد‬ ً ‫ النػ‬،‫) قتػػؿ أصػػحاب األخػػدكد‬10(
abounding in fuel
I saw your father, no, your uncle/I mean your uncle/sorry, your .‫ عمػؾ‬،‫ػت أبػاؾ‬ ‫) أري ي‬11(
uncle
I visited Makkah, sorry, Al-Madinah ‫ المدينة‬،‫) زرت مكة‬12(
give me the book, the ruler, not the book ‫ المسطرةى‬،‫الكتاب‬ ‫ى‬ ‫) ىات‬13(
those who do wrong conceal their private counsels; the ‫ الػذيف ظممػكا‬،‫) كأسػركا النجػكل‬14(
evildoers whisper to one another
Indeed, there has been for ‫ لمف كػاف يرجػك اهلل كاليػكـ اآلخػر‬،‫) لقد كاف لكـ في رسكؿ اهلل أسكة حسنة‬15(
you in the Messenger of God the best example, for whoever seeks the pleasure of
God and the life on the Hereafter Day
and whoever does that shall receive ‫ػاعؼ لػػو العػػذاب‬ ‫ يضػ ى‬،‫) كمػػف يفعػػؿ ذلػػؾ يمػػؽ أثام ػان‬16(
punishment, the chastisement shall be doubled to him
and fear God Who has bestowed on you what you ‫ أمدكـ بأنعاـ كبنيف‬،‫) أمدكـ بما ال تعممكف‬17(
know, bestowed you with cattle and children
how much money do you have? A thousand or a million? ‫) كـ مالؾ؟ أألؼ أـ مميكف؟‬18(
whatever you do, good or evil, you shall have the ‫ تيج ىػز بػو‬،‫ كاف شػ انر‬،‫ إف خيػ انر‬،‫) مػا تصػنع‬19(
recompense thereof

Except for the fourth type, Arabic and English types of apposition are not quite different,
but do not necessarily translate one another. The important point about translating the
appositive word or expression is that it is translated separately from the original. Another
precondition is the grammatical and semantic possibility of having such a structure in
121
English. For example, we cannot translate fifteen into an identical grammatical structure,
for it is not allowed to say: “give me the book, the ruler”; we have to slot the corrective
word or particle, as demonstrated in the translation of the statement above (see also 11
and 12). Sometimes, we have more than one option, and the translator can choose
whichever he/she thinks might be appropriate (e.g. 7-9). In any case, the translator can go
for any version of translation that might be more appropriate for grammatical, semantic
and/or collocational reasons.

1.21.1 Translation of Explicative Apposition )‫(عطف البيان‬

Explicative apposition is not understood literally as a type of coordination )‫(عطػؼ‬, but,

rather, as a type of apposition that is very close to that discussed above. Hence its
inclusion here and its absence from English Grammar for it is a type of apposition (see ‘f’
above). It has the same structure of apposition, but the main difference between them is
that the second appositive element of normal apposition is more important than the first,
as the whole structure of apposition is used to be so. However, in expletive apposition, it
is the first appositive receives more attention than the second which is added for
illustration but can be dropped without affecting the first. For example, in ‘8’ above, the
‘inviolable month’ is the general point, whereas ‘fighting in it’ is the focal point that the
former is stated to introduce to the latter which is the important new piece of information
here. Yet, in the statement, ‫ عمػي بػف أبػي طالػب‬،‫( قػاؿ ذلػؾ أبػك الحسػف‬The man who said that was
Abul Hasan, Ali Bin Abi Taleb) where ‘Abul Hasan’ is the focal element, and “Ali Bin Abi
Taleb’ is the explicative element, illustrating who ‘Abul Hasan’ is. Let us go to examples
and their translations:

I heard Abu Haffs, Omar, say that. ‫ يقكؿ ذلؾ‬،‫ عمر‬،‫) سمعت أبا حفص‬1
she purchased a golden necklace/necklace of gold ‫ طكقان‬،‫) اشترت ذىبان‬2
I saw a lion ‫ أم أسدان‬،‫) رأيت باسالن‬3
I beckoned to him to leave ‫ أم اخرج‬،‫) أشرت إليو‬4
I suggested to him to come quickly ‫) أشرت عميو أف عجؿ بالقدكـ‬5
I boarded/got on the bus ‫ إذا ركبتيا‬:‫) استقميت الحافمة‬6
I saw Yahya, Maria’s brother, ‫) ماريا رأيت يحيى أخكىا‬7
You, Zaid, Al-Hareth! !‫) يا زيد الحارث‬8
but the Satan whispered ‫) فكسكس إليو الشيطاف قاؿ يا آدـ ىؿ أدلؾ عمػى شػجرة الخمػد كممػؾ ال يبمػى‬9
to him saying: “Adam, shall I guide you to the Tree of Eternity and a domi nion
that never decays?
and they shall be called: “that is the Paradise…” ‫) كنكدكا أف تمكـ الجنة‬10

The problems of translation and their solutions are almost the same as those of the
previous examples of apposition (see above). In short, when necessary and possible to
translate the explicative apposition into one-to-one English equivalent, we are
recommended to do so (see 1, 7-10). However, when not possible either grammatically or

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semantically, we attend to rendering meaning appropriately in English, with or without
marking explicative apposition (e.g. 2-6).

1.22 Translation of Coordination/Coupling: Coordinators )‫(العطف وحروفه‬

Coordination )‫العطػؼ النسػقي‬/‫عطػؼ الحركؼ‬/‫ (العطؼ‬is an established structure in the grammar of

both language concerned. It is an addition of two or more consecutive words or
expressions to one another by means of using a coordinating particle (coordinator) of
some kind. In the discussion of the translation of coordination, focus will be on two points:
types of coordination, and coordinators:

1.22.1 Types of Coordination:

In both Arabic and English, there are several types of coordination:

1) Syndetic coordination (or syndeton) )‫(العطػػؼ بحػركؼ‬: the use of a coordinating
conjunction (e.g. quickly and efficiently). It is the most recurrent type (see also 9
below).
2) Asyndetic coordination (or asyndeton) )‫مف دكف حػ ػ ػػركؼ‬/‫(عطػ ػ ػػؼ نسػ ػ ػػقي متتػ ػ ػػابع‬:
coordination without a coordinator, but with a comma separating the words (e.g.
quickly, efficiently).
3) Disjunction ‫مباح‬/‫( عطؼ استدراكي؛ عطؼ تخييرم‬e.g. naughty but nice)
4) Parenthetical coordination ‫( عطػؼ اعت ارضػي‬e.g. I will buy i-phone 6+ - and it is the
best cell phone on the market – before I change my mind)
5) Sentential coordination ‫( عطػؼ جممػي‬e.g. we received three email letters and you
sent three SMS messages.
(6) Coordination ‫عطؼ نسقي‬
(7) Coupling ‫عطؼ‬
(8) Continuative coordination ‫( عطؼ استمرارم‬e.g. She cried and cried and cried)
(9) Simple coordination ‫( عطؼ نسقي بسيط‬e.g. Majed and Huda. See also 1))
(10) Iterative coordination ‫( عطؼ نسقي تكرارم‬see ‘f’)
(11) Pseudo coordination ‫( عطػؼ نسػقي ازئػؼ‬e.g. *I will do my best and come (i.e. I will do
my best to come)
(12) Multiple coordination ‫( عطػؼ نسػقي متعػدد‬e.g. We may attend, or adjourn, or cancel
the meeting)
(13) Appended coordination ‫( عطػؼ نسػقي مػذيَّؿ‬e.g. He is a professional translator, and
you too)
(14) Intensifying coordination ‫( عطؼ نسقي معزز‬e.g. He grew older and older and older
(15) Complex coordination ‫( عطػؼ نسػقي معقػد‬e.g. I bought my brother trousers and my
sister a skirt)
(16) Interpolated coordination ‫مقحػـ‬
‫( عطػؼ نسػقي ى‬e.g. She is, or was anyway, a discreet
woman).

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The second major point in relation to the translation of Arabic coordination into English is
the coordinators (or coordinating conjunctions) used in both languages, and then how to
translate the Arabic conjunctions into English. In English, there are three main
coordinating conjunctions, two major and one minor, that are used frequently: AND, OR,
then BUT. The first two are focused on here due to their recurrence in English Language,
both written and spoken.

In Arabic grammar, on the other hand, there are many coordinating conjunctions. They
include:
)‫لكف‬
ٍ ،‫ ال‬،‫ بؿ‬،‫ أىـ‬،‫ أك‬،‫ حتى‬،‫ ثـ‬،‫ الفاء‬،)‫ (مف دكف الكاك‬،‫)ك‬

They are exemplified and translated into English in the following:

Ali and Fayez met/have met ‫) اجتمع عمي كفايز‬1

ً
and disbelief in Him, and violation of Al-Haram Mosque ‫المسجد الحراـ‬ ‫) ك يكفر بو ك‬2
ً
… and fear God to Who you are answerable and the ‫) كاتقػكا اهلل الػذم تسػاءلكف بػو كاألرحػاـ‬3
rights of womb relations
Some of them are unjust, some ‫ كمنيـ سابؽ بالخيرات بػإذف اهلل‬،‫ كمنيـ مقتصد‬،‫فمنيـ ظالـ لنفسو‬ )4
frugal and some vie in doing the best of deeds with the will of God
I will definitely study, and study and study; I am determined ‫سكؼ أدرس كأدرس كأدرس‬ )5
to study…
Yesterday, I met my colleagues, friends, ‫التقيػت زمالئػي كأصػدقائي كطالبػي كأسػاتذتي أمػس‬ )6
students and teachers
I admired his elegant, nimble, humorous ‫أعجبنػي أسػػمكبو األنيػؽ الرشػػيؽ الطريػؼ الظريػػؼ‬ )7
(and) witty
over which are stern and severe Angels ‫عمييا مالئكة غالظ شداد‬ )8
…wives better than you, ‫ ثيبػات كأبكػا انر‬،‫) أزكاجػان خيػ انر مػنكف مسػممات مؤمنػات قانتػات تائبػات عابػدات‬9
Muslims, believers, obedient, penitent, devout and pious, both married and
virgins
)‫ حتػى إذا جاؤكىػا كفتحػت أبكابيػا (أم ككانػت أبكابيػا مفتكحػة مػف قبػؿ‬،‫) كسيؽ الذيف اتقكا ربيـ إلػى الجنػة زمػرا‬10
the pious will be led to Paradise, and when they will get to its gates, they will be
already open to them
Maher came, followed by/and then Said ‫) جاء ماىر فسعيد‬11
enter one by one/one after the other/in a queue ‫) ادخمكا األكؿ فاألكؿ‬12
Maher came, then Said/came Said ‫) جاء ماىر ثـ سعيد‬13
I have no one to help me but God, then you ‫) ما لي أحد إال اهلل ثـ أنت‬14
All people die, even the Prophets; everybody dies including ‫) يمػكت النػاس حتػى األنبيػاء‬15
the Prophets/and the Prophets are no exception
Marry Aisha, or her sister ‫) تزك ٍج عائشة أك أختيا‬16
ً )17
call the manager, or his assistant ‫ناد عمى المدير أك نائبو‬

124
 go to Beirut, or change your destination ‫ أك غيِّر كجيتؾ‬،‫) اذىب إلى بيركت‬18
they said: “We have been there for a day or part of a day” ‫) قالكا لبثنا يكمان أك بعض يكـ‬19
and surely we or you are in right guidance or in .‫كانا أك إياكـ عمى ىدل أك فػي ضػالؿ مبػيف‬. )20
manifest misguidance
the word is either a noun, a verb or a particle ‫) الكممة اسـ أك فعؿ أك حرؼ‬21
they were different as to who left. ‫ ذىػب محمػد أك سػمطاف أك فػارس‬:‫ فقػالكا‬،‫) اختمفػكا فػيمف ذىػب‬22
They said: Mohammad, Sultan, or Fares
they said: a magician, or a mad man ‫) قالكا ساحر أك مجنكف‬23
and we sent him to one hundred thousand, )‫) كأرسمناه إلى مئة ألؼ أك يزيػدكف (أم بػؿ يزيػدكف‬24
in fact more
Is Yusef or Zuhair in the house? ‫) أيكسؼ في الدار أـ زىير؟‬25
and it is the same to them whether you warn them or ‫كسػكاء عمػييـ أأنػذرتيـ أـ لػـ تنػذرىـ‬ )26
not
)‫ىؿ يستكم األعمى كالبصير؟ أـ ىؿ تسػتكم الظممػات كالنػكر؟ أـ جعمػكا هلل شػركاء؟ (أم بػؿ جعمػكا هلل شػركاء‬ )27
“are the blind and the sighted equal? Or, can darkness and light be equal? Or, In
fact they ascribed to God associates
Do I owe you something? Or, in fact, you are an ‫ىػؿ لػؾ عنػدم حاجػة؟ أـ أنػت نصػاب؟‬ )28
impostor?
Or, dear me, the daughters for Him and the sons for you ‫أـ لو البنات كلكـ البنكف؟‬ )29
Surely, God is better than their associates. ‫) آاهلل خير أـ ما يشرككف؟‬30
it was Salma, no, Hala who talked; it was not Salma but Hala ‫ بػؿ ىالػة‬،‫) تحػدثت سػممى‬31
who talked; it was Hala, not Salma, who talked
let Salma, no/or rather Hala, talk ‫ بؿ ىالة‬،‫) لتتحدث سممى‬32
it was not Salma, but Hala, who talked ‫) ما تحدثت سممى بؿ ىالة‬33
ً
your face is as shining as the moon, nay, the sun ‫ بؿ الشمس‬،‫ ال‬،‫كجيؾ البدر‬ )34
Salma should not talk, but Hala; who should talk is not ‫ لكػف ىالػة‬،‫) ال تتحػدث سػممى‬35
Salma, but Hala
I talked not to his highness, the prince, but to Amir ‫لكف أمير‬ ً
ٍ ،‫األمير‬ ‫) ما تحدثت إلى سمك‬36
I saw Said, not/rather than Mohammad ‫ ال محمدان‬،‫) رأيت سعيدان‬37
Read the book, not the outline ‫الممخص‬ ‫ى‬ ‫ ال‬،‫) اق أر الكتاب‬38
‫ كمػػا يسػػتكم األحيػػاء كال األمػكات‬،‫ كال الظػػؿ كال الحػػركر‬،‫ كال الظممػػات كال النػػكر‬،‫) كمػػا يسػػتكم األعمػػى كالبصػػير‬39
the blind and the sighted are not alike, nor are darkness and light, nor the shade
and the heat, nor the living and the dead
Read the book, not the outline‫ ليس الممخص‬،‫) اق أر الكتاب‬40
my neighbour is brave, but deceitful ‫لكف مراكغ‬ ٍ ،‫) جارم شجاع‬41
strike with your staff the rock, (He struck ‫) اضرب بعصاؾ الحجر فانبجست منو اثنتا عشرة عينان‬42
it) and there gushed out of it twelve springs
so Moses struck him with his fist and killed him instantly ‫) فككزه مكسى فقضى عميو‬43

125
These examples illustrate, on the one hand, the few English coordinating conjunctions
which translate the Arabic originals (.i.e. and, or, but, even, in fact). On the other hand,
they confirm the diversity of Arabic coordinators in regard to their different meanings
which can be sometimes crucial. Take for example, the difference between ‘and’ )‫ (ك‬and
‘then’ )‫ ;(ثػـ‬while the first could mean that more than one thing happens at the same time,
or rarely a consequence of priority order, the second is used to indicate priority order only
as a translation of )‫ (الفػاء ثػـ‬that one thing follows another in a specific order that should
not be confused with respect to taking place and time span. Moreover, )‫ (ثػـ‬implies a
longer interval of time between the two things involved, and is crucial in certain contexts,
and is not replaceable either with )‫ (ك‬or )‫(الفػاء‬. In ‘5’, above, the unique religious context of
the statement does not allow any coordinator but )‫ (ثػـ‬to imply the definite separation of
coordination between God, then followed perhaps miles away by a human being. Hence
its translation into ‘then’ or ‘and then’, or it can be misunderstood as an indication of
equality between God and man, which is forbidden.

On the other hand, ‘and’ can sometimes be problematic in more than one context.
Understandably, when it is used in simple structures and contexts to function as a
conjunction of addition, adding two or more items to one another, there is no problem of
translation. By the way, ‘and’ can be used to add the words of each class of words to one
another, i.e. verbs to verbs, nouns to nouns, adjectives to adjectives, etc. However, one
exception is the addition of nouns to adjectives in a certain context when adjectives imply
a reference to collective nouns, as illustrated in ‘9’ above. Further, a series of items added
to one another, no matter how many they may be, are preceded by ‘and’ each in Arabic,
whereas in English, ‘and’ is slotted before the last one in the series (e.g. 4-6, 39). The
common mistake among students of translation and some translators is the adoption of
the English style of addition and coordination at translating into Arabic, although the
addition of the coordinator ‘and’ before every item added to another is a part of it. On the
other hand, when the conjunction is dropped deliberately (as in 7-9), they are retained as
such in English, with a comma in between. This style of consecutive asyndetic coordination
is closer to rhetorical style than ordinary style of language in both languages concerned.

In a religious context, ‘and’ is used more accurately than expected to indicate items
ordered either consecutively, one after the other, whose sequence cannot be changed, or
items that imply a choice between them being put on equal footing. A good example is the
penance for the unintentional manslaughter )‫(كفػػارة القتػػؿ الخطػػأ‬, and the expiation for
deliberate, unfulfilled oath to God )‫ (كفػارة اليمػيف‬which is either to be taken in order (i.e. the
first, then, if not available, the second, and so on), or to be a matter of multiple choice
available to Muslims. Both, or either of the two conjunctions, ‘and’ and ‘or’ can be used to
indicate the order of the choices of the types of the expiation concerned. Perhaps, the
most unique use of ‘and’ is that of example ‘10’ which implies that the Gates of the
Paradise will be already open to receive the inhabitants of Paradise by way of honoring
them. This is taken in contrast with the previous verse where the conjunction ‘and’ is
dropped before the Hell’s Gates which will be closed until its habitants arrive there.

126
‘Or’, on the other hand, has several functions and meanings. Contrary to the wrong idea
that it is used only to express an alternation between two or more things, it can have the
following functions:
)16( (choice of either not both) :‫) التخيير‬1(
)17( (choice of either or both) :‫) انباحة‬2(
)18( (contrastive statement) ‫) انضراب‬3(
)19( )expressing doubt) ‫) الشؾ‬4(
)20( )expressing (vagueness/uncertainty) ‫) انبياـ‬5(
)21( (marking division) ‫) التقسيـ‬6(
)23-22( (marking parts of the whole) ‫) التفصيؿ بعد انجماؿ‬7(
)24( (self-correction) )‫) انضراب بمعنى (بؿ‬8(

As to )‫(الفػاء‬, the problem of translation is posed by it due to its several meanings and
functions in Arabic. In addition to using it as a coordinating conjunction, it can be used as
an initiator at the very beginning of a text )‫(اسػتئنافية‬, a letter, etc.; a causative particle )‫(سػببية‬
in the sense of ‘because/cause’; a particle of result )‫ ;(اسػتنتاجية‬an extra particle )‫( ازئػدة‬, etc.
So, translators have to understand the specific function of the coordinator before
translating it. The translations suggested above single out the use of this particle as a
coordinating conjunction only.

Regarding )‫(أـ‬, it is used to express choice (25), contrast (27-28), interrogation (26),
rhetorical question (30) or sarcasm (29). All these implications are reflected in the
translations above, which require when necessary to add something to include the
implication intended (e.g. the slotting of ‘dear me’ in 29 to reflect the sense of sarcasm,
and the change of the rhetorical question of 30 into glorification of God).

The general rule in sorting out the problems of translating coordinators is the possibility of
having more than one version of translation and the translator has a multiple choice from
which to pick up the most appropriate translation (e.g. 15).

1.23 Translation of Prepositions

Prepositions are great in number, with great variety of meanings and grammatical
functions in both languages, Arabic and English. English has over fifty prepositions many of
which have more than one meaning (e.g. ‘over’ has seven meanings Quirk, et al 1973: ch.
6). Following is a list of the most common prepositions in English Language, classified in
terms of their functions:

127
 Common Prepositions
Place Position/Orientation Direction Time Other
above beyond on after except
across by opposite before as
along down out (of) at like
among from outside by about
at in over for with
away from in front of around during without
behind inside through from by
below into to in for
beside near at when
between off toward(s) since
over under up to
up
along
away from
off

The list may be longer than that. Obviously, some prepositions are classified under more
than one type because they have more than one meaning and function. By analogy, Arabic
has a big number of prepositions which have tens of meanings and functions. Since our
concern is in translating Arabic prepositions, we focus now solely on them, starting with a
list with all of them; they are twenty in number:

Less common preposition Common Prepositions

‫ مذ‬.13 ‫ الباء‬.1
‫ منذ‬.14 ‫ مف‬.2
‫ خال‬.15 ‫ إلى‬.3
‫ عدا‬.16 ‫ عف‬.4
‫ حاشا‬.17 ‫ عمى‬.5
‫ كي‬.18 ‫ في‬.6
‫ متى‬.19 ‫ الكاؼ‬.7
‫ لعؿ‬.20 ‫ الالـ‬.8
‫ كاك القسـ‬.9
‫ تاء القسـ‬.10
‫ رب‬.11
‫ حتى‬.12

Due to their huge number, and for the purposes of this book, only the most common of
these prepositions will be investigated in detail in regard to the translation of their
meanings and implications into English:

128
  )‫( (الباء‬Baa): has thirteen meanings:
(I held his hand/ I clanged to his hand; )‫ (أمسكت بيده؛ مررت بمكتبػؾ‬:(closeness) ‫) انلصاؽ‬1
I passed by your office)
(I start with/in the Name of God )‫ (بدأت باسـ اهلل؛ كتبت بالقمـ‬:(asking for help) ‫) االستعانة‬2
we took each with )‫ (فك ػالن أخػػذنا بذنبػػو؛ مػػات بػػالجكع‬:(cause and effect) ‫التعميؿ‬/‫) السػػببية‬3
his/their sins; he died from/out of hunger
)‫ (ذىب اهلل بنكرىـ؛ سبحاف الذم أسرل بعبده ليالن‬:(intransitivity → transitivity) ‫) التعدية‬4
(I swear to/by God) )‫ (أقسـ باهلل‬:(swearing) ‫) القسـ‬5
(take the car for the horse/exchanges )‫ (خػذ السػيارة بػالجكاد‬:(swap/exchange) ‫العػكض‬ ً )6
the car for the horse)
(I will not exchange Badr Battle )‫ػيدت بػد انر بالعقبػة‬
‫ (مػا يسػرني أنػي ش ي‬:(substitution) ‫) البػدؿ‬7
for Aqabah Pledge of Allegiance
(God did certainly ))‫ (لقػد نصػركـ اهلل ببػدر (أم فػي بػدر‬:(circumstantial/adverbial) ‫) الظرفيػة‬8
make you victorious at the Battle of Badr)
(descend/land in peace; I )‫( (اىػػبط بسػالـ؛ بعتػػؾ المنػػزؿ بأثاثػو‬accompaniment) ‫) المصػاحبة‬9
sold you the house with furniture)
(a spring wherefrom the )‫ (عينان يشػرب بيػا عبػاد اهلل‬:(a part of whole) )‫) التبعيض (بمعنى مف‬10
servants of God drink
ask an expert about Him; a )‫ (فاسػػأؿ بػػو خبيػرا؛ سػػأؿ سػػائؿ بعػػذاب كاقػػع‬:(about)‫) بمعنػػى عػػف‬11
questioner enquired about a torment imminent to befall
and among the people )‫) االستعالء (بمعنى عمى) ( (كمف أىؿ الكتػاب مػف إف تأمنػو بقنطػار يػرده إليػؾ‬12
of Scripture are those who if entrusted with a qantar, they will pay it back
God is sufficient to be a )‫ (ككفى باهلل شػييدان؛ فامسػحكا برؤكسػكـ‬:(emphatic) )‫) التأكيد (الزائدة لفظان‬13
witness; wipe (all or a part of) your head with water (at ablution)

 ً (Min: From): has eight meanings:

)‫(مف‬
‫ (سػػبحاف الػػذم أسػػرل بعبػػده لػػيالن مػػف المسػػجد الح ػراـ إلػػى المسػػجد األقصػػى؛‬:(starting point) ‫) االبتػػداء‬1(
(Glorified be He (God) Who took his slave, Mohammad, on a night )‫عجبػت مػف ج أرتػو‬
journey from Al-Aqsa Mosque to Al-Haram Mosque; I was surprised at his
audacity / his audacity surprised me)
‫ (كمػف النػاس مػف يعجبػؾ قكلػو فػي الحيػاة الػدنيا‬:(a part from the whole) )‫) االتبعػيض (بمعنػى بعػض‬2(
and there are among people those who may )‫كيشػيد اهلل عمػى مػا فػي قمبػو؛ مػنيـ مػف كمػـ اهلل‬
amaze you with his speech in this worldly life and call God to witness as to that in
his heart; God spoke to some of them (Prophets); some of them (Prophets) were
talked to by God
therein they shall )‫ (يحمػكف فييػا مػف أسػاكر مػف ذىػب‬:(gender distinction) )‫) البياف (بيػاف الجػنس‬3(
be adorned with gold bracelets
Is there a Creator other than God? )‫ (ىؿ مف خالؽ غير اهلل‬:(emphasis) )‫) التأكيد (الزائدة‬4(
are you contented with the life of )‫ (أرضػيتـ بالحيػاة الػدنيا مػف اآلخػرة‬:(substitution) ‫) البػدؿ‬5(
this world rather than the Hereafter?
129
when the call is made for )‫ إذا نػكدم لمصػالة مػف يػكـ الجمعػة‬:(adverbial) )‫) الظرفيػة (بمعنػى فػي‬6(
the Prayer on Friday
because of their sins, they were )‫ (مما خطيئاتيـ أيغرقكا‬:(cause and effect) ‫) السببية كالتعميؿ‬7(
drowned)
But woe to those whose hearts )!‫ ((فكيػؿ لمقاسػية قمػكبيـ مػف ذكػر اهلل‬:(about/to) ‫) معنػى عػف‬8(
are hardened to the remembrance of God

 )‫( (إلى‬To/at): has three meanings:

(then, continue )‫ (ثـ أتمكا الصياـ إلى الميؿ؛ مف ىنا إلى ىنػاؾ؛ أتيػت إلػيكـ‬:(completion) ‫) االنتياء‬1
your fast up to/until nightfall)
who are )‫ (مػف أنصػارم إلػى اهلل؛ كال تػأكمكا أمػكاليـ إلػى أمػكالكـ‬:(along with) )‫) المصاحبة (بمعنػى مػع‬2
my helpers in the Cause of God/ who will be with me in the Cause of God
(He said: “My )‫ (قػػاؿ رب السػػجف أحػػب إلػػي ممػػا يػػدعكنني إليػػو‬:(illustration))‫) معنػػى عنػػد (المبينػػة‬3
Lord, prison is dearer to me than to which they invite me)

 )‫(عف‬: has six meanings

)I left away from the town) )‫ (سرت عف البمد‬:(remoteness)‫) المجاكزة كالبعد‬1(
very soon/after a )‫ (عما قريب ليصبحف نػادميف؛ عػف قريػب أدعػكؾ لمحفمػة‬:(soon/after) ‫بمعنى بعد‬ )2(
short while, they will be surely regretful)
and whoever is niggardly is niggardly )‫ (كمف يبحؿ فإنما يبخؿ عف نفسو‬:(on/to) ‫بمعنى عمى‬ )3(
only to himself
and we are not not )‫ (كمػػا نحػػف بتػػاركي آليتنػػا عػػف قكلػػؾ‬:(justification/reason)‫التعميػػؿ‬ )4(
forsaking our gods because of what you say
and God is the One who accepts )‫ (كىػػك الػػذم يقبػػؿ التكبػػة عػػف عبػػاده‬:(from) ‫بمعنػػى مػػف‬ )5(
repentance from His servants
‫ (قػػـ عنػػي بالحضػػكر؛ كاتق ػكا يكمػان ال تجػػزم نفػػس عػػف نفػػس‬:(replacement/substitution)‫بمعنػػى البػػدؿ‬ )6(
attend on my behalf; and fear a Day when no soul will stand instead of )‫شػيئان‬
another

 )‫(عمى‬: has eight meanings

We preferred some of them over others )‫ (فضمنا بعضيـ عمى بعض‬:(on/to)‫) االستعالء‬1
and he entered the city at a time )‫ (كدخػؿ المدينػة عمػى حػيف غفمػة مػف أىميػا‬:(in/at)‫بمعنى فػي‬ )2
of unawareness of its people
If our parents feel )‫ إذا رضػػي عمينػػا كالػػدينا سػػعدنا فػػي دنيانػػا كآخرتنػػا‬:(about) ‫بمعنػػى عػػف‬ )3
contented about us we will be happy now and in the Hereafter
and to magnify God for His guidance to )‫ كلتكبػركا اهلل عمػى مػا ىػداكـ (ليدايتػو لكػـ‬:‫بمعنى الالـ‬ )4
you
and gives his wealth in spite of his )‫ (كآتػى المػاؿ عمػى حبػو‬:(with, though) ‫بمعنػى مػع‬ )5
love/with the fact that he loves it for it

130
who when others measure for them, )‫ إذا اكتػالكا عمػػى النػاس يسػػتكفكف‬:(from)‫) بمعنػى مػػف‬6
they take full measure
go/start in the Name of God )‫ (انطمؽ عمى اسـ اهلل (أم مستعينان باهلل‬:‫) بمعنى الباء‬7
nobody likes him for his )‫ عمػػى أنػػو شػػجاع‬،‫ (ال يحبػػو أحػػد لبخمػػو‬:(rectification) ‫) االسػػتدراؾ‬8
miserliness, though he is brave)

 )‫(في‬: has seven meanings:

the water is in the well; and )‫ (المػاء فػي البئػر؛ كلكػـ فػي القصػاص حيػاة‬:(adverbial) ‫الظرفيػة‬ )1(
there is life for you in retribution
a woman entered Hell )‫ (دخمػػت امػرأة النػػار فػػي ى ػرة‬:(cause and effect) ‫السػػببية كالتعميػػؿ‬ )2(
because of a cat
and I will surely crucify you on the )‫ كألصػػمبنكـ فػي جػػذكع النخػؿ‬:)‫االسػتعالء (بمعنػػى عمػى‬ )3(
trunks of palm trees
enter with (in the company of) nations that )‫ (ادخمػكا فػي أمػـ قػد خمػت‬:(with) ‫بمعنػى مػع‬ )4(
passed away
The joys of life )‫ فمػا متػاع الحيػاة الػدنيا فػي اآلخػرة إال قميػؿ‬:(comparison/parallelism) ‫المقايسػة‬ )5(
of this world is but a little compared to the Hereafter
He minces onions with a knife )‫ (يفرـ البصؿ في السكيف‬:(with) ‫بمعنى باء انلصاؽ‬ )6(
they put their hands into their mouth )‫ (فردكا أيدييـ في أفكاىيـ‬:‫) بمعنى إلى‬7(

 )‫(الكاؼ‬: has four meanings:

Salem is as strong as the horse )‫ (سالـ قكم كالحصاف‬:(similitude) ‫) التشبيو‬1
and mention Him as he guided you :)‫ (كاذكركه كما ىداكـ‬:Cause/justification) ‫) التعميؿ‬2
be as we used to know you )‫ (كف كما عيدناؾ‬:‫) بمعنى عمى‬3
God is peer to none ‫ ليس كمثمو شيء‬:)‫) التككيد (زائدة‬4

 )‫(الالـ‬: has fifteen meanings:

To God belong all that is in the )‫ (هلل مػا فػي السػماكات كاألرض‬:(possession) ‫ التممػؾ‬/ ‫الممػؾ‬ ً )1(
heavens and earth)
)‫ (المم ػػؾ هلل؛ الحم ػػد هلل؛ الكم ػػاؿ هلل؛ الفص ػػاحة لقػ ػريش‬:(specification) )‫) االختص ػػاص (الـ االختص ػػاص‬2(
Sovereignty is God’s; Praise is to God; perfection is God’s; eloquence is Quraish’s)
Hijab is for women )‫ (الحجاب لممرأة‬:(semi-possession) ‫) شبو الممؾ‬3(
How ِّ !‫ (م ػػا أحب ػػو لمعم ػػـ‬:(clarification) ‫) التبي ػػيف‬4(
dear )‫رب الس ػػجف أح ػػب إل ػػي مم ػػا ي ػػدعكنني إلي ػػو‬
knowledge is to him!
we )‫ (إنا أنزلنػا إليػؾ الكتػاب بػالحؽ لػتحكـ بػيف النػاس بمػا أراؾ اهلل‬:(cause and effect) ‫) التعميؿ كالسببية‬5(
did reveal the Book to you in truth in order to judge among people in accordance
with what God showed you
long live the virtue; Hail to virtue; How )!‫ػؤس لمحػرب‬ ‫ (يػا لىمفضػيمة! يػا ب ى‬:(Emphasis) ‫) التككيػد‬6(
miserable war is!

131
those who do fear their )‫ (الػذيف ىػـ لػربيـ يرىبػكف؛ فعػاؿ لمػا يريػد‬: (strengthening) ‫) التقكيػة‬7(
Lord
)‫ (ك هؿ يجرم ألجؿ مسمى؛ كلك ردكا لعػادكا لمػا نيػكا عنػو‬: (termination/end))‫) انتياء الغاية (بمعنى إلى‬8(
each of which is running for an appointed term
Salman of the Arabs, Help us! )!‫العرب‬
‫ يا لسمماف ي‬:(help) ‫) االستغاثة‬9(
Oh, dear!; how wonderful!; how )!‫ (يا لىمعجب؛ يا لىمسعادة‬:(wonder; exclamation) ‫) التعجب‬10(
happy.
So, )‫ (فالتقط ػػو آؿ فرع ػػكف ليك ػػكف لي ػػـ ع ػػدكان كحزنػ ػان‬:(consequence/effect) )‫) الص ػػيركرة (الـ العاقب ػػة‬11(
Pharaoh’s household picked him up so that he would become an enemy and a
source of grief for them
they fall down prostrate upon their faces )‫ (يخركف لألذقاف سجدان‬:)‫) االستعالء (بمعنى عمى‬12(
‫ (أقػـ الصػالة لػدلكؾ الشػمس (أم بعػد دلككيػا)؛ صػكمكا لرؤيتػو‬:(time specification) )‫) الكقػت (الـ الكقػت‬13(
establish prayer from mid-day to the darkness of night; fast at seeing )‫كأفطركا لرؤيتػو‬
it (the moon), and break your fast at seeing it
we did not agree though we had a long )‫ (لـ نتفؽ لطكؿ اجتمػاع‬:(with/though) ‫) بمعنى مع‬14(
meeting
None can reveal it but He (God); none :)‫) بمعنػى فػي (ال يجمييػا لكقتيػا إال ىػك؛ مضػكا لسػبيميـ‬15(
will effect it at its proper time but He

 )‫ كالتاء‬، ‫ كالكاك‬،‫(حتى‬: one meaning each:

the )‫ سالـ ىي حتى مطمع الفجر؛ سير ليمة أمس حتى آخرىا‬:(end/termination) ‫) حتى لالنتياء‬1
Night of Al-Qadr is peace until the break of dawn
by the Great God; )‫ كحؽ اهلل‬،‫ كالشمس كضحاىا‬،‫ (كاهلل العظيـ؛ كالسماء ذات البكج‬:(oath)‫) كاك القسـ‬2
by God; I swear to God, the Great
and I ‫ تاهلل ألكيدف أصنامكـ‬:(Oath before ‘God’ only) )‫) تاء القسـ (ال تدخؿ إال عمى لفظ الجاللة‬3
swear to God that I will plot to destroy your idols

Indeed, it is a misconception that prepositions are easy to tackle in translation and may
not pose serious problems to translators for they are used mostly in their primary
meanings as follows: )‫ (الباء‬means ‘with’; )‫ (مف‬is ‘from’; )‫ (إلى‬is ‘to’;)‫ (عف‬is ‘about’; )‫ (في‬is
‘in’; )‫ (الكاؼ‬is ‘as/like’; )‫ (الالـ‬is ‘to’; )‫ (حتى‬is ‘till/until’ (‫ (كاك كتاء القسـ‬are ‘by/to/with. Well, this
claim is mostly false. The translations of the examples above show that, like their English
counterparts, Arabic prepositions are complex and complicated, and many of them have
several meanings each, some of which are quite alien to many translators. Hence, the
translators should be careful at translating them into English. This means that the
common meanings of Arabic prepositions cannot be reliable. The following table is a
summary of the meanings of the main Arabic prepositions in English exemplified for above
in relation to their meanings next to them:

132
  to, for, with, in, out of, from, to, ← (Baa): )‫(الباء‬ 
by, for, at, from, about, all/part
 from, among, to , with, zero (for ً
← (Min) :)‫(مف‬ 
emphasis), rather than, on,
because, to, about
 from, among, to , with, zero (for ← (Ilaa) )‫(إلى‬ 
emphasis), rather than, on,
because, to, about
 from, away from, soon, after, on, ← (‘Ann) )‫(عف‬ 
to, because, on behalf (of), about,
instead of, in, at, for, with, though,
in spite of, yet, zero
 in, because (of), on, with, in
← (Fii): )‫(في‬ 
(company of), into
 as, like ← (Kaaf) :)‫(الكاؼ‬ 
 to, ’s, for, in order to, because, ← (Laam) :)‫(الالـ‬ 
zero (for emphasis), for
exclamation, so that, upon, on, up
to, with, though, at
 until/till (Hatta :)‫(حتى‬ 
 by/ with / to ←
← (Waw and Taa):)‫ كالتاء لمقسـ‬،‫(الكاك‬ 

1.24 Translation of the Different Types of “‫( ”الحروف‬Particles)

Unlike English grammar, Arabic traditional grammar has 'letters' )‫( (حركؼ‬particles) as
independent grammatical categories that have established meanings. They are literally
'letters' as many of them are just one letter each. However, even when they are two or
more letters, they are still described as such, including articles, prepositions, adverbials,
particles, conjunctions / connectors and question words. Sometimes, the term 'particles'
)‫(أدكات‬, which might be confusing for the latter is used to refer to both 'letters', 'nouns' and
adverbs (e.g. conditionals are divided into letters like ‫ كاذ ما‬،‫إف‬, nouns like ،‫ كأم‬،‫ كميما‬،‫ كما‬،‫مف‬
‫ ككيفما‬or adverbs as ‫ كاذ‬،‫ كمتى‬،‫ كأياف‬،‫ كأنى‬،‫أيف‬. Also, there are two interrogation letters: ،‫ىؿ‬
)‫كاليمزة (أ‬, and eleven nouns: ‫ كأم‬،‫ ككـ‬،‫ كأنى‬،‫ ككيؼ‬،‫ كأيف‬،‫ كأياف‬،‫ كمتى‬،‫ كماذا‬،‫ كما‬،‫كمف ذا‬
‫ ى‬،‫ ىمف‬, etc.).
However, 'particles' (or articles) is used as a cover term to refer among other things to
'letters'. Hence, 'particles' is used here to be understandable by English readers who are
familiar with it in English, but not with 'letters', which is not a part of English grammar
terminology.

According to Arabic grammar references, there are thirty one types of 'letter' in Arabic
Language (see, for example, Al-Ghalayeeni, 1999: 254). All these types are meaningful and
functional, which is why they are discussed here. Some of them are used as independent
words (like ...‫ لعؿ‬،‫ سكؼ‬،‫ ال‬،‫ لـ‬،‫ لف‬،‫ كي‬،‫ رب‬،‫ عمى‬،‫ عف‬،‫ ;(مف‬others are connected to words
either initially as prefixes (e.g.)...‫ كاليمزة‬،‫ كالكاك‬،‫ كالفاء‬،‫ كالالـ‬،‫ كالسيف‬،‫(الباء‬, or at the end as

133
suffixes (e.g. )...‫ كالتنكيف‬،‫ كنكف التككيد‬،‫ كىاء السكت‬،‫ كتاء التأنيث‬،‫الـ البعد‬. However, the vast number
are prefixes. On the other hand, many of them have different semantic and / or stylistic
functions in different contexts, as demonstrated in the examples below.

In the following discussion of the translation of Arabic letters / particles, and for the
purposes of this Textbook, only those used unusually, ambiguously or stylistically
functional and meaningful and might be overcome by readers are attended to. Included in
the discussion is the translation of the meaningful initial letters of some Chapters of the
Holy Koran, which we start with (from Ghazala, 2014).

1.24.1 Translation /Laam/ )‫( (الالم‬La / Li)

The letter 'Laam' is two types: 'La' )‫ (لػى‬and 'Li' )ً‫(لػ‬. They have several different meanings, as
illustrated in the following examples from the Holy Koran and the Prophetic Tradition:

(Verily, if you associate partners with God , ‫) لئف أشركت ليحبطف عممؾ كلتككنف مف الخاسريف‬1(
your deed will surely be in vain and you will certainly be among the losers)
(And to verily assure your heart with it )126 :‫) كلتطمئف قمكبكـ بو (آؿ عمراف‬2(
The man of means should spend according to his )7 :‫) لينفؽ ذك سعة مف سعتو (الطالؽ‬3(
means)
(In order that people will have no plea against God) ) ‫) لكي ال يككف لمناس عمى اهلل حجة‬4(
(And let them pardon and forgive) )22:‫) كليعفكا كليصفحكا (النكر‬5(
(Most surely man is a certain loser) ‫) إف اننساف لفي خسر‬6(
Most surely God is much more pleased )27( )‫(متفؽ عميو‬...‫) هللي أفرح بتكبة عبده مف أحدكـ‬7(
with the penitence of his servant than a man…)
(If man loves his brother for the sake of God )‫) إذا أحب الرجؿ أخاه فميخبره أنو يحبو (الترمذم‬8(
, he should inform him of that)
(Anyone who has eaten garlic or )1263( )‫) مف أكؿ ثكمان كبصالن فميعتزؿ مسجدنا (متفؽ عميو‬9(
onion( just prior to prayer) should keep off our mosque)
In case one swears, one should )01267 )‫ أك ليصمت (متفؽ عميو‬،‫ فميحمؼ باهلل‬،‫) فمف كاف حالفان‬10(
swear to God, or keep his quiet)

The first version, 'La' )‫ (لػى‬has the function of strong emphasis of the word and the sentence
that follows (e.g.1, 6-7). However the second version, 'Li' )‫ (لًػ‬has two major meanings: (a)
command (3, 5, 8-10); and (b) reason / causation (i.e. the causative Laam )‫((الـ التعميؿ‬2, 4).
This means, that this particle is not only meaningful, but multi-meaningful. Hence,
translators have to attend to it as it can change the meaning of the statement in part at
least.

134
1.24.2 Translation of /Faa'/ )‫(الفاء‬

The problem with translating this letter lies in its multiple meanings, as the next examples
demonstrate:

(Therefore, because of the wrong- )160 :‫) فبظمـ مف الذيف ىادكا حرمنا عمييـ طيبات (النساء‬1(
doing of the Jews, we have forbidden to them certain good things)
Therefore, whosoever had done an atom's )7 :‫) فمف يعمؿ مثقاؿ ذرة خي انر يره (الزلزلة‬2(
weight of good shall see it)
(For he neither believed nor prayed) )31 :‫) فال صدؽ كال صمى (القيامة‬3(
But none feels secure from God's plan )99 :‫فال يأمف مكر اهلل إال القكـ الخاسركف (األعراؼ‬ )4(
except the people of the lost)
The )342( )‫كاف النبي صمى اهلل عميو كسمـ يزكر قباء راكبان كماشيان فيصمي فيو ركعتيف (متفؽ عميو‬ )5(
Prophet used to visit Qbaa Mosque (at Al-Madinah) mounted or on foot and
would then pray two raka'as in there)
(He who believes in God and the hereafter . ...‫مف كاف يؤمف باهلل كاليكـ اآلخر فميصؿ رحمو‬ )6(
should cement his relations)
(If you prepare a broth, you should put plenty of )‫ فأكثر ماءىا (مسمـ‬،‫إذا طبخت مرقة‬ )7(
water in it)
(He who equips a warrior in the way of God will )‫مف جيز غازيان فقد غزل (متفؽ عميو‬ )8(
surely get his reward)
"‫ كذلؾ أضعؼ انيماف‬،‫ فإف لـ يستطع فبقمبو‬،‫ فإف لـ يستطع فبمسانو‬،‫"مف رأل منكـ منك انر فميغيره بيده‬ )9(
(Whosoever of you sees evil-doing should change it physically, but if )‫(حديث شريؼ‬
he cannot, he should do it verbally then, yet if cannot, he should do it internally
then)

Here are the meanings of 'Fa' in the previous examples, which also applies to the rest of
Islamic and other types of text:

(a) Causative (1-3)

(b) Contrast (1, 9)
(c) Obligation (6-7)
(d) Emphasis(8)
(e) Consequential (i.e. 'then' in the sense of next) (5, 9)

Consequently, we are required not to underrate the meanings and functions of this
particle, which is passed by many translators of Islamic texts, especially the Holy Koran
and the Prophet's Tradition.

1.24.3 Translation of /Baa'/ )‫(بـِ) (الباء‬

'Ba' is yet again complicated in meaning in Arabic Language in general, and in Islamic texts
in particular, especially the Holy Koran:

135
Therefore, it was by God's mercy that you )159 :‫) فبما رحمة مف اهلل لنت ليـ (آؿ عمراف‬1(
were kind to them)
(And rub your head with water fully / partly) ‫) كامسحكا برؤكسكـ‬2(
(Is not God surely sufficient for his servant?) )29 :‫) أليس اهلل بكاؼ عبده؟ (الزمر‬3(
(And I am by no means willing to drive away those )29 :‫) كما أنا بطارد الذيف آمنكا (ىكد‬4(
who have believed)
(Was it really God, His verses and His )65 :‫) أباهلل كآياتو كرسكلو تستيزؤكف؟ (التكبة‬5(
(Messenger that you ridicule?)
(The Satan does not assume my appearance) )‫) ال يتمثؿ الشيطاف بي (متفؽ عميو‬6(
The Messenger of God believes in what has )285 :‫) آمف الرسكؿ بما أنزؿ إلو مف ربو (البقرة‬7(
been revealed to him from his Lord
(I saw the Prophet at Makkah by Al-Abtah )‫ (متفؽ عميو‬... ‫) رأيت النبي بمكة كىك باألبطح‬8(
Valley)
When he (the Prophet), at reciting the Koran, came )118( )‫ (مسمـ‬...‫) كاذا مر بسؤاؿ سأؿ‬9(
across a supplication)

Many would understand this letter as having only the meaning of 'by'. However, it has
other several different meanings that may be crucial to the total meaning of the sentence,
as confirmed in the examples above:

(a) By (1, 9)
(b) With + fully / partly (2)
(c) In / at (7, 8)
(d) Phrasal combination (9)
(e) Zero (6) (not used in the English term suggested here)

Out of these, (b) stands out as this particle has raised a well-known argument among
Muslim scholars and jurisprudents as to whether rubbing is meant for the whole head, or
just for a part of it. Some say this, some say that. Therefore, translating it into 'with' only is
not acceptable; 'partly / wholly' is crucial to add, which many translators of the Holy Koran
have missed.

1.24.4 Translation of Coordinative /Waw/ )‫ (واو‬vs. Thumma )‫(ثم‬, and Waw of Oath

The letter 'waw' is also multifunctional in Arabic. It is mainly a coordinative conjunction

(and). However, it has other functions in Islamic texts in particular, as pointed out in the
examples that follow:

(and when God reigns Supreme) )19 :‫) كاألمر يكمئذ هلل (االنفطار‬1(
(but for him who fears to be stood before ‫ كمف دكنيما جنتاف‬...‫) كلمف خاؼ مقاـ ربو جنتاف‬2(
his Lord, for them shall be two Gardens
and next to them are two further Gardens(

136
:‫كأما إف كاف مف المكذبيف الضاليف (الكاقعة‬...‫كأما إف كاف مف أصحاب اليميف‬...‫) فأما إف كاف مف المقربيف‬3(
Then if he is of those brought nearest to Us, and if he is of those on the )92-88
Right Hand… but if he is of those of the denying who have gone astray…)
‫ ثـ أدبر كاستكبر فقاؿ إف ىذا‬.‫ ثـ عبس كبسر‬.‫ ث ـ نظر‬.‫ ثـ قتؿ كيؼ قدر‬.‫ فقتؿ كيؼ قدر‬.‫) إنو فكر كقدر‬4(
(Surely he reflected, then he planned. So cursed be he: how he .‫إال قكؿ البشر‬
plotted. Then once more cursed be he: how he plotted. Then he thought. Then he
looked. Then he frowned, then he scowled in a bad-tempered way)
(What, even though we detest it?) )88 :‫) أكلك كنا كارىيف؟ (األعراؼ‬5(
(When they )73 ،71 :‫حتى إذا جاؤكىا كفتحت أبكابيا (الزمر‬...‫] فتحت أبكابيا‬-[ ‫حتى إذا جاؤكىا‬ )6(
reach it, the gates thereof will be opened [suddenly like a prison at the arrival of
the prisoners+…when they reach it, and its gates will be already opened (before
their arrival to receive them as God's Guests)
(Woe to you, and then woe to you! Again )5-34 :‫أىكلى لؾ فأىكلى ثـ أكلى لؾ فأكلى (القيامة‬ )7(
woe to you, and then again woe to you!
(They said: )947( )‫قال كا يا رسكؿ اهلل كال الجياد في سبيمو؟ قاؿ كال الجياد في سبيمو (البخارم‬ )8(
"Messenger of God, not even fighting in the Cause of God?" He said: "Not even
fighting in the Cause of God")
(by the sky and the bright star) ‫كالسماء كالطارؽ‬ )9(
(by Him in Whose Hand is my soul) ‫) كالذم نفسي بيده‬10(
‫ قاؿ‬.‫ يا رسكؿ اهلل مف أحؽ الناس بصحبتي؟ قاؿ أمؾ‬:‫) جاء رجؿ إلى رسكؿ اهلل صمى اهلل عميو كسمـ فقاؿ‬11(
(A Man came to the )‫ قاؿ ثـ مف؟ قاؿ أبكؾ (ركاه الشيخاف‬.‫ قاؿ ثـ مف؟ قاؿ أمؾ‬.‫ثـ مف؟ قاؿ أمؾ‬
Messenger of God, peace be to him, and said: "who is the most worthy of my
company?" He (the Prophet) said: "Your mother". He said: "Then who?" He said:
"Your mother". He said: "Then who?" He said: "Your mother". He said: "Then
who?" He said: "Your father".

The letter 'waw' has the following functions that need be attended to with care by
translators:

(a) Coordination (1)

(b) Contrast (2, 3)
(c) Zero (8)
(d) Then (thumma) (4) (referring to a pause before resuming)
(e) Swearing particle (9-10)

A unique meaning of this article is revealed by example (6), which marks a huge difference
between using it, or dropping it. That is, it is dropped first with the people of the Fire
whose gates will be closed until they arrive at them, exactly like prisoners; whereas using
it with the people of the Garden indicates that the gates will be already wide open to
indicate their reception as the Guest of God (see As-Samurrai, 2006, and Al-Hilali et al,
1996. See also Chapter Three of this work for further argument).

137
As to 'Thumma' )‫(ثـ‬, like the 'waw' (‫)ك‬, it is a coordinative article. Therefore, they are
misunderstood by many as the same, which is not true. While the 'waw' adds items to one
another in succession without any pause or interval in between, 'thumma' implies an
interval between them. This is a significant importance in the sequence of items, or
actions. More remarkably, the difference between the two articles can be so crucial to
such an extent that, religiously, one is allowed, another is not. A famous example is the
expression ‫بفضؿ اهلل كفضمؾ‬, which is not allowed, for it attributes 'bounty / grace' to God as
well as to man. This is not accepted for 'bounty' is God's only. Further, it implies that the
bounty of God and man are on equal terms, which is again not allowed religiously.
Therefore, the religiously approved alternative expression is ‫بفضؿ اهلل ثـ بفضمؾ‬, which
attributes 'bounty' to God only, and makes a distinction and an interval between God's
bounty and man's bounty which is next to, and preconditioned by God's bounty.

1.24.5 Translation of /Inn/ )‫(إن‬

ْ and /Ann/ )‫(أن‬
ْ

These two articles are different in sense and function in Arabic grammar. Also, each one
has more than one meaning and / or function, as shown in the following set of examples:

(… if a disobedient man comes to you with )6 :‫) إف جاءكـ فاسؽ بنبأ فتبينكا (الحجرات‬1(
tidings
(… surely you are lying) )15 :‫) إف أنتـ إال تكذبكف (يس‬2(
(… had I said it you would have surely known it) ‫كنت قمتيو فقد عممتىو‬
‫) إف ي‬3(
(… most surely, the ruling is for none but God) ‫) إف الحكـ إال هلل‬4(
(… but surely everyone of them shall be )32 :‫) كاف ك هؿ لما جميع لدينا محضركف (يس‬5(
summoned before us)
ً ‫) إف شئت دعكت‬6(
(… if you wish, I pray to God for you) ‫لؾ‬
lest any soul should say: "Alas, for me ‫) أف تقكؿ نفس يا حسرتى عمى ما فرطت في جنب اهلل‬7(
that I was undutiful to God)
("you should make perfect coats of mail, and )11 :‫) أف اعمؿ سابغات كقدر في السرد (سبأ‬8(
balance well the rings of chain armor)
(… and when, out of a sudden, Our )33 ‫) كلما أف جاءت رسمنا لكطان سيء بيـ (العنكبكت‬9(
Messengers came unto Lot, he was troubled upon their account)
(… and so judge among them by what God has revealed to ‫) كأف احكـ بينيـ بما أنزؿ اهلل‬10(
you)

)‫(إف‬,
ٍ to start with, is multifunctional, functioning primarily as a conditional particle, in the
sense of 'if' (1,6). Yet, another notable function of emphasis (2, 4) is recurrent in the
Koranic style in particular. Surprisingly, in (5), it is functioning as a conjunction of contrast
(i.e. but). )‫(أف‬,
ٍ on the other hand, should not be confused with )‫(إف‬ ٍ for it has different
functions in Arabic. Among these functions are (i) conditional (7); (ii) obligation (8); (iii)
sudden (9); (iv) time adverbial (9); and (v) result/ consequence (10).

138
No doubt, the functions of these two similar particles are not easy to discern. However,
considering context alongside the previous sentence and checking exegesis books would
be of good help to translators.

1.24.6 Translation of Lamm/, /Lann/, /Lammaa/ and /Laa/ ()‫ ال (النافية والناهية‬،‫لما‬
ّ ،‫ لن‬،‫(لَم‬

These articles appear to be quite similar as particles of negation )‫(النفي‬. However, there are
considerable subtle differences among them, as demonstrated in the next examples:

(… but if you did not do it, and you will never do it) )24 :‫) فإف لـ تفعمكا كلف تفعمكا (البقرة‬1(
(… and the Jews and the )120 :‫كلف ترضى عنؾ الييكد كال النصارل حتى تتبع ممتيـ (البقرة‬ )2(
Christians will never be content with you until you follow their creed)
(… and God has not yet tested )142 :‫كلما يعمـ اهلل الذيف آمنكا منكـ كيعمـ الصابريف (آؿ عمراف‬
ٌ )3(
those of you who believed and the patient?)
(And when Moses came at Our appointed time 143 :‫كلما جاء مكسى لميقاتنا (األعراؼ‬ ٌ )4(
and place)
(God will not charge you for the inadvertent )89 :‫ال يؤاخذكـ اهلل بالمغك في أيمانكـ (المائدة‬ )5(
oaths you swear)
And never pray over anyone of them when he )84 :‫كال تصؿ عمى أحد مات منيـ (التكبة‬ )6(
dies)
(… and (he) never associates a partner in )110 :‫كال يشرؾ بعبادة ربو أحدان (الكيؼ‬ )7(
worshipping his Lord)

The first particle, )‫(لـ‬, is definite negation of a past action (1). Yet, in comparison, )‫( (لف‬1) is
much stronger than the first, and refers to definite negation in the future. As to )‫(لما‬, it has
two senses: the first is negative, referring to future in the sense of 'not yet' in English (3).
The second meaning is its normal function as an adverb of time, (when) (4).

On the other hand, )‫ (ال‬is two types: normal present negation (5), and strong future
negation of forbidding )‫( (النيي‬6-7). It is the strongest command possible for not doing
something. Therefore, it is much stronger and more impressive than the first.

It should be declared that this discussion of the translation of 'letters' in Arabic Language
is by no means exhaustive. Only sample examples for translating probably the trickiest of
them are suggested here, with the aim to provide guidelines for translating them.

1.24.7 English Equivalents of Arabic Particles

We conclude this section by providing an exhaustive list of the different types of particles
in Arabic grammar, vis-à-vis their English equivalents. Probably, their main problem of
translation lies in distinguishing their meanings, functions and implications on the part of
the translator:

139
English Translation of Arabic Particles
1) Negative particles: no, not, never
2) Response particles: yes, O, yes,
definitely, no doubt about it, of
course…, no, never, by no means
3) Explicative particles: viz., i.e., that
is, say, etc.)
4) Conditional particles: if, unless, in
case that …, in the event that, etc.
5) Provocative particles (before the
present simple tense): would that,
would it be that, wouldn’t you…?,
don’t you…? Isn’t it better to…?
6) Regret particles (before the past
tense to express regret): (the same
particles of ‘5’ above are used)
7) Polite request particles: would,
wouldn’t, may, could, I wish you…,
if only…
8) Attention particles: Hey, you,
excuse me, zero, ….
9) Infinitive particles: to, in order to,
in order that, so as to, so that to
10) Future particles: will, shall, going
to, will not, will never,
never+present tense, present
tense, affirmative imperative,
negative imperative
11) Emphatic particles: verily, surely,
certainly, definitely…
12) The two question particles: zero,
yes/no questions (subject-verb
conversion, or ‘do’ questions)
13) Subjunctive particles: would that,
would I, I wish, if only, as though,
as if
14) Wishing and sympathy particles:
strongly wish, hopeful, have great
expectations
140
‫أنكاع الحركؼ بالمغة العربية‬
،‫ ال‬،‫ إف‬،‫ ما‬،‫ لف‬،‫ لما‬،‫ لـ‬:‫) أحرؼ النفي‬1(
‫الت‬
،‫ أجؿ‬،‫ إم‬،‫ بمى‬،‫ نعـ‬:‫) أحرؼ الجكاب‬2(
‫ كال‬،‫ إف ال‬،‫ير‬ً ‫ىج‬
‫ أف‬،‫ أم‬:‫) حرفا التفسير‬3(
،‫ أما‬،‫ لكال‬،‫ لك‬،‫ إذ ما‬،‫إف‬
ٍ :‫) أحرؼ الشرط‬4(
‫ لك‬،‫لما‬
ٌ
،‫ لكما‬،ٌ‫ أال‬،ٌ‫ ىال‬:‫) أحرؼ التحضيض‬5(
)‫ أال (إذا دخمت عمى المضارع‬،‫لكال‬
‫ أال‬،‫ لكال‬،‫ لكما‬،‫ال‬
ٌ ‫ أ‬،ٌ‫ ىال‬:‫) أحرؼ التنديـ‬6(
)‫(إذا دخمت عمى الماضي‬
:)‫ (الطمب بميف كرفؽ‬:‫) أحرؼ العرض‬7(
‫ لك‬،‫ أما‬،‫أال‬
‫ يا‬،‫ ىا‬،‫أما‬
‫ ى‬،‫ أال‬:‫) أحرؼ التنبيو‬8(
َّ ،‫أف‬
،‫ ما‬،‫ كي‬،‫أف‬ ٍ :‫) األحرؼ المصدرية‬9(
‫ ىمزة التسكية (حينما يككف األمر‬،‫لك‬
)‫سكاء‬
،‫ سكؼ‬،‫ السيف‬:‫) أحرؼ االستقباؿ‬10(
‫ الـ‬،)‫نكاصب الفعؿ المضارع (مثؿ لف‬
‫إف كاذ ما‬
ٍ ،‫ ال الناىية‬،‫األمر‬
)‫(الجازمتاف‬
َّ ،‫إف‬
،‫ الـ االبتداء‬،‫أف‬ َّ :‫) أحرؼ التككيد‬11(
‫ نكف التككيد‬،‫نكف النككيد الخفيفة‬
‫ الـ جكاب القسـ (تاهلل ألكيدف‬،‫الثقيمة‬
‫ قد‬،)‫أصنامكـ‬
‫ ىؿ‬،‫ اليمزة‬:‫) حرفا االستفياـ‬12(
‫ ىؿ‬،‫ لك‬،‫ ليت‬:‫) أحرؼ التمني‬13(
‫ لعؿ‬:‫) حرؼ الترجي كانشفاؽ‬14(
15) Similitude particles: as, like, such
as, suchlike
16) Extra emphatic particles: (see
emphatic particles above)
17) Cause/reason particles: to, in order
to, because (of), so that…
18) Deterring & reprimanding particle:
‘Kalla’ (a very strong negative
particle): nay, by no means, no
way, never, not at all…
19) The letter ‘L’ (laam) particles:
- Prepositional
- Imperative
- initial
- Remoteness/emphatic (with
demonstratives like ‘that’ and
‘those’
- Conditional (in the second
part)
- Oath (in the second part)
20) The feminine particle (‘T’): attached
to simple past Arabic verbs
21) Request/command particles: the
imperative ‘laam’, the strong
prohibitive ‘laa’, the two question
particles, provoking, regret, wish
and hopefulness particles (listed
earlier in the list)
22) Vocative particles: (see earlier in
the Chapter)
23) Coordinating conjunctions: (see
above in the Chapter)
24) Accusative particles with the
present tense: to, never/will not, in
order to, because of/due to…
25) Jussive particles with the present
tense: if, who, whatever, when, at,
where, wherever, whenever…
26) Semi-verbal particles of ‘Inna-
group’: (see earlier in the Chapter)
141
‫ كأف‬،‫ الكاؼ‬:‫) حرفا التشبيو‬15(
‫ (حرؼ المعنى الذم يزاد‬:‫) أحرؼ الصمة‬16(
‫ الباء‬،‫ مف‬،‫ ما‬،‫أف‬
ٍ ،‫إف‬
ٍ :)‫لمتأكيد‬
‫ مف‬،‫ في‬،‫ الالـ‬،‫ كي‬:‫) حركؼ التعميؿ‬17(
‫ كال‬:‫) حرؼ الردع كالزجر‬18(
:‫) الالمات‬19(
،‫الـ الجر‬ -
‫الـ األمر‬ -
‫الـ االبتداء‬ -
‫الـ البعد (تمحؽ أسماء انشارة لمداللة‬ -
)‫ ذلكـ‬،‫عمى البعد أك التككيد مثؿ ذلؾ‬
‫ كلكال‬،‫الـ الجكاب (تقع في جكاب لك‬ -
،)‫لنمت‬
‫سعيت ى‬
‫ى‬ ‫ لك‬:‫نحك‬
)‫الالـ المكطئة لمقسـ (في جكاب القسـ‬ -
)...‫ سمعت‬،‫ (قالت‬:‫) تاء التأنيث الساكنة‬20(
،‫ ال الناىية‬،‫ الـ األمر‬:‫) أحرؼ الطمب‬21(
‫ أحرؼ التحضيض‬،‫حرفا االستفياـ‬
،‫ أحرؼ التمني‬،‫ أحرؼ العرض‬،‫كالتنديـ‬
‫حرؼ الترجي‬
)‫) أحرؼ النداء (سبؽ الكالـ عمييا‬22(
)‫) أحرؼ العطؼ( سبؽ الكالـ عمييا‬23(
،‫ إذف‬،‫ لف‬،‫أف‬ٍ :‫) أحرؼ نصب المضارع‬24(
:‫ أف المضمرة بع الحركؼ التالية‬،‫كي‬
‫الـ كي (لً ى‬
‫ الـ العاقبة (فعؿ ىذا‬،)‫تفعؿ‬
‫ فاء‬،‫ الكاك‬،)‫ليككف عدكان لمجميع‬
...‫ أك‬،‫ ثـ‬،‫السببية‬
،‫ ىمف‬،‫ إذ ما‬،‫إف‬
ٍ :‫) أحرؼ جزـ المضارع‬25(
،‫أنى‬
ٌ ،‫ أيف‬،‫ ٌأياف‬،‫ متى‬،‫ ميما‬،‫ما‬
،‫ إذا‬،‫ أم‬،‫ كيفما‬،‫حيثما‬
‫ (سبؽ الكالـ‬:‫) األحرؼ المشبية بالفعؿ‬26(
)‫عمييا‬
 ،‫ الت‬،‫ ال‬،‫ ما‬:‫) األحرؼ المشبية بميس‬27(
27) Negative particles: (see earlier in
)‫إف‬
ٍ
the Chapter)
)‫) حركؼ الجر(سبؽ الكالـ عمييا‬28(
28) Prepositions: (see above in the
Chapter)

In many instances and contexts, these juxtaposed Arabic and English particles,
conjunctions and determiners translate one another in the two languages in general
terms, and on the condition that they should not be as one-to-one equivalents. Naturally,
there are exceptions, but they are not many, and exceptions are exceptions, and do not
break the general rule.

1.25 SUMMARY

This lengthy chapter is hoped to have provided good coverage and survey of the
translation problems of a vast number of Arabic grammatical features and structures into
English. These include the translation of tenses, objects of different types, coordination,
sentence types, sentence and clause structures, word order, plurals of many types,
conditional sentences, the genitive, types of verbs, adjectives, proverbs, prepositions,
particles of all types, and so on. Several possible solutions have been put forward in a
contrastive way between the two languages with respect to equivalent and non-
equivalent features and structures in the grammar of Arabic and English in a simplified
way as much as possible. The two main conclusions that can be drawn from this Chapter
are, first, the translation of Arabic grammar into English is not a straightforward process
due to the fact that the two languages have numerous differences of grammatical forms
and structures, and the total absence of other features. The second conclusion is that
these differences or the absence of equivalent forms do not hinder translating them for
the translator will eventually resort to rendering meaning through any feature and
structure that may be appropriate in the TL. The utmost objective of the Chapter is the
author’s hope to have made the translation of Arabic grammar into English much easier
than it was.

142
EXERCISES

(1) How different/similar are English and Arabic grammars? How problematic is
translating them into one another?

(2) How many types of sentence are there in Arabic? Do they have English
equivalents? How do we translate Arabic nominal (verbless) sentences into
English? Apply your answers to the translation of the next sentences:
.‫) ممعكف مف عؽ كالديو‬1(
.‫) المشتبو بو مقبكض عميو‬2(
.‫) ييعتبر الماء أساس الحياة‬3(
.‫) اعتبر القضية خسرانة‬4(
‫) المكت حؽ كالساعة حؽ‬5(
.‫) كسيؽ الذيف كفركا إلى جينـ زم انر‬6(
‫) الناس مشاربيـ مختمفة‬7(
‫) إياؾ قصدت في مالحظتي‬8(
.‫) ال يمؿ اهلل مف عبادتنا لو حتى نمؿ‬9(
‫) ما قكلؾ في تغيير مكقفنا مف القضية؟‬10(

(3) How many types of objects are there in Arabic? Are they all translatable
directly into English? Why?
(4) How many types of objects are there in Arabic? Are they all translatable
directly into English? Why?
(5) Point out the types of Arabic plurals that have one-to-one equivalents. Then
translate the following examples into English accurately:

– ‫طير – طيكر – رجاؿ – رجاالت – سفف – فمؾ – عنادؿ – أبكاـ – جمؿ – جماالت – طرؽ‬ 
‫طرقات – طرائؽ – كفار – كافركف – كفرة – جاىمكف – جيٌاؿ – جيمة – آثار – أثارات‬
(6) The present participle and the past participle )‫ (اسم الفاعل واسم المفعول‬are two
different forms and meanings in both languages: Translate the following two
groups of examples for them into English appropriated:

‫كاتب – مكتكب – خادـ – مخدكـ – سائؿ – مسؤكؿ – حاكـ – محككـ – عاقؿ – معقكؿ‬ 
‫ آكؿ – مأككؿ – طالب – مطمكب – مدافع – مدفكع عنو – كاره – مكركه – ظالـ – مظمكـ‬-
‫– شاكر – مشككر – خالؽ – مخمكؽ – صادؽ – مصدكؽ – كاذب – مكذكب – عابد – معبكد‬

(7) Participial intensive adjectives )‫ (الصفات المشبهة‬are similar to the present

participle in form, but more emphatic and exaggerative in sense. Translate
the following pairs of examples of present participles vs. intensive adjectives,
showing the difference between them in English:

143
‫صديؽ؛ كاذب – كذكب ‪ /‬كذاب؛ عالـ – عالٌمة‪/‬عميـ – راحـ ‪ /‬رحمف ‪/‬رحيـ؛‬
‫صادؽ – صدكؽ ‪ٌ /‬‬ ‫‪‬‬
‫نكاـ؛ قائـ – قكيـ ‪ /‬قيكـ؛ ناصر – نصير؛ غافر – غفكر‪/‬غفار؛ سابح – مسبح‪/‬سبكح‬
‫نائـ – ٌ‬

‫‪(8) How many types of verbs are there in Arabic grammar? Translate the‬‬
‫‪following statements into English, attend to the type of equivalent verb in‬‬
‫‪English:‬‬

‫(‪ )1‬نعـ الصديؽ كقت الضيؽ‬

‫(‪ )2‬بئس المدير أنت‬
‫(‪ )3‬ذرىـ في جيميـ غارقكف‬
‫(‪ً )4‬‬
‫أنعـ بو ك ً‬
‫أكرـ‬
‫(‪ )5‬عممتو الرماية فمما كبر رماني‬
‫(‪ )6‬عسى أف يتكب اهلل عمييـ‬
‫(‪ )7‬بئست البيعة بيعة الظالـ‬
‫(‪ )8‬كساني حمة جديدة‬
‫(‪ )9‬كاد المريب أف يقكؿ خذكني‬
‫(‪ )10‬أمسى الجاىؿ عمم نا‬

‫‪( and the specificative‬الحال) ‪(9) What is the difference between the circumstantial‬‬
‫‪(. How do we differentiate between them in translation into English in‬التمييز)‬
‫?‪the translation of the following examples‬‬
‫(‪ )1‬ال يؤكؿ المحـ نيئان‬
‫طبت نفسان‬
‫ى‬ ‫(‪)2‬‬
‫(‪ )3‬حققكا مميكن نا أرباح نا‬
‫(‪ )4‬كلى المص ىارب نا‬
‫(‪ )5‬لعبك خمسيف مباراةن‬

‫‪(10) Translate the next list of miscellaneous examples into English: Point out the‬‬
‫‪grammatical structure of the underlined words:‬‬
‫(‪ )1‬ضربكه ضربان مبرحان‬
‫(‪ )2‬سار كالطريؽ‬
‫(‪ )3‬أضحى يكره كؿ الناس إال أباه كأمو‬
‫غير حسف‬‫(‪ )4‬ما بقي ي‬
‫(‪ )5‬قابمكىـ كميـ السيما كبارىـ‬
‫(‪ )6‬ما أشجعو شابان!‬
‫(‪ )7‬سيفكت الكقت ما لـ نسرع‬
‫(‪ )8‬إف لـ تقؿ الحقيقة تندـ‬
‫(‪ً )9‬‬
‫إف الكافركف إال في غركر‬
‫‪144‬‬
 ‫الشباب يعكد يكمان‬
‫ى‬ ‫(‪ )10‬أال ليت‬

‫‪(11) Translate the following sentences, giving heed to TENSE and ASPECT in‬‬
‫‪particular:‬‬
‫(‪ )1‬إذا كاف أىؿ بيتؾ بخير فأنت بخير‪.‬‬
‫القمر رأيتيـ لي ساجديف‪.‬‬
‫الشمس ك ى‬
‫(‪ )2‬إذ قاؿ يكسؼ ألبيو يا أبت إني رأيت أحد عشر كككبان ك ى‬
‫(‪ )3‬لقد كاف ذلؾ األستاذ قدكة لنا‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )4‬احتاج األمر إلى دراسة دقيقة مما جعمنا نتريث في القرار‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )5‬لقد رضي اهلل عف المؤمنيف إذ يبايعكنؾ تحت الشجرة‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )6‬انسحبت ركسيا ميزكمة مخذكلة مف الشاـ‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )7‬ال عمـ لنا بما حصؿ لؾ إال بعد أف أخبرتنا أنت بنفسؾ‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )8‬كقؼ معنا إخكاننا الشرفاء كما زالكا يقفكف معنا في محنتنا‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )9‬مف سمؾ طريقان فيو عممان سيَّؿ اهلل لو بو طريقان إلى الجنة‪.‬‬
‫(‪ )10‬ما كنا لنقبؿ بقرار االستقالة لك يعرض عمينا‪.‬‬

‫‪145‬‬
 CHAPTER 2

LEXICAL PROBLEMS

2.0 Introduction

Lexical Problems of translation are much more difficult than grammatical problems. They
are concerned with the problems of translating words, terms, phrases and expressions of
all types. They include: literal vs. non-literal translation; translating synonymy; polysemy;
collocations; figurative language (idioms, phrasal verbs, proverbs and metaphors); proper
names, titles, institutional and geographical terms; concept words; and cultural terms. An
exhaustive investigation of the translation problems of these topics through translating a
huge number of Arabic examples into English, followed by suggested solutions to them.

2.1 LITERAL TRANSLATION: FOUR SENSES OF “LITERAL”:

The word ‘literal’ has four meanings related to translation of words and meaning:

(1) Literal meaning )ً‫األساس‬/‫ (المعنى الشابع‬as the common/primary meaning of words.
Each word in language has a primary (or common) meaning that language users,
including translators, jump to it at the first mention of a word. e.g.

eye ← ‫عٌن‬ -
sound ← ‫صوت‬ -
money/cash ← ‫نقد‬ -
heart ← ‫قلب‬ -
easy ← ‫سهل‬ -
horse ← ‫جواد‬ -

Except for the second, these words have other meanings, but the common meaning of
each is predominant in language and translation, however, with the risk of mis-translating
them in different contexts.

(2) Literal meaning ) ٌ‫ (المعنى الدق‬as the accurate meaning of words and expressions
verbatim, as accurately as possible, without anything dropped or added. This is
reflected by the implication of the well-known cliché expression: ‫قال فالن بالحرؾ‬
‫( الواحد‬somebody said something verbatim/literally/exactly…), that is an indication
of accuracy and faithfulness of rendering statements without leaving anything
out or adding anything. It is rendered exactly as it is, neither more nor less ‫(من دون‬
)‫رٌادة أو نقصان‬.

(3) Literal meaning )‫ (المعنً الحرفً ؼٌر المجاري‬as the opposite of non-literal or
metaphorical meaning. Here, words and expressions may have two meanings
each, one understood literally and directly; another taken to be figurative. For
example, the literal meaning of ‫ ش ّم‬is ‘smell’ in “I smell a perfume”, whereas its

146
 non-literal meaning is ‘suspicion or doubt’ in ‫( أشم رابحة مكٌدة‬also ً‫( (بدأ الفأر ٌلعب بعب‬I
smell a rat).

(4) Literal meaning ) ‫ (المعنى الحقٌقً فً السٌا‬as the real, appropriate or proper meaning
of words and expressions. It is their meaning in context, contrasted with their
meaning in isolation. Contextual could be literal (or non-metaphorical), non-
literal (or metaphorical), or pragmatic (i.e. the meaning beyond the words
intended by the author/speaker). That means all the following meanings of ‫شرب‬
in these examples:

He drank two glasses of water ‫) شرب كأسٌن من الماء‬1

he killed his rival ‫) شرب من دم ؼرٌمه‬2
I took revenge on him ‫) جعلته ٌشرب من الكأس نفسها‬3

The first is the common meaning of )‫( (شرب‬i.e. drank), whereas the second is figurative;
yet the third is pragmatic, translating the meaning beyond the words to give the intended
meaning of the original. Each of these is the real meaning of the word in context. In other
words, this meaning of ‘literal’ is the meaning concluded from the words in the context of
the text translated. It can be described as the contextual, real meaning of words intended
to be expressed by the writer/speaker.

The four meanings of ‘literal translation’ can be investigated in details in regard to the
problems of translation they pose in application, and how these problems can be solved
by translators:

2.1.1 “Literal” as the Common Meaning of Words: Word-for-word Translation

Every word in Arabic, English or any other live language has a common, primary meaning.
It is the meaning that is the most common in use by language users. Usually (but not
always), it is the first meaning of an entry word in dictionaries. Also, in language learning,
common meaning is focused on, and many students take it as the only meaning of a word.
This may last for some time before they realize that it is not the only meaning that the
word has in other contexts; it has more meanings which they do not know, and come to
know about it later. In the process, the common meaning of the words sustains and
always hovers over their heads. That is perhaps why many translation students and
translators cannot dispose of it quickly.

No doubt, words of all types, whether monosemous, or polysemous, are used in their
common meaning frequently. Those words that have one sole meaning (i.e. monosemous)
do not pose serious problems of translation in this connection. However, they cause
problems of translation of different types that might be attended to later on (see the third
section on polysemy and monosemy). The real problems of translation are caused by
polysemous words that have meanings other than their common ones. Let us start with
translating and discussing examples for words used in their common meanings:

the guest attended on time ‫) حضر الضيكؼ في المكعد المحدد‬1

I complain to God the oppressor’s oppression ‫) أشتكي إلى اهلل ظمـ الظالميف‬2
147
 do not break your secret to anybody ‫) ال تفش سرؾ ألحد‬3
pray as you saw me pray ‫) صمكا كما رأيتمكني أصمي‬4
In the Hereafter, children and wealth do not avail ‫) في اآلخرة ال ينفع ماؿ كال بنكف‬5
a drowning man clutches at a straw ‫) الغريؽ يتعمؽ بقشة‬6
he gave us a word of honor ‫) أعطانا كممة شرؼ‬7
say the truth and nothing but the truth ‫) قؿ الحقيقة كال شيء غير الحقيقة‬8
My Lord, help me! ‫) رب ساعدني‬9
‫أبكي عمى كطني السميب تعيث فيو يد الدمار‬ ‫أالـ ألنني أبكي ديارم‬
‫) أنا إف بكيت فمف ى‬10
I am not to blame if I cry because I cry over my country
I cry over my plundered homeland ravaged by the hands of destruction

All these examples are translated literally into the common meanings of words though
they include parts of religious language (4-5 and 9), a proverb (6), a collocation (7) and
poetry (10). We conclude from this that literal translation of words into their common
meanings (i.e. word-for-word translation) is possible. No doubt about that, but – and it is a
big BUT! – this is not the rule, but, rather, the exception in translation. I have to admit that
these examples are picked up deliberately to comply with the claimed possibility of
translating words into their common meanings. In the general practice of translation,
translating words into their common meanings in all texts and contexts can be seriously
damaging, as illustrated in the translation of the following statements:

*your two hands were safe → (well-done) ‫سلمت ٌدا‬ )1

*your mouth is never shut→ (well said) ‫ال فض فو‬ )2
*he is alive and provided with sustenance→ (he is alive and kicking) ‫إنه حً ٌُرر‬ )3
*welcome and easy to you → (welcome to you; you are most ‫أهال وسهال ب‬ )4
welcome
*he was angry very much anger → (he was very angry) ‫ؼضب ؼضبا شدٌدا‬ )5
*you become on a good morning → (good night) ‫تصبحون على خٌر‬ )6
*May God cure you and remedy you → (get well soon) ‫شافا هللا وعافا‬ )7
*calm your fear → (calm down; cool it) ِ‫هدئ من روع‬ )8
*we are with you by heart and mold → (we are with you heart ‫نحن مع قلبا وقالبا‬ )9
and soul/wholeheartedly)
*praise to God on your safety → (nice to meet you again) ‫الحمد هلل على السالمة‬ )10

Obviously, the first versions with asterisks are wrong and bad literal translations into the
common meanings of words that come up with unacceptable translations that cannot be
allowed in English language. By contrast, the second versions in brackets are translated
normally into proper English disregarding the common meanings of words and, instead,
translating them into their context using appropriate lexical and grammatical English
structures. The conclusion arrived at now is that we may translate words into their literal
common meaning only occasionally, and when the English language allows that in regard
to meaning and grammar. A good solution to the problems of whether to translate the
common meaning or not is to translate, first, into the common meaning of words as a
TESTER, i.e. as an initial but practical check of whether it is possible and permissible in
English or not both semantically as well as syntactically. If it fits, we can leave it; if not, we
148
dismiss it as inappropriate and inapplicable, and go for an alternative version of
translation that does not lean on the common meaning of words, but on the contextual
meaning of words in combination and in proper English.

2.1.2 “Literal” as the Accurate Meaning of Words Verbatim:

Literal is also understood to be a reference to the translation of the meaning of a word, or

an expression accurately and exactly as it is in the original without deleting or adding any
part of meaning, however tiny it may be (cf. the adage ‫(قال بالحرؾ الواحد‬. It is one per cent
accuracy of rendition of meaning, in a perfectly faithful version of translation. Unlike the
previous one, this type of meaning does not translate out of context, but in context, with
over-preoccupation with the minute details, even the tiny ones. This implies that this
meaning is not a word-for-word translation, but a translation of meaning as closely, fully,
completely and accurately as possible. Here are illustrative examples:

I cannot agree on that in any way, no way! ‫ال ٌمكننً الموافقة على ذل بأي شكل من األشكال‬ )1
All the Angels without exception prostrated to Adam all ‫فسجد المالبكة كلهم أجمعون‬ )2
together
Verily God takes the souls at the due time of their death ‫هللا ٌتوفى األنفس حٌن موتها‬ )3
I kept telling you again and again to . ‫قلت ل مرارا وتكرارا أن تحرا كل الحرا على وقت‬ )4
be extremely careful about your time
no one ever will be a real believer unless he ‫ال ٌؤمن أحدكم حتى ٌحب ألخٌه ما ٌحبه لنفسه‬ )5
likes to his brother what he likes to himself
the difference between you and him is ‫الفر بٌن وبٌنه كالفر بٌن السماء واألرض بل وأكثر‬ )6
like the difference between heaven and earth, nay, even further
We did all we ‫حاولنا جهدنا وبكل ما أوتٌنا من قوة أن نقنعه بالعدول عن االستقالة ولكن دون جدوى‬ )7
could do to convince him to digress from resignation but to no avail
that woman is sharp-tongued, ‫تل المرأة سلٌطة اللسان وشرسة ومتمردة وبحاجة إلى تروٌض‬ )8
ferocious, rebellious and needs taming

These translations insist on translating everything without exception in context and in TL

grammar and word order. They translate every minute unit of meaning even though it
might be redundant (1, 4, 6, 8). In addition, metaphorical expressions are avoided to
match the type of language of the Arabic original. Well, although over-accuracy is required
in the translation of religious texts like the Holy Koran and, hence, rhetoric and
redundancy are not treated in the same way as in other types of texts, it is not a must
elsewhere, as in the rest of the examples. Therefore, they can be improved as follows:

I told you very often not to waste . ‫قلت ل مرارا وتكرارا أن تحرا كل الحرا على وقت‬ )4
time
No one of you will be a good believer unless ‫ال ٌؤمن أحدكم حتى ٌحب ألخٌه ما ٌحبه لنفسه‬ )5
he likes his Muslim brother in the same way he likes himself
the difference between you and him is ‫الفر بٌن وبٌنه كالفر بٌن السماء واألرض بل وأكثر‬ )6
‫ األمر من قبل ومن بعد‬like the difference between heaven and earth
We left no ‫حاولنا جهدنا وبكل ما أوتٌنا من قوة أن نقنعه بالعدول عن االستقالة ولكن دون جدوى‬ )7
stone unturned/did our best to make him take back resignation but in vain

149
 that woman is shrewd and ‫) تل المرأة سلٌطة اللسان وشرسة ومتمردة وبحاجة إلى تروٌض‬8
needs taming

These versions are sharp and to the point, non-redundant and more proper English than
the previous ones. Besides, the restrictions on translating accurately are abandoned in
favor of more compact style and naturalness of translating. So, in ‘5’ ‘good’ and ‘Muslim’
are added necessarily for clarification, whereas in ‘6’ the redundant phrase ‘nay even
further’ is dropped for it is implied in the preceding expression. On the other hand, ‘7’
employs the well-known cliché metaphor ‘left no stone unturned’ to express the meaning
of the original impressively and comprehensively. The last example is translated into
sharper and shorter form, thus, avoiding redundancy and, somewhat, awkward English in
the accurate version above. That said, the two versions can be justified on the bases of
type of text, readership and / or contextual translation.

2.1.3 “Literal” as Opposed to Non-literal/Metaphorical Meaning

Literal is sometimes taken in the sense of ‘opposite’ to non-literal, metaphorical meaning.

These two types of meaning can be confused when they recur in statements as illustrated
in the translation of the next set of examples:

‫أحلى من العسل‬ )1
(1) (non-literal) as sweet as honey;
(2) (literal) sweeter than honey
‫أهل مكة أدرى بشعابها‬ )2
(1) (non-literal) the heart knows his own bitterness;
(2) (literal) The people of Makkah are those who know it best
‫اشتعل الرأس شٌبا‬ )3
(1) (non-literal) My head is all aflame with hoariness;
(2) (literal) I grew too old
! ‫ذكاؤه خار‬ )4
(1) (non-literal/ironical) He is disgustingly clever;
(2) (literal) His intelligence is extraordinary
‫اللهم ثبت علٌنا العقل والدٌن‬ )5
(1) (non-literal) You are crazy;
(2) (literal/prayer) God, make firm our mind and religion
‫من سمع لٌس كمن رأى‬ )6
(1) (non-literal) the eye bears witness to the truth of the
tragedies better than the ears;
(2) (literal) an eyewitness is better than hearsay
‫الجو معكر‬ )7
(1) (non-literal) the atmosphere is troubled/uncomfortable;
(2) (literal) the atmosphere is muddled

The solution to the problem of which version to go for is context which usually has clues to
help the translator decide.

Another problem may arise by the possibility or not of using the literal or the nonliteral
version of translation available for the same term, expression or statement. e.g.

150
 ‫) الذنب ذنب‬1
(a) It is your fault
(b) That’s your funeral

‫) هذا أمر ٌسٌر‬2

(a) That is an easy thing to do (literal)
(b) That is a piece of cake (non-literal)
‫) إنه فقٌر جدا‬3
(a) He is very poor (literal)
(b) He is skint; he lives from hand to mouth (non-literal)
‫ فبالكاد نسمع‬، ‫ارفع صوت‬ )4
(a) Please, raise your voice for it is hard for us to hear you (literal)
(b) Speak up; we overhear you (non-literal)
‫تجادل الطرفان جداال طوٌال‬ )5
(a) The two parties had long argument (literal)
(b) The two parties crossed swords for long (non-literal)
‫ما رأٌته فً حٌاتً قط‬ )6
(a) I have never seen him in my life (literal)
(b) I had never laid eyes on him before (non-literal)
‫أجبروه على الموافقة‬ )7
(a) He was forced to agree (literal)
(b) They forced his hand to agree (non-literal)

In principle, both versions are good, but the second might be unnecessarily figurative with
a view to be more literary, rhetorical, exaggerative, impressive, expressive or effective
than the first literal, direct ones. Again, this is a kind of bound free translation that can be
allowed only occasionally when the type of text is literary, rhetorical, pragmatic or
communicative, meant to produce a greater effect than usual on the TL readers.

2.1.4 “Literal” as the Real Meaning in Context

This type of meaning of ‘literal’ indicates meaning in context of whether language is literal,
metaphorical, colloquial, formal, expressive, normal, literary or non-literary. Here,
translators are concerned with looking for the true meaning intended in the context of the
word, expression or text in general. Hence, )‫ (ذهب‬has many and, sometimes, different
meanings in Arabic, all of which are described as its literal real meaning in its own context,
as illustrated in the examples below:

He went to the University ‫ذهب إلى الجامعة‬ )1

she went shopping ‫ذهبت تتسو‬ )2
he lost his senses ‫ذهب عقله‬ )3
they took him to prison ‫ذهبوا به إلى السجن‬ )4
take my shirt and cast it over my ‫اذهبوا بقمٌصً هذا فألقوه على وجه أبً ٌرتد بصٌرا‬ )5
father’s face; he should recover his sight
awe departed him .‫ذهب عنه الرَّ وع‬ )6
he took everything ‫ذهب الجمل بما حمل‬ )7
he followed his teacher suit )‫ذهب مذهب أستاذه (قصد قصده‬ )8
he invented new heresies )‫أحدث بدعة‬/‫ذهب فً الدٌن مذهبا (رأى فٌه رأٌا‬ )9

151
 two things got mixed up )‫ذهب الشً ُء فً الشًء (اختلط‬ )10
he vanished/died/passed away; he went away for good ‫ذهب دون رجعة‬ )11
he left and never came back; he left for good ‫ذهب ولم ٌعد‬ )12
to hell!; let him go to hell!‫فلٌذهب إلى الجحٌم‬ )13
the good have had all that is good‫ذهب أهل الخٌر بالخٌر كله‬ )14
Praise is to God Who removed grief from us ‫الحمد هلل الذي أذهب عنا الحرن‬ )15
the Adha sacrifice ‫ بل بقٌت كلها ولم ٌذهب إلى الكتؾ‬.‫ذهبت األضحٌة كلها ولم وٌب منها إال الكتؾ‬ )16
has all went away save the shoulder. Nay, all of it remained save the shoulder
that went away
and surely we are able to take it away (water) ‫وإنا على ذهاب به لقادرون‬ )17
so let not yourself grieve for their sake ‫فال تذهب نفس علٌهم حسرات‬ )18
the trace has worn away/disappeared ‫ذهب األثر‬ )19
God took away their light ‫ذهب هللا بنورهم‬ )20
pain deadened/disappeared/wore off ‫ذهب األلم‬ )21
vanity dismantled him of his solemnity; vanity )‫ذهبت به الخٌالء (نرعت منه وقاره‬ )22
destroyed him
he forgot the meeting ‫ذهب علٌه االجتماع‬ )23
he went to him ‫ذهب إلٌه‬ )24
he left him ‫ذهب عنه‬ )25
bad deed have departed me ً‫ذهب السٌبات عن‬ )26
when the fear departs/disappears, they )19 ‫ف ذا ذهب الخوؾ سلقوكم بألسنة حِداد (فاطر‬ )27
smite you with sharp tongues
he went off in anger ‫ذهب مؽاضبا‬ )28
then he walked in conceit to his family admiring himself ‫ثم ذهب إلى أهله ٌتمطى‬ )29
If God willed, He would take off their hearing and ‫ولو شاء هللا لذهب بسمعهم وأبصارهم‬ )30
sight
to take some of what you have given to them ‫لتذهبوا ببعض ما آتٌتموهن‬ )31
if He pleases, He puts you away, you people ‫إن ٌشأ ٌذهبكم أٌها الناس‬ )32
to cleanse you from the defilement of the Satan ‫وٌُذهب عنكم رجس الشٌطان‬ )33
and do not engage in dispute among each other or, ‫وال تنارعوا فتفشلوا وتذهب رٌحُكم‬ )34
else, you lose courage and your strength deserts you
and remove the rage of their hearts ‫وٌُذهِب ؼٌظ قلوبكم‬ )35
surely the good deeds blot out the bad deeds ‫إن الحسنات ٌُذهبن السٌبات‬ )36

Each meaning of these is a real meaning of the word )‫ذهاب‬/‫ (ذهب‬in its specific context that
can be also described as its literal meaning. The translator does not go away from this
meaning for it is his/her natural and real target in translation in general.

In conclusion, LITERAL MEANING is too complex and complicated to be brought down just
to one sense, the sense of common, primary meaning of individual words that is targeted
mainly be word-for-word translation.

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2.2. TRANSLATING SYNONYMY

Both languages, Arabic and English, are full of synonyms, with more to Arabic than English
as Arabic is described as the language of synonymy. They occupy a considerable space in
translation studies and lexical problems of translation with respect to their impact on
meaning in terms of accuracy of expressing it and differences that may occur due to using
inaccurate synonyms in the position of accurate ones. Further, discussing the translation
problems of synonymy would enhance the students' abilities and widen their experience
to address these problems in application.

Many Arabic words have a huge number of synonyms. For example, ،‫ حبب‬،‫ موت‬،‫ خوؾ‬،‫ؼضب‬
‫ وؼٌرهبا بباآلالؾ‬،‫ أفعبى‬،‫ جمبل‬،‫ أسبد‬،‫ ذببب‬،‫ سبماء‬،‫( كبره‬anger, fear, death, love, hate, sky, wolf, lion,
camel, snake, and thousands of others). Their synonyms count in hundreds each, and over
500 for the lion (see Ghaleb, 2003). No one can or need remember all these synonyms;
just a small number of them can be sufficient for the students and translators to follow up
the new ones and, hence, resolve the problems of synonymy in both languages. They have
to attend to this fact of abundance of synonyms and how to deal with it in translation
practice as which synonym is to use, when and why. For example, in the statement, "I saw
a lion in London Zoo last summer", we most likely go for "‫ "أسػػد‬rather than
"‫األشبهب‬/‫الحارث‬/‫ حٌدرة‬/‫قسبورة‬/‫الباسل‬/‫أسػامة‬/" for the former is simple, familiar and quite common
in use in such a simple statement, whereas the latter are not familiar to readers and, more
importantly, specify proper names in Arabic Language and Culture.

2.2.1 Types of Synonymy:

Synonyms are different words that have either identical or similar meanings. This means
that they imply a percentage of difference. Collinson (1939) (in Ullmann, 1964: 142-3)
suggests a set of nine principles for distinguishing relative synonyms (what he calls
‘apparent synonyms’):

1. One term is more general than another: refuse – reject ‫ يرد‬- ‫)يرفض‬.
2. One term is more intense than another: repudiate – refuse(‫)يرفض بشدة – يرفض‬.
3. One term is more emotive than another: reject – decline(‫)يرفض– يحجـ‬.
4. One term may imply approbation or censure where another is neutral: thrifty –
economical (‫)بخيؿ – مقتصد‬.
5. One term is more professional than another: decease – death (‫)كفاة – مكت‬.
6. One term is more literary than another: passing – death (‫)رحيؿ – مكت‬.
7. One term is more colloquial than another: turn down – refuse(‫)يرمي – يرفض‬.
8. One term is more local or dialectal than another: Scots flesher – butcher – ‫قصاب‬
ٌ )
(‫جزار‬.
9. One of the synonyms belongs to child-talk: daddy – father (‫ كالد‬/‫)بابا – أب‬.

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 10. One synonym does not always collocate identically: ‘the class begins/starts’;
‘start a car’, not *‘begin a car’; ‘the world began’, not *‘the world started’ ‫)"تبدأ‬
("‫انطالؽ العالـ‬/‫ ال "انطمؽ‬،"‫بداية العالـ‬/‫ ييطمؽ سيارة"؛ "بدأ‬/‫ كليس "يبدأ‬،"‫تنطمؽ الحصة"؛ "يشغؿ سيارة‬/.
11. One term does not fit in the same frame of syntactic restrictions of another: ‘his
second book is not nearly as good as his first’ (‫)يعد كتابو الثاني في الجكدة تقريبان ككتابو األكؿ‬.
The use of almost (‫يرؽ إلى‬
‫ )لـ ى‬instead of nearly (‫ )تقريبان‬would change the meaning
drastically.
12. One term belongs to technical terminology, another to popular: varicella –
chickenpox (‫) يحماؽ – جدرم الماء‬.
13. One term is more register-biased than another: defendant (legal) (‫مدعى عميو‬
ٌ )–
accused (‫ ;)متيـ‬begotten (religious) (‫ – )ينجب‬born (‫)يكلد‬.
(10-11 are suggested by Carter and McCarthy (1988: 29), and 12-13 are proposed by the
writer of this work, see Ghazala, 2011 & 2013)

These dimensions can be looked at as criteria for distinguishing between pairs of

synonyms by way of confirming that absolute synonyms are probably not a part of the
origins of language. There must be at least a shade of difference between two
synonymous words on one dimension at least, as argued below.

Generally, synonyms are divided into two major types (1) Absolute (i.e. identical)
synonyms, and (2) Near/close (i.e. similar) synonyms. Yet, in the study of synonymy,
absolute synonyms do not exist in languages, or, at best, are quite rare, for there is no
need for two words (or signifiers (‫ )الدا ٌؿ )الكممة‬to describe the same object or idea (or
signified (‫)المدلكؿ عميو )الفكرة‬. However, when two or more words are used to describe the
same thing, there must be a difference of some kind between them. The examples used in
this section illustrate the reasons for such a difference.

Parallel to this is the fact that near synonyms are commonplace in any language, spoken
or written. They are indispensable in order to cover all shades of difference of the
meaning intended. The main problem for many students is that, in most cases, they
understand all synonymous words as absolute synonyms only and, hence, are translatable
into one and the same word in the other language. In other words, to them, any word of a
group of synonyms would give the same meaning of the rest of the group. This means that
the differences between synonyms are unimportant to them, which is not acceptable in
principle, of course. (See Lyons, 1977; Wales, 1989, Crystal, 1980; Cruse, 1986; Carter,
1987; Leech, 1974; Saeed, 2003 and others for further details about synonymy).

On the other hand, although absolute synonymy is rare in the same language, it is possible
between two different languages like English and Arabic. Everybody on earth eats, drinks,
speaks, write, read, understand, say, buy, sell, pay, hide, trust, mistrust, feel happy, sad,
scared, angry, ill, etc. We may all have feelings, family, concepts, eyes, ears, money, foods,
cars, machines, problems, and so on. Many of us are poor, rich, happy, kind, harsh,
disappointed, optimistic, pessimistic, comfortable, worried, jaded, tired, and so on and so
forth. There are many thousands of words and expressions at the universal level of
language, the level of the common grounds among all humans. Thus, identical equivalence
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does exist between languages. This stands in contrast to what some translation theorists
claim that absolute synonymy does not exist even between two languages (e.g. Baker,
1992). This unfortunate line of argument has been echoed by translation scholars like
Snell-Hornby, Bassnett-McGuire, Robinson and others, the proponents of the claim that
"language is all in all culture". Snell-Hornby, to cite one example, calls 'linguistic
equivalence' an illusion, a chimera (1988: 42). This is similar to the notorious statement
that 'translators are traitors' (Traduttori traditori) (see Chapter one above for comments
on this statement.

Indeed, and contrary to Snell-Hornby's, equivalence is not a mirage, but an inescapable

reality that is widespread in use by translation theorists and practitioners. When talking
about translation, "the word 'equivalence' is sooner or later on everyone's lips", Rojo
states (2009: 31). We do have identical equivalence (or absolute synonymy) between any
two languages (see ibid.). In any translation practice, first and foremost, we look for an
absolute equivalence, yet the harsh reality of translation disappoints us that not
everything can be translated exactly and perfectly into another language. In the event,
and if absolute equivalence is not possible or available, we go for the next best, the closest
possible, or approximate equivalence. This last type of equivalence is what we really work
on most of the time, and which we have to strive to achieve a close resemblance for.

Three major types of equivalence at word level (i.e. identical, approximate and non-
equivalence) are investigated below, alongside the problems of translating them. They are
mainly based on denotative (or lexical) equivalence, and connotative (or cultural /
religious) equivalence. Also, problems of non-equivalence are discussed.

2.2.1.1 Translation of Absolute Synonymy: One-to-one Equivalence

It goes without saying that the translators' ultimate objective is to get hold of an identical,
one-to-one TL equivalent to words as well as meanings. This is a familiar practice among
translators. A huge number of words achieve one-to-one equivalent in both languages,
especially those described as universal. They present the maximum degree of equivalence
possible between the two languages concerned, Arabic and English. Thousands of pairs of
words in both languages translate each other identically due to their reciprocal, non-
cultural nature. Examples include: ‫اهلل؛ رسكؿ اهلل؛ األنبياء؛ السماء؛ األرض؛ الشمس؛ القمر؛ عباد؛ المؤمنكف؛‬
‫الكافركف؛ الخير؛ الشر؛ الفضيمة؛ الرذيمة؛ الشيطاف؛ الحياة؛ المكت؛ انخالص؛ المنافقكف؛ االتصاالت؛ الفقراء؛ األغنياء؛‬
.‫ الرضى كغيرىا‬،‫ الغضب‬،‫ الكراىية‬،‫ الحب‬،‫ الطعاـ كالشراب‬،‫ الميؿ كالنيار‬،‫القانكف‬
(God; Messenger of God; Prophets; sky; earth; sun; moon; worship; believers; disbelievers;
good; evil; virtue; vice; the Satan / the Devil; life; death; devotion (to God); hypocrisy;
communications; the poor; the rich, law; day and night; food and drink; love; hate; anger;
contentment, and so on.)

The translation of these words – which are a majority in any live language - is a
straightforward process, for their one-to-one equivalent is available in the other language,
as demonstrated above.

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2.2.1.1.2 Translation of Near Synonymy: Proximity Principle

A great number of words in both languages involved have no one-to-one equivalent in

English. Therefore, the next best choice for the translator is to apply what can be termed,
'the proximity principle' and go for near synonymy, or what Rojo describes as
'approximate equivalence' (2009), what Hatim & Mason (1990) also describe as 'relative
equivalence' that is understood as the closest approximation possible to the meaning of
the original, and what Newmark means by 'accepted translation procedure’ (1988: ch. 8).
Hence, an approximate equivalent is a synonym that gives sense (or intended meaning) in
general terms. This means that approximate equivalence misses a part of the meaning of
the original word in various ways, yet it is recognized as well comprehended, as illustrated
in the following examples provided with the intention of demonstrating in practice how to
differentiate between approximate synonyms of the same term: ‫( يرفض‬refuse):

decline ‫ ال يمقي باالن لػ‬،‫ يعزؼ عف‬/ ‫) يحجـ‬1

reject ‫) يرفض‬2
turn down (‫) يرمي )جانبان‬3
repudiate ‫ يرفض رفضان قاطعان‬/ ‫) يرفض بشدة‬4
scorn ‫) ينبذ‬5
spurn ‫) يزدرم‬6
say no to ‫) يقكؿ ال‬7
deny, (‫القبكؿ‬/‫ يأبى )المكافقة‬،‫) ينكر‬8
withhold ‫) يمتنع عف‬9
not grant ‫) ال يمنح‬10
discountenance ‫) يعترض‬11
refute ‫ يستنكر‬،‫) يشجب‬12
rebuff ‫) يفند‬13
disprove ‫) يثبت بطالف‬14
counter ‫) يعارض‬15
discredit ‫) ييكذب‬16
prove false, ‫) يثبت زيؼ‬17
ً ‫) ي‬18
silence, ‫سكت‬ ‫ي‬
overthrow ‫ يطيح بػ‬،‫) ييسقط‬19
negate ‫) ينفي‬20
rebut ‫) يدحض‬21
ِّ )22
give the lie to ‫يكذب‬
blow out of the water ‫) يرمي في سمة الميمالت‬23
confute ‫ يدحض‬،‫) ييفحـ‬24
gainsay ‫ يينكر‬،‫) يخالؼ‬25
156
 balk ‫) يصد‬26
baffle ‫) يعكؽ‬27
frustrate (‫) يثبط )ىكة‬28
thwart ‫ ىيحكؿ دكف‬،‫) يحبط‬30
ً ‫) ي‬31
foil ‫ مف محتكاه‬... ‫ ييفرغ‬،‫فشؿ‬ ‫ي‬
debar ‫) ىيحظر‬32
exclude ‫) يستبعد‬33
shut out, (‫األبكاب )في كجو‬/‫) يكصد الباب‬34
condemn ‫) يديف‬35

(See Webster's Dictionary of Synonyms, 1993; Collins Thesaurus, 2002; Oxford Dictionary
and Thesaurus, 2007 and The American Heritage College Dictionary, 2004).

Athough all these synonyms express the idea of 'refusal/rejection' (‫)رفػض‬, they are not
identical in terms of:
(1) slight refusal (‫ يستبعد‬،‫ يمنع‬،‫ يمتنع‬،‫ يرمي جانبان‬،‫ يرد‬،(‫ يعزؼ )عف‬/ ‫ يحجـ‬،‫;)يقكؿ ال‬
(2) normal refusal (‫ يعكؽ‬،‫ ىيحكؿ دكف‬،‫ يخالؼ‬،‫ ينكر‬،‫ يعارض‬،‫ يعترض‬،‫;)يرفض‬
(3) strong refusal ( ‫ يحبط‬،‫ يصد‬،‫ ييسقط‬،‫ يثبط‬،‫ يثبت زيؼ‬،‫ يثبت بطالف‬،‫ يطيح بػ‬،‫)يكذب‬
(4) very strong refusal (‫ يرمي في سمة الميمالت‬،‫ يستنكر‬،‫ يشجب‬،‫ يدحض‬،‫) ييفىٌند‬

Hence, the meanings of these synonyms are moving on a bottom-top scale with respect to
the strength of ‫ رفض‬as shown in the following diagram:

(4) VERY STRONG

(4)

(3) STRONG REFUSAL (3)

(2) NORMAL REFUSAL (2)

(1) SLIGHT REFUSAL (1)

Figure 3: A continuum of synonymic differentials

(The black double-head arrow indicates the interconnection of all scales)

Considered from a perspective of specification vs. non-specification (i.e. neutrality vs. bias)
scale (2) is non-specified (or neutral), whereas the rest are specified (or biased) positively
or negatively as follows: (1) is positively less specified; (3) is negatively specified; and (4) is
aggressively over-specified. Hence, translators and translation students have to exert all
efforts to draw such lines between synonyms for their weighty importance in translating

157
intended sense as accurately as possible. However, when in doubt, they can go for the
neural scale (2) as the last resort.

Another example can be provided to illustrate a similar point about translating synonyms
of words of emotive charges and feelings, which might have two, rather than three grades
on the scale. The word ‫خوؾ‬, for example, has two grades on the scale of differentials of
synonyms, that is, normal fear, and extreme fear, indicated in the following words of fear:

fear ‫خوؾ‬ )1
fear ‫خشٌة‬ )2
awe ‫وجل‬ )3
awe ‫رهبة‬ )4
terror ‫روع‬ )5
trepidation ‫هول‬ )6
horror ‫رعب‬ )7
apprehension/consternation ‫ارتعاد‬ )8
fright; dismay ‫فر‬ )9
panic; scare; alarm ‫ذعر‬ )10
intimidation ‫فرع‬ )11
intimidation; trembling with fear )‫رجفة (من الخوؾ‬ )12
heart-breaking; intimidation )‫انخالع القلب (من الخوؾ‬ )13
hand trembling with terror )‫ارتعاش األٌدي (من الخوؾ‬ )14
shivering out of fear ‫ارتعاد الفرابا‬ )15
feet trembling out of terror )‫رجفان األرجل (من الخوؾ‬ )16
scare; fright ‫بلوغ القلوب الحناجر‬ )17
heart-breaking (out of fear) )‫انشقا الصدر (من الرعب‬ )18
blood-freezing (out of fear) )‫جفاؾ الدم فً العرو (من الخوؾ‬ )19
teeth chattering (out of fear) )‫اصطكا األسنان (من الخوؾ‬ )20

These twenty meanings and implications of fear can be brought down to two meanings of
normal fear and abnormal fear in translation as follows:

(1) Normal fear: fear (1-4)

(2) Abnormal fear: (5-20): horror / terror / fright / trepidation / panic / intimidation /
consternation / scare / dismay / appall (anyone of these can be applicable to the
example from 5-20).

Still simpler solution can be suggested by picking up the most popular two words for the
two levels of fear as follows:

(1) Fear
(2) Horror

We have to admit that some of the examples above are symbolic, metonymic and
figurative (see 12-20) and, hence, might be more expressive and effective than ‘horror’.
They can be translated by students of translation into the latter by way of simplification
and convenience of finding a satisfactory solution to translating the gist of their meaning

158
of great fear. BY doing so, students avoid bad literal translation of words into English that
could be un-English.

2.2.2 Confusion of Negotiating the Appropriate Word Among Synonyms

This is perhaps the most difficult and recurrent problem of translating Arabic synonymy
into English. Students of translation and translators alike suffer some hardship at picking
up the right word out of a group of synonyms provided by a dictionary. They feel
indecisive about which is which, which means committing foolish mistakes of accuracy of
meaning and collocability of words. Here are examples of the synonyms of the tricky word,
‫ نظام‬, that are given in a list of synonyms in Dictionaries:

‫نظام‬
System, order, method, orderliness, array, arrangement, organization, organic structure,
discipline, orderly conduct, regime, regimen, structure, scheme, combination,
classification, coordination, setup, network, web, grid, set, set of channels, plan, line-up,
succession, pattern, , harmony, symmetry, regularity, propriety, neatness, tidiness,
grouping, form, design, make-up, construction, constitution, format, formation,
framework, composition, chemistry, configuration, conformation, interrelation of parts
(2002, Al-Mawrid, 1988 (Arabic - English))

How can students and translators find their ways in this maze? They feel lost and
disappointed at the huge number of synonymous words out of context and in general
sense. So, there must be a way out of this big problem of translation on the following
bases:

1. Type of text: for example, if the text is technical and related to computers and the
Internet, ‫ نظام‬can be most likely ‘system’, whereas if the text is about schooling
and education, ‘discipline’ is a favored option. Yet if the text is about designing,
planning or formatting, the best choices would be ‘design, scheme, plan or
format’. And so on.
2. Linguistic context: we check the type of local context in which the word occurs,
i.e. the words combined with, and surrounding it: e.g.

the system/the Internet is out of order ‫النظام معطل‬ )1

the ruling system in our country is monarchy ً‫نظام الحكم فً بالدنا ملك‬ )2
you have disrupted our daily routine ً‫خرّبت لنا النظام الٌوم‬ )3
discipline is the basis of human life ‫النظام هو أساس الحٌاة‬ )4
the Syrian regime is the ugliest ever ‫النظام السوري أبشع نظام على مر التارٌخ‬ )5
throughout history

Considering each word in its local context of the sentence would be a good guide
to us. The first is about the computer and the Internet system which goes
frequently out of order. The second is a reference to the type of political ‘system’
in the speaker’s country (i.e. presidency, monarchy, etc.). The word ‘regime’ is a
negative term used to describe a certain junta that governs a country by force.
(See below). The third, on the other hand, is meant to be in the sense of daily

159
 ‘routine’, while the fourth is about how to be disciplined in your life. The last one
is a political context about the most criminal political regime on earth.

3. Collocational context: the word that usually follows or precedes (i.e. collocates
with) ‫ نظام‬can sometimes be a clue for the right word in English: e.g.

the New World …………….? ‫النظام العالمً الجدٌد‬ )1

I suffer from overweight. So I used a ‫ لذا اتبعت نظاما حمٌة قاسٌا‬.‫أعانً من السمنة‬ )2
strict dietary ………………..?
everything in this establishment is in ……………. ‫كل شًء فً هذه المؤسسة بنظام‬ )3
an updated ………..………..(?) of TV channels ‫نظام قنوات تلفرٌونٌة محدَّث‬ )4
it is an obnoxious political ……………………….…..? ‫هذا نظام سٌاسً بؽٌض‬ )5

The first example is a well-known newly introduced collocation nowadays (coined by the
American President George Bush) where ‘order’ - not ‘system’ - is used in English
Language. The second example is a collocation that can be guessed from the preceding
adjective, ‘dietary’ after which ‘regime/regimen’ is expected, whereas the third is a
familiar fixed prepositional collocation that can be figured out from the preposition ‘in’
which is followed by ‘order’. However, the fourth example is a genitive collocation that
might be concluded from its second part of ‘TV channels’, that is, ‘set’. The fifth, the last
one, has the preceding adjective ‘political’ as a clue to the full collocation of ‘regime’
which is also aided by ‘obnoxious’ which implies a reference to bad government, not to
ruling system.

Other types of context can be involved in certain texts like cultural, literary, legal, etc.
contexts. In other words, these types can be reliable in picking up the right word in a list of
random synonyms.

2.2.3 Interchangeable Synonymous Versions of Translation

A word or an expression can be generally translated into equally good versions of

translation into English, with the same meaning retained in the TL. The main reason is the
fact about languages that they are rich in synonymous expressions of different types.
Therefore, in the majority of cases, we cannot talk in terms of only one single translation
for every word and expression in language, wrongly described by some inexperienced
pedant teachers and translators as the ideal, perfect, proper or correct version that
supersedes any other translation in language. As Newmark precisely says, there is nothing
like that in English for language has much wider choices than expected (1988: 6).

There are three problematic issues in this regard; first of which is the possibility of
translating connectors of the same function (say, of contrast, addition, result, conclusion,
etc.) into one of the words and phrases of the same synonymous group. For example,
conjunctions of conclusion like: )...،‫ فً النهاٌة‬،‫ أخٌرا‬،‫ خالصة القول‬،‫ نختم بالقول‬،‫ فً الختام‬،‫ (ختاما‬can
be translated collectively into either of the following equivalent synonymous English
conjunctions like: “in conclusion, to conclude, finally, in fine, in short, etc.”. It is not
required to translate the SL and TL conjunctions of the same function into one-to-one
equivalent counterpart (e.g. ‫ فً الختام‬into ‘in conclusion’ only; ‫ نختم بالقول‬into ‘to conclude’
only). The same argument applies to conjunctions of contrast like ،‫ بٌد أن‬،‫ ؼٌر أن‬، َّ‫ لكن‬، ْ‫لكن‬
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... ، ‫ ومع ذل‬،‫ على الرؼم من كذا‬،‫ برؼم كذا‬can be translated into one and the same equivalent
conjunction of contrast like: ‘but, yet, however, though, although, nevertheless,
nonetheless, albeit, etc.). In other words, we need not think of these connectors as one-
to-one equivalent but consider their functions and translate them in terms of these
functions.

The second issue is the possibility of translating words and expressions into more than one
synonymous version, especially in general texts of different types where accuracy is not a
prime target. Consider these examples:

‫) كان الحفل جمٌال ورابعا ومتمٌرا‬1

-The party was a success;

-the celebration had been great;
-It was an excellent occasion

‫) أكلنا وشربنا حتى شبعنا وما بقً عندنا مكان فً معداتنا‬2

-we have had a full stomach;

-we have eaten our fill;
-we have satisfied our appetite

‫) نام ملء جفونه مرتا البال ال هم وال ؼم بعد أن أتم المشروع‬3

-He has had a good night sleep after he had finished the project;
-He slept well, having completed his enterprise;
-He has had a dead sleep at finishing the project

‫) انخلع قلبها من الخوؾ حٌن سمعت صوت انفجار أمام منرلها‬4

-she was horrified at hearing the sound of a big explosion off her house;
-she had a nightmare at hearing a big explosion nearby her house;
-she died of fear at hearing the sound of an explosion in front of her house

‫) ال تشؽل بال باألمر ألنه لٌس مهما وال مصٌرٌا‬5

-don’t care much about the subject for it is insignificant;

-forget about such trivial thing;
-don’t worry about the issue; it is not all that important;
-never mind about the problem for it is not a matter of life or death

Accuracy is not high on the agenda in these examples, being of general redundant nature.
So, there is a space of stylistic variations of synonymous translations provided that they
render the general and main sense of the original Arabic, be they literal, figurative or
redundant. That said, such variations are not allowed in more serious texts like religious,
literary and legal texts, where accuracy is prime.

The third issue is the possibility of translating the same expression or statement of a
serious nature into several good translations that reflect individual differences of taste

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among translators (see also Newmark, 1988: 6), but they are all recognized as good
translations, and no one of them overrides the others. Here are two examples, one literal;
another non-literal (i.e. figurative):

:‫) أُجبروه على فعل ذل بالقوة‬1

-They forced him to do that;
-He was made to do that by force;
-They put pressure on him;
-They compelled him to do that;
-They forced his hand to do that;
-They forced him to do that unwillingly;
-They made him do that forcibly/coercively;
-They coerced him to do that

:‫) بلعته األرض‬2

-He kept a low profile
-He disappeared from sight
-He vanished
-He evaporated
-He dropped out of sight
-There is no sign of him
-He vanished off the face of earth
-He was lost to view/sight
-He dissolved
-He melted away
-He left no trace
-He took flight
-he beat a hasty retreat

In both groups of literal and metaphorical translations, the general sense of sentences is
rendered satisfactorily in the TL. Hence, all of them are good versions of translation that
translators and students prefer them variably. These translations represent a good
exercise in the extensive language potentials that no one can restrict or control. That is
why we do not have only one single perfect, ideal, proper or correct translation of any
word, phrase or statement to be singled out as the best. The door is open especially in
relation to figurative expressions and statements.

2.2.4 Translation of Referential Synonyms: Familiar Alternatives

Referential synonyms are synonyms of substitution to avoid repetition of the same word
or expression. They are used to enhance the coherence and cohesion (i.e. connection) of
sentences and texts. They are three main types: personal pronouns (or preforms), deictics
(e.g. demonstratives like this, that, the former, the latter) and nouns replacing other
nouns and referring back to them. The third type is what we are seeking here in our
discussions. It is described as FAMILIAR ALTERNATIVES )‫(البدابل المألوفة‬. Familiar alternatives
can be defined as cultural terms that are usually favorable names to language users, used
to replace other normal and formal terms. They are also called ‘nicknames’ and
‘personifications’. They are popular names and nicknames used to replace and refer to
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other proper names of different types. They are used to refer to people, cities, objects,
places, etc. They are also described as 'referential synonyms' for they stand as synonyms
that refer to certain proper names (see Newmark, ibid: 59; Ghazala, ibid: 95). The
common procedure of translating them is to transliterate them (i.e. proper names of
people, places, etc.), or translate them (e.g. nicknames, objects, etc.) and state their
reference to the original terms in brackets, as illustrated in the examples below. In English,
for example(see also Best, 1991):

States
- The United States is nicknamed humorously ‘Uncle Sam’ )‫العم سام (للوالٌات المتحدة‬
- Italy is ‘The Boot’ (after its map which looks like a boot) )‫الجرمة (إٌطالٌا‬
- Ireland is called ‘the Emerald Isle’; )‫جرٌرة الرمرد (إٌرلندة‬
- Scotland is ‘The Land of Oat Cakes’ and ‘Caledonia’; )‫ كالٌدونٌا (اسكتلندة‬/‫بالد كاتو الشوفان‬
- ‘The Land of the Golden Fleece’ is Australia; )‫بالد الصوؾ الذهبً (أسترالٌا‬
- Japan is described as ‘The Land of Rising Sun; )‫بالد الشمس المشرقة (الٌابان‬
- ‘Our Lady of Snow’ is Canada; )‫سٌدة الثل (كندا‬
- ‘Andalusia’ is Spain; )‫األندلس (إسبانٌا‬
- Switzerland is ‘The Playground of Europe’; )‫مرتع أوربا (سوٌسرا‬
- ‘The Sick Man of Europe’ is Turkey; )‫رجل أوربا المرٌض (تركٌا‬
- Egypt is ‘The Gift of the Nile’; )‫هبة النٌل (مصر‬
- Palestine is ‘The Holy Land’; )‫األرض المقدسة (فلسطٌن‬
- California is ‘The Golden State’; (‫الوالٌة الذهبٌة (والٌة كالٌفورنٌا األمرٌكٌة‬
- Virginia is ‘The Garden of America’; )‫جنة أمرٌكا (والٌة فرجٌنٌا‬
- Rome is ‘The Eternal City’; )‫المدٌنة الخالدة (روما‬
- Baghdad is ‘The City of the Arabian Nights; )‫مدٌنة األلؾ لٌلة ولٌلة (بؽداد‬
- Iraq was ‘Mesopotamia’ ) ‫مٌسوبوتامٌا (العرا‬
- London is ‘The Modern Babylon’; )‫مدٌنة بابل الجدٌدة (لندن‬
- Damascus is ‘The Pearl of the Orient’; ) ‫لؤلؤة الشر (دمش‬
- Edinburgh is ‘The Athens of the North’ and ‘Old Reekie’ )‫رٌكً العجور (إدنبرة‬/‫أثٌنا الشمال‬

People

- The Virgin Mary is ‘Madonna’; )‫مادونا (مرٌم العذراء‬

- Shakespeare is ‘The Bard of Avon’; )‫شاعر نهر اإلٌفون (شكسبٌر‬
- Geoffrey Chaucer is ‘The Father of English Poetry’; )‫أبو الشعر اإلنجلٌري (جٌفري تشوسر‬
- Plutarch is ‘The Father of Bibliography’; )ً‫ السٌر الذاتٌة (بلوتار الٌونان‬/‫أبو التراجم‬
- Herodotus is ‘The Father of History’; )ً‫أبو التارٌخ (هٌرودوت الٌونان‬
- Francis Bacon is ‘The Father of Experimental Philosophy’; ‫أبو الفلسفة التجرٌبٌة (فرانسٌس‬
)‫بٌكون اإلنجلٌري‬
- Hippocrates is ‘The Father of Medicine” )‫أبو الطب (أبوقراط‬
- Copernicus is ‘The Father of Modern Astronomy’; )‫أبو علم الفل الحدٌث (كوبرنٌكوس‬
- Johann Bach is ‘The Father of Modern Music’. )ً‫أبو الموسٌقى الحدٌثة (باخ األلمان‬
- Napoleon is nicknamed ‘The Emperor’, ‘The Bastard’ and ‘Boney’/’the Little
Corporal’; )‫العرٌؾ الصؽٌر (نابلٌون بونابرت‬/)‫اللعٌن(ابن الحرام‬/‫اإلمبراطور‬
- John Milton is ‘The Blind Poet’; )‫األعمى (جون مٌلتون‬/‫الشاعر البصٌر‬
- Homer is the ‘Father of Poets’; )‫أبو الشعراء (هومر‬
- ‘John Bull’ is the typical Englishman; )‫جون بول (المواطن اإلنجلٌري‬
- -The Londoner is ‘Cockney’;)ً‫ُكو ْكنً (اللندن‬
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Football teams and clubs are nicknamed passionately all over the world now. Here are
examples of some of the forerunners, the English football teams’ familiar alternatives:

- Manchester United is ‘The Red Devils’; )‫الشٌاطٌن الحمر (مانشستر ٌوناٌتد‬

- Arsenal is ‘The Gunners’; )‫المدفعجٌة (األرسنال‬/‫الرماة‬
- Tottenham Hotspur is ‘The Spurs’; )‫األسنة (توتنهام هوتسبٌر‬
- Chelsea is ‘The Blues’)ً‫الرر (تشٌلس‬
- Manchester City is ‘The Citizens’; )ً‫المواطنون (مانشستر سٌت‬
- Liverpool is ‘The Reds’, )‫الحمر (لٌفربول‬
- Southampton is ‘The Saints’ )‫القدٌسون (ساوثامبتون‬
- Everton is ‘The School of Science’/’Toffees’; )‫ حلوى التوفً (إٌفرتون‬/‫مدرسة العلم‬
- Hull City is ‘Tigers’; )ً‫النمور (هال سٌت‬
- Nottingham Forest is ‘Tricky Trees’; )‫(األشجار العصٌة‬
- Wolverhampton is ‘Wolves’)‫الذباب (ولفرهامبتون‬
- Real Madrid (The Real) )‫الفرٌ الملكً (لاير مدرٌد‬
- Barcelona (Barça) )‫البرشا (برشلونة‬
etc.

Miscellaneous

- The dove is ‘Bird of peace’; )‫طابر السالم (الحمامة‬

- The herring is the ‘King of the sea’; )‫مل البحر (سم الرنكة‬
- The olive branch is a ‘Symbol of peace’ )‫رمرا لسالم (ؼصن الرٌتون‬
- The eagle is ‘Bird of Jove’;)‫طابر جوبٌتر (كبٌر آلهة الرومان) (النسر‬
- The owl is ‘the Bird of night’; )‫طابر اللٌل (البوم‬
- Money is ‘the Sinews of War’ )‫عصب الحرب (المال‬
- Bank of England is ‘The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street’ ‫السٌدة العجور لشارع ثرٌدنٌدل‬
)‫(بن انجلترا المركري‬
- Sheep’s eyes are ‘looks of love’;)‫نظرات الحب (عٌون الؽنم‬
- Men are ‘the Sterner Sex’;)‫الجنس الخشن (الرجال‬
- Women are ‘The Fairer Sex’; )‫اللطٌؾ (النساء‬/‫الجنس الناعم‬
- The best child in a family is ‘’Flower of the Flock’ )‫رهرة العابلة (أفضل ولد فً العابلة‬

Now, in the same way, Arabic has many cultural familiar alternatives that can be classified,
first, in a way similar to that of English familiar alternatives suggested above. Then, their
problems of translation and suggested solutions to them will follow:

،‫ المييمف‬،‫ المؤمف‬،‫ السالـ‬،‫ القدكس‬،‫ الممؾ‬،‫ الرحيـ‬،‫ الرحمف‬:‫ منيا‬،‫ إسم نا‬99 ‫ (كعددىا‬:‫) أسماء اهلل الحسنى‬1
)...‫ المتكبر‬،‫ الجبار‬،‫العزيز‬

(The Most Gracious, the Most Merciful, The King, The Most Holy, The Peace, The Giver of
Faith, The Overall Controller, The Almighty, The Compeller, The Majestic)

God's Glorious Names: There are Awesome Attributes of God in the religion of Islam. That
is why they are translated, not transliterated. However, they are treated as Names of God
that are all interchangeable with one another at calling and supplicating God, as stated in

164
the Holy Koran: )180 :‫( "كهلل األسماء الحسنى فادعكه بيا" (األعراؼ‬The Glorious Names belong to
God, so call Him by them) (7: 180). They are 99 in number, as declared by the Prophet's
Tradition "‫ مف أحصاىا دخؿ الجنة‬،‫ مائة إال كاحدان‬،‫( "إف هلل تسعة كتسعيف اسمان‬God has ninety nine
Names, whoever memorize them in words and deeds will enter Paradise). Their
translation is generally based on 'proximity procedure' which may give an approximate
translation into English, for it is not possible to find a one-to-one equivalent in the latter.
(See Ghazala, 2014 for further Names of God and discussions).

،‫ الشاهد‬، ‫ الفات‬،‫ القاسم‬،‫ الحامد‬،‫ أحمد‬:‫ منها‬،‫ اسما‬99 ‫ (وهً أٌضا‬:)‫) أسماء الرسول (صلى هللا علٌه وسلم‬2
)...ً‫ الماح‬،‫ النذٌر‬،‫ البشٌر‬،‫ الرشٌد‬،‫ الحاشر‬،‫المشهود‬
(The Most Commendable); The Praising; The Fair Distributor); The Conqueror, The
Witness), The Witnessed, The Gatherer, The Well Guided, The Bringer of Good Tidings,
The Warner, The Eradicator of infidelity, …)

The Prophet Mohammad’s Names also number nine. They are originally attributes.
Therefore, and as the case with God's Glorious Names, they are translated, not attributed.
Also, and by analogy, translators demonstrate indeterminacy of translation equivalence in
English as the original Arabic are beyond the reach of one single English equivalent. All
they can do is suggest an approximate equivalent that may render sense in general.
Perhaps, unlike God's Names, many of the Prophet’s names are unknown to people.
Hence, the Proper Name 'Mohammad' has to be added in brackets after them to illustrate
their specific reference. That is probably the way we translate the Prophet's names (see
more about this point later).
:‫) أسماء األعالم‬3
‫ ىح ٍبر األمة؛‬/ ‫ذك النكريف؛ انماـ (عمي)؛ أميف األمة؛ بحر‬،‫الصديؽ؛ الفاركؽ‬
ٌ :‫ألقاب الصحابة‬ -
‫أبك ىريرة؛ سيؼ اهلل المسمكؿ؛ داىية العرب؛ السمؼ الصالح‬

The Prophet's Companions' Nicknames: (the Most Truthful (Abu Bakr As-Sideeq); the
Sharp Distinguisher between right and wrong (Omar Bin Al-Khattab); The Man of Two
Lights / Who married two of the Prophet's Girls (Othman Bin Affan); The Imam (Ali Bin Abi
Taleb); the Guardian/Custodian of the Muslim Nation (Obaidah Bin Al-Jarrah); The
Supreme Scholar of the Muslim Nation (Abdullah Bin Abbas); Abu Hurairah (Abdul-
Rahman Bin Sakhr Ad-Dousi); God's Drawn Sword (Khaled Bin Al-Walid); The Shrewdest
leader of Arabs (Amr Bin Al-Aas); The righteous ancestors (the best early Muslim
Generation).
‫ ذك‬،‫ أميات المؤمنيف؛ العبد الصالح (في سكرة الكيؼ)؛ صاحب الحكت؛ ذك النكف‬:‫ ألقاب قرآنية‬-
‫ ذات العماد؛‬،‫ ابف ٌأـ‬،‫القرنيف؛ ذك األيدم؛ الذم مر عمى قرية؛ غالـ حميـ؛ صاحب الناقة‬
...‫أصحاب الكيؼ‬/‫ أىؿ‬،‫أىؿ الكتاب‬

Koranic Nicknames: (Mothers of all Believers (The Prophet's wives); the Pious Slave of
God (Khidr); the Companion of the whale (Jonah, the Prophet) / Jonah of the whale; Thun-
Noon (Johnah the Prophet / Jonah of the whale); Thul-Qarnain (Alexander the Great); the
man of strength / endued with power (Prophet, David, peace be to him); Ezra; Forbearing
Son (Ismael); Thamood's worst guy, Qidar Bin Salef)‫;(قدار بف سالؼ‬ً my dear brother (Aron);
Thatul-Imad (who were as tall as pillars) (i.e. People of Aad); The People of the Book (the
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Christians and the Jews); Companions of the Cave (The Youths of the Cave of the Children
of Israel).
‫ الناصر صالح‬/‫ صالح الديف األيكبي‬،)‫ الخميف ة الخامس (عمر بف عبد العزيز‬:‫ ألقاب أعالـ‬-
‫ المتنبي‬،)‫ األخطؿ (غياث بف غكث التميمي‬،)‫ سمطاف مصر كالشاـ (يكسؼ بف أيكب‬/‫الديف‬
‫(ىماـ‬
ٌ ‫ الفرزدؽ‬،)‫(أحمد بف الحسيف بف الحسف) أبك العالء المعرم (أحمد بف عبداهلل بف سميماف‬
‫ أمير‬،)‫ سيبكيو (عمرك بف عثماف‬،)‫ ا لجاحظ (عمرك بف بحر‬،)‫بف غالب بف صعصعة التميمي‬
)‫ خادـ الحرميف الشريفيف (ممؾ المممكة العربية السعكدية‬،)‫الشعراء (أحمد شكقي‬

Names of Famous Figures: (The Fifth Caliph (Omar Bin Abdul Aziz); Saladin/Saladin, the
Victor/The Sultan of Egypt and Greater Syria (Yusef Bin Ayyube); The Long-eared (Ghiath
Bin Ghawth At-Tameemi); The Self-acclaimed Prophet/Al-Mutanabbi (Ahmad Bin Al-
Hasan); Abul Alaa Al-Maarri (Ahmad Bin Suleiman); the Swollen-faced/Al-Farazdaq
(Hammam Bin Ghaleb); Al-Jahez/the Pop-eyed (Amr Bin Bahr); Apple Scent/Sebaweih
(Amr Bin Othman); The Poet Laureate (Ahmad Shawki); The Custodian of the Two Holy
Mosques (The Saudi King)

:‫) أسماء البلدان والمدن‬4

The Land of the Two Holy Mosques (Saudi Arabia) )‫بالد الحرمٌن (السعودٌة‬ -
The Mother of the Wold (Egypt) )‫أم الدنٌا (مصر‬ -
The Blessed Land (Esh-Sham/Syria) )‫األرض المباركة (الشام‬ -
The Land of the Two Rivers (Euphrates ) ‫ بالد ما بٌن النهرٌن (العرا‬/‫بالد الرافدٌن‬ -
and Tigris) (Iraq)
The Holy Land (Palestine) )‫األرض المقدسة (فلسطٌن‬ -
The Arab Maghreb (Morocco, Tunisia )‫ وتونس والجرابر‬،‫المؽرب العربً (المؽرب‬ -
and Algeria)
The Land of Indus and India (the Indian )‫بالد السند والهند (شبه القارة الهندٌة‬ -
Subcontinent)
Khurasan/Persia (Iran) )‫بالد فارس (إٌران‬/‫خراسان‬ -
The Land of Europeans/Foreigners (Europe) )‫بالد اإلفرن (أوربا‬ -
‫ قبلة‬،‫ العاصمة المقدسة‬،‫ مهوى األفبدة‬،ً‫هبط الوح‬ ِ ‫ م‬،‫ البلد الحرام‬،‫ البلد األمٌن‬،‫أم القرى‬ -
Umm Al-Qura (The Mother of towns)/the Sacred )‫ (مكة المكرمة‬...،‫المسلمٌن‬
Land/ The Place of the Heavenly Revelation/The Beloved Place/the Holy
Capital (of Saudi Arabia)/Muslims’ Prayer Direction (Makkah Al-
Mukarramah)
‫ (المدٌنة‬... )‫ مدٌنة الرسول (صلى هللا علٌه وسلم‬،‫ دار اإلٌمان‬،‫ دار الهجرة‬،‫ طابة‬،‫طٌبة الطٌبة‬ -
(tibah At-Tayyibah)/Tabah/The Home of Migration/ The City of )‫المنورة‬
the Messenger of God/ the Abode of Faith (Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah
The Bride of the Red Sea (Jeddah) )‫عروس البحر األحمر (مدٌنة جدة‬ -
Paris of the Orient (Beirut) )‫بارٌس الشر (بٌروت‬ -
The Oldest City in ) ‫ الفٌحاء (دمش‬/ َّ‫ جل‬/ ‫ عاصمة األموٌٌن‬/ ‫أقدم مدٌنة فً التارٌخ‬ -
History/The Capital of the Umayyads/Jullaq/Al-Faihaa (Damascus)
The Gem of the Orient/The City of One )‫ مدٌنة األلؾ مبذنة (القاهرة‬/ ‫جوهرة الشر‬ -
Thousand Minarets (Cairo)
The City of the Two Springs (Mosul City) )‫أم الربٌعٌن (مدٌنة الموصل‬ -

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The Bride of the Desert (The Syrian City )‫عروس الصحراء (مدٌنة تدمر السورٌة‬ -
of Palmyra/Tadmor)
Ash-Shahbaa (Aleppo) )‫الشهباء (مدٌنة حلب‬ -
The Land of the Shining Moon (Sinai Desert of )‫أرض القمر (سٌناء فً مصر‬ -
Egypt)
Philadelphia (Amman, Capital of Jordan) )‫فٌالدلفٌا (عمّان‬ -
The Capital of Dates (Qasim, of Saudi Arabia) )‫عاصمة التمور (القصٌم بالسعودٌة‬ -

Miscellaneous :‫) متفرقات‬5

‫ يكـ البعث؛ اليكـ اآلخر؛ القارعة؛ الساعة؛ يكـ الحسرة؛ يكـ الخركج؛ يكـ‬:‫أسماء يكـ القيامة‬ -
... ،‫الديف؛ يكـ الحساب؛ يكـ التغابف؛ يكـ التالؽ‬
(The Day of Resurrection; The Hereafter; The Striker; The Hour; The Day of Coming Forth;
The Day of Recompense; The Day of Judgment; The Day of Winners and Losers; The Day of
Encounter;
‫( الفردكس؛ عدف؛ النعيـ؛ الغرفات؛ دار المقامة؛ دار المتقيف؛‬The Garden) :‫ أسماء الجنة‬-
...،‫المأكل؛ الحيكاف؛ دار السالـ‬
(Paradise; Eden; Delight; The Chambers / High Halls; The Abode of everlasting Life; The
Home of the Pious; ; (Gardens of Retreat; The Real life indeed; The Home of Peace...
‫ ( جينـ؛ الجحيـ؛ الحطمة؛ دار البكار؛ دار الفاسقيف؛ دار الخمد؛‬The Hellfire) :‫أسماء النار‬ -
‫السعير؛ سقر‬
(Hell; blazing fire; crushing fire; House of destruction; abode of wicked people; home of
eternity; burning flame; the burning (fire)
‫ الرحمف؛‬/ ‫( يا أييا النبي؛ النبي األمي؛ أكلكا العزـ مف الرسؿ؛ خميؿ اهلل‬Prophets) :‫ األنبياء‬-
‫ابف مريـ‬
((You, Prophet (Mohammad); the unlettered Prophet (Mohammad); Messengers of strong
will (Mohammad, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus); God's Intimate Friend (Abraham, the
Prophet); The Son of Mary (Jesus).

(The House of God / ‫( البيت؛ البيت العتيؽ؛ البيت الحراـ؛ البيت المحرـ‬Ka'ba) :‫الكعبة‬ -
The Ancient / Venerable House / The Sacred House / The Holy House
(Ka'ba).

‫ ممح‬،)‫ الحرماف الشريفاف (المسجد الحراـ كالمسجد النبكم) الذىب األسكد (البتركؿ‬:‫أسماء عامة‬ -
)‫ أبك حساف‬،)‫ أبك أيكب (الجمؿ‬،)‫ المرض الخبيث (السرطاف‬/‫ ذاؾ المرض‬،)‫األرض (أىؿ الخير‬
‫ أبك الحسف‬،)‫ أبك عمارة (الحكت‬،)‫ أبك عامر (الضبع‬،)‫ أبك سفياف (البازم‬،)‫العقاب‬/‫(النسر‬
The Two .)‫ممؾ الغابة (األسد‬/‫ أبك فراس‬/‫ أبك الحارث‬،)‫ أبك الحصيف (الثعمب‬،)‫(الطاككس‬
Holy Mosques (Al-Haram Mosque at Makkah, and the Prophet’s Mosque
at Al-Madinah); The Black Gold (Oil); Salt of the Earth (The best people
on earth); that disease/the malignant disease (cancer); Father of Job
(the camel, for its overpatience); Father of Hassan (the eagle); Father of
Sufian (the falcon); Father of Amer (the hyena); Father of Amarah (the

167
whale); Father of Beauty (the peacock); Father of Al-Husain (the fox);
Father of Al-Hareth / of Firas / King of the Jungle (the lion).

‫ الفينيؽ‬،)‫ نسكر قرطاج (تكنس‬،)‫ العنابي (قطر‬،)‫ الفراعنة (مصر‬،)‫ األخضر (السعكدية‬: ‫) الفرق الرياضية‬6
‫ العالمي‬،)‫ العميد (االتحاد السعكدم‬،)‫ الزعيـ (فريؽ اليالؿ السعكدم‬،)‫ المغرب (أسكد األطمس‬،)‫(الجزائر‬
‫ مدرسة الفف كاليندسة‬،)‫ الشياطيف الحمر (األىمي المصرم‬،)‫ القمعة (األىمي السعكدم‬،)‫(النصر السعكدم‬
The Green (Saudi National Football Team); The Pharaohs (the Egyptian )‫(الزمالؾ‬
National Football Team); The Burgundy (Qatar National Football Team); Carthage
Eagles (Tunisian National Football Team); The Phoenicians (The Algerian National
Football Team); The Lions of the Atlantic (Moroccan’s National Football Team);
The Boss (the Saud Football Club, Al-Hilal); The Chief/Dean (the Saudi Football
Club, Al-Ittihad); The Fortress (the Saudi Football Club, Al-Ahli); The Red Devils
(the Egyptian Football Club, Al-Ahli); The School of Art and Architecture (the
Egyptian Football Club, Az-Zamalek)

2.2.4.1 Comments on Translating Familiar Alternatives

The translation of the popular synonyms of familiar alternatives seems to pose several
problems of translation, being entirely cultural. Many students of translation and
translators have no idea, or common knowledge about most of these terms not only in the
target Language, but also in their native source language for they chiefly belong to local
culture of countries, peoples and cities. The only exceptions are those terms that can be
described as historical, religious, or international. Generally, the prime procedure
employed to solve the problems of translating them is Translation Couplet (i.e. a
combination of two translation procedures): Translation and transliteration; translation
and paraphrase, etc. (see below). However, variation on that can be tolerated in case the
SL familiar term is available in the TL (e.g. The Holy Land / ‫ األرض المقدسة‬for ‘Palestine’ in
both Languages). Following is a list with the major procedures of translation used to sort
out the problems of translating familiar alternatives in general:

(1) Transliteration: when the Arabic name has no straightforward equivalent in

English. Names of ordinary people, places, cities, etc. are all transliterated into
English (e.g. Mohammad, Ali, Omar, Abu Bakr, Othman, Aishah, Makkah,
Madinah, Ka'ba, etc.).
(2) Naturalization: names that have one-to-one cultural / religious equivalent in
English (e.g. Most names of the Prophets, the Virgin Mary, Sinai, Pharaoh, Syria,
Egypt, Saudi Arabia, etc.)
(3) Translation: Names which are originally attributes and / or lexical words that
belong to the lexicon of both languages. Examples include: The Glorious Names
of God and of the Prophet and familiar alternatives.
(4) Transliteration + Paraphrase: Familiar alternatives which are proper names
standing for other Arabic ones and have no one-to-one equivalent in English are
transliterated first, and paraphrased in brackets: e.g. Umm Al-Qura (Makkah Al-
Mukarramah), etc. Also, All proper names that are Arabic-culture specific are
transliterated in the same way (e.g. Ka'ba (the Holy House of God); Thul-Qarnain
(Alexander the Great); etc.).
168
 (5) Translation + Paraphrase: This translation couplet is applied to the translation of
many familiar alternatives like nicknames, titles and attributes (e.g. Mothers of
Believers) (The Prophet's wives); The Poet Laureate (Ahmad Shawqi); The
Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques (The Saudi King); all sports teams’ familiar
terms, etc.).
(6) Usually familiar alternatives that are purely culture-specific in any language are
NOT translated (e.g. ordinary people, special places, geographical names, medical
names, etc.).

A final point that need be attended to occasionally by translators is the sensitively cultural
alternative terms. For example, ‘the Red Devils’ can be sensitive to some Arab readers, but
certainly not to English readers because, first, they are the origin of this term (namely,
Manchester United Football Club) and, secondly, they are not sensitive to the devil at all!
So, there will be not much to worry about in this connection by translators into English.

2.2.5 Faithful and False Friends: Deceitful Synonyms

Our handling of language and meaning in translation is based on blind confidence in the
axiom that words are faithful and cannot be deceitful. That is true as long as one and the
same language is concerned. However, when another language is involved, our axioms
about language and meaning change and need be reconsidered. Translators are,
therefore, cautioned against the trap of ‘false friends’, as some terms can be seemingly
the same in both languages and cultures, but are entirely different in functions and
implications. A list of these terms is provided and discussed below:

(a) The same words adapted in English with different meanings: These are Arabic
words that have been transliterated or naturalized into English, but their
meanings have not remained the same as in Arabic. Students and translators
might take them as having the same meaning in English, which is false. e.g.

Dervish ‫دروٌش‬ -
Sheikh ‫شٌخ‬ -
zakat ‫ركاة‬ -
Imam ‫إمام‬ -
Khamsin ‫خماسٌن‬ -
Regime (ً‫نظام )سٌاس‬ -
sultana ‫سلطانة‬ -

The first word means in Arabic ‘poor, needy or naïve’, whereas in English, it
means a member of an Islamic cult in India, adopted when the British were
occupying India. So, it has nothing to do with the former meaning. ‘Sheikh’, is
mainly taken in English to mean ‘Prince’, and it means that indeed, especially in
the Arabian Gulf States other than Saudi Arabia. However, it is not the only
meaning it has in Arabic, neither it is the primary meaning of the word. ‘Sheikh’ is
a polysemous term that may refer to any of the following meanings: an Islamic
scholar; a jurisprudent; a mosque leader (or Imam), a respected old man; a highly
esteemed knowledgeable person, a good university teacher and, in Saudi Arabia,
a favorable appellation used to call at people we do not know their names.
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 As to ‘zakat’/'zakah', it is falsely explained in Webster's Encyclopaedic
Unabridged Dictionary of English Language as "Islam. A tax, supposedly 40 per
cent of the personal income of every kind, levied for the relief of the poor" (1996:
1659). This is wrong for, first, 'zakat' can be mistaken for a tax or a levy (‫ )ضرٌبة‬in
the English culture, and 'taxes' are prohibited in Islam. Secondly, the Holy Koran
has described it as a kind of purification and sanctification for Muslims, in the
following Koranic verse: ‫( خذ من أموالهم صدقة تطهرهم وتركٌهم بها‬Take zakat from their
wealth in order to purify and cleanse them thereby" (9: 103)). ‫( الركاة‬Zakat) is a
kind of charity, but a prescribed/due charity, imposed on the rich to be paid
yearly by two and a half per cent only an one of the basic five pillars of Islam.
Therefore, the translator has to resist such pejorative translations of 'Zakat', by
either transliterating it, followed by a paraphrase in brackets (i.e. Zakat (nominal
due charity), or by translating it into its sense 'due / prescribed charity'.

Like ‘Sheikh’, Imam has more than one meaning in Arabic. It has been adopted
into English to primarily mean )‫(إماـ مسجد‬, and , then, an eminent Muslim scholar
and academician. Yet, in Arabic, it could also mean ‘a military leader/commander’
(e.g. in Yemen); an exemplar for others, and other meanings in other religious
doctrines. On the other hand, ‘khamsin’ is a different story for it is naturalized
from the Arabic type of wind ‫خماسيف‬, but it reads like number ‘fifty’ in English that
some might take it as meaning the latter.

‘Regime’, as a political reference to a government, is neutral in English, but

negative in Arabic. So, using it to describe any kind of government is not
appropriate; it is used to describe bad governments like, say, ‘the Syrian Regime’
which is a harsh criticism of the despicable regime led by the most infamous
criminal on earth, Bashar Assad. However, if the translator does not mean to
criticise a political regime, he/she can use the neutral term, ‘government’ )‫(حككمة‬,
or the positive ‘leadership’ )‫(قيادة‬. The final term ‘sultana’, does not relate to the
political title, ‘Sultan’, but it means ‫ زبيب‬/ ‫ كشمش‬in Arabic.

(b) Homophones (‫)متجانسات لفظٌة‬: Synonyms that look alike in sense, but they are not
exactly so. For example:

phenomenon/aspect ‫مظهر‬/‫ظاهرة‬ -
system/organization ‫تنظٌم‬/‫نظام‬ -
division/share ‫ قسمة‬/‫تقسٌم‬ -
defamation/fame ‫شهرة‬/‫تشهٌر‬ -
amazement/wondering ‫ تعجب‬/‫عجب‬ -
arrogance/self-pride (high esteem) ‫ كبرٌاء‬/ ‫كِبر‬ -

Each pair of these can be mistranslated into either word for the two words
appear synonymous. Yet, at a second thought, the translator realizes that they
have two different meanings. ‘Aspect is one feature of ‘phenomenon’ which is
more comprehensive and influential. The second pair is two different words,
170
 whereas the third pair is similar in one general feature, but they are not
interchangeable. The fourth pair is two opposite words at the two far extremes of
the line. As to the fifth pair, ‘amazement has no relation to ‘wondering and
questioning’. In the same way, the final pair is two different words; while the first
is terribly negative, the second relates positively to a man’s dignity and self-
esteem.

(c) Confusion of the word class and, hence, the real meaning of the homonyms of the
same word in the two languages. For example, (‫ مسؤول )فً الدولة‬is a noun here, but
it can be hastily translated into the common adjective ‘responsible’, which is a
false translation for the word as a reference to a man of high office in the
government, or ‘a big shot’. Another example is the adjective that is mistaken for
a noun in Arabic, i.e., ‫ثقة‬. Usually, it is used as a noun only, but it can be used as
an adjective in describing a narrator as ‫رجؿ ثقة‬, and a Prophetic Tradition is
sometimes described as )‫( (ركاتو ثًقات‬its narrators are trusted).

(d) Close pairs of different meanings: e.g.

economy/economics ‫عمـ االقتصاد‬/‫اقتصاد‬ -

economic/economical ‫مقتصد‬/‫اقتصادم‬ -
historical/historic ‫عريؽ في التاريخ‬/‫تاريخي‬ -
classical/classic ‫تراثي‬/‫تقميدم‬ -

The two words of each pair are too close to differentiate between, but the
translator is required to work harder than usual on them for ‘economy’ is not
exactly ‘economics’. ‘Economy is the system for producing money or goods’;
whereas ‘economics is the study of how money and goods are made and used’.
Also, ‘economic means relating to trade, industry, etc., while ‘economical’ means
using less fuel or money’ (Longman Active Study Dictionary, 2010:278-9). As to
the next two pairs, they are differentiated between on the basis of normal (i.e.
‘historical’ and ‘classical’) and great (i.e. ‘historic’ and ‘classic’).

(e) Euphemistic vs. non-euphemistic synonyms: euphemization is the replacement of

impolite words with polite words, the latter of which are described as
euphemisms. Although this is a matter of style, it can be discussed here in
relation to inappropriate change of words in their specific contexts. Here are
examples:
‫) طاغية الشاـ أجرـ دكتاتكر عمى مر التاريخ ← حاكـ سكريا مسؤكؿ عما يحصؿ في بالده‬1
- The Syrian ruler is responsible for what happens in his country (rather than):
- The tyrant of Syria is the most criminal dictator in history
‫) الشاذكف فئة منبكذة مف الناس ← المثميكف ال يشعركف بالراحة بيف الناس‬2
- Gays do not feel comfortable among people (instead of):
- The homosexuals are a cast group of people
‫) الميـ أىمؾ الظالميف ← الميـ أبعد عنا الخطائيف‬3

171
 -God, keep wrongdoers away from us (instead of):
-We ask God to destroy the oppressors
‫) انسالمكفكبيا حركة عنصرية معادية لإلسالـ ←انسالمكفكبيا حركة غير إسالمية‬4
-Islamophobia is a non-Islamic movement (rather than):
-Islamophobia is a racist anti-Islamic movement
‫) سيذكر التاريخ أف الركس كانيرانييف قتمة السكرييف ←تدخمت ركسيا كايراف في سكريا يكمان ما‬5
-The Russians and the Iranians intruded in Syria one day
-History will remember that the Russians and the Iranians killed the Syrians

For special reasons of toning down the language of the translation, the translator
might go falsely for the euphemized versions suggested above. Yet, he/she is
highly recommended to translate the truths implied in these statements as they
are in the Arabic original to render them as expressively as possible to the TL
readership to produce the same effect produced on the SL readers. Hence, a
spade should be called a spade, as it were. That is, a dictator should be called a
dictator; the homosexuals are terrible and bad in our Arab, Muslim and many
other communities; the oppressors are not merely wrongdoers; Islamophobia is
not just an innocent non-Islamic movement, but a vicious, racist anti-Islamic
movement.

(f) Political trap-terms: There are political terms adopted from English into Arabic,
and, later on, have become a part of the new Arabic political jargon that is
imposed on Arabic Language users. Trap terms are the terms imported from our
adversaries in the west and applied blindly and ignorantly by some translators
and mass medias as faithful friends. In fact, they are not; they are false friends
for they imply insinuative Anti-Arab and Anti-Muslim concepts. Many politicians
and journalists fall inattentively in this trap, using the English terms blindly,
without reconsidering its negative and aggressive implications.

Among these trap terms is the set of examples of Americanized and Israelized
origins that replace older ones like 'activist' )‫( (ناشبط‬to replace 'freedom fighter /
commando / resistance / revolutionist / guerrilla )‫ ثببابر‬/ ‫باوم‬ ِ ‫ مقب‬/ ً‫ فببداب‬/ ‫;)(مناضببل‬
'Israel, Israelis, The Hebrew State, the State of Israel' ‫ الدولبة‬،‫ اإلسبرابٌلٌون‬،‫(إسبرابٌل‬
)‫العبرٌبة‬, replacing ' 'the Occupying Zionists, The Zionist enemy, 'The Zionist Entity,
the Zionists, the Jews) ،‫ الصببهاٌنة‬،ً‫ الكٌببان الصببهٌون‬،ً‫ العببدو الصببهٌون‬،‫(الصببهاٌنة المحتلببون‬
)‫( )الٌهبود‬see also 4.3.3 above); 'the United States (of America), the American
Administration, The White House (Administration) ،‫ أمرٌكا‬/ )‫(الوالٌات المتحدة (األمرٌكٌة‬
‫ (إدارة) البٌببببت األبببببٌض‬،‫' ;)اإلدارة األمرٌكٌببببة‬terrorist / terrorism )‫ إرهببببباب‬/ ً‫(إرهبببباب‬,
substituting fighter for God's Cause / fighting for God's Cause )‫ جهبباد‬/ ‫;(مجاهببد‬
'fundamentalists' )‫ سببلفٌون‬/ ‫ متشببددون إسببالمٌون‬/ ‫ (أصببولٌون‬for 'true Muslims / the
faithful )‫ أهل اإلٌمان‬/ ‫ ;(المسلمون الصادقون‬and so on (see Ghazala, 2012).

In fine, translators of false trap-terms are required to pay more attention than usual to
many anti-Arab and anti-Islamic terms adopted from the west heedlessly into Arabic,
bearing sinister insinuations and implications that may put them as well as their
translations at risk.

172
2.2.6 Attitudinal Synonyms: Positive and Negative Synonyms

Our use of some evaluative or insinuative synonyms can be expressive of our attitude as
whether positive, negative or neutral (see Newmark, 1988: 15, and Carter, 1987).
Sometimes, these synonyms are used unintentionally by students and translators.
Therefore, they have to be cautioned against them. Here is a table for illustrative
examples in both languages concerned:

(feeble/lean, slender, slim, thin/thin as a wafer, ‫ جلد وعظم‬،‫ رفٌع‬،‫ نحٌؾ‬،‫ واهن‬،‫ضعٌؾ‬ )1
skinny/skint)
(fat, stout / corpulent, large, obese / plump, ‫ ورنه رابد‬،‫ متٌن‬،‫ ضخم‬،‫ بدٌن‬،‫سمٌن‬ )2
overweight
tall, towering, lofty, as tall as steeple, ‫ عمال‬،‫ كأنه سارٌة‬،‫ طوٌل القامة‬،‫ فارع الطول‬،‫طوٌل‬ )3
giant/lanky
short, small in height, dwarfish/ dwarf, ‫ حنراب‬،‫ متقارب األطراؾ‬،‫ قرم‬،‫ قصٌر القامة‬،‫قصٌر‬ )4
short-legged, elfin/petit
‫ حرٌا‬،‫ ؼٌر مسرؾ‬،‫ مقتصد‬،‫أصلد‬/‫صلود‬/‫ صلد‬،‫ماس ٌده‬/‫ مسكة‬،‫ ضنٌن‬،‫ لبٌم‬، ٌ‫ شح‬،‫ ؼٌر كرٌم‬،‫بخٌل‬ )5
(miserly, ungenerous, parsimonious, stingy, thrifty, close-fisted, penny-
pinching/Scrooge-like/mingy, economical/sparing, frugal/abstemious

Translating these terms directly and literally into English might be sometimes
unacceptable due to the translator’s inability to distinguish the attitude implied by them.
Following is a table illustrating the bias of these synonyms compared to one another in
their specific context:
Positive Negative Neutral
slim ‫ نحٌؾ‬.1 ‫ جلد وعظم‬،‫ رفٌع‬،‫ واهن‬،‫ ضعٌؾ‬.1 slender ‫ نحٌل‬.1
(feeble, lean, slender, thin
/as thin as a wafer,
skinny/skint)
overweight ‫ ذو ورن رابد‬.2 fat, ،‫ متٌن‬،‫ ضخم‬،‫ بدٌن‬،‫ سمٌن‬.2 stout/corpulent ‫ بدٌن‬.2
large, obese plump,
‫ طوٌل‬،‫ فارع الطول‬.3 as ‫ عمال‬،‫نخلة‬/‫ كأنه سارٌة‬.3 tall ‫ طوٌل‬.3
towering, lofty،‫القامة‬ tall as steeple, giant / lanky
short, small in ‫ قصٌر القامة‬.4 ‫ حنراب‬،‫ متقارب األطراؾ‬،‫ قرم‬.4 short ‫ قصٌر‬.4
height dwarfish short, dwarf/
short-legged, elfin/petit
‫ ؼٌر مسرؾ‬،‫ حرٌا‬،‫ مقتصد‬.5 ،‫ لبٌم‬، ٌ‫ شح‬،‫ ؼٌر كرٌم‬،‫ بخٌل‬.5 close-fisted ‫ ماس ٌده‬.5
economical, sparing / frugal, / ‫ صلود‬/ ‫ صلد‬،‫ مسكة‬،‫ضنٌن‬
abstemious miserly, ungenerous, ‫أصلد‬
parsimonious, stingy,
thrifty, close-fisted, penny-
pinching / Scrooge-like/
mingy

Some of these classifications are relative depending on individuals, social class and
districts. Further, few terms are not merely negative, but insulting (e.g. skinny / skint, as
tall as steeple, dwarf/dwarfish, elfin, petit, obese, thrifty, penny-pinching, Scrooge-like,
mingy, etc.). However, the classification is suggested in general terms that can be more
173
useful than specification. That is, the translator can be attentive and, in case a term is
insulting or unacceptable to people in their communities, he/she changes it into a neutral
or positive synonym. This can be essential to readers in certain texts.

2.2.7 Antonymic Synonyms

There are words that appear identical, interchangeable synonyms, but they are not. In
general sense, they are synonyms without specification. However, they need be dealt with
as contrastive words (or antonyms). An example is the following set of words: / ‫ٌعملون‬
‫ ٌصنعون‬/ ‫ ٌكسبون‬/ ‫ ٌفعلون‬Many would think that they are interchangeable and, therefore, do
not pose a problem of translation. This is true when they are used in the general sense of
'doing'. Yet, in the Holy Koran, in most cases, they used differently as follows:

(a) ‫ٌعملون‬: used in the general sense of 'do' for both believers and disbelievers.
(b) ‫ٌفعلون‬: used less in general sense of 'do' than in reference to the evil deeds of
disbelievers.
(c) ‫ٌكسبون‬: used mostly in the negative sense of the evil deeds of disbelievers.
(d) ‫ٌصنعون‬: mostly in the negative sense of the disbelievers' handiwork'.

Another example is the use of )‫ (مطر‬negatively in The Holy Koran in contexts of

destruction and causing damage (see )84 :‫( وأمطرنا علٌهم مطرا (األعراؾ‬and we rained upon
them a rain (of stones). Yet, in normal use, it is used normally to refer to ‘rain’. However,
its well-known synonym, )‫ (ؼٌث‬is associated with good, useful rain (e.g. ‫وهو الذي ٌنرل الؽٌث‬
)28 :‫( من بعد ما قنطوا وٌنشر رحمته (الشورى‬And it is He Who sends down rain after they have
despaired, and spreads His Mercy). By analogy, the term ) ٌ‫( (ر‬wind/storm) is used
negatively in the singular form to imply punishment and destruction (e.g. ‫فأرسلنا علٌهم رٌحا‬
)25 :‫ تدمر كل شًء بأمر ربها (األحقاؾ‬.‫رٌ فٌها عذاب ألٌم‬... ‫ )؛‬16 :‫( صرصرا فً أٌام نحسات (فصلت‬So We
sent upon them a furious wind in days of evil omens: a wind wherein is a painful torment
that destroys everything by the Command of its Lord), whereas it is used in a favorable
context of good tidings of useful rain (e.g. ‫ومن آٌاته أن ٌرسل الرٌا مبشرات ولٌذٌقكم من رحمته‬
)46 :‫( (الروم‬And among His signs is that He sends the winds as glad tidings, giving you a
taste of His Mercy).

All these examples are evidence of an unusual type of antonymic synonyms that requires
special attention by students and teachers of translation and translators alike. Indeed, the
other examples for the previous points discussed in this section on synonymy may
enlighten some basics about the problems of translating synonymy from Arabic into
English and the possible solutions to them in as simple terms as possible.

2.3 TRANSLATING POLYSEMY AND MONOSEMY

Monosemy describes a word that has one meaning only. There are many examples in
both Languages, Arabic and English. They include common words like: ، ٌ‫ حر‬،‫ سماء‬،‫استمع‬
‫ وؼٌرها كثٌر‬،‫ ندم‬،‫ شر‬،‫ لحم‬،‫ سهو‬،‫ سٌبة‬،‫ حسنة‬، ‫ ح‬،‫( باطل‬listen, sky/heaven, fire, right/truth, wrong,
a good deed, a bad deed, forgetfulness/inattention, meat, evil, regret, etc.). In English, on
the other hands, monosemous words are many, though not as many as in Arabic, for
English is described by many as the language of polysemy due to its limited number of
words in its lexicon. Examples include: “mail, sleep, hello, strong, explain, disdain,
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disruption, die, door, ceiling, friend, money, etc.”. Among the categories of monosemous
words are:

(a) Few common words

(b) Many special words
(c) Most technical/scientific words
(d) Dictionary words (i.e. words that are rarely used by language users, and have
entries only in dictionaries)

What concerns us about these words in translation is they are much less problematic due
to the fact that their meanings are invariable, i.e. do not change in different texts and
contexts. Further, monosemous words in Arabic (or English) are not necessarily so in
English (or in Arabic). For example, ‘fire’ and ‘right’, of the group above, are polysemous in
English. However, their common meanings are probably the same as in Arabic.

Polysemy, on the other hand, describes words that may have more than one meaning
each. They are greater in number than monosemous words, though the latter appear to
be greater in use than the former owing to the use of many polysemous words in their
common/primary meanings more frequently than their other meanings. For example,
many Arabic Language users might think that the verb )‫ (سمع‬is monosemous, used to mean
‘hear’. Well, it is not so; it is polysemous, having the following potential meanings (Al-
Mu’jam Al-Waseet, 1987: 449):

(hear) ‫سمع‬ )1
(listen) ‫أصؽى وأنصت‬ )2
(obey) ‫أطاع‬ )3
(reply/respond to) ‫أجاب‬ )4
accept/tolerate) ‫تقبَّل‬ )5
(sense a sound at one’s ears) ‫أحس الصوت بأذنٌه‬ )6
(respond to/comply with) ‫استجاب‬ )7
(understand meaning) ‫فهم معنى الكالم‬ )8

However, the first primary meaning is the most recurrent in use, while the other meanings
are used occasionally or by implication (e.g. ‫( سمعت ما قلت ل ؟‬have you understood what I
said?) ‫( نعم سمعت‬Yes, I did)).

Now, to the translation problems of polysemy. One of the tricky and recurrent problems
suffered by students of translation and translators is the highly potential error of
recognizing the real, contextual meaning of polysemous words which are mistaken forn to
be monosemous, with one common meaning each. The next discussion tackles the
different types of the problems of translating polysemous words followed by their
potential solutions.

2.3.1 Polysemy Mistaken for Monosemy

Many words, especially core and those common in daily use of Arabic, are misunderstood
as monosemous, having a single primary meaning each. This is not exactly true, and
reconsidering these words would lead to the truth that they are polysemous.
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Consequently, students and translators are required to re-consider words once they doubt
that their common meanings do not work in context. A case in point is the popular verb
)‫( (نام‬sleep):
The child slept fast/heavily )‫) نام الطفل نوما عمٌقا (اضطجع أو نعس‬1
It died down/calmed down )‫) نام الشً ُء (سكت وهدأ‬2
The anklet has got noiseless ) ‫) نام الخلخا ُل (انقطع صوته من امتالء السا‬3
The vein ceased to pulse/ no longer pulses )‫ٌنبض‬ ِ ‫) نام ال ِعر ُ (أي لم‬4
The wind abates/had abated )‫) نامت الرٌ ُ (سكنت‬5
the sea has receded )‫) نام البح ُر (هجأ‬6
The fire smoulders )‫) نامت النا ُر (همدت‬7
The market depresses/has depressed )‫) نامت السو (كسدت‬8
the dress wore out ) ‫الفرو (أخل‬/‫) نام الثوب‬9
he behaved humbly before God )‫) نام هلل (تواضع له‬10
He trusted him )‫ ووث به‬،‫) نام إلٌه (اطمأن له‬11
he forgot something )‫) نام عن حاجته (ؼفل عنها ولم ٌهتم بها‬12
he has never been troubled )‫) نام همه (لم ٌكن له هم‬13
It was raining and )‫) ما نامت السماء اللٌلة مطرا أو برقا (ما رالت تمطر بؽرارة وتبر بشكل متالحقا‬14
lightening all night; it has never stopped raining and lightening all night
May the eyes of the cowards never blink! ‫) فال نامت أعٌن الجبناء‬15
The job application was overlooked by the ‫) نام طلب الوظٌفة شهرا كامال فً درج الموظؾ‬16
clerk; the job application had gone to sleep for an entire month in the clerk’s
drawer.
he failed to take the exam/test (for he was asleep) ‫) نام عن االختبار‬17
pray standing up, if unable, )‫ ف ن لم تستطع فنابما (أي مضطجعا‬،‫ ف ن لم تستطع فقاعدا‬،‫) ص ِّل قابما‬18
pray sitting down, if unable, pray lying down
he competed to oversleep me but I overslept him ‫) ناومنً فنمته‬19
water is permanently available )‫) نام الماء (إذا دام وقام‬20
the sheep died )‫) نامت الشاة (ماتت‬21
if you come across the dissidents, kill them ‫) إذا رأٌتم الخوارج فأنٌموهم‬22

Clearly, the problems of translating these multiple meanings of )‫ (نام‬into English are not
easy to overcome because many of them are not quite known to most people. The first
problem, then, is the difficulty to understand the Arabic original, and the translator has to
examine it carefully before he/she translates it. The only meaning that is straightforward
for him/her is the first one in the list above, which is the primary/common meaning of
(‫(نام‬. Perhaps a mistake can be committed by some who might misunderstand it as a
monosemous verb, taken by analogy to the English equivalent “sleep”, which is not quite
right. As pointed out earlier, monosemous words in one language are not necessarily so in
another. In the same way, polysemous words are not by necessity so in two languages.
The thing that students and translators have to avoid for sure is translate all these
meanings into the primary meaning, “sleep”, for they will be funny or queer. For example,
if (2) is translated into “The anklet slept” and (3) into “the vein slept”, we might be
implying to readers that these are figurative uses of personification, but they are not. They
are different meanings for the SL word (see above), not personifications. However,
translating these examples into the primary meaning can be recommended as a ‘tester’, to
check whether it is comprehensible or not. If comprehensible, it can be retained, if not, it
has to be reconsidered by students and translators. The criteria for that would be the
following:
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  Making sense: normally, ‘anklet’ and ‘vein’ are inanimate objects, and inanimate
objects cannot sleep in the sense applied to animates. So, it does not make sense
to describe these objects as sleeping.
 Making logic. ‘water’ is logically a liquid that can be said to be drinking, dirty,
soft, sparkling, portable, shallow, stagnant, lukewarm, tepid, cold, warm, hot,
boiling, running, deep, contaminated, distilled, ice, mineral, muddy, murky,
polluted, etc. BUT NEVER AS “SLEEPING WATER”. Indeed, the term ‘water’ does
not ‘sleep’ even figuratively in English Language. So, it is illogical to describe it as
such.
 Currency of use: several meanings of )‫ (نام‬can be described as not current in use.
Consequently, students and translators are invited to attend to these ‘non-
current’ meanings more carefully in context, not out of context.

The second example of polysemous words that are misunderstood as monosemous is the
noun )‫ ( َظ ْهر‬which has the following meanings:

back ‫) الظهر خالؾ البطن‬1(

one’s behind )‫) الظهر من اإلنسان مؤخر الكاهل إلى أدنى الع ُجر (أي القفا‬2(
The animal’s back ‫) ظهر الدابة التً تحمل األثقال أو ٌُركب علٌها‬3(
(surface) road ‫) الظهر هو طرٌ البر‬4(
blue sky ‫) هذا ظهر السماء‬5(
the boy memorized the Holy Koran by heart ‫) حمل الصبً القرآن على ظهر لسانه‬6(
He is travelling/about to travel/wants to travel )‫) إنه على ظهر (مرمع السفر ؼٌر مطمبن‬7(
I ignored him/ his request )ً‫) جعلت حاجته بظهر (بظهري خلف‬8(
he threw him down )‫) جعله بظهر (طرحه‬9(
he is not wealthy; he is powerless/he has no one to )‫) لٌس له ظهر (مال وإبل وؼنم‬10(
support him
he is proud of something )‫) ظهر بالشًء ظهْرا (فخر‬11(
the valley flooded out of heavy rain; heavy rain )‫) سال الوادي ظهرا (إذا سال بمطر نفسه‬12(
fell on the valley, so it flooded
the shorter side of a feather ‫) الظهر هو الجانب القصٌر من الرٌش‬13(
he is not our child )‫) إنه من ولد الظهر (لٌس منا‬14(
This pot is very old )‫) هذا الق ِْدر ظهر (قدٌمة‬15(
he was assassinated )‫) قُتل ظهرا (ؼٌلة‬16(
this object is all the same; this object has two identical sides ‫) هذا األمر ظهره كبطنه‬17(
Your supporter from )‫) هؤالء أقران الظهر (الذٌن ٌجٌبون من وراب أو من وراء ظهر فً الحرب‬18(
behind in war
hill ‫) الظهر ما ؼلظ من األرض وارتفع‬19(
he learned the Holy Koran by heart ‫) حفظ القرآن عن ظهر قلبه‬20(
he gave him without expecting a reward ‫ ابتداء بال مكافأة‬:‫) أعطاه عن ظهر ٌد‬21(
he has few children )‫) هو خفٌؾ الظهر (قلٌل العٌال‬22(
he has many children )‫) هو ثقٌل الظهر (كثٌر العٌال‬23(
He dwelled/reflected upon something )‫) قلَّب األمر ظهرا لبطن (أنعمت تدبٌره‬24(
I spend on my young brother )‫) ٌأكل أخً الصؽٌر من ظهر ٌدي (أنف علٌه‬25(
he lived amidst them )‫أظهرهم (بٌنهم‬/‫ظهرانٌهم‬/‫) أقام بٌن ظهرٌهم‬26(
deck ‫) ظهر السفٌنة‬27(
shell ً‫) ظهر السلحفاة العظم‬28(

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to turn a cold shoulder to; to give somebody deaf ears; to treat ّ‫) قلب له ظهر المِجن‬29(
with hostility
upside down; topsy-turvy ‫) ظهرا لبطن‬30(
Definitely, every verse of the Holy )‫) ما نرل من القرآن آٌة إال لها ظهر وبطن (لفظ وتأوٌل‬31(
Koran has an overt and a covert meaning
the best charity is that given out of )‫) خٌر الصدقة ما كان من ظهر ؼنى (عفوا قد فضل عن ؼنى‬32(
affluence
I will pray for you in absentia / in your absence ‫) سوؾ أدعو ل بظهر الؽٌب‬33(

Perhaps, it is astonishing to many native speakers of Arabic – let alone English speakers –
that this very common word has over thirty meanings. This multiplicity of meaning poses
several problems of translation to students and translators. As usual, the first and most
important step in the process of solving these problems is for the translator to understand
the Arabic original IN CONTEXT, BE IT USED NON-METAPHORICALLY OR METAPHORICALLY,
for any misunderstanding of the original will inevitably lead to wrong translation. When
the primary meaning (i.e. back) does not work, the local linguistic context of the sentence
is a major factor in distinguishing the real meaning of the word. If the local context does
not work, the major, macro-context of the whole text of the word concerned has to be
consulted. If the problem still persists, outside references like dictionaries, encyclopedias
and the Web have to be ckecked.

2.3.2 Problems of Translating Cognates )‫(المتجانسات‬: Homonyms and Heteronyms

Homonymy refers to words that have the same spelling and pronunciation, but different
unrelated meanings (e.g. bear (n.) )‫(دب‬, bear (v.) )‫ ;(ٌتحمل‬bough )‫ (ؼصن‬and
bow )‫ركوع‬/‫)(انحناءة‬. Heteronymy, on the other hand, refers to words that are identical in
spelling but different in pronunciation (lead ‫ رصاا‬+ ‫ قٌادة‬/ ‫))(ٌقود‬, or identical in
pronunciation but different in spelling (e.g. pale ‫ ;(شاحب‬pail )‫)(سطل‬, and in both cases,
different in meaning (see Wales, 1989: 220).

Now to Arabic: We have problems of translation with cognate words of similar and
different types compared to those of English Language. Here are examples:

(a) Homonyms
(stick/staff) ‫(؛ عصا‬disobey) ‫) عصى‬1
(give a religious council) ‫(؛ فتى‬lad) ‫) فتى‬2
fruit/harvest/female proper name )‫(؛ جنى (اسم‬collect/reap) )‫) جنى (فعل‬3

(b) Heteronyms: e.g.

(lamb) ‫(؛ حمل‬carry) ‫حمل‬ )1(

(minds/reasons) ‫(؛ ُنهى‬disallows/prevent) ‫نهى‬ )2(
(ideals) ‫(؛ م ُُثل‬appear in court) )‫م ُثل (فً المحكمة‬ )3(
(bar) ‫(؛ بار‬upright/devoted) ‫با ّر‬ )4(
(kiss) ‫(؛ ق ّبل‬accept) ‫ق ِبل‬ )5(

(c) Contrastive heteronyms: e.g.

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 (reward) ‫(؛ منحة‬ordeal/dilemma) ‫محنة‬ )1(
(grief) ‫(؛ تر‬happiness) ‫فر‬ )2(
(humiliation) ‫(؛ د ِنٌّة‬death) ‫م ِنٌّة‬ )3(
(grudge/ill-will) ‫(؛ نقمة‬grace/bounty) ‫نعمة‬ )4(
(thanking) ‫(؛ شكر‬polytheism) ‫شِ ر‬ )5(

(d) Heteronyms: different initial-vocalization )‫(التشكٌل‬, different meaning: e.g.

(Paradise/Heaven, Jinn, prevention/deterrent) ‫جنة و ِجنة و ُجنة‬ )1

(grain, love, sweetheart/beloved) ٌّ‫حبٌّ و ُحبٌّ وحِب‬ )2
(goodness/piety, wholemeal grain and land) ‫ِب ّر و ُب ّر وب ّر‬ )3
(gap/hole, tartar and friendship/sweet plant ‫خلَّة و ِخلَّة و ُخلَّة‬ )4
(foot, antiquity and forward ‫قدم وقِدم وقُدُم‬ )5
(darkness/pitch blackness and atheism) ‫الك ْفر وال ُك ْفر‬ )6
(stocktaking/inventory and barren mountain ‫جرْ د و ُجرْ د‬ )7
(great/greater and drums) ‫أكبر وأكبار‬ )8

(e) Heteronyms: different medial-vocalization: different meaning: e.g.

ْ
(creation, wear and tear and manners) ُ‫الخل والخل وال ُخل‬ )1(
(hear and defame (somebody) )‫سمِع وسمَّع (بفالن‬ )2(
(escape and help someone to escape) ‫هرب وهرَّ ب‬ )3(
(get caught in, suspend/adjourn/comment on َّ‫عل وعل‬ )4(
(adore/love passionately and gear/dovetail ‫عشِ وع َّش‬ )5(
(hill) ‫(؛ ح ْرن‬sadness) ‫حرن‬ )6(

These examples imply the hard task of the translator. A high degree of attention is
required from him/her to distinguish between the delicate differences between seemingly
similar pairs of words. Some might slip the hasty translator’s concentration. Hence, extra
heed is needed to avoid committing foolish mistakes like those committed by some of my
university students of translation regarding translating ‘taste’ into ‘test’ out of
heedlessness; or the mistake committed by a very professional translator regarding
‘successively’ which he translates inattentively into ‘successfully’. What makes the
problem worse is the bad habit of dropping vocalization markers ‫(الفتحة والكسرة والضمة‬
)‫ والسكون‬altogether from the Arabic text, which means a high potential of committing
mistakes.

2.3.3 Solving a Problem of Polysemy: A Sample Example

Here is a practical detailed sample example for how to sort out a recurrent type of
translation problem of polysemy. Let us take the following example cited above and follow
the process of translating it a step by step:

‫ح َمل الصبي القرآنَ على ظهر لسانه‬

STEP 1: begin with translating the sentence into a word-for-word translation as follows:
The boy carried the Koran on the back of his tongue
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Check whether it makes sense or not. If it makes sense, keep it, if not change it. Obviously,
it does not make sense for the following reasons: the first, ‘carry’ usually implies a physical
strength to enable a boy to carry which is presupposed to be a material heavy weight, but
we cannot accept that for there is nothing heavy to carry by the boy. Second, the Holy
Koran cannot be expected to be carried in English, but, probably ‘held’ by people. Third,
the tongue has no back to carry anything on; we talk about the tongue in phonetics to
have an upper surface, a lower surface, a tip, sides, a front and a back (opposed to front).
So, you must be in doubt about the real meaning in context. Now, go to the next step,
then.

STEP 2: translate the statement into more proper English than the first and a less literal
version than it, as follows:

The boy held the Koran on the tip of his tongue

Well, this is more sensible English, using the well-known collocation, ‘tip of his tongue’,
but the translation is still not sensible enough for it is not normally comprehensible how
one can hold the Koran on the tip of one’s tongue. Does it mean that one memorizes the
Koran, but one has forgotten it, and cannot remember anything now? Or, probably, one
knows it and is ready to recite it any time? But how can we accept the idea that one has
the entire Holy Koran on the tip of one’s tongue? Could it be more sensible than that? Let
us go to the third step, then.

STEP 3: translate the statement figuratively, maybe as follows:

The boy keeps the Koran close to his tongue

Indeed, this version is more sensible than the previous two, but it cannot be to tolerated
by the English readers who have no idea about a collocation in their mother tongue like
‘keep something close to one’s tongue’; but, perhaps, ‘keep something close to one’s
heart. So let us try the latter in the fourth step:

STEP: 4: translate the sentence into a possible collocational English as follows:

The boy keeps the Koran close to his heart

Now, we are very close to the meaning of the original, which is in fact metaphorical, and
cannot be approached literally in any way. Yet, ‘keep something close to one’s heart’
means to love it dearly, and this is only one part of the meaning of the original (i.e. ‘love
the Koran at heart’) which is arrived at in the fifth and final step:

STEP 5: Translate the Arabic original into its intended meaning in good English

The boy memorizes the Koran by heart

That is the meaning of the idiomatic Arabic original, which is translated into a non-
idiomatic English owing to the fact that such an idiom is not available in English.
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Throughout the process of solving any problem of polysemy in particular, and of any type
of translation problem in general, is to check the following sources in the order given
below:

1. THE MICRO (LOCAL AND LINGUISTIC) CONTEXT OF THE PROBLEMATIC

WORD/PHRASE.
2. THE MACRO (GENERAL) CONTEXT OF THE WHOLE TEXT TRANSLATED.
3. THE OUTSIDE CONTEXT FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION, IF AND WHEN.
4. THE LITERAL/METAPHORICAL TYPE OF LANGUAGE OF THE ORIGINAL.
5. THE LOGIC OF THE TRANSLATION AS WHETHER OR NOT IT MAKES SENSE IN
NORMAL CIRCUMSTANCES.
6. THE USE OF LITERAL WORD-FOR-WORD TRANSLATION METHOD AS A TESTER
ONLY TO CHECK WHETHER OR NOT IT IS POSSIBLE. IF POSSIBLE, LEAVE IT, IF
NOT LOOK FOR THE APPROPRIATE MEANING OF THE SL.
7. WHEN THE TESTER DOES NOT WORK, START SUSPECTING A PROBLEM OF
TRANSLATION OF THE DIFFICULT WORD.
8. USE THE STEPS SUGGESTED EARLIER TO DECIPHER THE REAL MEANING OF
THE SL WORD, IF YOU HAVE ENOUGH TIME AND PATIENCE.
9. IF YOU DO NOT HAVE TIME, OR ARE IMPATIENT, CHECK A GOOD REFERENCE
OF SOME KIND (A MONLINGUAL OR BILINGUAL DICTIONARY, AN
ENCYCLOPEDIA).
10. IF THE PROBLEM STILL PERSISTS, BROWSE THE WEB.

2.4 TRANSLATION OF COLLOCATIONS

Collocations are a part of the inherent, intuitive knowledge of the native speakers of any
language. They use them in writing and speech intrinsically and unconsciously without
feeling that. They attend to them only when they read or hear something that is unnatural
to them in their normal usage of their language. For example, years ago (in 1990), I heard
a tv announcer say in her report about a politician: ‫قلبب األمبور ظهبرا عبن قلبب‬. This statement
astonished me and at the same time, triggered a special interest in me in collocation that
never occurred to me before then. Since then, I wrote several articles on collocations
(Arabic-English-Arabic) and two big dictionaries on collocations: (1) Dar El-Ilm Dictionary of
Collocations (English-Arabic), 2007 (pp. 1535); and (2) A Dictionary of Collocations and
Contextual Phrases (Arabic-English), 2014 (pp. 1200). Of course, many native speakers of
Arabic would be able to discover the mistake committed by the speaker who confused
two well-known collocations:

(a) ‫( قلب األمور رأسا على عقب‬to turn things upside down)
(b) ‫( حفظ شٌبا عن ظهر قلب‬to learn/memorize something by heart).

Another example that might bring the inborn, back-of-the-neck knowledge of collocations
is when we read a text that has poor combinations of words with one another. Perhaps,
we may describe it as a text of a poor style of Arabic rhetoric, but the fact is that it lacks
accuracy in combining words together intuitively. So, what is a collocation?

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A collocation is a type of word combination that refers to the company a word keeps
naturally and intuitively in one’s mother tongue. It is a term used to describe two or more
words that occur habitually and repeatedly in language. Simply, it is which word goes with
which word. Collocations are translated differently into Arabic, among the most popular of
which are ‫( متالرمبات لفظٌبة‬suggested by Ramzi Baalbaki, 1990) and the classical ‫متبواردات‬
(introduced by Ibrahim El-Yaziji, 1973). The first term is adopted here due to its popularity
today (‫ لفظٌبة‬is added to distinguish the term from the medical term ‘syndromes’ which is
also known as ‫)متالرمبات‬. By the way, the term does not necessarily mean ‘obligation’ as
some might misinterpret it, but words that are usually and intuitively co-occur in language
that preferably come side by side.

Further, collocations are one type of lexical patterns of language (other patterns discussed
in this and next Chapters include idioms, fixed phrases, binomials, scenes, ranges, lexical
fields, etc.) (see also Carter, 1987: 62-65; Baker, 1992, and Rojo, 2009: 132-33 for further
argument and types of lexical patterns). Viewed from another angle, collocations are
words that collocate with one another in language to form a context larger than individual
words. Together, they combine pairs of mini contexts that may help language users guess
their meanings, or the more likely direction of those meanings. This means that words
may accept to keep company with certain words, but refuse to co-occur with other words.
'Envy', for example, may accept the company of the green color in the collocation 'green
with envy', but may not accept the company of other colours like black, yellow, red, or
white. The same applies to its equivalent collocation in Arabic, ‫ٌأكل الحسبد قلببه‬, where colours
are not used at all, and ‫‘( قلبب‬heart’) cannot be replaced by any other part of the body, nor
‫'( ٌأكل‬eat') can accept to keep company with 'brain', 'tongue' or 'leg'!

Hence, collocations are words that are usually found next to other words, or are ‘co-
located’ with one another. Words, then, have sets of other words that they typically
collocate with. Each of these sets is described as a 'collocational range' determined
among other things by the number of meanings a word and the habitual company it
keeps with other words in different texts and contexts (see Firth, 1968; Baker; 1992: 49,
Rojo, 2009: 139; and Ghazala, 2011). More precisely, Aisenstadt defines collocations as
“combinations of two or more words used in one of regular, non-idiomatic meanings...
and restricted in their commutability” (1979: 71, in Emery, 1988). According to this
definition, they are non-idiomatic in meaning and restricted in scope, yet, and as Crystal
(1980) rightly points out, the habitual co-occurrence of words has been normalized to
become a part of language lexicon that we usually take to be intuitively learned by
language users.

Collocations are, after all, rhetorical phrases and among the most interesting lexical areas
in language. The students of translation and translators have the privilege of developing
and having access to new word combinations of all types in both English and Arabic
simultaneously. To push the argument of the rhetorical nature of collocation a step
further, following are two lists of examples of collocations juxtaposed with ordinary
language: The Arabic list first, followed by the English list:

‫لغة عادية‬ ‫متالزمات‬

ً‫ضعيف جدا‬ ‫أوهن من بيت العنكبوت‬- .1
‫ينتقد أحدهم‬ ‫يُعرض بأحدهم‬- .2
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 ‫موثوق‬ ‫مأمون الجانب‬- .3
‫فاجر‬ ‫سليط اللسان‬ .4
‫في حيرة‬ ‫في حيص بيص‬ .5
ً‫غضب غضبا ً شديدا‬ ‫جُن جنونه‬ .6
‫باختصار‬ ‫صفوة القول‬ .7
‫صوت الباب‬ ‫صرير الباب‬ .8
‫هزيمة كبيرة‬ ‫هزيمة نكراء‬ .9
ً‫يخاف خوفا ً شديدا‬ ‫ترتعد فرائصه‬ .10
‫غنم شاردة‬ ‫غنم قاصية‬ .11
‫عاداه‬ ‫ناصبه العداء‬ .12
)‫أنهى (األمر‬ ‫أسدل الستار‬ .13
‫يعمل‬ ‫يزاول مهنة‬ .14
‫ضربة قلم‬ ‫جرة قلم‬ .15

Ordinary Language Collocations

1. very dark pitch black

2. during that in the meantime
3. an honest man a man of honor
4. a high salary a fat salary
5. very sweet as sweet as honey
6. due to in the light of
7. very rich to roll in money
8. the latest achievements state of the art
9. to be so precise to spill the beans
10. to die one foot in the grave
11. migration of scientists brain drain
12. to work to ply a vocation
13. in good health alive and kicking
14. to have strength to gather momentum
15. important person a big shot

This list is also quite useful to answer the question: ‘How can we distinguish between a
collocation and an ordinary use of language?’ Comparing the two columns of phrases
would be a good guide to draw a distinction between the two types of language. The
forthcoming list of mistakes in the translation of collocations into Arabic is a further guide
to what is described as a collocation and what is not. Yet, greater help can be sought for in
the investigation of the translation of the different types of Arabic collocations into English
(see the next point).

The students of translation enjoy collocations both ways. Indeed, collocations can be
described as new explorations to them in both languages. Besides that, they are examples
of effective, rhetorical, expressive and beautiful language. Above all, they represent
precision of expression of exact meaning in English and Arabic. The students as well as
some translators have weaknesses in this respect in particular and, therefore, need
urgent, constant help to compensate for them and realize their ambition of getting closer
to perfect English and Arabic: getting the right word with the right word in the right
position and context (see Carter 1987; Newmark, 1988; Emery, 1988 & 1991; Baker, 1992;

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Ghazala, 1991, 1992, 2007, 2008, 2011, 2013, 2014a and 2014b and others for further
discussion of collocations).

Translators and translation students are expected to commit several mistakes in word
combination in their native language, thus, disclosing serious deficiency of skilfulness and
competence. Here are practical examples picked up through corrections of students'
translation written exams and revising translation works for official academic institutions
by the author:

(a) break of dawn ‫( *أشعة الفجر‬we say ‫ بزكغ الفجر‬/ ‫)انبالج‬

(b) carry out a comparison ‫( *ينفذ مقارنة‬we have ‫ يعقد مقارنة‬/ ‫) ييجرم‬
(c) the body of the text ‫( *جسـ النص‬we say ‫)متف النص‬
(d) describe ‫( *يصدر كصفان‬we say ‫ يصؼ‬،‫)يقكـ بكصؼ‬
(e) to take a risk ‫( *يرتكب مجازفة‬we have ‫ يقكـ بمجازفة‬،‫)يجازؼ‬
(f) carry out rituals‫( *ينفذ مشاعر‬we say ‫)يؤدم شعائر‬
(g) perform a prayer/ pray ‫( *يمارس الصالة‬we have ‫ يصمي‬،‫ يقيـ الصالة‬/ ‫)يؤدم‬
(h) good reason ‫( *سبب جيد‬we have ‫مقبكؿ‬/‫منطقي‬/‫ مقنع‬/ ‫)سبب كجيو‬
(i) fall ill ‫( *يسقط مريضان‬we say ‫ ييقعده المرض‬،‫ يصاب بالمرض‬،‫)يمرض‬
(j) get angry ‫(*يصبح غاضبان‬we say ‫ يتممكو الغضب‬،‫)يغضب‬
(k) He passed the exam ‫( *اجتاز االمتحاف‬In Arabic, we have only (‫)نجح )في االمتحاف‬

Thus, collocability is a milestone for translators and students to achieve an appropriate

standard of word combination as much lexically as grammatically in both languages
concerned. Collocations as such are grammar-based lexical combinations. Grammatical
collocations can, broadly speaking, be understood in one way to include all possible
combinations of words as grammatical categories in certain normal sequences in the
sentences of language. The next point on types of collocations may illustrate that,
providing panoramic details of all types of collocations in language.

2.4.1 Types of Collocations

Collocations can be classified in different ways. However, the classification adopted in this
section is grammatico-lexical for convenience of simplification, understanding and
easiness. Among these types are (according to Oxford Collocations Dictionary, 2002 /
2003, which has adopted a lexico-grammatical classification of collocations. See also
Benson et al, 1986, for further classification of collocations):

 adjective + noun (bright light)

 quantifier + noun (a beam of light)
 verb + noun (cast light)
 noun + verb (light gleams)
 noun + noun (a light source)
 preposition + noun (by the light of the moon)
 noun + preposition (the light from the window)
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  verb + verb (be free to choose)
 verb + adverb (choose carefully)
 verb + preposition (choose between two things)
 verb +adjective (declare (sth) safe)
 adverb + adjective (perfectly safe)
 adjective + prepositions (safe from attack)

Ghazala (2007, 2008&2014) suggests further seven types:

 count noun collocations (a flock of birds)

 non-count noun collocations (a word of advice)
 adjective + adjective (hale and hearty; alive and kicking, etc.)
 noun + of + noun (a man of wisdom)
 noun + and + noun ( black and white; vice and virtue, etc.)
 names of sounds collocations (dogs bark; wolves howl, etc.)
 adverb + adverb (secretly and publicly)

(Idiomatic collocations are excluded to make it more convenient to distinguish between

collocations and idioms in language).

Yet, Arabic collocations may involve types other than those of their English counterparts
that are equally well-established in the lexis of language. They give a systematic, tidy
shape for word combination. Moreover, they achieve a maximum degree of accuracy of
expression and meaning. More importantly, collocations represent a rhetorical and
aesthetic force of language in broad sense. In this sense, collocations are taken in their
broad sense of word collocability in language as a whole. Generally speaking, this is true,
especially in relevance to the Holy Koran, the first and richest source of Arabic
collocations. That is why some examples below are quoted from the Holy Koran, as
usually done indeed by Grammar Books and references, old and new.

The main types of collocations will be considered from two main angles: the first is lexical-
semantic, focusing on the possibility of finding an equivalent meaning for them in the TL
and how much loss / gain of meaning is involved; and secondly, grammatical-semantic,
considering the extent to which their TL grammatical structures can be reproduced, or
breached in the TL. Here are the most prominent types of Arabic collocations:

2.4.1.1 Noun + Adjective → Adjective Noun:

(Holy/Noble Koran) ‫قرآن كرٌم‬ )1(

(divine wisdom) ‫حكمة إلهٌة‬ )2(
(good patience) ‫صبر جمٌل‬ )3(
(official visit) ‫رٌارة رسمٌة‬ )4(
(gusty wind) ‫رٌ عاصؾ‬ )5(
(refutable argument) ‫حجة داحضة‬ )6(
(straight path; righteous way) ‫صراط مستقٌم‬ )7(
(exemplar; good example) ‫أسوة حسنة‬ )8(
naked eye ‫عٌن مجردة‬ )9(

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 time bomb ‫) قنبلة موقوتة‬10(

The first collocation is a literal translation borrowed from Arabic into English through
transliteration and naturalization of the first Arabic word into ‘Koran’ and the translation
of the second word literally into ‘noble’. The rest of collocations have one-to-one
equivalent in English except ‘3’, ‘6’ and ‘7’ which are semi collocations in form and
content. That is, they look like collocations.

2.4.1.2 Noun + Noun: the Genitive )‫ مضاف إليه‬+ ‫ → (مضاف‬Genitive/adj.-n.

(presence of mind/repartee) ‫) حضور البدٌهة‬1(

(Job's patience) ‫) صبر أٌوب‬2(
(the best man on earth; the best of mankind) ‫) خٌر البرٌة‬3(
(calamity of evil / disgraceful torment / evil turn of fortune) ‫) دابرة السَّوء‬4(
freedom of the press/expression ‫التعبٌر‬/‫) حرٌة الصحافة‬5(
(sunrise; sunset) ‫ؼروب الشمس‬/‫شرو الشمس؛ مؽرب‬/‫) مطلع‬6(
(The Grace of God / God's Grace) ‫) فضل هللا‬7(
pangs of conscience ‫) وخر الضمٌر‬8(
middle age ‫) سن الكهولة‬9(
sunstroke ‫) ضربة شمس‬10(

Notably, ‘6’ is translated into the best possible terms that are two English compounds
taken today as one word each. On the other hand, there are multiple options of
English collocations for 1, 3 and 4. This is a recurrent practice in the translation of
most of the types of collocations due to a fact about language that there can be more
than one good option available.

2.4.1.3 Noun + Noun: Topic and Comment )‫ → (مبتدأ وخبر‬copula sentence

(love is blind) ‫) الحب أعمى‬1(

(the World is nought) ‫) الدنٌا سراب‬2(
(knowledge is power) ‫) العلم نور‬3(
(death is a fact) ‫) الموت ح‬4(
(Men are responsible for women) ‫) الرجال قوامون على النساء‬5(
(sleep is rest) ‫) النوم راحة‬6(
(books are the university of home) ‫) الكتاب خٌر جلٌس‬7(
(water is the sinews of life) ‫) الماء حٌاة‬8(
(health is the best wealth) ‫) الصحة تاج‬9(
(life is short) ‫) العمر قصٌر‬10(

All the English translations are complete sentences for there is no nominal sentence type
in English grammar. The resulting translations of these Arabic collocations are mainly short
sentences in proper English (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 and 10). That is, the TL statements are either
identical equivalents to the SL collocations (1, 4, 6 and 10) or TL linguistic cultural
equivalents (2, 3, 7 and 9). The latter group represents the way the SL collocations are said
in English: the World is a ‘mirage’ in Arabic, whereas it is ‘nought’ in English; knowledge is
described in English as ‘power’, not as ‘light’; books are ‘friends’ in the SL, but they are the
‘university of home’ in the TL; and while health is a ‘crown’ in Arabic, yet it is ‘wealth’ in
186
English. As to the remaining two collocations, 5 and 8, they are translated either into the
intended sense of the original (i.e. 5), or into a semi-collocation in the TL (8), suggested
after the well-known collocation, ‘sinews of war’ )‫(عصب الحرب‬.

2.4.1.4 Appositive collocations: Noun + Noun → appositive expressions

(honourable, pious / righteous believers) ‫كرام بررة‬ )1(

(wicked disbelievers) ‫كفرة فجرة‬ )2(
(the openhanded, the generous) ‫الجواد الكرٌم‬ )3(
the Compassionate, the Benevolent ‫الحنان المنان‬ )4(
the believer, the believed ‫الصاد المصدو‬ )5(

Apart from the first two, which are translated into ‘adjective-noun’ collocations, the
remaining Arabic collocations are translated into English appositive words only.

2.4.1.5 Noun + and + Noun Synonymous Collocations → n. + n. expressions

(repose and happiness) ‫الر ْو والرٌحان‬ )1(

(affliction and destruction) ‫الوٌل والثبور‬ )2(
(poverty and ailment; hardship and peril) ‫البأساء والضراء‬ )3(
(Gog and Magog) ‫ٌأجوج ومأجوج‬ )4(
(wonderments and bewilderments) ‫عجابب وؼرابب‬ )5(
(bread and butter) ‫الخبر والمل‬ )6(
(food and drink( ‫الطعام والشراب‬ )7(

The first three are semi-collocations translating the literal sense of the original Arabic,
whereas the remaining four are well-established collocations of coordination in English
Language. Number ‘4’ is an old religious collocation of coordination of naturalization.

2.4.1.6 Noun + and + Noun Contrastive Collocations → n. + n. juxtaposed expressions

(the witness and the witnessed; the witnessing day of Friday and the ‫شاهد ومشهود‬ )1(
witnessed day of Arafat)
(east and west) ‫ المشر والمؽرب‬/ ‫المشار والمؽارب‬ )2(
(day and night) ‫اللٌل والنهار‬ )3(
(reward and retribution) ‫الوعد والوعٌد‬ )4(
(enticement and menace) ‫الترؼٌب والترهٌب‬ )5(
(the strong and the weak) ‫القوي والضعٌؾ‬ )6(
(the rich and the poor) ‫الؽنً والفقٌر‬ )7(

Apart from (1), these collocations have established one-to-one equivalents in English.
Hence, they are available in dictionaries of collocations and do not pose a big problem of
translation. The first is a direct translation of the intended sense of the original, which can
be also understood by implication as a reference to the specific Koranic verse (3) of
Chapter of )‫( (البروج‬The Constellations), which has several references in the books of
exegesis of the Holy Koran that can be checked by readers and translators at will.

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2.4.1.7 Verb + Noun → Verb + Object )‫ مفعول به‬+ ‫ →(فعل‬V. + N. Collocations

)conjure spirits) ‫ٌستحضر األروا‬ )1(

)break the back) ‫ٌقصم الظهر‬ )2(
(teach a lesson) ‫لقن درسا‬ )3(
(mistreat; abuse) ‫أساء المعاملة‬ )4(
(lose one’s temper; lose one’s senses; display impatience) ‫ضا ذرعا‬ )5(
(await a disaster (to befall you)) ‫ٌتربا (بكم) الدوابر‬ )6(

All these collocations but the last are familiar in the TL, with the same sense of the original
and they are English. That is ‘2’ is metaphorical, ‘5’ is ‘rebuke’, while ‘6’ is negative and
menacing in both languages. However the last is figurative in Arabic, but literal in English,
which is a frequent difference between many collocations of both languages concerned,
as also demonstrated by other types throughout as one of the differences between their
standard collocations.

2.4.1.8 Verb + Object Collocations: Cognates

(verify the truth) ‫ٌُح الح‬ )1(

(revoke falsehood) ‫ٌُبطل الباطل‬ )2(
(hatch plots) ‫ٌكٌد المكابد‬ )3(
(fire a shot) ‫ٌطل طلقة‬ )4(
(pray) ‫ٌصلى صالة‬ )5(
(cry bitterly) ‫ٌبكً بكاء مرا‬ )6(

Similar cognates can be produced in English to some extent, though not necessarily; only
when proper English Language allows. Otherwise, the translator is free to look for a better
version that can be more satisfying than translating into artificial cognates, as can be
demonstrated by a literal version of, say, ‘5’ as ‘pray a prayer’ and ‘6’ as ‘cry bitter cry’.
These are not allowed in proper English.

2.4.1.9 Verb + Subject Collocations → (Subject + Verb) )‫ فاعل‬+ ‫(فعل‬

(Blessed is God; God is Blessed) ‫تبار هللا‬ )1(

(rain falls) ‫هطل المطر‬ )2(
(dawn breaks) ‫انبل الفجر‬/‫برغ‬ )3(
(the sun rises) ‫أشرقت الشمس‬ )4(
The moon eclipses) ‫خسؾ القمر‬ )5(
(a plot goes wrong) ‫فشلت الخطة‬ )6(
(saliva dribbles) ‫ٌسٌل اللعاب‬ )7(
(my hair went grey/ my head is a blaze with grey hair) ‫اشتعل الرأس شٌبا‬ )8(

Except the last one, all collocations are well known in English, as many of this type
translate each other in the two languages, Arabic and English. However, when the exact
verb is not available for the students/translators, they may go to a very close synonym
that can collocate appropriately with the noun. For example, in case the right verb
‘eclipses’ is not found, ‘dies down’ or ‘disappears partially/completely’ can fit.

188
2.4.1.10 Verb + and + Verb Collocations

(harken and perceive; listen to me carefully, lend me your ears) ‫اسمعوا وعوا‬ )1(
(fume with rage; flame up with rage) ‫أرؼى وأربد‬/‫أرعد‬ )2(
((he) thought then plotted) ‫فكر وقدر‬ )3(
((he) frowned and scowled) ‫عبس وبسر‬ )4(
((we) die and perish) ‫نموت ونفنى‬ )5(
(toil and sweat; labour and endeavour; break one’s neck) ‫ٌكد وٌكد‬ )6(

In Arabic, the collocations are complete verbal statements. So, they are translated into
English sentences which are not taken as collocations. However, what concern us are the
combinations of the pairs of verbs. The first has several collocations in English, literal and
figurative. The second collocation is translated into informal but acceptable two English
collocations. More collocations can be found in English for this one. The third and fourth
collocations are taken from the Holy Koran and translated into intended sense and semi-
collocations in English. The last two are translated into recognized English collocations,
and the translator has to work to find them. The last one, ‘break one’s back’ is a popular
idiomatic collocation.

2.4.1.11 Double Negative Collocations:

(neither here nor there) ‫ال فً العٌر وال فً النفٌر‬ )1(

(neither this nor that) ‫ال هذا وال ذا‬ )2(
((he neither helps nor let others help; a dog in the ( ‫ال ٌرحم وال ٌدع الرحمة تنرل‬ )3(
manger
(neither nourishes nor satisfies hunger) )‫ال ٌسمن وال ٌؽنً (من جوع‬ )4(
(neither cool nor refreshing) ‫ال بارد وال كرٌم‬ )5(
sight neither turned aside nor swept astray) ‫ما راغ البصر وما طؽى‬ )6(
(you neither feel thirsty nor suffer from heat) ‫ال تظمأ وال تضحى‬ )7(

The English translations are mainly long double negative ‘neither-nor’ collocations in some
way, and some are full statements (i.e.6 and 7) which are just translations of sense. The
important thing for students and translators is to get these statements right as much
grammatically as semantically. The second collocation of ‘3’ ‘a dog in the manger’, is a
famous informal English idiom that expresses the meaning of the original accurately with a
sharper sense of negativity and cynicism (i.e. the comparison of a bad person to a dog).

2.4.1.12 Cognate Absolute Object Collocations )‫(المفعول المطلق‬:

(plot a mighty plot / devise a tremendous plot) ‫مكر مكرا‬ )1(

(bring forth (from earth)) ‫أخرج إخراجا‬ )2(
(suffer a manifest loss) ‫خسر خسرانا‬ )3(
(go astray into far error) ‫ضل ضالال‬ )4(
to make life smooth and comfortable (for sb.) ‫مهد تمهٌدا‬ )5(
(recite the Koran with distinct recitation / in a slow style) ‫رتل ترتٌال‬ )6(
(destroy utterly / completely / with complete destruction ‫دمر تدمٌرا‬ )7(
(strive with the utmost endeavour / in strength) ‫جاهد جهادا‬ )8(

189
The SL collocations are Arabic special, so they are translated emphatically into English,
with the absolute object being translated into adverbials and prepositional phrases of
emphasis of some kind. Yet, none will give the full strength of the emphasis of the Arabic
original. Hence, our English translations are approximate translations.

2.4.1.13 Emphatic N.-Adj. / Adj.-Adj. Cognate Collocations

(forbidden ban) ‫حِجر محجور‬ )1(

(palatable and sweet) ‫عذب فرات‬ )2(
(salty and bitter) ‫مل أُجاج‬ )3(
(predestined decree; determined fate) ‫قدر مقدور‬ )4(
(Most Gracious, Most Merciful) ‫الرحمن الرحٌم‬ )5(
(dense shade) ‫ظل ظلٌل‬ )6(

The English translations are semi-collocations in the sense that they can be considered as
collocations, though several of them are not quite common in daily use of English
Language. Yet, in Arabic, they are far more emphatic and established than their English
equivalents. They are similar to those of the absolute object of the previous type.

2.4.1.14 Reversive Collocations:

(wretched and blessed) ‫شقً وسعٌد‬ )1(

(the dead and the living) ‫األحٌاء واألموات‬ )2(
(secrecy and publicity/ in secret and in public/secretly and ‫ سرا وعالنٌة‬/ ‫السر والعلن‬ )3(
publicly)
(words and deeds) ‫األقوال واألفعال‬ )4(
(good and evil) ‫الخٌر والشر‬ )5(
(the forbidden and the allowed / lawful and unlawful) ‫الحالل والحرام‬ )6(
(vice and virtue) ‫الفضٌلة والرذٌلة‬ )7(
(prosperity and adversity; health and sickness) ‫السراء والضراء‬ )8(
(profit and loss) ‫الرب والخسارة‬ )9(

Interestingly, several collocations of this type are identical in both languages concerned
(e.g. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 9). The rest are literal translations of the original in a collocational
structure of a sort.

2.4.1.15 Adjective + Adjective Collocations

(hale and hearty/ healthy and well) ‫صحٌ معافى‬ )1(

(private and public) ‫العام والخاا‬ )2(
(abasing, exalting) ‫خافضة رافعة‬ )3(
)honest and upright) ‫عفٌؾ شرٌؾ‬ )4(
(angry and sorrowful / grieved) ‫ؼضبان أسِ فا‬ )5(
(devoted faster and night worshipper) ‫صوام قوام‬ )6(

This type of collocation is not quite common in English. So translators try to do their best
to translate them into sense in as short collocational constructions as possible. That said,

190
the first two are established English collocations. The translator’s best choice is generally
to go for a standard collocation, followed by the next best of semi-collocation,

2.4.1.16 Verb + Preposition Collocations

(God destroyed them completely vs. God )10 :‫ دمرهم هللا (محمد‬/ ‫) دمر هللا علٌهم‬1(
destroyed them
(he asked help from his friends/he asks his friends to help him) ‫) استعان بأصحابه‬2(
(leave sb. to / to leave for / to be determined ‫ ؼدا على‬/ ‫ ؼدا من‬/ ‫) ؼدا إلى‬3(
(glorify your Lord’s Name) ‫) سب باسم رب‬4(
(to dispute about God / dispute for somebody / ‫ ٌجادل أحدهم‬/ ‫ ٌجادل عن‬/ ‫) ٌجادل فً هللا‬5(
dispute somebody
(look forward to the prize) ‫) ٌسعى إلى الجابرة‬6(
(turn his face away from me; ignore me) ً‫) ٌشٌ بوجهه عن‬7(
(wander aimlessly) ‫) هام على وجهه‬8(
(distance himself from politics; keeps at arm’s length from ‫) نأى بنفسه عن السٌاسة‬9(
politics)
(they overthrew/toppled down the tyrant) ‫) أطاحو بالطاؼٌة‬10(

Prepositional collocations have to be treated with care for three reasons: first, the two
languages have more differences in the use of prepositions than similarities; second, they
can, at times, change meaning, or even give the opposite of the meaning intended by the
original preposition; and third, sometimes, prepositions are dropped for they are included
in the verb (see 1, 2 and 4). Collocations 7, 8 and 9 are translated by implication but into
standard collocations and idioms with different forms, though.

2.4.1.17 Passive verb + Preposition Collocations

he was caught red-handed ‫قبض علٌه متلبسا‬ )1(

(he was found killed) ‫عُثر علٌه مقتوال‬ )2(
(he was dismissed/given the sack) ‫أقٌل من منصبه‬ )3(
(he thought of himself a minister) ‫ُخٌِّل إلٌه أنه ورٌر‬ )4(
ُ
(their hearts are sealed) ‫ط ِبع على قلوبهم‬ )5(
(they will be judged with truth / justice) ‫قضً بالح‬ )6(

Similar to the previous group, the prepositions are used (4, 6), or dropped (1, 2, 4, 5) here
as appropriately as required in proper English, sometimes with a remarkable difference
from the original, as in ‘4’. So, the translator is required to be extra careful.

2.4.1.18 Adjective + Preposition Collocations

(devoted to God; Muslim scholar/jurist) ‫عارؾ باهلل‬ )1(

(determined to implement his plan) ‫عارم على تنفٌذ خطته‬ )2(
(unconscious; in a coma; stupefied) ً‫فاقد للوع‬ )3(
(at rest with faith; firm in faith) ‫مطمبن باإلٌمان‬ )4(
(defendant) ‫مدعى علٌه‬ )5(
(in doubt/doubtful about something; dubious thing) ‫شا باألمر‬ )6(
191
The main problem of translating this group for students and translators is to pick up the
appropriate preposition following the adjective concerned. Mistakes are usually
committed in the prepositions, and many would wrongly use, for example, ‘determined
on’ rather than ‘determined to’ as a word-for-word translation of Arabic. On the other
hand, some SL collocations are not so in the TL (3 and 5), in which case translators are not
to be tempted to devise an artificial collocation like *“defendant upon”, which is not a
part of English lexicon. Hence, care is to be taken at translating these and other
prepositions in general (see the next point).

2.4.1.19 Prepositional Phrases Collocations

(for the sake of God) ‫لوجه هللا‬ )1(

(everywhere) ‫فً كل مكان‬ )2(
(In God we trust; our trust is in God) ‫على هللا توكلنا‬ )3(
(please, do not interrupt me) ً‫ ال تقاطعن‬، ‫من فضل‬ )4(
(Abu Hurairah narrated/reported) ‫عن أبً هرٌرة‬ )5(
(with knowledge only we develop) ً‫بالعلم نرتق‬ )6(
((this is) God’s grace on us) ‫من فضل هللا علٌنا‬ )7(

These collocations start with prepositional phrases that may, or may not have one-to-one.
equivalent collocations in English. The first, for instance, is translated directly into an
equivalent English collocation, whereas the second is one word only, an adverbial that has
a zero-preposition in the target language. The third is a well-known English collocational
statement. By analogy, the fourth and fifth examples have no prepositions, or
prepositional prepositions or prepositional phrases due to the different way of expressing
meaning in the TL. That is, ‘please’, and adverb, translate a prepositional phrase in Arabic
and has no equivalent in English that the one suggested here. In ‘5’ the SL preposition is
translated by implication into its underlying meaning of ‘narrate’. The result is a different
structure in the TL. Any translation of ‫ عن‬into ‘about’ will be a big mistake.

2.4.1.20 Names of Sounds Collocations: Noun + Noun → Noun + Verb

nightingales ‫) عندلة العنادل‬20(

pipe/warble a loud burst of ‫قهقهة الضاح‬ )1(
Doors creak ‫) صرٌر الباب‬21( laughter; a laughter’s guffaw
Camels grump ‫) أررمة اإلبل‬22( women’s ‫ولولة المرأة‬ )2(
lams/sheep bleat ‫) ثؽاء الؽنم‬23( ululation/wailing of
grasshoppers ‫) صرٌر الجراد‬24( cracking of fingers; ‫فرقعة األصابع‬ )3(
chirp/patter fingers’ cracking; crack one’s
water ‫) خرٌر الماء‬25( fingers
purls/bubbles/gurgles mouth snoring ‫شخٌر الفم‬ )4(
thunder ‫) هرٌم الرعد‬26( Horses neigh/whinny ‫صهٌل الخٌل‬ )5(
rumbles/rolls/claps; peals of Donkeys bray/hee- ‫نهٌ الحمٌر‬ )6(
thunder haw/yelp
lions roar ‫) ربٌر األسود‬27( Cows low/moo ‫خوار البقر‬ )7(
the wind ٌ‫ رفٌر الر‬/‫) هرٌر‬28( doves coo ‫هدٌل الحمام‬ )8(
192
 howls/moans/roars/whistles
Flies buzz ‫) طنٌن الذباب‬29(
Bees hum/buzz ‫) دوي النحل‬30(
Snakes hiss ً‫) فحٌ األفاع‬31(
Trees rustle ‫) حفٌؾ الشجر‬32(
Sparrows chirp ‫رقرقة العصافٌر‬/ ‫) سقسة‬33(
Arms rattle/tinkle ‫) جلجلة السال‬34(
Swords clang/rattle ‫) صلٌل السٌوؾ‬35(
Cats mew/meow/purr ‫) مواء القطط‬36(
bells toll/ring ‫) رنٌن األجراس‬37(
Crows caw ‫) نعٌ الؽراب‬9(
dogs bark/bay ‫) نبا الكالب‬10(
Wolves howl ‫) عواء الذباب‬11(
Frogs croak ‫) نقٌ الضفادع‬12(
Pigs grunt ‫) قُباع الخنارٌر‬13(
Foxes yelp/bark ‫) ضُباع الثعلب‬14(
Hares squeak ‫) ضؽٌب األرانب‬15(
Elephants trumpet ‫) صبًِّ الفٌلة‬16(
‫صفٌر النسر‬/‫صرصرة الباري‬/‫) صرٌر‬17(
eagles/vultures scream
hawks scream ‫) قعقعة الصقور‬18(
Deer bell ً‫) نرٌب الظب‬19(

Oddly enough, the members of this type of collocations are mostly available as one-to-one
equivalents in Arabic and English. They are really interesting and entertaining to students,
translators and readers alike. Now, with the specialist dictionaries and the Internet being
available, they are not difficult to find. In the event that they have no access to any of
them, students and translators have a next choice: to go for the general word ‘SOUND’.
Perhaps, the difficulty lies in the Arabic term, which might be classical Arabic and, hence,
unfamiliar to them. That said, what interests them is to look for the appropriate English
collocation, which may make the original clearer. A very critical point about the translation
of these collocations is the obvious difference between their NOUN-OF-NOUN (GENITIVE)
STRUCTURE in Arabic, and the NOUN-VERB (INTRANSITIVE) CONSTRUCTION of English.
Students and translators are emphatically recommended to attend to this difference for
translating the SL collocations into an identical TL structure of ‘genitive’ (e.g. buzzing of
bees, howling of wolves, belling of deer, rustling of trees, etc.) will spoil them and turn
them into awkward artificial collocational structures, though, in principle, they are
potentially possible in English. Accordingly, the rule is to abide by the TL proper structures
of the SL collocations when available in the former, whether they are or not of the same
or different TL structures.

2.4.1.21 Proverbial Collocations: ‘as…as’ Similes’ Constructions

as regal as ‫من كلٌب وابل‬/‫) أعر من الربّاء‬19(
Juno
as ‫أبعد من الثرٌا‬/ ‫) أعر من بٌض األنو‬20(
remote/unreal as a dream
‫ أحكم من‬/‫حكٌم كسلٌمان‬/‫) أحكم من لقمان‬21(
as sober as a judge/as ‫الهدهد‬
solemn as an owl as fair as the morn ‫) أبٌْن من فل الصب‬6(
as wise as Solomon ‫) حكٌم كسلٌمان‬22(
as patient ‫ صبر أٌوب‬/‫) صبور مثل أٌوب‬23(
as Job
as patient as a ‫) أصبر من حمار‬24(
donkey
as suspicious as a ‫) أشد رٌبة من ثعلب‬25(
193
as busy as a bee ‫) أكسب من نملة‬1(
as candid as a mirror ‫) أصد من مرآة‬2(
as angry as a wasp ‫) أؼضب من جمل‬3(
as bitter as hemlock ‫) أم ّر من العلقم‬4(
as careless as the ‫) أطٌش من فراشة‬5(
wind
as fast (quick) as ‫) أسرع من البر‬7(
light/as an eagle/as a storm
as good as gold ‫) أصٌل كالذهب‬8(
as happy as a lark/as ‫) أسعد من عصفور‬9(
the day is long
as lithe as a ‫) أنشط من ظبً مقمر‬10(
 cat
as sweet as ‫السكر‬/‫) أحلى من العسل‬26(
honey/as sugar as a rose
‫من‬/‫ من الصخر‬/‫) أثبت فً الدار من الجدار‬27(
as steady as a rock ‫صخرة‬
as spiteful as a monkey ‫) أحقد من جمل‬28(
as strong as a ‫ األسد‬/ ‫) أقوى من الحصان‬29(
horse
as talkative as a ‫) أحكى من مكثار‬30(
magpie
as changeable as ‫) أشد تقلبا من حرباء‬31(
the moon/as a weather cock
as gluttonous ‫من طفٌل‬/‫) أطمع من أشعب‬32(
as curiosity
as tame as a sheep ‫) أودع من حمل‬33(
as weak as a ‫) أوهن من بٌت العنكبوت‬34(
kitten/as a reed/ as dish-water
as wavering as Hamlet ‫) أحْ ٌر من ضب‬35(
panther/ as a tiger; as lively as a
cricket
as cowardly as a wild ‫) أجبن من نعامة‬11(
duck
as cunning/crafty as a ‫) أمكر من ثعلب‬12(
fox
as tall as a steeple ‫) أطول من ظل الرم‬13(
as faithful as the dog ‫) أوفى من الكلب‬14(
as honest as the day ‫) أوفى من السموءل‬15(
is long
as obstinate/stubborn ( ‫) أعند من البؽل‬16(
as a mule (/ as a pig
as ravenous as a winter ‫) أجوع من ذبب‬17(
wolf
as red as a ‫الشمندر‬/‫) أشد حمرة من الدم‬18(
beetroot/ as a cherry/ as blood

Again, like sound collocations above, these collocations of similes are quite popular and
available at leisure in both languages, the SL and the TL. The Arabic collocations are all in
all proverbs and, in effect, all in all cultural specific (see Al-Maidani, 1996; Best, 1991;
Ghazala, 2007&2014 and others). The translator is commended to search for the
appropriate one-to-one English equivalent whether it is of the same cultural image or not.
Since these similes are cultural, the translator’s concern will be naturally in the sense, or
idea, though the image or similitude drawn is sometimes different. There are many
examples in the list that confirm this point. Though some are identical in both sense and
cultural image (e.g. 2, 6,7, 14, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 26, 29, 33, etc.), several others are of
different image, but an identical idea. Examples include ‘1’ which demonstrates that the
image of ‘very busy’ is embodied in Arabic by ‘an ant’, while, in English it is represented by
‘a magpie’; a coward is likened to ‘an ostrich’ in Arabic, whereas ‘a wild duck’ is used in
English for the same implication (11). ‘Spite’ is incorporated figuratively and culturally in
Arabic in the ‘camel’, but in the ‘monkey’ in English (28); ‘gluttony’ is symbolized by a
popular folk character known to be (Ash’ab), but by ‘curiosity’ in English (32). On the other
hand, ‘fox’ represents ‘suspicion’ in Arabic; it is ‘cat’ in English (25). However, ‘the spider’
is symbolic of ‘weakness’ in Arabic, while it is represented in ‘kitten/reed/dish-water’ in
English. Last but not least, ‘Hamlet’, the well-known character of Shakespeare’s famous
play with the same title, is famous for wavering and indecision, yet, in Arabic, the image of
‘the dabb lizard’ is manipulated. Such differences are irrelevant in the translation of these
cultural similes, as argued earlier.

The second interesting point about the problems of translating these collocations of
similitude is that they are generally in the SUPERLATIVE FORM in Arabic, whereas, their
English counterparts are in the form of ‘equal to’. Although the former are more
exaggerative and emphatic than the latter, the English standard equivalents are probably
the best versions of translation available. One or two SL constructions break the rule of
superlative form, and take the form of ‘equal to’ for a special reason. ‘22’ and ‘23’ are
similes on equal terms only to imply high esteem for the two God’s Prophets, Job and
194
Solomon, peace be to them, and that nobody else can exceed their patience and wisdom
respectively.

The final point about the translation of these collocations is that, in case the students /
translator has no access to the appropriate collocation in the TL, and as a last resort, he /
she can express the intended meaning by using the exaggerative and emphatic VERY
followed by the related ADJECTIVE (e.g. ‘as strong as a horse’ → VERY STRONG; ‘as
cowardly as a duck’ → very cowardly, etc.).

2.4.1.22 Parts of Count Nouns’ Collocations

a ‫سرب من النحل‬/‫دبْر‬/‫) خشرم‬18( a crowd of people ‫) حشد من الناس‬1(

swarm/grist of bees
a dissimulation of ‫) سرب من الطٌور‬19(
birds
a host of sparrows ‫) سرب من العصافٌر‬20(
a legion/corps of army ‫) فٌل من الجٌش‬21(
a ‫) قطٌع من الحٌتان‬22(
school/pod/mod/gam of whales
a shiver/school/shoal ‫) قطٌع من القرش‬23(
of sharks
a ‫سرب من السم‬/‫) فوج‬24(
draft/shoal/nest, catch/ school of
fish
a murder of crows ‫) سرب من الؽربان‬25(
a set of glasses ‫) طقم من الكؤوس‬26(
a cast of falcons; ‫كشة من النسور‬/‫) سرب‬27(
a convocation of eagles; a
venue/kettle of vultures
a choir/band of ‫) جوقة من المؽنٌن‬28(
singers
a bouquet of flowers ‫) باقة من الورود‬29(
a flight swallows ‫) كشة من السنونو‬30(
a bask/float of ٌ‫) قطٌع من التماس‬31(
crocodiles
a flock of ostrich ‫) خٌط من النعام‬32(
a parliament/stare of ‫) سرب من البوم‬33(
owls
a ‫سرب من النمل‬/‫) دوامة‬34(
colony/army/swarm of ants
a generation of people ‫) جٌل من الناس‬2(
a team of ‫من العلماء‬/‫) كوكبة من الفرسان‬3(
horses/scholars (or
scientists/researchers)
a band of men ‫) حاصب من الرجال‬4(
a company of women ‫) لُمة من النساء‬5(
an advanced party of ‫) رعٌل من الخٌل‬6(
horses
a herd/flock of ‫) صرمة من اإلبل‬7(
camels
a herd of ‫الماشٌة‬/‫) قطٌع من الؽنم‬8(
sheep/cattle
a multitude/company of ‫) ُثلة من البشر‬9(
people
a flock/drove/fold of ‫) ثلة من الؽنم‬10(
sheep
a pride of ‫) عرجلة من السباع‬11(
beasts/lions
a herd of lions ‫) قطٌع من األسود‬12(
a herd/swarm of ‫) سرب من الظباء‬13(
antelope (or deer)
a swarm of ‫سرب من الطٌر‬/‫) عصابة‬14(
birds
a pack/kennel of ‫) قطٌع من الكالب‬15(
dogs
a cloud of ‫) ِرجْ ل من الجراد‬16(
grasshoppers
a dole of doves ‫كشة من الحمام‬/‫) سرب‬17(

These are among the common collocations in the two languages, Arabic and English, as
they are available and have the same grammatical structure of ‘of-genitive’. Yet, they are
not easy to attain. Good references and the Web provide good assistance. In the event
that a problem of translating any of these collocations persists, and again as a last resort,
students and translators are recommended to resort to using a general term that refers to
a number of the objects concerned, including:
195
  Group (for people)
 Number (for people)
 Company (for people, birds and insects)
 Flock (for animals)
 Parliament (for birds and animals)
 Party (for people and animals
2.4.1.23 Parts of Noncount Nouns’ Collocations
a lock/tuft of hair ‫) ُخصلة من الشعر‬27(
a block of iron ‫) ُربرة من الحدٌد‬28(
a firebrand; an ember ‫) جذوة من النار‬29(
of fire
a fragment of cloud ‫) كِسفة من السحاب‬30(
a cloudlet ‫) قرعة من الؽٌم‬31(
a rag; a piece of cloth ‫) خِرقة من الثوب‬32(
a speck/handful ‫حفنة من التراب‬/‫) حُثوة‬33(
of dust (or earth)
a watch of night ‫) هرٌع من اللٌل‬34(
a morsel/scrap of ‫) لُمظة من الطعام‬35(
food
a ‫) صُبابة من الشراب‬36(
remainder/leftover of a drink
a ball/lump ‫تقرٌصة من العجٌن‬/‫) فرردقة‬37(
of dough
a piece of one’s liver; ‫) فِلذة من الكبد‬38(
one’s offspring
a bundle of grass ‫) ضؽث من حشٌش‬39(
a bundle/faggot of ‫) حرمة من حطب‬40(
wood (or sticks of wood)
a bundle of books ‫) إضبارة من كتب‬41(
a bunch of greens ‫) باقة من بقل‬42(
(parsley, peppermint, etc.)
a cake/bar of soap ‫) لو صابون؛صابونة‬43(
an act of violence ‫) عمل عنؾ‬44(
a slice of cheese ‫) قطعة من جبن‬45(
a plot of ground ‫رقعة من أرض‬/‫) قطعة‬46(
a loaf of bread ‫) رؼٌؾ من خبر‬47(
a glass of water ‫) كأس من الماء‬48(
a bottle of milk ‫عبوة من الحلٌب‬/‫) رجاجة‬49(
a piece of ‫موسٌقٌة‬/‫) مقطوعة من الموسٌقى‬50(
music
a cup of ‫الشاي‬/‫) فنجان من القهوة‬51(
coffee/tea
a dose/drink of water ‫) شربة (من) ماء‬52(
196
a crust/slice of bread ‫) كِسرة من الخبر‬1(
a handful of flour ٌ‫) نسفة من الدق‬2(
a fit of laugh ‫) نوبة من الضح‬3(
a stroke of luck ‫) ضربة حظ‬4(
a piece/an article of ‫) قطعة أثاث‬5(
furniture
a slab of meat ‫) فدرة من اللحم‬6(
a slice of meat ‫) شرٌحة من اللحم‬7(
a pile of rubbish ‫) كومة من القمامة‬8(
a panel of glass ‫) لو من الرجاج‬9(
a bowlful/scoop of ‫) ؼرفة من المر‬10(
broth
a sip of water ‫شفة من الماء‬/‫شفافة‬ُ )11(
a bowlful of milk ‫) درة من اللبن‬12(
a bottle of milk ‫عبوة حلٌب‬/‫) رجاجة‬13(
a packet of milk ‫كرتون حلٌب‬/‫) علبة‬14(
a bar of chocolate ‫قطعة شوكوال‬/‫) إصبع‬15(
a )‫مكعب من السمن (أو الربدة‬/‫) كعب‬16(
portion/cube of butter
a pat of )‫) قالب من الربدة (لصب الربدة‬17(
butter
a chunk/heap of dates ‫) كتلة من التمر‬18(
a can of tuna/meat ‫لحمة‬/‫) علبة طن‬19(
a drop of blood ‫) نقطة دم‬20(
a round of ٌ‫) عاصفة من التصف‬21(
applause
a bowl/heap of ‫) صُبرة من الحنطة‬22(
wheat (or cereal)
grains of rice ‫) حبات من الرر‬23(
a (molten) piece of ‫) ُنقرة من الفضة‬24(
silver
a (molten) piece of ‫) بدرة من الذهب‬25(
gold
a ball/hank of ‫كبكوبة من الصوؾ‬/‫) ُكبّة‬26(
wool
Like those of the count nouns discussed above, noncount nouns collocations are also
famous in both Arabic and English. They interchange in both language in many instances,
but the problem of translating some collocations of this type can cause some headache for
students of translation and translators in terms of the precise word that collocates with a
certain mass noun. When they fail to get it, having tried hard, they may resort, and as a
last resort, to one of the following general words:

 piece for solid objects (e.g. a piece of cheese, bread, butter, furniture, chocolate,
etc.)
 piece/bit/item of written or read material (e.g. news, information)
 piece for abstract nouns (e.g. advice, evidence, etc.)
 bottle/packet/glass of liquids (milk, water, soda drink, etc.)
 word (of advice)
 quantity/handful/teaspoon/cup/bag/kg (of sugar, rice, cereals, etc.)

Yet, if the target language does not include the SL collocation, a semi-collocation of the
intended sense can be suggested. And in case the TL equivalent is one word (e.g. cloudlet
(31) and rag (32), it is the good choice that is preferred to an artificial semi-collocation, or
literal translation of the original.

2.4.1.24 Collocational Clusters of Religious Texts

Collocations can occur in sets and clusters at the textual level that may be serialized either
as synonymous sequences, or consecutive combinations. They can be viewed as well-
established collocations in Islamic texts in particular, and in Arabic Language in general.
They are approached literally in translating them into English for they are religious
collocations, and religious texts are generally translated literally. Here are illustrative
examples, starting with synonymous successive sets of collocations in the Holy Koran:

(a) The Holy Koran: a Series of Synonymous Collocations

)1(
ُ
.‫ وإذا البحار سجرت‬... .‫ وإذا العشار عطلت‬.‫ وإذا الجبال سٌرت‬.‫ وإذا النجوم انكدرت‬.‫ إذا الشمس كورت‬.1
)11-1 :‫ وإذا السماء كشطت (التكوٌر‬...
(When the sun shall be rolled up. And the stars fall and lose their light. And the mountains
shall be in motion and set asunder. And the she-camels shall be left unattended. … And
the seas shall be set ablaze. … And the sky shall be removed.)
)4-1 :‫ وإذا القبور بعثرت (االنفطار‬.‫ وإذا البحار فُجرت‬.‫ وإذا الكواكب انتثرت‬.‫ إذا السماء انفطرت‬.2
(When the sky is cleft asunder. And when the stars are scattered; when the seas burst
forth; when the graves are hurled about…).

The following collocations can be singled out from these verses:

the sun shall be rolled up‫كورت الشمس‬ .1

the stars fall and lose their light‫انكدرت النجوم‬ .2
shall be in motion and set asunder the mountains ‫سٌرت الجبال‬ .3
the she-camels shall be left unattended to ‫عطلت العشار‬ .4
the seas shall be set ablaze‫سجرت البحار‬ .5
197
 the sky shall be removed‫ كشطت السماء‬.6
the sky is cleft asunder‫ انفطرت السماء‬.7
the stars are scattered‫ انتثرت الكواكب‬.8
the seas burst‫ فجرت البحار‬.9
the graves are hurled about ‫ بعثرت القبور‬.10

All these serial collocations centre round the major concept of ‘ruining and devastation’
)‫(خبراب ودمبار‬. They are sub-concepts of this major concept. However, each collocation
represents the concept of devastation in different wording and image. With the sun, for
example, we have the image of rolling up, which implies that its light is turned off. The
stars’ scattering and disappearance of their light is a completely different concept and
image of devastation. Mountains, on the other hand, are neither rolled up, nor scattered,
but are moved and set asunder. Seas are burst with over-flooding waters. However, the
concept of destruction is represented differently with the sky, which cleft asunder. Yet,
orbits, like stars, are devastated through the image of scattering. The graves are also
ruined through hurling about. Finally, the earth’s image of destruction is yet different from
the rest by being shaken hard.

More so, sometimes the same sub-concept of a collocation is expressed in various sub-
concepts, or synonyms. For example, the sub-concept of devastation of mountains is
expressed in six different sub-concepts, or images, as follows:

)2(

the mountains shall be in motion and set asunder ‫سٌُرت الجبال‬ .1

the mountains shall be crumbled to powder ‫بُست الجبال‬ .2
(and) become as scattered dust ‫كانت الجبال هباء منبثا‬ .3
the mountains are blown away ‫ُنسفت الجبال‬ .4
He will smooth them to a level plain ‫(جعل الجبال) قاعا صفصفا‬ .5
you will see no crookedness nor any curving therein ‫(ال ترى فً الجبال) عوجا وال أمتا‬ .6

These synonymous collocations represent diverse, yet, complementary sub-concepts and

images of how mountains will be on the Day of Judgment. These variations aim, among
other things, at intensifying as much as perfecting the real concept and overall image of
the devastation of mountains on that Day. The same applies to ‘sky’, which is both ‘cleft’
and more intensely ‘rent asunder’, two separate sub-concepts and images of the
devastation of the sky on the Doomsday. Each image has its implications of tremendous
destruction of the sky, yet both represent a totalistic, comprehensive image that we take
altogether as one major concept with two images, or sub-concepts. ‘Seas’ are also
devastated in two different images of over-flooding and bursting that are combined in
one, so that the full picture and meaning is made quite clear to us.

On the other hand, it goes without saying that these collocations cannot exchange the
positions of their combined words. Thus, for example, although we may use ‘scatter’ )‫(بعثر‬
with stars/orbits )‫كواكب‬/‫(نجوم‬, we cannot use it with ‘sky’ which may be cleft, or rent, and
so on.

198
(b) The Prophet's Attributes’ Collocations

‫صفات النبي صمى اهلل عميه وسمم‬

))‫ البف الجكزية‬،‫(كما كصفتو أـ ىم ٍعىبد كىك في طريقو مياج انر إلى المدينة المنكرة (مف زاد المعاد‬

‫كفي‬...‫في عينيو ىد ىعج‬...‫كسيـ قسيـ‬...‫ص ٍعمة‬

‫كلـ تيٍزر بو ي‬...‫لـ تعبو ثيجمة‬...‫الخٍمؽ‬
‫حسف ى‬...‫الكجو‬
‫ى‬ ‫أبمج‬...‫"ظاىره الكضاءة‬
‫إذا صمت عاله‬...‫شديد سكاد الشعر‬...‫أزُّج أقرف‬...‫أكحؿ‬
‫ى‬ ‫أحكر‬...‫طع‬‫كفي عنقو ىس ى‬...‫ص ىحؿ‬
‫كفي صكتو ى‬...‫طؼ‬ ‫أشفاره ىك ى‬
‫ال ىن ٍزر‬...‫صؿ‬
ٍ ‫حمك المنطؽ ىف‬...‫كأحسنو كأحاله مف قريب‬...‫أجمؿ الناس كأبياىـ مف بعيد‬...‫كاف تكمـ عاله البياء‬...‫الكقار‬
‫غصف بيف‬...‫تشنؤه مف طيكؿ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫كال‬...‫ال تقحمو عيف مف ًقصر‬...‫رٍبعة‬...‫رف‬
‫ي‬ َّ
‫يتحد‬ ‫ات نظـ‬
‫كأف منطقو خرز ي‬...‫كال ى ٍذر‬
‫كاذا أمر تبادركا إلى‬...‫إذا قاؿ استمعكا لقكلو‬...‫لو رفقاء يحفٌكف بو‬...‫كأحسنيـ قد انر‬...‫فيك أنضر الثالثة منظ انر‬...‫غصنيف‬
".‫ال عابس كال يم ٍفنًد‬...‫محفكد محشكد‬...‫أمره‬

The text has many classical words that combine unique classical collocational clusters.
Perhaps solving the riddle, so to speak, of the meanings of classical words and expressions
is given precedence over spotting collocations. Having done that beforehand, the SL text
includes the following splendid collocations:

(He (the Prophet) is beaming in appearance, ‫ظاىره الكضاءة‬ 

of bright face ‫أبمج الكجو‬ 
charmingly good looking. ‫الخٍمؽ‬
‫ىحسف ى‬ 
He is neither too fat, ‫لـ تعبو ثيجمة‬ 
nor too thin. ‫ص ٍعمة‬
‫كلـ تيٍزر بو ي‬ 
He has graceful countenance. ‫كسيـ قسيـ‬ 
His eyes are jet-black and large; ‫في عينيو ىد ىعج‬ 
his eyelid ridges are hairy and dangling. ‫طؼ‬
‫كفي أشفاره ىك ى‬ 
He has a husky voice, ‫ص ىحؿ‬
‫كفي صكتو ى‬ 
and a stretching neck. ‫طع‬
‫كفي عنقو ىس ى‬ 
(His eyes are jet-black and intensely white, with dark eyebrows. ‫أحكر أكحؿ‬ 
He has long legs, striding pace and meeting eyebrows, ‫ىأزُّج أقرف‬ 
with jet-black hair. ‫شديد سكاد الشعر‬ 
(If he remains quiet, grace overwhelms him; ‫إذا صمت عاله الكقار‬ 
when he speaks, splendour overtakes him.‫كاف تكمـ عاله البياء‬ 
He is the most good-looking of all men from a distance, ‫أجمؿ الناس كأبياىـ مف بعيد‬ 
and the most handsome from a short distance ‫كأحسنو كأحاله مف قريب‬ 
He is sweet-sounding and decisive in speech. ‫صؿ‬ٍ ‫ فى‬،‫حمك المنطؽ‬ 
He is neither economical nor talkative. ‫ال ىن ٍزر كال ى ٍذر‬ 
َّ ‫ات نظـ‬
His words are like pearls flowing down from his mouth. ‫يتحدرف‬ ‫كأف منطقو خرز ي‬ 

199
 He is neither tall nor short. ‫يرٍبعة‬ 
He is not underestimated for shortness; ،‫ال تقحمو عيف مف ًقصر‬ 
nor is he disapproved for tallness. ‫تشنؤه مف طيكؿ‬
‫كال ي‬ 
He is a bough between two boughs, ،‫غصف بيف غصنيف‬ 
but he is the most vigorous of the three men, ‫فيك أنضر الثالثة منظ انر‬ 
and the most dignified of them. ‫كأحسنيـ قد انر‬ 
He is surrounded by companions ‫لو رفقاء يحفٌكف بو‬ 
who lend their ears to what he says, ،‫إذا قاؿ استمعكا لقكلو‬ 
and attend instantly to his orders. ‫ تبادركا إلى أمره‬،‫كاذا أمر‬ 
He is attended to enthusiastically and heartily by his people. ‫محفكد محشكد‬ 
He is not a frowner nor a liar. ‫ال عابس كال يم ٍفنًد‬ 

(c) Parallel Collocational Sequences: Supplications

Usually, supplications reported by the Prophet, peace be to him, are set in sequential,
parallel and sometimes rhythmical and rhymed collocations. e.g.:

1. God! :‫ المهم‬.1
(18) Guide us among those whom You have
‫اىدنا فيمف ىديت‬ -
guided aright.
(19) And preserve us Among those whom ‫كعافنا فيمف عافيت‬ -
You have preserved, ‫كتكلنا فيمف تكليت‬ -
(20) Take us for a friend among those whom
You have taken for friends,
(21) Bless us in that which You have ‫كبارؾ لنا فيما أعطيت‬ -
bestowed upon us,
(22) Guard us from the evil of that which
You have ordained ‫كقنا شر ما قضيت‬ -
(23) For it is You Who ordains, and none can ‫قضى عميؾ‬
‫فإنؾ تقضي كال يي ى‬ -
ordain aught against You,
‫كانو ال يذؿ مف كاليت‬ -
(24) Indeed! Never is he abased whom You
take as a friend ‫كال يعز مف عاديت‬ -
(25) And none is respected whom You take ‫تباركت ربنا كتعاليت‬ -
as a foe
‫فمؾ الحمد عمى ما قضيت‬ -
(26) Blessed are You, our Lord, and Exalted
(27) We ask forgiveness and repentance ‫كلؾ الشكر عمى ما أنعمت بو كأكليت‬ -
from You, and turn to You. ".‫نستغفرؾ كنتكب إليؾ‬ -
2. God!
:‫ المهم‬.2
(28) I seek you refuge from
(29) the knowledge that brings no good, ‫إني أعكذ بؾ مف عمـ ال ينفع‬ -
(30) And from the heart that has no fear (of ‫كقمب ال يخشع‬ -
Allah),
(31) And from the prayer that cannot be ‫كدعاء ال ييسمع‬ -
answered,
200
 (32) And the self that cannot be satisfied ‫و‬
‫كنفس ال تشبع‬ -
2. You (God) Who:
‫كعمؿ ال ييرفع‬ -
(1) is never seen by the eyes, :‫ يا من‬.3
(2) Is never confused by suspicions, ‫) ال تراه العيكف‬1(

(3) Is indescribable by describers, ‫) كال تخالطو الظنكف‬2(

(4) Is never changed over events, ‫) كال يصفو الكاصفكف‬3(
(5) Never fears intrigues, ‫) كال تغيره الحكادث‬4(

(6) You (God) Who knows ‫) كال يخشى الدكائر‬5(

(7) The weights of mountains, :‫) يا من يعمم‬6(
‫) مثاقيؿ الجباؿ‬7(
(8) The vessels of seas,
(9) The number of rain drops, ‫) كمكاييؿ البحار‬8(
(10) The number of leaves of trees, ‫) كعدد قطر األمطار‬9(
(11) The number of creatures at night,
‫) كعدد كرؽ األشجار‬10(
(12) And of creatures in the day. ‫) كعدد ما أظمـ عميو الميؿ‬11(
(13) You (God) Whose vision: ‫) كأشرؽ عميو النيار‬12(
:‫) يا من‬13(
(14) Is never obstructed by skies,
(15) Nor by earths, ‫سماء‬
‫ن‬ ‫سماء‬
‫ه‬ ‫) ال تكارم منو‬14(
(16) Nor the ruggedness of mountains, ‫) كال أرض أرضان‬15(
(17) Nor the bottom of seas.
‫) كال جبؿ ما في كعرٍه‬16(
ٍ‫) كال بحر ما في قعره‬17(

(d) Remembrance of God's Collocational Sequences

God's remembrance constructions occur in the form of collocational sequences and

frames that recur smoothly and fluently, perhaps, to aid memorization. Here are examples
reported by the Prophet, peace be to him:

1. Praise is to God, the Lord of the ‫ الحمد هلل رب العالمين‬.1

Worlds
‫) حسبنا اهلل‬1(
(1) God is sufficient for us,
(2) And He is an excellent ‫) كنعـ الككيؿ‬2(
Guardian, ‫) عمى اهلل تككمنا‬3(
(3) And we repose our trust in
Allah ‫) سبحاف اهلل‬4(
(4) Glorified is God ‫) كالحمد هلل‬5(
(5) Praise is to God ‫) كال إلو إال اهلل‬6(
(6) There is no deity but God
(7) God is the Greatest ‫) كاهلل أكبر‬7(
(8) There is no might nor power ‫) كال حكؿ كال قكة إال باهلل‬8(
save with God
‫) إنا هلل كانا إليو راجعكف‬9(
(9) Surely we are God's, and to
201
 Him shall we return.
‫) جزاؾ اهلل خي انر‬10(
(10) May God give you a good
reward!
2. My Lord, the Nourisher and ‫ المهم رب الناس‬.2
Sustainer of mankind!
(11) Remove affliction, ‫) أىذىب البأس‬11(
(12) cure (him),; and You are the
Curer ‫) اشؼ كأنت الشافي‬12(
(13) There is no cure but Yours, ‫) ال شفاء إال شفاؤؾ‬13(
(14) A cure that leaves no ‫) شفاء ال يغادر سقما‬14(
sickness
3. God! ‫ المهم‬.3
(15) Grant me forgiveness for ‫) اغفر لي ذنبي‬15(
my sins,
‫) ككسع لي في دارم‬16(
(16) Grant me expansion in my
house .‫) كبارؾ لي في رزقي‬17(
(17) And bless my livelihood
4. God! :‫ المهم‬.4
(18) Give me a shade of shelter
‫) أظمني تحت ظؿ عرشؾ‬18(
under Your Throne,
(19) On the day when there will
be no shade, Other than the ‫) يكـ ال ظؿ إال ظمؾ‬19(
shade of Your shade

The English equivalents are not exactly collocations but literal translations of the meanings
of the religious SLT prayers as much as possible, without attending to the rhymed and
rhythmical sound features of Arabic for they are not required. Only in Arabic we have an
interest in these features in supplication to aid memorization and produce greater effect
on worshippers than usual.

(e) Prophetic Traditions' Collocational Sets

:‫ الكبائر‬ ‫ عف عبد اهلل بف عمر قاؿ قاؿ رسكؿ‬.1

‫) انشراؾ باهلل‬1(
‫) كعقكؽ الكالديف‬2(
‫) كقتؿ النفس‬3(
‫) كاليميف الغامكس‬4(
)‫(البخارم كمسمـ‬ ‫) كشيادة الزكر‬5(

(Abdullah Bin Omar reported that God's Messenger (peace be to him) said: "The major sins
are:

(1) associating other objects of worship with God,

(2) disobedience to parents,
(3) unlawful manslaughter,
202
 (4) deliberate perjury, and
(5) fabricated witness”. (Al-Bukhari and Muslim)

:‫ بات منكـ‬/ ‫ مف أصبح‬:‫ قاؿ رسكؿ اهلل صمى اهلل عميو كسمـ‬.2
‫آمنان في سربو‬ -
‫معافى في بدنو‬ -
‫عنده قكت يكمو‬ -
)‫(البخارم‬ ‫فكأنما حيزت لو الدنيا بحذافيرىا‬ -

(The Messenger of God, peace be to him, said: "He who has entered upon the morning /
the evening:

- Safe and sound at home,

- Healthy and well,
- And having his provision on that day
- He would have been as though he has possessed the whole world.

The SL collocations are well-established as the Prophetic Tradition is one of the main
sources of collocations of Arabic Language. No doubt, the problems of translating them
are no easy task. We can get some one-to-one equivalent English collocations (e.g. ‘safe
and sound’, ‘healthy and well’), Semi collocations (i.e. 2-5 of the first Tradition) are our
next option; but when unavailable, translation of intended meaning (see 1 of the first, and
3 and 4 of the second) is the last resort.

2.4.2 Comments on Translating Collocations

The translations of collocations of different types suggested above in this section bid for
urgent commentary on them:

1) No doubt, the Holy Koran, the Prophet’s Tradition, Arabic classic books of
literature, poetry and autobiographies, reference books, language dictionaries
and Jurisprudence books are well-established sources of collocations in Arabic
Language. Therefore, the majority of the collocations cited above are well-known
to Arab Native speakers (see also Ghazala, 2007: Introd. For further details).
2) In other types of text, perhaps the good translation of a collocation is to be
translated into a TL collocation. Yet, priority in the translation of Islamic
collocations is given to the rendering of the meaning of the SL collocations into an
acceptable TL equivalent, be it a collocation or not.
3) Collocations are sacrificed when the need arises in an attempt by the translator
to achieve accuracy (e.g. ‘Blessed are You, our Lord, and Exalted’ (cf. ‘We bless
you, our Exalted Lord’)); ‘Grant me forgiveness for my sins’ & ‘Grant me
expansion in my house’ (c.f. ‘forgive my sins’ & ‘expand my house’)), etc.
4) Although we avoid talking in terms of superiority and inferiority of a language to
another in translation, we cannot help it here in relation to translating Islamic
collocations in particular. Going through the foregoing examples and their
203
 translations, we would have a back-of the-neck feeling that the Arabic original
supersedes the English translations, in terms of style, rhetoric, expressivity,
impressiveness and conciseness, as most examples above may demonstrate. This
is not so much due to the translator's weaknesses as to difficulty, or absence of
the former in the latter. As a result, the TL translations are not quite familiar
combinations in English Language inventory, or for its native speakers.
5) Strictly, the English translation of any Arabic combination has to sound English,
and avoid interference with Arabic, which may result in Arabic-English
translations. This is very serious indeed, and a number of translators claim
unconvincingly that they do that with the pretext of achieving the maximum
degree possible of accuracy for fears of missing any nuance of the meaning of the
sacred original. Well, obsession with overaccuracy may be quite harmful (e.g. 'at
night', not 'in the night' for ‫ في الميؿ‬/ ‫' ;بالميؿ‬evil turn of fortune', not 'evil cycle of
fortune' for ‫' ;دائرة السَّكء‬good patience', not 'beautiful patience' for ‫‘ ;صبر جميؿ‬Job's
patience', not ‘like Job’s patience' for ‫صبر أيكب‬, etc.). Such interference may be
the inevitable outcome of dull word-for-word translation. No matter which way
the translator goes in his choice of translation method or structure, he / she has
to be careful with his / her English Language to be English especially with newly
suggested combinations (see also Ghazala, 2014 for further discussion).
6) As to the grammatical classes of words, the translator will do his/her best to bring
in an English equivalent of identical grammatical form. Yet, this can be broken
down if and when it is not available in the TL. Several examples can be sought for
above (see especially adverbial collocations).
7) When an equivalent collocation is available in the TL in a different order of words,
it should not be changed. For example, 'vice and virtue' is the accurate equivalent
of the Arabic collocation ‫الفضيمة كالرذيمة‬, although the former starts with 'vice' while
the latter begins with 'virtue'.
8) Some collocations are inflexible, but the greater number are flexible. Therefore,
established collocations like 'good and evil' can be changed if and when
necessary to match the original for reasons of emphasis, focus and prominence.
For example, in the Holy Koran, sometimes, ‫( الخير كالشر‬good and evil) is reversed
into ‫( الشر كالخير‬e.g. )35 :‫ األنبياء‬:‫( كنبمككـ بالشر كالخير فتنة‬and we try you by evil and
good), in which case the English collocation has to be changed accordingly into
'evil and good' (as demonstrated in the translation of the Koranic verse).
9) Although many English translations of the TL collocations are newly introduced
combinations in English Language, or, SEMI-COLLOCATIONS (e.g. disobedience to
parents (for ‫(بر الكالديف‬, destroy utterly (for ‫)دمر تدمي ار‬, most of the collocations of
the Prophet’s Attributes above, and many others in the previous examples for
different types of collocations.
10) Yet, the translations that are laconic, sharp and to the point (e.g. 'deliberate
perjury' for ‫' ;اليميف الغمكس‬scattered dust' for ‫' ;ىباءان منثك ار‬neither cool nor refreshing'
for ‫ )ال بارد كال كريـ‬can be legitimately described as creative semi-collocational
combinations. Many translations suggested earlier can be viewed as nonce semi-
collocations that are invented on the occasion in accordance with the norms and

204
 types of English word combinations. It is hoped that such newly invented
combinations can enter the English lexicon later on.
11) The difficulty of generalization: Some English words collocate with one and the
same word, but they are not necessarily so in Arabic. For example, (‫)ٌرتكب خطأ‬
has an identical collocation in English as ‘commit a mistake’, but we also have
‘make a mistake’. In the same way, (‫ )ٌرتكب جرٌمة‬is translated into ‘commit a
murder’, but we use (‫ )ٌقترؾ جرٌمة‬and ‘commit manslaughter’ a great deal in both
languages respectively. Yet, we do not say in Arabic )‫ (ٌرتكب انتحارا‬but )‫ (ٌنتحر‬only;
whereas in English, they have ‘commit suicide’. Thus, ‘commit’ is not always
(‫ )ٌرتكب‬or (‫)ٌقترؾ‬. Also, we say in Arabic (‫ )بشرة ناعمة‬for ‘soft skin’, but we cannot
say (‫ )مٌاه ناعمة‬for ‘soft water’, nor (‫ )مشروبات ناعمة‬for ‘soft drinks’, but ( ‫ماء‬
‫رالل‬/‫فرات‬/‫ )عذب‬and (‫ )مشروبات خفٌفة‬consecutively.
12) Variability of collocations: Different collocations for the same meaning can exist
in English, but they have one collocation and one single meaning in Arabic: e.g.
‫ فوج من السم‬has several equally good versions as: a draft of fish/shoal of fish/nest
of fish/catch of fish and school of fish. Usually, these equivalent collocations have
one and the same translation in Arabic. Students need not have different versions
for equivalent English collocations to help them avoid committing potential
mistakes. Hence, ’a shoal of fish’ is fair enough. However, if any student or
translator picks up any of the versions just introduced, it will be equally as good.
13) Flexibility of collocations: Some types of collocations are flexible and can be
interrupted in the middle by a word, especially an adjective or an adverb. Usually,
the following types can be interrupted:

1.Adjective + noun collocations : e.g.

“Black market” → “black illegal market”: (‫)سو سوداء ؼٌر مشروعة‬
2.Verb + noun collocations : e.g.
“Exert an effort” → “exert a great effort”: (‫)ٌبذل جهدا عظٌما‬
3.Noun + noun (the of–genitive)collocations : e. g.
“Association of ideas” → “association of some ideas”: (‫)تداعً بعض األفكار‬
4.Noun + verb collocations (names of sounds): e.g.
“Bees buzz” → “bees strongly buzz”: (‫دوٌا قوٌا‬/‫)ٌدوي النحل بقوة‬
5.Verb + preposition collocations : e. g.
“Long for” → “long so much for”: (‫)ٌشتا كثٌرا جدا‬
6.Parts of countable nouns’ collocations : e. g.
‘a bouquet of flowers” → “ a bouquet of red flowers”: (‫)باقة ورد حمراء‬
7.Parts of uncountable nouns’ collocations : e. g.
“A pat of butter” → “ a pat of Danish butter”: (‫)قالب صب ربدة دنماركٌة‬

Yet, other types of collocations are fixed, inflexible and cannot be interrupted in the middle:
1. Noun+noun collocations.
2. Noun+and+noun collocations.
3. Adjective+adjective collocations.
4. Noun+preposition collocations.
5. Preposition+noun collocations.
6. Adjective+noun collocations.
7. Collocations of similes (as … as)
8. Adverb+adverb collocations.
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The sixth type has some flexible collocations like:
1. “To somebody’s advantage”: (‫)فً مصلحة)لمصلحة(فالن‬
2. “On the alert”: (‫)على أهبة االستعداد‬
3. “In your turn”: ((‫)بدور )أنت‬

2.4.3 Suggested Solutions to Translation Problems of Collocations

Following is a summary of suggested SOLUTIONS to the problems of translating Arabic

collocations into English. They are introduced in order of preference (i.e. the first is the
first choice, then the second, then the third, etc):

(a) Tracing the identical collocation in English as to whether or not it is available.

Usually, many Arabic collocations have equivalent ones in English.
(b) In case that an identical collocation is not found in English, a close collocation,
or ‘semi-collocation’ can be suggested. For example, ‫ ٌمٌن ؼموس‬is a well-
known collocation in Arabic, but it is not so in English. Hence, it is translated
into the closest possible semi-collocation as ‘deliberate perjury’. Other
options include ‘false swearing’, ‘perjury’, etc.
(c) When ‘a’ and ‘b’ are not possible, a semi-collocation in English can be
suggested: two words for two words, three for three, etc. For example, ‫أ ْكل الربا‬
can be translated into ‘devouring usury’ which is not an established
collocation in English, but can be accepted as a semi-collocation. ‫ صاد مع هللا‬is
translated into a three-word semi-collocation as ‘honest with God, with an
obvious focus on sense.
(d) .If none of the previous solutions is at the students’ disposal, a translation of
the intended sense of the original Arabic’s collocation is an acceptable resort.
It does not matter whether it is translated into one, two, three or more
words. For example, "‫ "محفود محشود‬is translated into “he is attended to
enthusiastically and heartily by his people”. Though long statement, it is quite
clear in sense.
(e) A direct meaning should be translated into a direct meaning (as most of the
examples above), and an indirect meaning into an indirect meaning in English
(especially the collocations of similes, religious, sounds, count nouns and
noncount nouns collocations). For example, though not bad, it is not advisable
to translate )‫أسرع من السهم‬/ ‫أسرع من البر‬/‫ )أسرع من لم البصر‬into the non-
figurative translation of sense: ‘very fast’, but, rather, into the well
established equivalent metaphorical simile ‘as swift as an arrow’.
(f) Whether the Arabic collocation is formal or classical, it is translated into the
standard collocation available in English Language of today, if and when. For
instance, ‫ خشرم من النحل‬is translated into ‘a swarm of bees’ and ‫ِرجل من الجراد‬
into ‘a cloud of grasshoppers, though ‫ خشرم‬and ‫ ِرجل‬are classical Arabic and
rare in use now. It would make no difference if the two Arabic collocations
use the modern ‫ سِ رب‬instead of the those two classical words; the English
translation will be the same because there are no two formal and classical
versions of the collocation in Modern English Language.
(g) Fixed collocations like ‘as.….as’ similes, which cannot be interrupted in the
middle, should be translated into equivalent Arabic ones with extra care. We
cannot say, for instance: ‘he is as very stubborn as a mule’ in English, nor can
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 we say (‫)هو أعند جدا من البؽل‬. We simply say: ‘he is as stubborn as a mule’( ‫هو عنٌد‬
‫هو أعند من البؽل‬/‫)كالبؽل‬, as indicated earlier in connection with these similes.
(h) When unable to work out a better solution, and as a last resort, students may
escape with a blind, literal translation of words. However, it is the poorest
translation and can be risky because it may result in a wrong, funny Arabic
version. For example, ‫ لو صابون‬can be translated word-for-word into ‘a
pane/sheet of soap’ which might bring a smile to some readers for we say ‘ a
pane/sheet of glass’ and ‘a bar of soap’. In the same way, ‫ إضبارة كتب‬can be
translated hastily into ‘a file of books’ which seems quite unusual and,
perhaps, vague, whereas ‘a bundle/collection of books’ is what can be
accepted and comprehended by English readers. Nevertheless, some
collocations can be translated in a direct way quite properly, as many
examples of this section confirm. After all, students and translators should be
cautious and refuse to surrender from the first attempt to the direct, word-
for-word translation of any collocation to avoid committing serious mistakes
at times, as illustrated throughout the above discussion.

Generally speaking, in the translation of collocations, we insist as much as we can on the

collocation’s:
(1) fixedness/flexibility
(2) grammatical structure
(3) directness/indirectness
(4) clarity/unclarity
(5) formality scale of style
(6) simplicity/complexity
(7) context
(8) familiarity/strangeness

Yet, if students of translation and translators think that, for good reasons concerning the
nature of Arabic (such as the difference between the word order of adjective+noun, the
absence of the Arabic basic nominal structure: topic and comment)), they cannot meet
one or more of these points, they can overcome them.

In conclusion to this section on the translation of Arabic collocations into English, the
rapidly growing interest in the translation of collocations in translation studies is due to
their special importance in language that is well-written with the right word in the right
place. They play a vital role in the cohesion and coherence of the structure of language.
They are also a major source of the attraction and special flavour of language
compactness, making it more beautiful, rhetorical, well-knitted, effective and powerful
than ordinary language. The translation of collocations is an everlasting struggle to match
the proper word with the proper word: the proper nouns with the proper verbs, the
proper verbs with the proper nouns, the proper nouns with the proper nouns, the proper
adjectives with the proper nouns, the proper verbs with the proper verbs and so on and so
forth. The students of translation and translators are, hence, supposed to exercise
patience, caution and sensitivity toard them in translation. They are advised to do their
best to find the proper collocation in English, if and when available. Without collocations,
their English translation would seem poorer, weaker, and less inspired than the Arabic
original.
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 CHAPTER 2

LEXICAL PROBLEMS (2)

2.5 TRANSLATING IDIOMATICITY: Introduction

Idiomaticity is a reference to figurativeness in language in general. In Oxford Dictionary of

Current Idiomatic English, the types of idioms are based on a certain understanding of
idiomaticity: “A view of idiomaticity which does full justice to the rich diversity of word
combinations in English must recognize that the meaning of a combination may be related
to those of its components in a variety of ways, and must take account also of the
possibility of internal variation, or substitution of part for part." It refers mainly to idioms
(or fixed phrases) and proverbs as sources of translation problems as much as of learning
and entertainment to students of translation. According to Collins English Dictionary, an
idiom is traditionally defined as "…a group of words whose meanings cannot be predicted
from the meanings of the constituent words" (2000: 670: sense 1). In a similar way, The
Chambers Dictionary defines it as "a distinctive expression whose meaning is not
determinable from the meanings of the individual words" (2008: 756). In the same way,
The American Heritage College Dictionary describes it as "a speech form or an expression
of a given language that is peculiar to itself grammatically or cannot be understood from
the individual meanings of its elements" (2004: 688). We may conclude from these
definitions that:

(a) idioms are all in all metaphorical and cannot be understood directly.
(b) they should not be taken literally in the sense that their meanings are not the
outcome of the individual meanings of their constituent words taken collectively.
(c) their syntactic form is usually fixed and cannot be changed or described as
ungrammatical. Moreover, no word can be added, deleted or replaced (see also
Baker,1992: 63).
(d) their meanings are also invariable.
(e) (not included in those definitions) they are mainly cultural and informal (see also
Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, 1977).

The prime concern in regard to idiomaticity of language is with the refinement and
development of the translators and students' skills of spotting the idiomaticity of meaning
in the SL and how they find an idiomatic equivalent of some kind in the TL. A further aim is
to trace the idioms’ ironical, cultural, religious, social, ideological and political implications
and insinuations. Insults and sensitivity, cultural or otherwise, are major implications of
some idioms that we have to attend to extra carefully in translation. These implications
can be crucial to meaning. Hence, idioms are special metaphorical fixed phrases whose
meanings and forms are not negotiable. They are many types. Their most special and
essential component is idiomaticity, namely, their metaphorical aspect which explains its
heavy weight in translation to such an extent that a translation of an idiom is as good or
bad so long as its idiomaticity is retained or distorted.

208
Simply put, idioms are special, fixed phrases that their meanings cannot be understood
from the direct, surface meaning of their words, or from their total meaning when taken
together. On the other hand, they have fixed grammatical and lexical forms and word
order that cannot be changed, interrupted or reversed. In this sense, both idioms and
proverbs are special and fixed phrases.

Obviously, fixed expressions of different types, especially those pointed out above, are too
clear and too established to be questioned. Many specialist scholars like Carter (1987);
Alexander (1984); Carter and McCarthy (1989); Baker (1992) and many others support this
argument. Alexander, for example, suggests several types and subtypes of fixed
expressions in English language, which are generally established in its lexicon now (in
Carter, 1987: 60):

(1) Idioms:
(a) irreversible binomials / compound idioms (e.g. kith and kin);
(b) full idioms (e.g. to rain cats and dogs);
(c) semi-idioms (e.g. fat salary)
(2) Proverbs (e.g. a watched dog never boils)
(3) Stock phrases (e.g. a recipe for disaster)
(4) Catchphrases (e.g. are you sitting comfortably?)
(5) Allusions / quotations (e.g. we are not amused)
(6) Idiomatic similes (e.g. as daft as a brush)
(7) Discoursal expressions:
(a) clichés / social formulas (e.g. Long time, no see );
(b) connectives (e.g. to conclude; once upon a time);
(c) conversational gambits (e.g. guess what!)
(d) stylistic formulas (e.g. ladies and gentlemen);
(e) stereotypes (It's not what you think!)

A further support for the indisputable status of fixed expressions in the English Lexicon
and the public is provided by numerous dictionaries of idioms by World's best publishers
like Oxford, Webster's, Cambridge and Longman. Therefore, it is not quite the case that
these expressions are ambiguous, as Rojo (2009: 132-33) and Moon (1998: 2-5) claim.
Rather, the technical term 'phraseological units' suggested by her instead, is the term that
confuses things for it is not only too loose, but also vague in reference for it may be taken
to refer to any expression, phrase or word combination of any type, length, sense,
grammatical structure or lexical pattern. Thus, things will be in a mess.

Consequently, here we hold tight to the conventional and well-established categorization

and recognition of fixed expressions as illustrated above, no matter how institutionalized
and standardized they may be, for this is a positive sign of organization of language. This is
quite helpful to native as well as non-native speakers to learn language in an orderly and
stabilized manner, which contradicts Moon's argument (in ibid.: 134-37).

One of the major translation problems for students is the translation of special fixed
phrases, idioms, and proverbs in particular. The following discussion tackles the
problems of translating all of them, starting with idioms.

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 2 5.1 TRANSLATING IDIOMS: (‫)التعابير االصطالحية‬

The discussion of the translation of Arabic idioms into English can be traced through the
following three groups:

2.5.1.1 Idioms of Identical Equivalence

There are a number of Arabic idioms that can be translated directly into identical English
equivalents both in sense and cultural/figurative image. Here are examples:

set one’s foot in something ‫) يضع قدمو في كذا‬1

stab in the back ‫) يطعف في الظير‬2
scratch my back and I scratch yours ‫) حكمٌي لحكمٌؾ‬3
a crime in cold blood ‫) جريمة بدـ بارد‬4
make one’s blood boil ‫) يغمي الدـ في عركقو‬5
the straw that broke the camel’s back ‫) القشة التي قصمت ظير البعير‬6
a daylight robbery ‫) سرقة في كضح النيار‬7
at death’s door ‫) عمى أبكاب المكت‬8
on the black list ‫) عمى القائمة السكداء‬9
to wash one’s dirty linen in public ‫) ينشر غسيمو الكسخ عمى المأل‬10
to put the cart before the horse ‫) يضع العربة أماـ الحصاف‬11
driven like lambs to the slaughter )‫) كما تساؽ النعاج إلى المذبح (المسمخ‬12
the law of the jungle ‫) شريعة الغاب‬13
to roll in money ‫) يتقمب في الثراء‬14
lend me your ears ‫) شنفكا آذانكـ‬15
to serve two masters ‫) يمعب عمى الحبميف‬16
turn a new page ‫) لنفتح صفحة جديدة‬17
on the tip of my tongue ‫) عمى رأس لساني‬18
to fish in troubled waters ‫) يصطاد في الماء العكر‬19
to read between the lines ‫) يق أر ما بيف السطكر‬20

Notably, these idioms are translated into one-to-one English equivalents directly to be
understood indirectly because they are metaphorical. Therefore, they all say something to
mean something else. To illustrate this further, the intended, direct meanings of the
previous examples can be as follows:
to initiate something ‫) يبدأ أم انر؛ يثٍبًت جدارة‬1
A true friend does not betray ‫) يخكف‬2
Serve me, so that I serve you ‫) اخدمني ألخدمؾ‬3
He killed his neighbour intentionally and insensitively ‫) جريمة مف دكف إحساس‬4
210
 to get agitated ‫) يغيظ‬5
It was the light knockout stroke‫) كانت الضربة الخفيفة القاضية‬6
High prices are public, legal robbery ‫) األسعار الباىظة سرقة عمنية مشركعة‬7
dying/about to die‫حتضر‬
‫ يي ى‬/‫) يمكت‬8
not be dealt with/boycotted ‫) ممنكع التعامؿ معو‬9
to make one’s own secrets public ‫) لماذا تفشي أسرارؾ الخاصة؟‬10
Some people do things the opposite way‫) يعكس بعض الناس األمكر‬11
That man is very rich ‫) ذاؾ الرجؿ ثرم جدان‬12
driven by force, unaware of the consequences ‫ دكف إدراؾ لمعكاقب‬، ‫) سيؽ الناس قس انر‬13
the law of might is right ‫) قانكف القكم يأكؿ الضعيؼ‬14
Listen to me carefully ‫) أصغكا إلي جيدان‬15
He is a hypocrite ‫) إنو منافؽ‬16
Let us have a new start ‫) لنبدأ مف جديد‬17
about to say his name ‫) كنت عمى كشؾ نطؽ اسمو‬18
to seize the opportunity to make troubles among ‫) يتحيف الفرص لإليقاع بيف األصدقاء‬19
friends
to look for the hidden meaning ‫) يبحث عف المعنى المحجكب‬20

These are direct explanations of the idioms under discussion. However, the students of
translation and translators need concentrate on translating, not explaining, Arabic idioms
into English equivalents, if and when available. Explanation is acceptable only when
translation is not possible for a good reason.

The problem for the students is to have access to the equivalent idiom in English. The
solution is possibly not difficult to find for three reasons: first, such idioms are favourable
to the students, translators as well as pedantic teachers. Hence, their translation is
interesting for all of them. Second, the idioms of this group have direct, identical
equivalents in English. So, if the students translate them directly, they may get many of
them right. Third, monolingual and bilingual dictionaries of idioms are available in
abundance nowadays. Students and translators, the, can resort to the literal translation of
these idioms. However, when such translation is not understood, funny or quite strange,
they should realize that literal translation is useless, as the idioms of group ‘B’ prove.

2.5.1.2: Idioms of Different Equivalence

)‫ ← (األياـ النخيمية‬palmy days (days of glory) ‫) أياـ العز‬1

)‫ ← (كمب في المعمؼ‬a dog in the manger (like a drone) ‫) مثؿ ذكر النحؿ‬2
)‫ ← (تحت غيمة‬under a cloud (a prey for suspicion) ‫) فريسة لمشؾ‬3
)‫ ← (رقبة كرقبة‬neck and neck (a peer to a peer) ‫) الند لمند‬4
)‫ ← (تمؾ جنازتؾ‬that’s your funeral (your sin is on your side) ‫) ذنبؾ عمى جنبؾ‬5

211
 ٍ َّ‫) يكف‬6
the bribed clerk was given the sack (the bribed clerk’s hand ‫ت يد المكظؼ المرتشي‬
)‫ ← (أعطي المكظؼ المرتشي الكيس‬was stopped)
← a tall order (a mission that mountains cannot carry) ‫) ميمة تنكء بحمميا الجباؿ‬7
)‫أمر طكيؿ‬/‫(طمب‬
)‫ ← (بطة جالسة‬a sitting duck (an easy prey) ‫) فريسة سيمة‬8
)‫قذفة كبيرة‬/‫ ← (طمقة‬a big shot (a man of weight) ‫) رجؿ لو كزنو‬9
← monkey business (the suspected is about to say: “take me”)‫) يكاد المريب يقكؿ خذكني‬10
)‫(عمؿ قردم‬
)‫ ← (بيامش ضيؽ‬by a narrow margin (with hard ness of self) ‫) بشؽ النفس‬11
)‫المسمار‬/‫ ← (يدفع عمى الظفر‬to pay on the nail (to pay on one leg) ‫) يدفع عمى رجؿ كاحدة‬12
‫ ← (يضيؼ إىانة إلى‬to add insult to injury (to pour oil on fire) ‫) يصب الزيت عمى النار‬13
)‫إصابة‬
)‫ ← (لـ يحرؾ إصبعان‬he does not stir a finger (not to move a static thing) ‫) ال يحرؾ ساكن نا‬14
)‫ ← (كتمة في الحمؽ‬a lump in the throat (a burn in heart) ‫) حرقة في القمب‬15
it’s all for the best (perhaps you hate something though it is good ‫) عسى أف تكرىكا شيئان‬16
)‫ ← (كؿ شيء إلى األفضؿ‬for you)
)‫ ← (يقكؿ قكلو‬to have one’s say (to pail with one’s pail) ‫) يدلك بدلكه‬17
)‫ ← (مع حبة ممح‬with a grain of salt (with some suspicion) ‫) بشيء مف الريبة‬18
)‫خطكاتو‬/‫ ← (يختار طريقو‬to pick one’s way/steps (to take one’s caution) ‫) يأخذ ًح ٍذره‬19
)‫ ← (تحت إبيامو‬under one’s thumb (under somebody’s hint) ‫) رىف إشارة أحدىـ‬20

The examples of this group are probably quite problematic for the students of translation
because they are entirely indirect and cannot be understood from the literal, common
meaning of the words. The problem will be clearer for the students when these idioms are
translated literally and directly, proving to be wrong, strange, nonsensical and sometimes
funny. That is why they are crossed as wrong translations in both languages in the list
above. These translations are unacceptable, and students should avoid them completely.
Unfortunately, they resort to them every time they translate such idioms, committing
serious, silly mistakes, as pointed out above.

The solution to the translation of the idioms of Group ‘B’ is to understand them in context
only because they cannot be understood in isolation. If the context does not help, literal
translation of words can be suggested on the condition that it is clearly understood. If not,
it must be wrong, and the students have to resort to a special English-English
(monolingual) or an English-Arabic (bilingual) dictionary of idioms, or to any other
reference to help them.

At all events, students must be careful at attempting direct translation of any idiom. Yet,
they can use it as a tester of wrong/right translation. That is, if it is understood as a
possible, used phrase in Arabic, it can be right; otherwise, it is likely to be wrong. Having
said that, experience shows that student are fond of idioms, probably for their
212
strangeness, and some teachers concentrate on them in an unusual way as ‘a show of
muscles’. Therefore, they may not find them as problematic as some might think.

2.5.1.3 Idioms of Similar Equivalence

a bed of roses ‫) طريؽ مفركش بالكركد‬1

the good old days ‫) األياـ الخكالي‬2
deathblow ‫) ضربة قاضية‬3
fishing expedition ‫) حممة تجسس‬4
in all one’s finery ‫) في أبيى حمة‬5
to force somebody’s hand ‫) يمكم ذراع أحدىـ‬6
break the ice ‫) يكسر طكؽ الصمت‬7
to rest on one’s laurels ‫) يعيش عمى أمجاده‬8
one’s memory does not serve one right ‫) تخكنو الذاكرة‬9
to risk one’s life ‫) يجازؼ بنفسو‬10
to bury one’s nose in a book ‫) يدفف نفسو بيف دفتي كتاب‬11
to ask no odds ‫) ال يريد جزاء كال شكك ار‬12
to hold out the olive branch ‫) يرفع راية السالـ‬13
to put (an animal) out of its misery ‫) يطمؽ (عمى حيكاف) رصاصة الرحمة‬14
to rise from the ashes ‫) ينيض مف بيف الركاـ‬15
he was caught red-handed ‫) قبض عميو (متمبسان) بالجرـ المشيكد‬16
hit back ‫) يرد الصاع صاعيف‬17
to teach someone a lesson ‫) يمقنو درسان‬18
for God’s sake ‫) لكجو اهلل‬19
(in an assembly of truth) ‫) في مقعد صدؽ‬20

This group is a mixture of Arabic and English linguistic cultures of idiomatic expressions.
They put less pressure on the translator than the previous one, for there is at least one
element in common between the two idioms in the two languages. Guess is not enough to
translate these idioms for the unknown part of the idiom cannot be always clear. In case
the student or the translator does not have an access to the equivalent idiom in the TL,
he/she can render the sense intended by the SL idiom, as is the case with other types of
idioms. Translating the SL idiom into sense is the next best when the first idiomatic choice
is not available to him/her for one reason or another. Indeed, search for equivalent
idiomatic expressions in the TL is never ending and never tiring a process for the serious
translator due to the fact that idiomatic language is used to make a greater effect on the
readerships of both languages involved, so translating it into an ordinary type of language
will dispose it from these essential implications. We do not forlorn searching for idiomatic
equivalence until we give up hope of finding it. Then, and only then, can we go for the
non-idiomatic sense as the last resort.

213
2.5.1.4 TRANSLATING PHRASAL VERBS )‫المركبة‬/‫(األفعاؿ االصطالحية‬

Phrasal verbs are an essential part of idioms. Each consists of a verb followed by an
adverbial (like up, over, off, through, etc.) and / or a preposition (e.g. on, in, at, etc.), or
both. They are “idiomatic combinations of a verb and an adverb, or a verb and a
preposition (or a verb with both adverb and a proposition). They cause difficulties for
students of English because of their meaning and grammar (Courtney’s Longman
Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, 1983: Introd.). This combination leads to a new combination
and a new meaning of the verb concerned that is different from its primary meaning in
language, and the preposition, or the proverb which causes the change, is no longer an
independent part of meaning. On the other hand, a verb followed by a preposition
without having any change in its primary meaning, with the preposition retaining its
meaning. Here are illustrative examples:

- Verb: ‫فر‬
ٌ
- Primary meaning: run away / to
- Prepositional verb: ‫( فر مف‬run away / flee from)
- Phrasal verb: )‫( فر إلى (اهلل‬resort to God / worship God devoutly (see below).

Hence, there is no serious problem with translating prepositional verbs. Yet, phrasal verbs
can be problematic, as demonstrated in the following examples:

(to turn to God / worship God; be devout to God) )8 :‫ ربو) (الشرح‬/ ‫) رغب إلى (اهلل‬1(
to turn away from God / disbelieve in God) )130 :‫) رغب عف (ممة إبراىيـ) (البقرة‬2(
to turn to/ask/beseech someone )‫) رغب إليو (ابتيؿ كطمب‬3(
to appeal to somebody for something )‫) رغب إليو في شيء (سألو إياه‬4(
to keep off something )‫) رغب بنفسو عف الشيء (ترفع عنو‬5(
to have an advantage over somebody )‫) رغب بنفسو عف فالف (رأل لنفسو عميو فضالن‬6(
(to wipe out/destroy something vs. to come to …) ‫ أتى إلى‬- ‫ مقابؿ‬- ‫) أتى عمى شيء‬7(
(to flee to God / to seek refuge with God / to worship ‫ فر مف كذا‬- ‫) فر إلى اهلل – مقابؿ‬8(
God devoutly vs. run away from / escape from …)
to be angry at somebody ‫) غضب عمى فالف‬9(
to be angry from somebody ‫) غضب مف فالف‬10(
to be angry for somebody ‫مف أجؿ فالف‬/‫) غضب لفالف‬11(
to be angry for God’s sake / angry in God's Cause) ‫) غضب في اهلل‬12(
(strike off/smite their limbs; fight them fiercely) )‫ األنفاؿ‬12( ‫) ضرب منيـ كؿ بناف‬13(
(to travel through the land) )20 :‫) ضرب في األرض (المزمؿ‬14(
(to stamp out/ strike their feet upon the ground) )31 ‫) ضربف بأرجميف (النكر‬15(
(strike a dry path for them through the sea )77 :‫) ضرب طريقان في البحر يبس نا (البقرة‬16(
(humiliation was stamped on them) )61 :‫) ضربت عمييـ الذلة (البقرة‬17(

214
 (a wall shall be set up between them) )13 :‫) فضرب بينيـ بسكر لو باب (الحديد‬18(
worn out )‫) أكؿ عميو (الدىر كشرب‬19(
to count on/trust somebody )‫ ككثؽ بو‬،‫) ناـ إليو (اطمأف لو‬20(
to let something slip from one’s memory; to forget it ‫) ناـ عف حاجتو‬21(
to fail in taking the exam / fail to take the test (for he was asleep) ‫) ناـ عف االختبار‬22(
they led him down /took him to prison ‫) ذىبكا بو إلى السجف‬23(
awe pull out of him/departed him .‫الركع‬
َّ ‫) ذىب عنو‬24(
two things got mixed up ‫الشيء في الشيء‬
‫ي‬ ‫) ذىب‬25(
he passed away/ went away/vanished for good ‫) ذىب دكف رجعة‬26(
the good carried away/off all that is good‫) ذىب أىؿ الخير بالخير كمو‬27(
Praise is to God Who removed grief from us ‫) الحمد هلل الذم أذىب عنا الحزف‬28(
so do not let down yourself to grieve for their sake ‫) فال تذىب نفسؾ عمييـ حسرات‬29(
God took away their light ‫) ذىب اهلل بنكرىـ‬30(
vanity stripped him off his solemnity; vanity destroyed him ‫) ذىبت بو الخيالء‬31(
he failed to attend/forgot/missed the meeting ‫) ذىب عميو االجتماع‬32(
then he walked in conceit to his family admiring himself ‫) ثـ ذىب إلى أىمو يتمطى‬33(
If God willed, He would take off their hearing and ‫) كلك شاء اهلل لذىب بسمعيـ كأبصارىـ‬34(
sight
to clean you up/cleanse you from the defilement of the ‫كيذىب عنكـ رجس الشيطاف‬ ‫) ي‬35(
Satan
the road leads down to the sea ‫يؽ إلى البحر‬
‫ي‬ ‫ر‬ ‫الط‬ ‫) دفع‬36(
the soldiers left the camp off ‫) دفع الجند عف المعسكر‬37(
to drive somebody off to death ‫) دفع بو إلى المكت‬38(
to push evil away from somebody ‫) دفع عنو الشر‬39(
to turn something back/return something ‫) دفع إليو الشيء‬40(
change words from their places / distort meaning )13 :‫) يحرفكف الكمـ عف مكاضعو (المائدة‬41(
of the Torah right away by the Jews))
(they ward words off /pervert words after )41 :‫) يحرفكف الكمـ مف بعد مكاضعو (المائدة‬42(
having been set out in their places / distort away the meaning of the Torah a long
time later)

Although phrasal verbs in English are greater in number than in Arabic, Arabic phrasal
verbs are also huge in number to many people’s surprise, but they are not as popular and
famous in usage as the English ones. These examples are taken from the Holy Koran and
Arabic references, with focus on verbs that are currently in use in Modern Standard Arabic
(MSA). Sometimes, the two versions of the same verb, the prepositional and the phrasal,
are juxtaposed for convenience of illustration and comparison, with the aim of pointing
out clearly the difference of the primary meaning of the verb with the latter only. The
problem of translating these verbs is due to the possibility of mistaking them for their
215
literal counterparts, prepositional verbs whose meanings are straightforward (i.e. ‫ذىب إلى‬
‫( السكؽ‬go/went to the market) ‫( ناـ في السرير‬sleep/slept in bed). Therefore, translators are
warned against confusing them with the latter (see also As-Samurrai, 2006: 184-185,
Newmark, 1988 and Ghazala, 2008).

On the other hand, these examples demonstrate that one verb might have several phrasal
forms which can be of different meanings (as they are also in English).

An exceptional case is the last related couple of examples. Perhaps they are rather two
different forms of the same prepositional verb, but with two different meanings: the first
implies a distortion of the meaning of the words of the Torah by the Jews a short time
after its revelation to the Messenger of God, Moses, peace be to him (hence, the use of
one the normal preposition ‫ عف‬as one word only), whereas the second involves distorting
the Torah a long time later, reflected in the elongated and unusual use of two words ‫(مف‬
)‫ بعد‬instead of only one.

As to the problems of translating phrasal verbs into English and their solutions, students
and translators are required to understand them in the context of the Arabic original, first.
Then, they start looking for their equivalent senses in English, whether they are phrasal
verbs or not. Now, after a serious attempt, they insist on going for the phrasal version, if
available in English. Indeed, many of them are available, as the above examples confirm,
for all of them are translated into phrasal verbs in English, with some effort exerted by the
author. This may imply to some that an Arabic phrasal verb should be translated into an
English phrasal verb. Well, this is not exactly the case, but a phrasal verb can be highly
recommended if and when available. If not, the translator might go for an ordinary verb as
a good option for educated readers of a formal text, as phrasal verbs are classified as
informal English. Examples of alternative verbs that give sense are suggested above (see in
particular 7, 1, 24, 26 and 32). As a third option, which should be approached with care, is
to suggest some kind of a similar grammatical form in English like 'wrathful' for God ‫غضب‬ ً
‫ هلل‬/ ‫( في اهلل‬of 12 above, which is suggested by Al-Hilali and Khan (1996). The consequent
outcome would be an unfamiliar English word combination and / or terminology in
English. Yet, being a Koranic expression, it can be accepted by English readers as a new
construction in their language and culture, just like accommodating new terms of other
types coming into their English lexicon.

2.5.2 TRANSLATING PROVERBS AND ADAGES

Like idioms, proverbs are special, fixed and unchanged phrases that have special, fixed and
unchanged meanings. A proverb cannot be translated or understood as a collection of the
individual meanings of its words. Moreover, proverbs are metaphors that stand for
something else. Besides that, they are culture-specific. Therefore, they should not be
translated or understood directly.

The problems of translating English proverbs into Arabic and the suggested solutions to
them are discussed in detail through the following three main groups.

216
2.5.2.1 Identical Equivalence: e.g.

Do not put off your duty till tomorrow ‫التؤخر عمؿ اليكـ إلى الغد‬/‫) ال تؤجؿ‬1
There is nothing new under the sun ‫) ال جديد تحت الشمس‬2
All that glitters is not gold‫) ما كؿ ما يممع ذىبان‬3
A drowning man will clutch at a straw‫) الغريؽ يتعمؽ بقشة‬4
Man is known by the company he keeps‫) يعرؼ المرء بصحبتو‬5
As you sow, so will you reap ‫) كما تزرع تحصد‬6
I hear wheeling without milling ‫) أسمع جعجعةن كال أرل طحنان‬7
Too many cooks spoil the broth ‫) كثرة الطباخيف تحرؽ الطبخة‬8
A wolf in sheep’s clothing ‫) ذئب في ثكب حمؿ‬9
Necessity is the mother of invention ‫) الحاجة أـ االختراع‬10
The way to a man’s heart is through his stomach ‫) الطريؽ إلى قمب الرجؿ معدتو‬11
To hit two birds with one stone‫) يضرب عصفكريف بحجر‬12
No smoke without fire‫) ال دخاف مف دكف نار‬13
Like father like son ‫) الكلد طالع ألبيو‬14
Like mother like daughter ‫) البنت طالعة ألميا‬15

The examples of this group are the easiest for students to translate, because most of them
can be translated literally and in a straightforward way. However, the problem remains for
the students to know the full form of the proverb in English. The solution is not hard to
attain anyway for they are usually fascinated by proverbs in both languages and know
some of them beforehand. Classroom tests can easily confirm this. With the help of an
authority and the consultation of specialist references -which are available in affluence
now - they can find the solution to the problems of translating these proverbs. Yet, and
when the proverb is still not attaned, the students resort to translating its meaning into
ordinary language. For example, if they are unaware of the corresponding English proverb
for: )‫(كثرة الطباخيف تحرؽ الطبخة‬, they can translate it into sense as : “if there are many cooks,
food will be burned”, or into a cultural, different equivalent version, be it formal or
colloquial, the last is usually avoided in Standard English translations. In the event that no
proverb of any type is available to the translator, he/she give the right sense intended in
as short form as possible: e.g.

(a) Two Gods spoil the world

(b) One country, one president
(c) Many bosses, great losses
(d) No use to have more than a boss
(e) Many cooks burn the meal
(f) Many cooks spoil food
(g) More cooks, less tasty food
(h) If you want to spoil food, bring many cooks
217
 (i) One cook, delicious food
etc.

2.5.2.2 Similar Equivalence: e.g.

Forbidden fruit is sweet ‫ أى ىحب شيء إلى اننساف ما يمنعا‬/‫) كؿ ممنكع مرغكب‬1
Blood is thicker than water‫) الدـ ال يصير ماء‬2
A bird in hand is worth two in the bush ‫) عصفكر في اليد خير مف عشرة عمى الشجرة‬3
Birds of a feather flock together ‫) إف الطيكر عمى أشكاليا تقع‬4
Two minds are better than one ‫) أرياف خير مف رأم كاحد‬5
A friend in need is a friend indeed‫) الصديؽ كقت الضيؽ‬6
Better to be safe than sorry ‫) السالمة كال الندامة‬7
Diamond cut diamond ‫) ال يفؿ الحديد إال الحديد‬8
Familiarity breeds contempt‫األنس ييذىب الميابة‬/‫) األلفة تكلد الكره‬9
To make a dome out of a molehill )‫) يعمؿ مف الحبة قبة (كمف البذرة شجرة‬10
where there is life there is hope ‫ال حياة مف دكف أمؿ‬/‫) ال يأس مع الحياة‬11
charity begins at home‫) األقربكف أكلى بالمعركؼ‬12
Poverty is no sin ‫) الفقر ليس عيبان‬13
Let bygones be bygones ‫ما فات مات‬/‫) عفا اهلل عما سمؼ‬14
Lies are the bane of conversation ‫) آفة الحديث الكذب‬15

The proverbs of this group are harder to translate than those of the first. Yet, this does not
mean that they are quite demanding translate. Presumably, the knowledge of a part of the
proverb in English is helpful for students to guess in full on some occasions at least. When
it is not possible for them to find a proper version of a proverb for one reason or another,
they can translate its sense as shortly as possible, as demonstrated above in relation to
the Proverb “many cooks spoil the broth” (see Group One).

In the examples of this group, the similar parts of the images of the idioms are underlined
for two reasons: (1) To show the similarities and the differences between each pair in both
English and Arabic; (2) To point out the familiarity or the strangeness of the English literal
versions of Arabic proverbs. For example, ‘‫ما فات مات‬/‫ ’عفا اهلل عما سمؼ‬would be strange and
unclear if translated directly into: “God may pardon what has gone/ past died”. There
might be serious misunderstanding of the Arabic original as a form of prayer to God, or –
in case of the second version – past has elapsed and can never come back. Indeed, in
comparison to “let bygones be bygones”, the meanings of the former two translations are
not necessarily related to the latter.

2.5.2.3 Different Equivalence: e.g.

To lock the stable door after the ‫ال ينفع الترياؽ إذا بمغت الركح التراقي‬/‫) سبؽ السيؼ الع ىذ ؿ‬1
horse has bolted out
218
(Literally: the sword has been quicker than apology)
A stitch in time saves nine ‫درىـ كقاية خير مف قنطار عالج‬ )2
(Literally: prevention worth of dirham is better than a quintal of cure)
One man’s meat is another man’s poison ‫مصائب قكـ عند قكـ فكائد‬ )3
(Literally: some people’s misfortunes are fortunes to other people)
The grass is greener on the other ‫طرب‬ ً ‫ مزمار الحي ال يي‬/‫النبي في غير أىمو كريـ‬ )4
side of the hill/fence
(Literally: The Prophet is noble but amidst his folk)
‫ كرمان لعيف تكرـ مرجعيكف‬/‫ألجؿ مدينة تكرـ مدايف‬/‫كىي يحب ناقتىيا بعيرم‬ ‫كأحبيا كتيحبني‬ )5
Love me love my dog
(Literally: I love her and she loves me …and my camel loves her she-
camel/for the sake of a town, many other towns are honoured/ for an eye,
may eyes are honoured)
Enough is as good as a feast ‫القناعة غنى‬/‫القناعة كنز ال يفنى‬ )6
(Literally: contentment is a treasure never ending)
To separate the grain ‫يميز الصالح مف الطالح‬/‫ يميز الغث مف السميف‬/‫ىيميز الخبيث مف الطيب‬ )7
(wheat)from the chaff
(Literally: distinguish the bad from the good)
Half a loaf is better than no bread ‫الرمد خير مف العمى‬ )8
(Literally: ophthalmia/conjunctivitis is better than blindness)
To add insult to injury ‫يزيد الطيف بمة‬ )9
(Literally: make mud wetter)
‫ال تقؿ عنب‬/‫ كال تقكلف لشيء إني فاعؿ ذلؾ غدان إال أف يشاء اهلل‬/‫لكؿ حادث حديث‬/‫لكؿ مقاـ مقاؿ‬ )10
Don’t count your chickens ))‫ال تقؿ كمكف حتى تصر عميو(عا‬/)‫حتى يصير في السمة(عا‬
before they’re hatched
(Literally: for each situation, there is a saying/ for each event there is a talk)
A leopard never ‫ ذنب الكمب أعكج‬/‫شب عمى شيء شاب عميو‬ َّ ‫مف‬/‫الطبع يغمب التطبع‬ )11
changes its spots
(Literally: one’s nature supersedes artificialness)
Beauty is in ‫صـ‬ ً ‫حبؾ لمشيء يعمي كي‬/‫سف في كؿ عيف ما تكد‬‫ح ه‬/
‫ي‬ ‫القرد بعيف أمو غزاؿ(عا) ى‬ )12
the eyes of the beholder
(Literally: the monkey is a gazelle in the eyes of its mother)
Between Scylla and ‫بيف ناريف‬/‫مر‬ ٌ ‫أمراف أحالىما‬/‫كالمستجير مف الرمضاء بالنار‬ )13
Charybdis / out of the frying pan into the fire
(Literally: like the one who seeks refuge from a blazing desert with fire)
Like a bull in a china shop ‫أحمؽ مف نعامة‬ )14
(Literally: more foolish than an ostrich)
When in ‫ مف عاشر القكـ أربعيف يكمان صار منيـ‬/‫إذا كنت في قكـ فاحمب في إنائيـ‬ )15
Rome, do as the Romans do
(Literally: were you amidst a people, milk in their bowl/ if you live amidst a
people for forty days, you will become one of them)
All roads lead to Rome ‫كؿ الدركب إلى الطاحكف‬ )16

219
 (Literally: all roads lead to the mill)
A fox is not taken twice in )‫ال ييمدغ المؤمف مف جحر مرتيف (الحديث في الصحيحيف‬ )17
the same snare
(Literally: the believer is not stung twice from the same snake hole)
God stays long, but strikes at last ‫يميؿ كال ييمؿ‬ )18
(Literally: God postpones but never ignores)
Many hands make light work ‫يد اهلل مع الجماعة‬ )19
(Literally: God’s Hand is with the united group/community)
Never a rose without thorns ‫ال بد لمشيد مف إبر النحؿ‬ )20
(Literally: to pick up the honeycomb, there must be bees’ stings)

This group is the greatest in number in both languages. Moreover, it is the most difficult to
translate because its proverbs have no straightforward literal relevance to their
equivalents in English. The literal translations given for the above examples confirm this.
That is, if we follow them, we will not understand the original.

Hence, the problem here is not easy to overcome. However, a solution of some kind
would be suggested by either of the following references:

(1) consulting good specialist, monolingual as well as bilingual references (e.g.

Dictionaries of Proverbs: English-English, Arabic-English and English-Arabic);
(2) consulting an authority (e.g. a good teacher, the University Library, etc.);
(3) resorting to colloquial English;
(4) going for any type of equivalent proverb, old, new, formal or informal;
(5) browsing the Web for possible help; or
(6) as a last resort, translating the sense (i.e. the non-figurative intended meaning of
the proverb) with extra care and full concentration.

Word-for-word literal translation is not advisable in any way and should be avoided by all
means because it can be harmful, silly, vague and distort the meaning of the original.

2.5.2.4 Translating Adages )‫(األقكاؿ المأثكرة‬

An adage is defined as “a traditional saying that is accepted as true or particularly true: a

proverb” (Collins, 2000: 16, and American Heritage, 2004: 15)). It is “a well-known phrase
that says something wise about life” (Longman, 2010: 10). So, adages are wisdoms close
to proverbs in both languages, Arabic and English. Still, they have their own characteristics
that can be described as semi-proverbs, or proverb-like expressions that are cultural and
figurative, standing for something else, and cannot be understood or translated literally
and directly. They pose one or two problems of translation that need be attended to by
students, teachers and translators alike. Here are translated examples to discuss:

In God we trust )‫) لمبيت رب يحميو (قكؿ عربي مأثكر عف عبد المطمب‬1(
Patience is sweet / bears sweet fruit )‫) الصبر جميؿ (أصمو في القرآف‬2(
Job's patience / patience on a monument )‫) صبر أيكب (أصمو في القرآف كالتراث العربي‬3(

220
right overtops all in the )‫) جكلة الباطؿ ساعة كجكلة الحؽ حتى قياـ الساعة (أصمو في القرآف كالتراث‬4(
end / right is like cork, it never sinks
a man can only die once )‫اثكرة‬/‫ ال أحد يمكت قبؿ يكمو (مف األقكاؿ الشعبية اؿ‬/ ‫) األعمار بيد اهلل‬5(
immortality is God's only )‫) البقاء هلل (أصمو في القرآف كالتراث الشعبي‬6(
God willing; with the will of God )‫) إف شاء اهلل (أصمو في القرآف‬7(
God forbid! )‫ معاذ اهلل (مف التراث الشعبي‬/ ‫ ال سمح اهلل‬/ ‫) ال قدر اهلل‬8(
Who laughs last laughs first )‫) األمكر بخكاتيميا (مف السنة الشريفة‬9(
God disposes, man proposes)‫) أنت تريد كأنا أريد كاهلل يفعؿ ما يريد (مف القرآف كالتراث‬10(
good and evil are never mistaken )‫) الحالؿ بيف كالحراـ بيف (األصؿ مف السنة الشريفة‬11(
moderation in all things )‫) خير األمكر الكسط (األصؿ مف السنة الشريفة‬12(
)11 :‫ الرعد‬:"‫ "إف اهلل ال يغير ما بقكـ حتى يغيركا ما بأنفسيـ‬:‫) كما تككنكف يكلَّ ى عميكـ (األصؿ في القرآف‬13(
as you are, so will yours governors be
‫ اعمؿ ما‬.‫ "البر ال يبمى كالذنب ال ينسى كالدياف ال يمكت‬:‫) كما تديف تداف (األصؿ مف الحديث الشريؼ‬14(
as you think of others, others will think of )‫شئت كما تديف تداف" (أحمد كالبييقي كغيرىما‬
you; as you sow, so will you reap
rather death than shame )‫) المكت كال المذلة (مف التراث الشعبي المأثكر‬15(
The greatest wealth is contentment with little )‫) الرضى بالقميؿ (األصؿ مف القرآف كالسنة‬16(
God knows; Heaven / Goodness )‫ العمـ عند اهلل (مف القرآف كالسنة كالتراث األدبي‬/ ‫) اهلل أعمـ‬17(
knows
as easy as ABC / as a piece of cake (originally: a proverbial simile ‫) أسيؿ مف الفاتحة‬18(
borrowed from the title of the First and most important Chapter of the Koran,
)‫( (الفاتحة‬The Opening))
mock not a cobbler for his )11 :‫) ال يسخر قكـ مف قكـ عسى أف يككنكا خي انر منيـ (الحجرات‬19(
black thumbs (Originally: You who believe! A people should not mock another
people for it may be that they are better than them: The Chambers : 11)
overcome evil with good (Originally: repel evil with ‫) إدفع بالتي ىي أحسف‬20(
what is best: The Expounded: 34)
out of evil may spring a blessing (Originally: )216 :‫) عسى أف تكرىكا شيئان كىك خير لكـ (البقرة‬21(
it may be that you dislike a thing which is good for you: The Cow: 216)
cloudy mornings turn to clear evenings / every cloud has )5 :‫) إف مع العسر يس ار (الشرح‬22(
a silver lining (Originally: verily, along with hardship / ease is relief ease: The
Solace: 5)
as innocent as a (new- )‫ ابف يعقكب (مف سكرة يكسؼ عميو السالـ‬/ ‫) برمء براءة الذئب مف دـ يكسؼ‬23(
born) babe / as a lamb (Originally: From the Chapter of Joseph: The wolf was said
to have eaten him, but it was not)
a )‫ كخير متاع الدنيا الزكجة الصالحة) (مسمـ‬،‫ الدنيا متاع‬:‫) خير متاع الدنيا الزكجة الصالحة (مف الحديث‬24(
good wife is a godly prize (Originally: This World is a passing enjoyment, and the
best enjoyment is a pious wife)

221
he that )‫ الطبراني‬:"‫ "فإف كؿ ذم نعمة محسكد‬...‫) استعينكا عمى قضاء حكائجكـ بالكتماف (مف حديث‬25(
keeps his secret gains his object (Originally: seek help in accomplishing your
objectives)
God help those who help others )‫) إف اهلل في عكف العبد ما داـ العبد في عكف أخيو (مسمـ‬26(
(Originally: God help His servant if the servant helps his brother)
a good archer is not known by his arrows, but his )‫) إنما األعماؿ بالنيات (في الصحيحيف‬27(
aims / man punishes the action, but God the intention ( Originally: deeds are
judged by intentions)
to )‫ أحمد كالترمذم كغيرىما‬:‫ كؿ ابف آدـ خطاء كخير الخطائيف التكابكف‬:‫) كؿ ابف آدـ خطاء (مف حديث‬28(
err is human (Originally: Every human is prone to err, and the best of wrong
doers are the penitent)
Thankless to people, thankless to )‫) مف ال يشكر الناس ال يشكر اهلل ) (البخارم كأحمد كغيرىما‬29(
God; be thankful to people so you can be thankful to God ( Originally: He who
does not thank people does not thank God).

Adages are as popular as proverbs, but are usually short and not treated by language users
as proverbs. They are just popular statements, or sayings that have come to be common
among native speakers. Many of the examples above are religious in origin (from the Holy
Koran and Prophetic Tradition in particular). With the passage of time, they have become
established cultural adages and popular sayings that have been taken out of their original
Islamic context, to be used in other types of context in Arabic. Hence, they can be
translated into equivalent English adages, proverbial statements ordinary language, as
confirmed above. Although their Islamic cultural implications may be left out, their
intended sense is fully retained, as also demonstrated in the translation of the examples
above. Two translations are suggested for each adage: (i) a cultural equivalent of some
kind in the TL; (ii) a literal translation of the meaning of the original. Both are possible
translations of the same adage, with preference of the first to the second for it is closer to
the TL readership.

Accordingly, these adages are used in their general sense rather than their specific
religious meanings. Therefore, they have been translated freely into equivalent English
proverbial statements of some kind. Most of these equivalents are English-culture specific
for proverbs are usually cultural. In this sense, the consistency rule of translating the same
term in different texts and contexts is violated again in an exceptional way that unique to
Islamic terms and statements.

In short, the translation of proverbs and adages is quite interesting. Nevertheless,

students need to be careful and know whether the proverb to be translated belongs to
Group ‘A’, ‘B’ or ‘C’. They may be guided to that by trying the literal translation of its
words: If it is possible, it belongs to group ‘A’, if half possible, it might come under group
‘B’, but if not possible, nor understood, it falls with group ‘C’. By realizing that, the
students can apply the solutions suggested to the problems of each group in the previous
discussion. Koranic verses, Prophetic Traditions and supplications, or parts of them have
been picked up by Arabic Language users to be used in other types of texts, contexts and
situations. Hence, many Islamic combinations, phrases, expressions and statements have
penetrated almost all other types of texts, especially general, literary, political and daily
222
discourses. Once they joined the ranks of Arabic lexicon, they have mainly taken the forms
of adages and proverbial statements used by the native speakers of Arabic freely to
express meanings similar to their original religious meanings, or parts of these meanings.
The obvious reason for this is that these phrases and expressions represent to Arab people
and Muslims, who are mostly religious at heart, the divine, absolute and indisputable
truth.

Finally, idioms, proverbs and adages are a part of figurative language. They are not meant
to be taken literally and directly, but non-literally and indirectly. More details about
figurative language are provided in the next section about the translation of metaphors.

2.5.3 TRANSLATING FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: TROPES

A Trope "twists words away from their usual meanings or collocations" (Wales, 1989: 468).
A trope is originally a Greek word (tropos) that denotes 'turning' by virtue of which A is
expressed in terms of B. Al-Ghazali implies a similar sense by defining it as follows: ‫"المجاز‬
)431 :2007 :‫( ما استعممتو العرب في غير مكضكعو" (المطعني‬Trope is what the Arabs use of
language in a different subject matter). Al-Ghazali, Ibn Al-Atheer, Al-Jurjani, Az-
Zamakhshari, Az-Zarkashi, Ibn Qutaiba, Ibn Jinni and Al-Farraa (see ibid.) are among the
big names of Arab classic linguists suggest several types of trope, many of which will be
pointed out below in relation to metaphor. In modern usage of English terminology,
'figures of rhetoric' and 'tropes' are more or less not rigorously distinguished " …since
figures often accommodate tropes", as Nash declares (1989: 13). Therefore, the two terms
are used interchangeably throughout.

Similarly, figurative language is used to mean metaphorical language. It subsumes all kinds
of features of language that are semantically or grammatically unusual. By contrast to
ordinary language which expresses meaning directly and literally, figurative language is a
reference to the type of language that may express meaning indirectly and non-literally.
Figurative language is a metaphorical language used as a cover term for all types of
imagery and figures of rhetoric like fixed phrases (especially idioms), simile, metaphor,
pun, word play and metonymy in particular.

2.5.3.1 TRANSLATING THE METAPHOR

Metaphor is at the heart of trope. It is taken as its representative in translation theory in

particular. In Arabic rhetoric books, the metaphor is viewed as a kind of simile. Al-Jurjani,
for example, defines metaphor as follows: ‫ كالقيػاس يجػرم فيمػا‬،‫ كنمػط مػف القيػاس‬،‫"ضػرب مػف التشػبيو‬
".‫ ال األسػماع كاآلذاف‬،‫ كتسػتفتى فيػو األفيػاـ كاألذىػاف‬،‫ كتدركو العقػكؿ‬،‫( تعيو القمكب‬the metaphor is a kind of
simile, which is a kind of analogy, and analogy is perceived by heart, realized by brains
and understood by minds, not by ears) (1983). Also, Al-Maidani defines it as ‫"كىػي مػف قبيػؿ‬
".‫ كأصػميا تشػبيو يحػذؼ منػو المشػبو كأداة التشػبيو ككجػو الشػبو‬،‫( المجػاز فػي االسػتعماؿ المغػكم‬it is an allegorical
use of words, whose origin is a simile whose components are the object, the particle and
the sense) (1996: 229). Similarly in his book, Poetics, Aristotle views metaphor as a
fundamental figure of speech. It is a trope based on similitude, or a ‘simile compressed in

223
a word’, as defined in Johnson’s Dictionary. It is the major form of figurative language, or
trope which has received the greater part of attention by writers and analysts.

Metaphor is, then, a linguistic process used to make a comparison between the attributes
of something/somebody and something else by way of illustration and conceptualization
of objects, concepts and people. It is the process of transferring or transporting qualities
from one object to another: from an animal to a person, a thing to an animal, a flower to
a human being, a thing to another, etc. A metaphor was originally a Greek word for
‘transport’. Understanding a metaphor as a sort of transport implies that a metaphor
transports a concept from its normal location, to somewhere else where it is not usually
used or found. It stands in contrast to direct, literal language.

To show the difference between figurative and direct language, here is an example:

He is cunning ‫) ىك ماكر‬1
He is a fox ‫) ىك ثعمب‬2

In ‘1’, language is clear and direct, describing a person as ‘cunning’ in a straightforward

way, whereas ‘2’ is figurative language because it describes the same person in an indirect
way as a ‘fox’ (‫)ثعمب‬. Of course, the said person is not the animal ‘fox’, but we want to say
that he is cunning as the fox is famous for being cunning. Hence, both examples say the
same thing, but in two different ways and two different types and concepts of language. In
translation, we have to take this difference into consideration because they are not the
same. That is, direct language is:

1. open 2. clear 3. straightforward 4. ordinary 5. little interesting.

On the other hand, figurative language is:

1. metaphorical 2. indirect 3. sometimes unclear 4. preferable 5. much interesting

6. conceptual 7. more beautiful than direct language.

Thus, although ‘cunning’ and ‘fox’ have the same meaning, they cannot be translated into
the same word (cunning) in English, but into two words: (cunning) and (fox).

Before proceeding to investigate the types of metaphor, it must be stressed that due to
its prime importance and superordinate reference, metaphor subsumes the major types
of tropes (or rhetorical figures) like:

(1) syndeton ‫عطؼ‬

(2) Asyndeton ‫عطؼ مرسؿ ؛ عبارات متتالية مف دكف حرؼ عطؼ‬
(3) polysyndeton ‫تكرار متكاؿ لحرؼ العطؼ‬
(4) synecdoche / anthimaria / hypallage ‫(المجاز المرسؿ‬
(5) metonymy / antonomasia / metalepsis )‫(الكناية‬
(6) pun / paronomasia / antanaclasis / double-entendre )‫ انيياـ‬/ ‫(التكرية‬
224
 (7) simile )‫(التشبيو‬
(8) personification ‫ أنسنة‬/ ‫تشخيص‬
(9) anaphora (e.g. Children are a comfort, children are amusing, and children are
sometimes a nuisance) ‫تكرار الصدارة‬
(10) epistrophe (e.g. you may not like rules, you might spend your time breaking the
rules) ‫تك ارر ختامي‬
(11) anadiplosis and climax (e.g. there he met a lady, a lady who supported his
throughout his life) ‫تكرار تتابعي كتصاعد مطرد‬
(12) symploce: a combination of anaphora and epistrophe (e.g. The Syrian People
decided to regain their freedom; the Syrian People have determined to pay
whatever price for their freedom) )‫ختامي‬-‫تكرار مركب (ابتدائي‬
(13) parison: matching or comparison of constructions occurring in pairs or trees (e.g.
nothing, they say, succeeds like success, and everything, it appears, collapses in
failure) ‫ تكافؤ عبارات‬/ ‫تناظر نحكم‬
(14) isocolon: (I frequently watch football on TV., he rarely eats fish, she usually reads
short stories) ‫تكاز نحكم‬
(15) chiasmus / antimetabole (e.g. one should eat to live, live to eat (Moliere) ‫قمػب‬
‫ تكرار متصالب‬/ ‫نحكم‬
(16) hendiadys (e.g. merriment and hilarity) ‫تكأمة مترادفات اسمية‬
(17) oxymoron (e.g. disgustingly good; brilliantly boring) ‫تكافؽ المتناقضات‬
(18) Zeugma / syllepsis (e.g. her beauty and bank account faded; he lost his money
and his temper; the manager left in good humor and a Mercedes) ‫التئاـ‬
(19) epizeuxis (e.g. go out! I said go out! You understand, go out!) ‫تكرار تككيدم‬
(20) epanorthesis (e.g. her manner was brisk and cool, not to say boreal) ‫استدراؾ بالغي‬
(21) Epanalepsis (e.g. much must he be beloved, that loves much) ‫رد العجػز عمػى الصػدر؛‬
‫ختامي‬-‫تكرار استياللي‬
(22) antanaclasis / ploce (a handsome fellow with a handsome salary; the dumb may
not be as dumb as you might think) ‫تكرار متغاير؛ تكرية تكرار‬
(23) polyptoton (I don't enjoy singing, nor the singer) ‫تكرار متنكع‬

2.5.3.1.1 Components of Metaphor

Each metaphor has the following components (the metaphor ‘sunny smile’ is cited as an
example):

1) (‫ )المشبو بو‬Image; the source of the metaphor (i.e. the ‘sun’).

2) (‫ )المشبو‬Object: the idea, thing, or person described (i.e. ‘smile’).
3) (‫ )كجو الشبو‬Sense: the direct meaning of the metaphor (i.e. the brilliance of the
smile which resembles the brilliance of the shining sun).

225
 4) (‫ )االستعارة‬the Metaphor Word: The figurative word used in the expression (i.e.
sunny).

These components are inseparable in practice. Yet, the first step in the translation of the
metaphor for the students is to try to distinguish these components to facilitate their
understanding, analysing and, hence, translating of metaphors in general.

2.5.3.1.2 Types of Metaphor

There are several types of metaphor in both languages concerned, Arabic and English. In
Arabic literature of rhetoric, metaphor has generally several types. Here are its major
types in Arabic, first (see Al-Maidani, 1996, Al-Jurjani, 1983, Newmark, 1988, Wales,
1989, Nash, 1989, Gibbs, 2010, 1989, Richie, 2013 and Ghazala, 2011 & 2015):

(1) )‫ (اسػتعارة تصػريحية‬Overt metaphor (the image )‫ (المشػبو بػو‬is stated clearly: e.g. "the
athlete is an arrow; she is a fox, etc.
(2) )‫( (اسػتعارة مكنيػة‬Covert metaphor): the image is not stated clearly, only a feature of
it: e.g. " he is roaring" (the lion is not stated); "she is cunning" (the fox is not
stated), etc.)
(3) )‫( (اسػتعارة أصػمية‬Original metaphor): an inanimate noun used: e.g. "he is a lion / a
moon, etc.)
(4) )‫( (اسػتعارة تبعيػة‬Derivative / supplementary metaphor): a verb, an adjective or any
derivative from an inanimate noun: e.g. "he is shining / sharp, etc.
(5) )‫( (اسػتعارة مطمقػة‬Absolute metaphor): the object and image are not features of it:
"the new leader cut off the head of the snake (in reference to disposing of
corruption and the corrupt, which has no direct relevance to cutting the snake's
head)
(6) )‫( (اسػتعارة مرشػحة‬Extended metaphor): extended metaphorical details are provided
about the image: e.g. " the new leader cut off the head of the snake that bred
small snakes and spit venom everywhere " (''bred small snakes…everywhere”).
(7) )‫( (اسػتعارة مجػردة‬Abstract metaphor): abstract, non-metaphorical details about the
image: e.g. the new leader cut off the head of the snake that developed many
problems in the community and caused dissatisfaction among people
('developed many problems…among people').
(8) )‫( (استعارة حسػية‬Concrete metaphor): an image perceived by senses: e.g. “the day is
skinned off the night”.
(9) )‫ غيػر حسػية‬/ ‫( (اسػتعارة فكريػة‬ideational/conceptual metaphor): the image is conceived
conceptually rather than sensually: e.g. “Fire as green as the grass” (Dylan
Thomas, in Ghazala, 2008).
(10) )‫حس ػػية‬-‫(اس ػػتعارة فكري ػػة‬: (Mixed conceptual-concrete metaphor): the image is
conceptual made clear through concrete image: e.g. “Tsunami is said to be God’s
wrath sent down as mass destruction” (anger = conceptual; 'mass destruction =
concretization of 'anger').

226
 (11) )‫فكريػػة‬-‫( (اسػػتعارة حسػػية‬Mixed concrete-conceptual metaphor): concrete image
implying a conceptual image: e.g. Oppression has been broken down on the wall
of iron will (broken down = concrete; the wall of iron will = conceptual).
(12) )‫( (اسػتعارة كفاقيػة‬Double-decker compromising metaphor): an image which can be at
the same time concrete and conceptual: e.g. “some people are living dead”
(13) )‫( (اسػتعارة عناديػة‬Uncompromising single-sense metaphor): an image that has one
sense only, conceptual, or concrete, though looking contrastive): e.g. “his sharp
words have been a panacea for her” (razor-sharp words = conceptual (negative)
panacea = concrete (positive)).
(14) )‫( (اسػػتعارة تمثيميػػة‬Compound / exemplary metaphor): adages and proverbs
suggesting exemplification: e.g. “Jack of all trades is a master of none”;
“diamond cuts diamond”; “a fox is not taken twice in the same snare”, etc.

As to English metaphor, Newmark proposes seven types of metaphor (1988: Chapter 9):

1) dead metaphors (foot of a page/of a bed; to kill time)

2) cliché metaphors (at the end of the day)
3) standard metaphors (his wife wears the trousers)
4) cultural metaphors (a knock for six (from cricket))
5) adapted metaphors (the ball is in their court now)
6) recent metaphors (wooden talk)
7) original metaphors (dribbling talks and trickling offers; ‘my wishes raced’)

Thornborrow and Wareing suggest the following types of metaphor, particularly in

literary discourse(1998: 99-110):

(i) explicit metaphors (she is the apple of his eye; the war will be hell)
(ii) embedded metaphors (moon-skulled; the cash machine ate his card)
(iii) anthropomorphic metaphors (or personification) (Tom and Jerry Cartoons)
(iv) pathetic fallacy (dark clouds; simple stars; tossing trees)
(v) mixed metaphors (a bottleneck strangles the traffic flow)
(vi) dead metaphors (the same as Newmark’s above)
(vii) metaphorical collocations (green with envy; green politics; bite the dust)
(viii) extended metaphors (e.g. Eliot compares ‘fog’ to ‘a cat’, a metaphor extending
over the whole stanza to form cat-metaphors: in T.S. Eliot: The Love Song of J.
Alfred Prufrock).

Leech, on the other hand, puts forward four notional classes of metaphor based on the
semantic relation between literal and figurative senses (1969):

(a) The Concretive Metaphor: attributes concreteness to an abstraction (e.g. a vicious

circle; room for negotiation).
(b) The Animistic Metaphor: attributes animate characteristics to the inanimate (e.g.
angry weather; the shoulder of the hill; the foot of the mountain; graves yawn).

227
(c) The Humanizing (Anthropomorphic) Metaphor: attributes human characteristics to
what is not human (i.e. personification) (e.g. a smiling town; a friendly tree;
laughing rivers).
(d) The Synaesthetic Metaphor: transfers meaning from one domain of sensory
perception to another (e.g. vivid color; dull sound; bright voice; loud perfume).
(e) Extended Metaphor (see Eliot’s example of the metaphor of ‘Fog’ above, and
Winterson’s Misery Metaphor below);
(f) Compound Metaphor: consisting in the overlapping of two or more individual
metaphors of two different objects working on two different levels of meaning
with two vehicles and two tenors (e.g. two humanising metaphors used in the
same line of verse);
(g) Mixed Metaphor: a dead metaphor brought to attention artificially and forcefully
(e.g. ‘from the cradle to the bucket’; ‘the boot is on the other kettle of fish’).

For convenience of consistency with the English-Arabic Volume (2008), easy follow-up,
clarification, simplification and classification, Newmark’s types (ibid.) are adopted in the
next discussion of the translation of Arabic metaphors into English with the addition of an
essential type (i.e. religious/Islamic metaphors) and a stylistic type (i.e. sublime vs. mean
metaphor) in Arabic by the author.

1. Dead Metaphors (‫ ميتة‬/ ‫)استعارات الشعكرية‬:

A dead metaphor is a metaphor which is not felt by language users, having been in use for
long. They use it unconsciously as an ordinary, direct expression, but it is not. This is the
reason for calling it dead. e.g.
Hands of the clock ‫) عقارب الساعة‬1
Field of knowledge ‫) حقؿ معرفة‬2
Foot of the page ‫) ذيؿ الصفحة‬3
Chain of mountains ‫) سمسمة جباؿ‬4
Series of events ‫) مسمسؿ أحداث‬5
On the one hand … on the other ‫ مف جية أخرل‬... ‫) مف جية‬6
Give me a hand ‫) مد لي يد العكف‬7
Warm welcome/reception ‫) ترحيب (استقباؿ) حار‬8
Lukewarm welcome/reception ‫) ترحيب (استقباؿ) فاتر‬9
To kill time ‫) يقتؿ الكقت‬10

(Plenty of examples can be found in both languages). Usually, the problem of translating
dead metaphors is not difficult to solve. They are close to direct language for the students
who might translate them unconsciously as such, especially when they can find equivalent
dead metaphors in English, as the above examples may confirm:

1.hands ↔ (‫ ;)عقارب‬2.field ↔ (‫ ;)حقؿ‬3.foot ↔ (‫ ;)ذيؿ‬4.chain ↔ (‫ ;)سمسمة‬5.series ↔ (‫;)مسمسؿ‬

6.hand ↔ (‫ ;)جية‬7.hand ↔ (‫يد العكف‬/‫ ;)يد‬8.warm ↔ (‫ ;)حار‬9.lukewarme ↔ (‫ ;)فاتر‬10.kill ↔

228
(‫)يقتؿ‬. By the way, ‘8-9’ are loan translations (or calques) that are originally taken from
English into Arabic.

In case the students have no knowledge of the exact equivalent in English, the solution
becomes more difficult with those dead metaphors that resist literal translation in
particular. For example, although we do not say in English (scorpions of the clock (1)); (tail
of the page (3)); (from one aspect (6)); (the hand of help (7)); or (hot reception (8))
Unfortunately, some students commit such silly mistakes by applying word-for-word
translations to these SL metaphors. They are advised to dispose of such funny, inaccurate
versions, and, instead, have to try their best to look for the English equivalent which is not
hard to find.

Further, these metaphors can be sensed by realizing the normal, direct contexts of the
metaphor-word in each example. That is, usually the words ‘‫’يد‬, ‘‫’قدـ‬, and ‘‫ ’يقتؿ‬are used
with people or animals only, not with things; whereas ‘‫ ’سمسمة‬is used with the metal ‘iron’;
‘‫ ’حقؿ‬with land and agriculture; ‘‫ ’حار‬and ‘‫ ’فاتر‬with water and temperature (of water and
the weather in particular). This applies to their English equivalents:

(‫( )عقارب‬scorpions) is normally not used with ‘clock’; nor (‫( )ذيؿ‬tail) with ‘page’; (‫)يد‬, (‫)يقتؿ‬,
(‫ )حار‬and (‫ )فاتر‬are used in contexts similar to their English counterparts.

2. Cliché Metaphors )‫(استعارات مبتذلة‬

A cliché metaphor is a sensed popular, well-known type of metaphor that is used daily
and frequently. Cliché metaphors are mostly informal. e.g.

At the end of the day ‫) في نياية المطاؼ‬1

He is one foot in the grave ‫عمى شفا حفرة مف المكت‬/‫) (فالف) ًرجؿ في الدنيا كرجؿ في القبر‬2
Head over heel in love ‫) غارؽ في الحب (مف رأسو حتى أخمص قدميو‬3
Word-for-word translation is the last resort ‫) الترجمة كممة بكممة ىي المالذ األخير لممترجـ‬4
for the translator
She is busy up to her ears ‫ما عندىا كقت تحؾ رأسيا‬/‫) (فالنة) مشغكلة حتى أذنييا‬5
(Popular idioms in general can be considered as cliché metaphors)

Like dead metaphors, Arabic cliché metaphors usually have English equivalents, as the
examples show. Yet, sometimes the case is not exactly so for the Arabic metaphors may
not have equivalent ones in the TL, as the following examples illustrate:

I always carry the can! )‫كاىمي‬/‫) عبء المسؤكلية عمي دائمان!؛ دائمان تقع المسؤكلية عمى عاتقي‬1
The heart of the matter is that you are a failure! ‫) جكىر األمر(ىك) أنؾ فاشؿ‬2
This translation is a piece of cake ‫) ىذه الترجمة أسيؿ مف شرب الماء‬3
Catch the thief by hook or by crook ‫) اقبضكا عمى المص حيان أك ميتان‬4
229
 The soldiers stood to their guns ‫) تمسؾ الجند بمكاقعيـ بأيدييـ كأرجميـ‬5

The English metaphors are translated into ordinary, direct Arabic words as follows:

1. “can” (literally: load) → )‫(عبء‬

2. “the heart of the matter”(literally: jewel/essence) → )‫(جكىر‬
3. “a piece of cake” (literally: drinking water) → )‫(شرب الماء‬
4. “hook or crook” (Literally: alive or dead) → (‫(حي أك ميت‬
5. “stand to guns” (Literally: hold with hands and feet) → )‫(يتمسؾ بيديو كرجميو‬

The best translation is possibly to translate a metaphor into a metaphor, or, else, the
sense. The students have always to beware of the literal translations of cliché metaphors
because they may result in funny expressions in Arabic, especially the following:

(1) I always carry the load!

(2) The jewel of the matter
(3) Easier than drinking water
(4) Alive or dead
(5) Hold with one’s hands and feet

These are funny, strange or unclear English statements (perhaps except for ‘4’) Hence,
they are unacceptable, and students should and translators avoid them.

3. Standard Metaphors (‫)استعارات معيارية‬

These are the most established metaphors in language. They are also called ‘stock
metaphors’ (see Newmark, 1988). Most of them are formal, respected and frequently
used in standard language in particular: e.g.
Glimmer of hope ‫بارقة أمؿ‬/‫) بصيص‬1
Throw light on ...‫يسمط الضكء عمى‬/‫) يمقي‬2
Keep the pot boiling ‫) أب ًؽ عمى الحديد حاميان‬3
Hawks and doves ‫) صقكر كحمائـ‬4
That girl wears the trousers ‫ متشبية بالرجاؿ‬/ )‫عيشة راجؿ(عا‬/‫حامد كلد‬/‫) تمؾ الفتاة حسف صبي‬5
He is a henpecked husband ‫مغمكب عمى أمره‬/‫) إنو مقمكع‬6
Widen the gulf between them ‫) يكسع اليكة بينيما‬7
ً ‫دمت في‬
If ‫ اليد التي ال تستطيع أف تعضيا قبميا كادع عمييا بالكسر‬/‫دارىـ‬ ً ‫فاخمب‬
‫دارىـ ما ى‬/ ٍ ‫غمب‬
ٍ ‫) إذا لـ تى‬8
you can’t beat them, join them
That high building is a white elephant )‫ الجنازة كبيرة كالميت فار(عا‬/ ‫) يبني قصك انر في اليكاء‬9
We are in a vicious circle ‫) إننا في حمقة م ٍف ىرغة‬10

230
These metaphors are a collection of proverbs (3, 8, 9); formal metaphors (1, 2, 7); informal
sayings (5,6) and collocations (4, 10). Generally, they have English equivalents. Yet, when a
TL equivalent is not available, direct translation may sometimes work (e.g. 4 (which is
borrowed from English by origin) and 10 which is classical Arabic)) in particular. Well,
sometimes it does not: e.g. We cannot say in English the following:

- Glitter of hope (1)

- Drop light (2)
- Keep iron boiling (3)
- That girl is boy Hasan ((5)
- Build palaces in the air (10)

Yet, when the students and translators cannot find the equivalent English metaphor,
they are recommended to try a metaphorical translation of the sense of some kind,
whether formal or informal. For example, ‘3’ can be translated by analogy to the original
as follows:

(a) Keep fire burning;

(b) Keep hot argument go on;
(c) Leave things get worse, etc.

If the problem sustains, the students may resort cautiously to colloquial expressions,
especially at translating colloquial metaphors like ‘5’ in particular (by the way, the first
(‫ )حسف صبي‬is Syrian, the second )‫ (حامد كلد‬is Saudi while the third (‫ )عيشة ارجؿ‬is Libyan).
However, standard expressions are the rule, whereas informal ones are the exception in
translation. (Those three Arabic versions for the same sense are in fact among the
exceptions for their extreme acceptability, expressivity and humorous nature like that of
the English equivalent, especially at this stage).

4. Adapted Metaphors (‫)استعارات مقتبسة‬

Adapted metaphors are originally taken from English and adapted to Arabic as calques, or
loan translations. Usually, they do not create a difficult problem in translation because
they are retained exactly as they are in the source language without changing their
original image. Translating them directly, then, is possible. e.g.

The ball is in their court now ‫) الكرة في ممعبيـ اآلف‬1

To sow division between them )‫فرؽ تى يسد‬
ِّ ( ‫ يبث الفيرقة بينيـ‬/‫) يزرع الشقاؽ بينيـ‬2
A massacre of goals ‫) مجزرة أىداؼ‬3
Crisis/massacre/massive sale ‫) تخفيضات رىيبة‬4
He holds all the cards ‫) ييمسؾ باألكراؽ كميا‬5
Prisoners of conscience ‫) سجناء الضمير‬6

Direct translation is usually the case here. Yet, the students must be careful to understand
words in their proper sense. For example, ‘‫ ’ممعب‬may be translated by many students into
231
(ground, pitch, playground, etc.), instead of (court), which is the word used with ‘tennis’,
taking it to be a monosemous word. In fact, )‫ (ممعب‬is a polysemous word that has more
than one sense when it collocates with different words (c.f. football pitch; cricket field;
tennis court, etc.). Here, it is (court), taken from the collocation, ‘tennis court’. By the way,
this metaphor means that it is their turn to take action. The third version of ‘2’, )‫تسد‬ ‫(فرؽ ي‬
ِّ is
metaphorical by implication and application; it is so popular, well-established and identical
with the translation suggested for the well-established English saying; ‘divide and rule’, for
both have the same implication of division. Both, however, are borrowed and adapted
from English into Arabic. The last metaphor is a literal translation into Arabic, used to
cover all prisoners of human rights. It is originally based on the term ‘the forgotten
prisoners’ )‫( (السجناء المنسيكف‬Wikipedia.com). In fact, the greater number of the prisoners of
conscience are political prisoners by dictators. Therefore, translating this metaphor non-
metaphorically into ‘political prisoners’ can be acceptable.

5. Cultural Metaphors (‫)استعارات ثقافية‬

The ‘HORSE METAPHORS’ are characterized in the Arabic culture, past and present: Horses
have been a source of creativity in Arabic Language and culture where both overlap to
produce original cultural metaphors, as illustrated in the following examples:

a horse as running as flooding water )‫ كىك الكثير‬،‫ يشبِّو بالماء الغمر‬.‫فرس ىغ ٍمر (كثير الجرم‬ )1
a horse as fast as a stream )‫ كىك الجدكؿ السريع الجرم‬،‫ يشِّبو باليعبكب‬.‫فرس ىيعبكب (سريع الجرم‬ )2
water
a horse )‫ كىي التي ال يينزح ماؤىا‬،‫ شبو بالبئر الجمكـ‬.)‫فرس ىجمكـ (كثير انحضار (أم الكثكب بالعدك‬ )3
as leaping as a full well
a horse untiring in running as a ‫ كىك تتابع دفقاتو‬،‫ يشبو ب ىس ِّح المطر‬.‫فرس ًم ىس ٌح (متتابع الجرم‬
ً )4
shower of rain
‫ كبو سمي أحد أفراس النبي صمى اهلل‬.‫ يشبو بفيض الماء كانسكابو‬.‫فىٍيض (خفيؼ الجرم سريعو‬/‫فرس ىس ٍكب‬ )5
a horse as fast and light in running as flowing water )‫عميو كالسمـ‬
‫ كأكؿ مف تكمـ بذلؾ النبي صمى اهلل عميو كسمـ‬.‫ يشبو بالبحر الذم ال ينقطع ماؤه‬.‫) فرس بحر (ال ينقطع جريو‬6
a horse as ever running as sea )‫في كصؼ فرس ركبو‬
)194-193 :2004 :‫(الثعالبي‬

(The original metaphor words are so difficult, which is why their meanings are given in
parenthesis). The metaphors that belong to the Arabic specific culture are called cultural
metaphors. These metaphors are special terms used in classical and modern Arabic
language and culture. They have no equivalent English metaphors. Although the ‘horse
culture’ is common to both languages, assimilating horse galloping of different moves is
Arabic culture-specific. On the other hand, the two languages have identical aspects of
horse-culture metaphors like the following:

- As strong as a horse; ‫أقكل مف الحصاف‬

- A spirited horse;‫حصاف متقد بالحيكية‬
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 - An unmanageable horse; ‫حصاف جمكح‬
- A wild horse; ‫برم‬/‫غير مركض‬/‫حصاف جامح‬
- A nervous horse; ‫ىائج‬/‫حصاف عصبي‬
- A highly-strung horse ‫حصاف عصبي المزاج‬
- A fiery horse; ‫حصاف كثٌاب‬
- A feral horse; ‫متكحش‬/‫حصاف كحشي‬
- A restless horse; ‫دائـ الحركة كالنشاط‬/‫حصاف ال يكؿ كال يمؿ‬
- ً
A skittish horse; ‫فزع‬/‫جفكؿ‬ ‫حصاف‬
- A thoroughbred horse; ‫حصاف أصيؿ‬
- Hold one’s horses ‫يكبح جماح نفسو‬

Well, the metaphorical expressions that assimilate horse movements to water are Arabic
culture only, which poses some problems of translation to professional translators, not to
mention students and trainee translators. However, there are three possible solutions
arranged in order of priority:

(1) Literal translation of the original metaphor into English directly (as done above),
being an original metaphor that may add to the TL readers’ knowledge about
other cultures.
(2) Neutralization of the SL culture of the metaphors by taking away their cultural
components and translating them into their sense as follows:

(a) A long-distance galloping horse

(b) A very fast horse
(c) A leaping horse
(d) An unstopping horse
(e) A light running horse
(f) An ever running horse

(3) Creating new English cultural metaphors of some kind, which is extremely
difficult for students in particular, and for many translators in general. Here is an
attempt to demonstrate how to do that:

(a) A horse as fast as a long-distance runner

(b) A horse as fast as an arrow/rocket/sound/light
(c) A leapfrog horse
(d) A horse as frisky as a colt
(e) A horse as light as a feather

The last solution is the hardest but the most creative. A middle-ground solution for
students in particular can be the second one, when the first and the third are
unattainable. In fact, these cultural metaphors are accurately puns rather than metaphors,
meant to by symbolic of cultural meanings beyond their individual words taken together.

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 6. Recent Metaphors )‫(استعارات حديثة‬

These metaphors are newly coined in both languages. Most of them are calques, taken
from English into Arabic as such, literally and directly. The difference between them and
adapted metaphors is that they are recent and cover new metaphors in both languages
concerned. Most of them are political jargon. e.g.

Wooden talk ‫لغة الشعارات الجكفاء‬/‫) لغة خشبية‬1

timid/monotonous talk ‫) خطاب خشبي‬2
(Political) transparency )‫) شفافية (سياسية‬3
Head-hunting )‫) (صيد الرؤكس؛ تصفية الخصكـ السياسييف‬4
He is skint ‫) إنو عمى العظـ‬5
Road map ‫) خارطة طريؽ‬6
The domino effect ‫) مفعكؿ الدكمينك‬7
Strategic equilibirium ‫) التكازف االستراتيجي‬8
the two States Solutions ‫) حؿ الدكلتيف‬9
The Arab Spring ‫) الربيع العربي‬10

These metaphors are neologisms (or new words) in Arabic and English.Hence, they may be
translated directly even when they are unclear (like ‘1-3’, 5-7) to retain their images. Or,
else, they can be translated into their direct meanings as follows:

(1) Bombastic/hypocritical/sterile language

(2) Stereotyped talk/argument
(3) Political openness/candour
(4) Eliminating one’s political opponents
(5) Penniless
(6) A step-by-step plan
(7) An event leading to a series of similar events
(8) A balance of powers
(9) Establishing two States, Palestine and Israel
(10) Freedom (from oppression) movement; Revolt against oppressors

These translations are paraphrastic explanations. Although the images of the original
have disappeared, they are accepted translations of their intended senses as a potential
solution to the problem of translating vague recent metaphors in particular. On the
other hand, recent metaphors can be recent in one language, yet their translations into
the TL can sometimes be into long-established metaphors (cf. 4&5).

7. Religious/Islamic Metaphors

In Arabic language and literature, religious metaphors are an essential type that should
not be ignored in translation for its recurrence in use. All Koranic and Prophetic metaphors
234
are original metaphors by origin, in the sense that they never occurred in Arabic Language
before. Now they have become common among Muslim and Arab people, yet they keep
their unique and creative nature. Here are some examples to translate and investigate.

(we sent upon them the sterile wind )219-212( )41 :‫) إذ أرسمنا عمييـ الريح العقيـ (الػذاريات‬1(
/ fatal wind)
(and by the dawn when it starts to breathe / it )211( )17 :‫) كالصػبح إذا تػنفس (التكػكير‬2(
breaks)
(until war lays down its burdens / ends up) )210( )4 :‫) حتى تضع الحرب أكزارىا (محمد‬3(
(and the hearts reached up to the throats (out of )10 :‫) كبمغػت القمػكب الحنػاجر (األحػزاب‬4(
fear) / They were very scared)
(and your strong wind will / your enemy )51( )‫) (تنقطػع دكلػتكـ‬46 :‫) كتػذىب ريحكػـ (األنفػاؿ‬5(
will not fear you any more)
E) (and when Moses' anger abated) )69( )154 :‫) كلما سكت عف مكسى الغضب (األعراؼ‬6(
(and grant me a tongue of truth )80( )84 :‫) كاجعػؿ لػػي لسػػاف صػػدؽ فػي اآلخػريف (الشػػعراء‬7(
among the later generations)
(Your Lord poured / loosed upon them a )13 :‫) فصػب عمػييـ ربػػؾ سػكط عػػذاب (الفجػر‬8(
scourge of chastisement)
The )410( ‫) إف قمػػكب بنػػي آدـ بػػيف إصػػبعيف مػػف أصػػابع الػػرحمف يقمبيػػا كيػػؼ يشػػاء (حػػديث (انمػػاـ أحمػػد‬9(
hearts of the sons of Adam are between two Fingers of God's Who turns them up
as He wishes / God controls the hearts of people)
(he died off his nose / a natural death) )415() ‫) مات حتؼ أنفو (حديث شريؼ‬10(

Due to reasons of accuracy and holiness of Islamic texts, the main thesis of the translation
of these metaphors is that they are translated into English literally and directly, as
indicated above. That is, culturally, linguistically and religiously speaking, they are SL-
oriented at the expense of disregarding the TL culture. English equivalents have not been
sought for partly because they are not available, and partly to meet the strict requirement
of accuracy of the sacredness of the Language of the Holy Koran and the Prophet's
Tradition. Originally, in other types of text, the translation method and procedure strongly
recommended in this connection would be 'Dynamic Equivalence' (Nida, 1969), that is,
they are expected to be TL culture-centered translations, looking for culturally equivalent
metaphors in English that retain the sense of the original but change the image (or the
source domains) into English culture. For example, ‫ الػريح العقػػيـ‬of the first example is
translated directly into 'sterile wind'. However, this metaphorical collocation is not a part
of the established English collocation lexicon, as illustrated in the following account of
Standard English collocations (From Oxford, 2003, and Ghazala, 2013):

- an adverse wind ‫ريح معاكسة‬

- a biting~ ‫قارسة؛ زميرير‬/‫صرصر‬/‫~فييا صر‬
- a brisk~ ‫~نشطة‬
- a bitter~ ‫قارسة‬/~ ‫(~)زميرير؛‬

235
 - a cold~ ‫~باردة‬
- a cutting~ ‫قارسة؛ زميرير‬/‫~شديدة البركدة‬
- a destructive~ ‫~مدمرة‬
- a down~ ‫ىابطة‬/‫~نازلة‬
- a gale-force~ ‫ىكجاء‬/‫~عاتية‬
- a gusty~ ‫عاتية‬/‫شديدة‬/‫~عنيفة‬
- a howling~ ‫ عاصؼ‬/ ‫~عازؼ‬
- a raw~ ‫~قارسة‬
- a stiff~ ‫قاسية‬/‫~شديدة‬
- a strong~ ‫~قكية‬
etc.

Hence, it can be welcomed in English Language as a creative, original metaphor (see the
next type). Yet, fearing that any of these Islamic metaphors would be disproved or vague
to TL readers, the students/translator may give its literal sense by means of paraphrasing
it, as done in relation to the previous type of metaphors (see above).

8. Sublime vs. Mean Metaphors

Sublime metaphor means the formal, respected metaphor, whereas mean metaphor is the
colloquial, less respected metaphor. They are two important stylistic variations of two
different images for the same metaphor word in the SL. The stylistic difference between
them is sometimes serious indeed, as demonstrated in the following examples:

Job’s patience vs. as patient as a donkey "‫) "صبر أيكب" مقابؿ "صبر الحمار‬1
as happy as a lark/great as a lord vs. as joyful "‫) "سمطاف زمانو" مقابؿ "ديػؾ عمػى مزبمتػو صػياح‬2
as a flying pig
as good as one’s words vs. as faithful as a dog "‫) "أكفى مف السمكءؿ" مقابؿ "أكفى مف الكمب‬3
tempting fate vs. "‫ الػػذيب عنػػد طاريػػو‬/‫) "ابػػف الحػػالؿ عنػػد ذك ػره يبػػاف" مقابػػؿ "ذكرنػػا القػػط جػػاء يػػنط‬4
speak/talk of the devil
as fit as a fiddle vs. as fit as a flea "‫) "مثؿ الحصاف" مقابؿ "مثؿ الخنزير‬5

The first version of each pair is favourable and respectful for the people involved in the
metaphor, whereas the second is insulting and mean at describing people. That is, to draw
a similitude between a person and God’s Prophet, Job, for example, pays due respect for
the man in question, whereas, likening him to a patient donkey is disrespectful. The same
argument applies to the rest of examples where the second version implies a humiliation
of some type. Hence, students and translators are warned against disregarding this kind of
indirect style of disrespecting someone. When unable to find an English equivalent, try a
literal translation of the SL metaphor into English, which can be justified on the grounds of
learning about a different culture. They will not sound English, but they give a rough idea
about the original.

236
 9. Original Metaphors: )‫)استعارات أصيمة‬

These are perhaps the best type of metaphors and, unexpectedly, the easiest to translate.
That is, they can be translated directly so that they seem surprising in English as they are
in Arabic. Original metaphors are not only newly created for the first time, and not heard
of before, but also surprising, sublime and respectful, especially in literature, Islamic texts
and political speeches. e.g. (The metaphor-words are underlined):

I was not a stone glazed by water to become a ‫ص ىقمىتٍوي المياهي فأصبح كجيان‬
‫) أنا لـ أ يك ٍف حج انر ى‬1
face
Nor was I a reed holed by the wind to become a pipe ...‫ياح فأصبح ناي نا‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ال‬ ‫) كال قى ى ن ى ٍ ي‬2
‫و‬ ‫بت‬‫ثق‬ ‫ا‬‫ب‬‫ص‬
Here, amidst the splinters of the thing and the nothing ‫ بيف شظايا الشيء كالالشيء‬،‫) ىينا‬3
We do live in the suburbs of eternity, ‫) نحيا في ضكاحي األبدية‬4
To build from the debris lunar dovecots ‫) نبني مف األنقاض أبراج حماـ قمرية‬5
And we do not spend the summer ‫فركسيات أمس الذىبية‬ ٌ ‫) كال نقضي ليالي الصيؼ بحثان عف‬6
nights hunting for past golden heroisms
We are… who are we? And we do ‫ؽ األزلية‬ ‫ فما زلنا ىنا نرتي ي‬،‫ كال نسأ يؿ ىم ٍف نحف‬،‫نحف ىم ٍف نحف‬
‫ي‬ )7
Not ask who we are; we are still here patching perpetuity
We are the children of hot air, cold air and water, ،‫الماء‬ ً ‫ البارد ك‬-‫) نحف أبناء اليكاء الساخف‬8
And the children of dust, light and fire ‫) كأبنايء الثرل كالنار كالضكء‬9
And the land of human freaks ‫أرض النزكات البشرية‬ ً ‫) ك‬10

These wonderful lines of poetry are taken from the last poem by the very famous late
)‫( (محمكد دركيش‬Mahmood Darwish). They are incredibly swarming with original, creative
metaphors, as illustrated below:
I was not a stone ‫) أنا لـ أ يك ٍف حج انر‬1
glazed by water ‫ص ىقمى ٍتوي المياهي‬
‫) حج انر ى‬2
to become a face ‫) فأصبح الحجر كأصبحت كجيان‬3
Nor was I a reed ‫صبان‬
‫) كلـ أكف قى ى‬4
a reed holed by the wind‫ياح القصب‬‫بت الر ي‬
ٍ ‫) ثقى‬5
to become a pipe ‫) فأصبح القصب كأصبحت نايان‬6
the splinters of the thing and the nothing ‫شظايا الشيء كالالشيء‬ )7
we live in the suburbs of eternity, ‫) نحيا في ضكاحي األبدية‬8
we build from the debris ‫) نبني مف األنقاض‬9
lunar dovecots ‫) أبراج حماـ قمرية‬10
hunting for past heroisms ‫) كال نقضي ليالي الصيؼ بحثان عف فركسٌيات أمس‬11
golden heroisms ‫) فركسيات ذىبية‬12
patching perpetuity ‫ؽ األزلية‬ ‫) نرتي ي‬13
children of hot air … cold air ‫ البارد‬-‫) أبناء اليكاء الساخف‬14
237
 ً ‫) أبناء‬15
children of water, ،‫الماء‬
children of dust, light and fire ‫) أبنايء الثرل كالنار كالضكء‬16
ً
children of the land ‫أرض النزكات البشرية‬ ‫) نحف أبناء‬17
land of human freaks ‫) أرض النزكات البشرية‬18

The English translations have retained the same images of the original. This might be the
most appropriate version due to the uniquely creative, astonishing and unexpected
metaphorical combinations of the Arabic original, which are equally matched in English by
uniquely creative, astonishing and unexpected metaphors that would please the TL
readers. Presumably, translating original metaphors directly and literally into the TL is not
a daunting task for students and translators, I hope. Indeed, they are encouraged to do so
for two reasons: (i) to enrich the TL readers’ scope of knowledge of the culture of the
other; (ii) to retain their creative, unparalleled nature untouched in the TL.

2.5.3.4 New Developments in Metaphor Studies

Recently, a new pragmatic and cognitive view of metaphor has been developed and
adopted by contemporary linguists and stylisticians like Black (2006: 103), Cooper (1986),
Nogales, (1999); Gibbs (2008 / 2010); Semino, 2008); Turner (1989 / 2000); Richie (2013)
and many others. Metaphor is now redefined by them cognitively as a creative use of
language and has a social function in the first place. Its principal power of metaphor is to
open up new lines of thought, of original thinking. More so, metaphor is culturalized, i.e.
of cultural origin. By appreciating the metaphor, readers demonstrate their belonging to a
certain sub-set of the human race. Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Lakoff (1987), and Lakoff
and Turner (1989) view metaphor as a part of the human cognitive system. They perceive
metaphors as mainly conceptual, based on general concepts. The conceptual/mental
notion of metaphor brings us to the heart of the cognitive stylistic view of metaphor.

Hence, in the past twenty years or so, much has changed in the world of metaphor, which
is no longer seen as "an ornamental aspect of language, but a fundamental scheme by
which people conceptualize the world and their own activities" (Gibbs, ibid.: 3). Also,
Semino (2008: 1) defines it as "…the phenomenon whereby we talk and, potentially, think
about something in terms of something else". Geary (2011) declares that metaphor
"shapes the way we see the world". further, Cameron (2008) says that metaphors are
used by people in talk to think with, explain themselves to others and organize their talk.
Finally, Richie defines it as "thinking, talking about, or experiencing one kind of thing in
terms of another" (2013: 20)

2.5.3.4.1 Types of Conceptual Metaphor

In the light of recent approaches to metaphor, classifying metaphors traditionally into

'dead', 'fossilized', 'cliché', 'mixed or 'standard' is distortive, partial, loose, prescriptive,
and, therefore, of limited use. In contrast, the newly defined types of conceptual
metaphor are comprehensive and insightful. Studies on conceptual metaphors pay due
respect to all of their types, set in terms of the conceptualization of the world.

238
The contemporary scholarship of conceptual metaphor has revolutionized the whole
traditional legacy of metaphor in language and style. Therefore, new types of metaphor
are put forward in terms of cognitive conceptualization. Here are a number of them (for a
fuller account of other types, e.g. Gibbs 2008, Semino 2008, Richie 2013, Ghazala, 2015
and others):

 Primary conceptual metaphors (i.e. Universal metaphors: e.g. purposes are

destinations) (Steen 2007: 40, Kövecses 2008, and Yu 2008);
 Complex (vs. simple) metaphor (e.g. the world is a small village; the universe is a
computer) (Kintsch 2008: 130);
 Ideology-loaded conceptual metaphors (Semino, 2008: 33, and Deignan, 2008:
290);
 Ideology-neutral conceptual metaphors (e.g. 'emotion metaphors') (Kövecses,
2008, and Semino, 2008: 33);
 Emotion metaphor (of love, anger, etc. e.g. Love is insanity) (Kövecses 2008: 380-
382);
 Security, cold war, depression, path / journey, war, container, health / illness,
religion, sex, etc. conceptual metaphors (Semino 2008: ch. 3, (pp. 81-112), Chilton
1996, Mio 1997, Musolff 2004 and Charteris-Black 2004, in Semino 2008: 10);
 Reconciliation metaphors (e.g. building a bridge. (Cameron, 2008 198);
 Deliberate metaphors (e.g. big political picture. (Cameron, 2008: 202);
 Synaesthetic metaphor (a sensory modality described in terms of another: e.g.
'sweet silence, 'guilty feelings') (Shen 2008: 302);
 Monomodal metaphor: either verbal, or nonverbal metaphor (see pictorial
metaphor below. (Forceville, 2008: 464-482);
 Multimodal/complex concept metaphor (e.g. emote control pad is swiss army
knife) (Forceville, 2008: 464-482);
 Contextual metaphor: an object metaphorized in its visual context (e.g. hair-silk is
icecream) (Stern, 2008: 269-274, Forceville, 2008: 464-465);
 Pictorial / visual / non-verbal metaphor: two objects represented in such a way
that they look similar (e.g. Nokia mobile phone is a matchstick) (Forceville, 2008:
464);
 Hybrid metaphor (subtype of pictorial metaphor): two physical objects merged
into a single 'gestalt' (e.g. clogs are running shoes) (Forceville, 2008: 464);
 Verbalized metaphor (contrasted with non-verbalized metaphor) (e.g. exchanging
business cards is a knife duel) (Forceville, 2008: 477-478);
 Meta-metaphor / key metaphor: a key metaphorical notion that functions as a
backbone of a whole text e.g. 'a battle of metaphors' (as a title of an article
indicating a series of related 'war metaphors') (Semino, 2008: 32);
 Literary, etc. conceptual metaphors (e.g. we are the eyelids of defeated caves)
(Kintsch, 2008).

Obviously, these types need further elaboration. However, they are intended here to
stand for a sketchy representation of the complex reticulum of the new corpus of

239
conceptual metaphor today rather than an exhaustive account of its new types.
Compared to traditional types, these are primarily deeply conceptual-based types (i.e.
master, dominant, culturally sensitive, ideology-loaded, ideology-free, neutral, primary,
universal metaphors). More specifically, conceptual metaphors are sets of 'mappings',
across conceptual domains, whereby a 'target' domain "is partly structured in terms of a
different “source domain" (Lakoff and Johnson (1980b) (in ibid.: 5). The TARGET DOMAIN
(TD) is defined as the concept to be described by the metaphor; whereas the SOURCE
DOMAIN (SD) is identified as the concept drawn upon or used to create the metaphorical
construction. Hence, in the metaphor time is money, the target domain (TD) is TIME, and
the source domain (SD) is MONEY.

Conceptual mappings of metaphor have recently resulted in great insights, especially at

the level of language. Conceptual mapping has proved to be a rich method for discovery.
This is declared by Fauconnier & Turner to be a blooming field of research that has as one
consequence the rethinking of metaphor. We have a richer and deeper understanding of
the processes underlying metaphor than we did previously (Fauconnier & Turner 2008).
Further, according to Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), metaphor enables us to talk
and think about abstract, complex and/or poorly defined areas of experience in terms of
concrete, simple, physical and/or better defined areas of experience. This means that
metaphor is a crucial linguistic and cognitive phenomenon (ibid.: 30, and Simpson, 2004).
Hence the next point.

2.5.3.4.2 Cognitive Scopes of Conceptual Metaphors

The recent explosion of research on conceptual metaphor has widened its cognitive scope
vastly and with variation, ideologically, pragmatically, linguistically, socially, culturally,
politically, religiously, etc. They have opened the door for a wide range of possibilities of
conceptualization of metaphor. This opens the way for other implications possible in the
scope of the metaphor concerned. Gibbs (2008) also says: "Contemporary metaphor
studies seek out language-mind-culture interactions. They offer the best hope for
understanding the prominence of metaphor in human understanding, yet one that
appreciates the subtleties of human meaning-making practices ...".

Interestingly, the multiplicity of mental representations, the interdisciplinary and

multidisciplinary nature of conceptual metaphor and human cognition and mind (ibid.), its
diversifications and potential revitalizations (Goatly, 1997) and, more remarkably, its
ideologization within cognitive contexts of different types would make its metaphoric
scope really enlightening. In the next list, I put forward some of the potential cognitive
conceptualizations of ideological and other implications of one and the same metaphor in
a wide range of different texts and contexts (picked up from Ghazala ( l2015) out of 42
conceptualization):

PRICES ARE ON FIRE

1. Prices are fire (inconceivable conceptualization of flaming the inflammable

abstract (i.e. prices) by the concrete (fire))
2. Prices are set on fire (action (of fire-engine extinction) is called upon)
3. Beware of prices, they burn you (safety first)
240
 4. Keep off prices (precaution recommended)
5. Prices are untouchable (warning against physical hurt)
6. Prices are unaffordable (levelling complaints against income)
7. Protest against high prices (political attitude)
8. Be economical from now on (belt-tightening policy)
9. Repercussions of political crisis (political struggle)
10. Financial collapse is looming (economic instability)
11. The Country is in a state of war (prices are no exception; they are on fire, too)
12. The fire of war burns everything in the Country (including inflammable prices)

The list is tentative and not exhaustive. Further, newly created cognitive contexts and
scopes of conceptualization of this metaphor may be appended to those suggested in the
list (see Ghazala, 2015 for extensive details).

2.5.3.5 Conclusions: Translation Procedures of Metaphors

Before drawing conclusions about how to sort out problems of translating metaphor,
three questions are posed and answered here:

(1) How can we distinguish between the different types of metaphors?

(2) Is it crucial to make such a distinction before translating a metaphor?
(3) Should each type be translated into the same type in Arabic?

As to the first question, the distinction between the types of metaphor can be made
according to the following criteria:

1. Frequency and informality indicate dead or cliché metaphors.

2. The use of the parts of the body (like: ‘hand, head, face, shoulder, mouth, foot’,
etc.');.terms of space, time and environment (e.g. field, top, bottom, time, space,
etc. ), is indicative of dead metaphors in particular.
3. A borrowed , or a foreign word reflects an adapted metaphor.
4. A cultural term occurs in a cultural metaphor.
5. A new word suggests a recent metaphor.
6. An astonishing, unusual, and unexpected image is an original metaphor.
7. A metaphor used in a religious text is a religious/Islamic metaphor.
8. A conceptual metaphor is any metaphor considered on the basis of the new
concept it represents in comparison to its literal concept.

Yet, and in an answer to the second quesyion, although the distinction is important, it is
not crucial to translation when the students cannot make it. The essential point for them
is to render the meaning of the metaphor in one way or another, starting with the best
option of equivalent TL metaphor, down to the non-metaphorical sense of the original.

Regarding the third question, each type of SL metaphor can be translated into the same
equivalent type in the TL only when possible. Otherwise, it is not required, nor possible to
translate Arabic metaphors into English in this strict way.

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Following is a summary of the translation procedures of the metaphors, given in order of
preference:

1. Look for an English equivalent for the English metaphors, regardless of whether it
is a metaphor or not: e.g.
as good as one’s words (not a metaphor in English) ‫ أكفى مف السمكءؿ‬-
Foot of the page (not *tail of the page ‫ ذيؿ الصفحة‬-
2. Translate an Arabic metaphor into an English one by all possible means. (Most of
the English translations above are metaphors).
3. When unable to find an equivalent, or a metaphor of some kind that can be
agreeable in English, concentrate on rendering the sense (i.e. the direct meaning)
of the Arabic metaphor: e.g.
a henpecked / humiliated/weak/helpless husband ‫ زكج مقمكع‬-
4. Use the direct translation of sense only cautiously as follows:

(a) Be careful at using it with dead and cliché metaphors since it might be right or
wrong.
(b) Use it with adapted and recent metaphors in particular, and with most of the
original metaphors.
(c) Avoid using it completely with cultural metaphors.

In any case, direct translation here is the translation of the meaning we understand from
any metaphorical expression, not of the meaning of its individual words in isolation.

Finally, metaphors are the beautiful, enjoyable, rhetorical, lively and conceptual part of
language. Hence, students are recommended to remember that the best translation of an
Arabic metaphor is an equivalent one in English, if and when available, so that it matches
the English original in this respect as well. More importantly, the point of focus in the
translation of any type of metaphor is to convey its sense into English, whether
metaphorical or not.

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3.6 TRANSLATING PROPER NAMES, TITLES, GEOGRAPHICAL AND INSTITUTIONAL TERMS

2.6.1 Translating Proper Names

The translation of Arabic proper names (i.e. names of persons) into English is not a
straightforward process, as some might think (i.e. you transfer the SL proper name into
the TL letters and sounds, and that is it). Indeed, they pose some problems of translation
that require solutions. They include the Name of God; God's Glorious Names, Prophet
Mohammad’s names, names of the Prophets, names of famous figures of all types and
names of normal people. Translators are required to attend to them carefully and
accurately in the TL, as many of them have no one-to-one equivalent (see Newmark, 1988:
35 & 214-16; Ghazala, 2008: 172 & 2014: ch. 2, for further discussion). Here they are with
illustrated examples and procedures of translating them into English:

2.6.1.1 Translating the Word of the Almighty (‫(اهلل‬

A hot argument has been going on as how to translate the word of ‫ اهلل‬the Almighty into
English. Some transliterate it as Allah / Allaah. Others translate it into its English
equivalent, God. Still a third group suggests Deity, which is of French origin. Yet, a fourth
group, the strangest, calls for using the Jewish word Jehovah (the Supreme God) to refer
to God.

Well, each of these groups has a claim for its term. Those who favor 'Allah' maintain that it
is the best term to express the speciality of meaning, uniqueness of grammatical form and
grandeur of the Arabic original due to its uniqueness in Arabic language lexicon and
grammar. That is, it is not derivative of another word, nor is any word or form is derived
from it for it has no singular, plural, dual, verb, adjective or adverb form. Further, it is
unique in pronunciation as the only word in Arabic with emphatic articulation of the
double /l/ (as with the English 'shall' and 'will'). Some Arab scholars and translators protest
that it is different from God, which is not unique in form, for it has other forms: a noun
with a small /g/ (god) and its derivative, feminine, 'goddess' (in reference to heathen gods
and goddesses in ancient mythology), and an adjective as 'Godly' and its derivative,
'Godliness'. On the other hand, God is the God of the Christians, Who begot a son, Christ,
whereas Allah did not beget nor was He begotten in Islam.

The second group, however, includes extremist Christians who allege that 'Allah' is the
God of Muslims only! But our God is the God of all mankind. Hence, it is the word 'God'
only which should be used in English. Likewise, the third and fourth groups claim that their
terms are distinguished and refer solely to the real God!

These conflicting views are not quite helpful, nor are they justifiable as, in translation,
there should be no space for such nonacademic, prejudiced and one-sided argument. I
declare that everybody is entitled to use the word they find appropriate in their native
language. Yet, translating the Holy Koran into another language, any language, calls for
using the equivalent term in that language, if and when available. And the best evidence
for confirming that is drawn from the Holy Koran. God says:

243
 )4 :‫(إبراىيـ‬.)‫(كما أرسمنا مف رسكؿ إال بمساف قكمو‬
(And we did not send any Messenger but to convey his
message in the language of his people …" (14: 4).

Another piece of evidence is the forty sixth verse of the Chapter of The Spider:

46 :‫(كالينا كاليكـ كاحد كنحف لو مسممكف) (العنكبكت‬

(…and our God and your God (Christians and Jews) is One,
and to Him we have submitted) (29: 46).

Hence, since the equivalent word for the Arabic term is GOD in English, 'Allah' and 'God'
naturally translate one another in the two languages concerned. Indeed, 'God' is the
perfectly equivalent English term for the Arabic, 'Allah", and both have the same reference
to 'the One and Only God, the Creator and Sustainer of the universe. And the differences
between Islam and Christianity are not related to these Divine attributes of God / Allah.
Here is a sample example of how to deal with the translation of this word in the greatest
Testimony for Muslims, or anyone who is converted to Islam: ‫ال إلو إال اهلل‬:

(a) There is no god but God

(b) There is no deity but God

2.6.1.2 Translating God's Glorious Names

These are the Awesome Attributes of God in the religion of Islam. They are not exactly
proper names in origin, but, rather, adjective describing the glorious epithets of God. That
is why they are translated, not transliterated. However, they are treated as Names of God
that are all interchangeable with one another at calling and supplicating God, as stated in
the Holy Koran: )180 :‫( "كهلل األسماء الحسنى فادعكه بيا" (األعراؼ‬The Glorious Names belong to
God, so call Him by them) (7: 180). They are 99 in number, as declared by the Prophet's
Tradition: "‫ مف أحصاىا دخؿ الجنة‬،‫ مائة إال كاحدان‬،‫( "إف هلل تسعة كتسعيف اسمان‬God has ninety nine
Names, one hundred but one, whoever memorizes them in words and deeds will enter
Paradise). Their translation is generally based on 'proximity procedure' which may give an
approximate translation into English, for it is not possible to find a one-to-one equivalent
in English for most of them. Certainly, the original Arabic is generally unmatchable
whether in English or any other language. That is evident in the indecision of translators as
which word is closer and more accurate to translate many of these names, which is
reflected in their use of two or more words to translate them. Here is a list with some of
these Names, transliterated and translated into the closest possible English equivalents,
and illustrating the point put forward here (http://www.en.wikipedia.org)

Ar-Rahman (The Most Gracious) ‫ الرحمف‬.1

Ar-Raheem (The Most Merciful) ‫ الرحيـ‬.2
Al-Malek (The King) ‫ الممؾ‬.3
Al-Quddoos (The Most Holy) ‫ القدكس‬.4

244
 As-Salam (The Peace) ‫ السالـ‬.5
Al-Mumen (The Guarantor/The Giver of Faith) ‫ المؤمف‬.6
Al-Muhaymen (The Guardian/The Overall Controller) ‫ المييمف‬.7
Al-Aziz (The Almighty) ‫ العزيز‬.8
Al-Jabbar (The Compeller/The Irresistible) ‫ الجبار‬.9
Al-Mutakabber (The Majestic/The Supreme) ‫ المتكبر‬.10
Al-Khaleq (The Creator) ‫ الخالؽ‬.11
Al-Baare’ (The Maker) ‫ البارئ‬.12
Al-Musawwer (The Shaper/The Designer) ‫ المصكر‬.13
Al-Ghaffar (The Sublime Forgiver) ‫ الغفار‬.14
Al-Qahhar (The Subduer/The Supreme Force) ‫ القيار‬.15

Usually, these Attributes of God are translated without transference unless urgently
required by Muslim readers who are Non-Arabs, but are curious to know how these words
are pronounced in Arabic. There are two points to attend to carefully by the translator of
these glorious words.

First, these words are emphatic adjectives and should be translated emphatically. For
example, the normal form derived from the root )‫ (رحـ‬is the present participle )‫(اسـ الفاعؿ‬
form: ‫ راحـ‬which is translated into ‘merciful’ only, whereas ‫ رحيـ‬is an emphatic adjective
derived from ‫راحـ‬, and is translated emphatically into : ‘the most merciful’, while ‫ الرحمف‬is
yet another emphatic form of ‫راحـ‬, but it is yet more emphatic than ‫الرحيـ‬, hence it is
translated into an English equivalent as ‘the most gracious’ that is equally more emphatic
than ‘te most merciful’. The same applies to other Attributes like ‫( غافر‬forgiver) which is
normal, whereas ‫( غفار‬The Sublime Forgiver) is emphatic.

Secondly, none of the English equivalents is identical; all of them are approximate
translations that render the meanings of the original Arabic in general terms, or only
partly. The simple reason for that is they are not exactly available in English. However, this
is a good solution to translating these terms. Although, in The Bible, the Christians are
familiar with terms like ‘merciful’, ‘gracious, ‘holy’ as God’s Names, they are not made as
emphatic and glorious as in Arabic. For example, they have the following terms in their
religion:

1. The Wonderful Way Maker → ‫الصانع العجيب انتقاف‬

2. The Potter → ‫ الصانع‬،‫المككف‬
3. Merciful God → ‫الرحيـ‬
4. The Prince of peace → ‫ أمير السالـ‬،‫السالـ‬
5. The Gracious God → ‫الرحمف‬
6. The Holy → ‫القدكس‬،‫المقدس‬
245
The normal tone of these English terms is overwhelming, compared to the very emphatic
tone of Arabic terms. This implies that, in English, they do not distinguish accurately
between emphatic and non-emphatic forms, as done in Arabic and should be done in
theie English translations. The translator may use the normal English equivalents by
approximation as a last resort. Indeed, a great number of Islamic, general and cultural
words have no one-to-one equivalent in English. Therefore, the next best choice for the
translator is to go for near synonymy, or 'approximate equivalence'. An approximate
equivalent is a synonym that gives sense (or intended meaning) in general terms, referring
to the meaning of the SL only partly, usually taken to stand for a well-known concept in
the TL and translate it directly. This means that approximate equivalence misses a part of
the meaning of the original word in various ways, as illustrated in the the above
translation of the Glorious Names of God. Most of them are hyperbolic adjectives meant
to be expressive of the utmost degree of the attribute concerned, and pay the highest
tribute possible to God.

In English, however, these names have only approximate equivalents, as illustrated earlier.
Translators have differences as for which word to go, with the sincere intention of
achieving the closest equivalent possible, yet in vain. At best, they succeed in their
attempt only partly, and they are not to blame for the Arabic original is unmatchable in
this respect and, therefore, beyond their reach for it is beyond the means of English or
perhaps any other language. The divine implications of these names in Arabic are
untranslatable into any live language, but only partly and approximately. And this is one
major reason for the well-known fact that the Holy Koran is not translatable. Yes, it is
translated into most live languages, but only approximately, though (see Rojo, 2009;
Hatim and Mason, 1990 and Ghazala, 2013 & 2015 for further discussion of
‘approximatation in translation’).

As to transference of these words into English, translators have to be accurate in their

transliteration in English letters by writing them exactly as they are pronounced in Arabic
as accurately as possible. For example, ‫ الرحمف‬is transliterated accurately as pronounced
into Ar-Rahman, and not as written in Arabic into Al-Rahman, as many would do, for the
/l/ letter is silent and the letter /r/ is doubled, being stressed in Arabic.

2.6.1.3 Translating Prophet Mohammad’s Names

Prophet, Mohammad, peace and blessings be to him, also has ninety nine names - for the
majority of scholars - that are originally attributes (some authorities say they are over two
hundred, others claim over 400 names for the Prophet). Hence, and as the case with God's
Glorious Names above, they are translated, not transliterated. Also, and by analogy,
translators demonstrate indeterminacy of translation equivalence in English as the original
Arabic are beyond the reach of one single English equivalent. All they can do is suggest an
approximate equivalent that may render sense in general. Here is a list with some of the
Prophet's names, transliterated and then translated into English (see
http://www.ahadees.com and Ghazala, 2014 for full list of names):

246
 Muhammad ‫) محمد‬1
Ahmad (Most commendable) ‫) أحمد‬2
Hamed (Praising) ‫) الحامد‬3
Mahmood ((Praised) ‫) المحمكد‬4
Shahed (Witness) ‫) الشاىد‬5
Fateh (conqueror) ‫) الفاتح‬6
Qasem (Distributor) ‫) القاسـ‬7
Bashir (bringer of good tidings) ‫) البشير‬8
Natheer (Warner) ‫) النذير‬9
Rasheed (Well-Guided) ‫) الرشيد‬10
Hadi (Guider) ‫) اليادم‬11
Mahdi (Well-guided) ‫ميدم‬
ٌ ‫) ال‬12
Mahi (infidelity wiper) ‫) الماحي‬13
Muzzammel (wrapped) ‫مزٌمؿ‬ ٌ ‫) ال‬14
Khatamun Nabiyyen (seal of the Prophets ‫) خاتـ النبييف‬15

The same comments on translating and transilerating God’s Glorious Names are applicaple
to the Prophet’s Names. Notably, most of these names are of the normal forms of the
present participles, while the latter are mostly emphatic, a difference that has to betaken
into account by translators into English. A further note is due about the first and original
name of the Prophet Mohammad, peace be to him, which has to be retained as such,
transferred only into English. Althoough other versions of transliteration like
‘Muhammad’, and ‘Mohammed’ are tolerable, others like ‘Hahmud’, Mahmut’, ‘Mahmet’
and Mahoun’ are definitely not for they are pejorative in English and imply hostility
toward Islam (see, for example, The Chambers Dictionary, 2008 for similar warning).

2.6.1.4 Translating Names of God's Prophets

The vast majority of the Prophets of God known to us in the Holy Koran and the Prophetic
Tradition have their equivalent names in the Christian religious culture. Most of them are
naturalized into the other language as they have equivalents in the Gospel and the Torah.
If an equivalent is not available, or the name is the same for the SL and the TL,
transliteration is applied into the other language. Here is a list with names of the most
famous Prophets in both cultures in question:

Transliteration of Arabic English Name(naturalized Arabic Name

Name or transferred)
Adam Adam ‫آدـ‬
Idris Enoch
‫إدريس‬
Nooh Noah
Hood Hud ‫نكح‬

247
Saleh Saleh ‫ىكد‬
‫صالح‬
Ibrahim Abraham ‫إبراىيـ‬
Isma'il Ishmael ‫إسماعيؿ‬
Is-haq Isaac
Yaqub Jacob ‫إسحاؽ‬
‫يعقكب‬
Lut Lot ‫لكط‬

Shu’aib Shu’aib ‫شعيب‬

Yusuf Joseph ‫يكسؼ‬
‫أيكب‬
Ayub Job
Dhul-Kifl Isaiah ‫ذك الكفؿ‬
Yunus Jonah ‫يكنس‬
Mosa Moses
‫مكسى‬
Haroon Aaron ‫ىاركف‬
Alyasa’ Elisha ‫اليسع‬
‫إلياس‬
Elyas Elias
Dawood David ‫داكد‬
Sulaiman Solomon ‫سميماف‬

Danial Daniel ‫دانياؿ‬

Uzair Ezra ‫يعزير‬
Zakaria Zechariah ‫زكريا‬

Yahya John ‫يحيى‬

Isa Jesus ‫عيسى‬
Mohammad Mohammad Peace be to
‫محمد (عمييـ الصالة كالسالـ‬
them all
)‫أجمعيف‬

Appended to the Prophets' names are the names of those next to them, or matched with
them. They are naturalized when they have equivalents in Christianity and Judaism: e.g.
Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, Eve, Mary, Sheba, and so on ‫ ممكة‬،‫ مريـ‬،‫ حكاء‬،‫ ميكائيؿ‬،‫ إسرافيؿ‬،‫(جبريؿ‬
)‫ كغيرىا‬،‫سبأ‬

2.6.1.5 Translating Names of Historic Figures

There are famous names in Arabic that are naturalized into English due to their reputation
in the TL. Here are miscellaneous examples:

Saladin (a famous Muslim leader) ً‫( صال الدٌن األٌوب‬1

Avicenna (a scientist, physician and translator) ‫( ابن سٌنا‬2
248
 Rhazes / Rasis (a physician, scientist and comprehensive thinker) ‫أبو بكر الراري‬ (3
Alhazen (a scientist in optics) ‫ابن الهٌثم‬ (4
Alpharabius (a scientist and a philosopher) ً‫الفاراب‬ (5
Algaurizin / Algoritmi (a scientist in algebra) ً‫الخواررم‬ (6
Geber (a scientist / alchemist) ‫جابر بن حٌان‬ (7
Albatenius (a scientist) ً‫الب ّتان‬ (8
Alkindus (a philosopher and a scientist) ‫الكندي‬ (9
Avenzoar (a physician and a surgeon) ‫ابن رهر‬ (10
Averroes (a philosopher) ‫ابن رشد‬ (11
Avempace (a scientist, musician, philosopher and a poet) ‫ابن باجة‬ (12
Shams ad-Din (a traveler and a historian) ‫ابن بطوطة‬ (13
Thebit (a scientist and a translator) ‫ثابت بن قرة‬ (14
Aladin (of The Arabian Nights) ‫عالء الدٌن‬ (15
Sinbad (of The Arabian Nights) ‫سندباد‬ (16
Caliph ‫خلٌفة‬ (17
Sultan ‫سلطان‬ (18
Emir ‫أمٌر‬ (19
The Rightly-guided Caliphs ‫الخلفاء الراشدون‬ (20
Abbasids‫العباسٌون‬ (21
Umayyads ‫األموٌون‬ (22
The Mamluks ٌ‫الممال‬ (23
The Ottomans ‫العثمانٌون‬ (24

These names are naturalized into English Language a long time ago due to their crucial
role in the scientific, philosophical and political developments of Europe in particular, and
the West in general. They are neither translated nor transliterated. The translator has to
exert some effort to find the naturalized form of the name. If and when unable to find it
for some reason, he/she can resort to transliteration (e.g. Ibn Sina) (for Avicenna); Ar-
Razi/Al-Razi (for Rhasez); Ibn Rushd (for Averroes), etc.). If the name of the figure is not
naturalized, it should be transferred into English (e.g. ‫( عمر بف الخطاب‬Omar Bin Al-
Khattab);‫( ابف خمدكف‬Ibn Khaldun); ‫( عمي بابا‬Ali Baba); ‫( عمر الخياـ‬Omar Khayyam); ‫سيبكيو‬
(Sebaweih), etc. As to the field of specialism, it is not required to be provided by the
translator.

2.6.1.6 Translating Ordinary Proper Names

Ordinary names of people are usually transferred untouched into the TL as being
pronounced in the SL. We have problems of transferring some names due to differences in
the alphabet, dialect and idiolect (or personal preferences)/ Here are examples to
translate and comment on:

Mohammad ‫) محمد‬1
Ahmad ‫) أحمد‬2
Abdul Rahman; Abdur-Rahman ‫) عبد الرحمف‬3
Abdul Aziz; Abdul-Aziz ‫) عبد العزيز‬4

249
 Abu Bakr ‫) أبك بكر‬5
Oqab; Oqaab; Ogab ‫) عقاب‬6
Sultan ‫) سمطاف‬7
Hasan ‫) حسف‬8
Hassan ‫) حساف‬9
Husain; Husein ‫) حسيف‬10
Khamis ‫) خميس‬11
Maysun; Maisoon ‫) ميسكف‬12
Wafa; Wafaa ‫) كفاء‬13
Omar ‫) عمر‬14
Rabee’ah ‫) ربيعة‬15
Amr ‫) ىعمرك‬16
Alaa ‫) عالء‬17
Alaa; Aalaa ‫) آالء‬18
Safa ‫) صفا‬19
Safaa ‫) صفاء‬20
Safiyyah; Safiah ‫) صفية‬21
Hala ‫) ىال‬22
Halah ‫) ىالة‬23
Hala ‫) حال‬24
Hazem ‫) حازـ‬25
Shaimaa; Sheima ‫) شيماء‬26
Kamila; Kamillah; Camilah ‫) كميمة‬27
Kamilah; Kamelah ‫) كاممة‬28
Haifa; Haifaa ‫) ىيفاء‬29
Faisal ‫) فيصؿ‬30
Qamar; Gumar; Gamar ‫) قمر‬31
Yusuf; Yusef ‫) يكسؼ‬32
Ghaith; Gaith ‫) غيث‬33
Shahatah ‫) شحاتة‬34
Maisarah; Maysara ‫) ميسرة‬35
Jamal; Gamal (egyptian) ‫) جماؿ‬36
Abdullah ‫) عبداهلل‬37
Zafer; Dhafer ‫) ظافر‬38
Tareq ‫) طارؽ‬39

250
 Ma’roof ‫) معركؼ‬40
Waddah ‫) كضاح‬41

The following notes can be made about the problems of transliterating ordinary proper
names:

(a) There are formal transferences that are committed to the exact pronunciation of
the names in the Arabic original. These are represented by the first vesion above
(b) There are informal transferences that are subject to personal inclinations, or
ignorance of how to write one’s name in Latin letters.
(c) Compound names are translated either as two separate words (e.g. Abdul Aziz),
or as one word (like Abdullah
(d) Double/stressed names have two versions: formal transferring the name as
pronounced (e.g. Abdur-Rahman); and informal transferring the name as written
(e.g. Abdul Rahman).
(e) Unfindable sounds )‫ ظ‬،‫ ط‬،‫ ض‬،‫ ص‬،‫ ؽ‬،‫ غ‬،‫ ع‬،‫ خ‬،‫ )ح‬are problematic and have no
fixed rules to transfer them into English. Yet, generally, we do not tend to use the
formal transcription of Arabic letters and sounds into English due to their
difficulty to manage, print or learn by people. Therefore, we try to transfer Arabic
names using the closest English sound/letter as follows:

 (‫( → )ح‬h) (e.g. ‫( حازـ‬Hazem)

 (‫( → )خ‬Kh) (e.g. ‫( خميس‬Khamis)
 (‫( → )ع‬a) (e.g. ‫( عالء‬Alaa))
 (‫ )‘( → )ع‬when preceded or followed by /a/ (e.g. ‫( معركؼ‬Ma’roof))
 (‫( → )غ‬g/gh) (e.g. ‫ (غيث‬Gaith; Ghaith))
 (‫( → )ؽ‬q/g) (e.g. ‫( قمر‬Qamar; Gamar, Sharjah))
 (‫( → )ص‬s) (e.g. ‫( صفا‬Safa))
 (‫( → )ض‬d) (e.g. ‫( كضاح‬Waddah))
 (‫( → )ط‬t) (e.g. ‫( طارؽ‬Tareq))
 (‫( → )ظ‬dh/z) (e.g. ‫( ظافر‬Dhafer/Zafer))

(f) When the same sound has two equivalent in English, we go for either (e.g.
Kamila/Camila) or the most likely sound (Faisal (not Phaisal)).
(g) Proper names should not be mispronounced in Arabic (e.g. ‫ ىع ٍمرك‬is (Amr), not
(Amro) for the final sound /‫ك‬/ is silent)
(h) Compound names should not be treated as two names or, else, funny mistakes
might occur –and they frequently occur – when mistaking ‘Bakr in ‘Abu Bakr’, for
example, for Mr. Bakr, as the English take the second name as the nickname of
the person, which is the case in English culture.
(i) The long /a/ sound is sometimes transferred into the normal /a/ sound (e.g. ‫كاممة‬
(Kamilah); or double /aa/ sound (e.g. ‫( صفاء‬Safaa)).
251
 (j) Double/stressed sounds can be transferred as such into English (e.g. ‫صفية‬
(Safiyyah), or toned down into a single sound (e.g. Safiah) for lighter
pronunciation).
(k) The long /ee/ and /oo/ sounds are either shortened into one sound (e.g. ‫كميمة‬
(Kamila; ‫( ميسكف‬Maisun), or elongated in English as well (e.g. ‫( ربيعة‬Rabee’ah), ‫ميسكف‬
(Maysoon))
(l) The /‫ج‬/ sound is formally and normally transferred into /j/ (e.g. ‫( جماؿ‬Jamal)
except in Egypt which is changed into the dialectal /g/ (e.g. ‫( جماؿ‬Gamal).
(m) There is a problem when /‫ح‬/ and /‫ق‬/ sounds interchange in two different names
in Arabic, which results in the same transference into English (e.g. ‫ حال‬/ ‫( ىال‬Hala)).
If urgent, and when they occur in the same text, they have to be transferred
differently into (Hala) and (Ḥala).
(n) The same applies to the two sounds /‫ع‬/ and /‫أ‬/ when two names might be
confused in English due to transliterating both of them into /a/ (e.g. ‫ آالء‬/ ‫عالء‬
(‘Alaa/Aalaa (Alaa)).
(o) The long /a/ sound is obligatory if a name can be confused with another (e.g. ‫صفا‬
‫صفاء‬/ (Safa / Safaa), ‫ىيفاء‬/‫( ىيفا‬Haifa/Haifaa).
(p) Sometimes, the two formal and informal versions of the name can be equally
accepted due to their popularity (e.g. ‫يكسؼ‬/‫ؼ‬ً ‫يكس‬
‫( ي‬Yusuf/Yusef).
(q) Students and translators should not confuse ordinary proper names with the
previous types for the latter are treated as special proper names that are usually
naturalized only, whereas ordinary names are transferred only even though the
same name is used here and there (e.g. the ordinary ‫ يكسؼ‬is transferred as such
into English as (Yusef) only; whereas the Prophet ‫ يكسؼ‬is Joseph only in English;
‫ أيكب‬is (Ayyub) only when ordinary, but (Job) only when God’s Prophet is meant,
and so on and so forth.
(r) We have to admit that individual differences in transferring proper names recur
and we have to recognize them as a part of the individual freedom of people.
(s) It is to state the obvious that Proper Names of all types are usually not translated,
either transferred, or naturalized, as demonstrated above.

In short, Arabic proper names are mostly transferred, exceptionally naturalized, but never
translated into English. When students are unable to pronounce a name properly, they
transcribe it wrongly, but this is not a serious mistake anyway. On the other hand, if a
famous name is transcribed wrongly, but has become standardized, they can retain it as
such for another transcription might mean to some readers a different name (e.g.
Mohammad Bin Saud, The second Successor to the Saudi Throne is called by the West Ibn
Saud, so the former should be held to, rather than the latter which is the real full name,
but it is not used as such).

252
2.6.1.7 Translating Forms of Address: Titles

Forms of address (or Titles) are cultural and, hence, can pose real problems of translation.
However, the solutions are attainable and, probably, not so difficult to understand. Here
are general titles, the first group:
Ladies and Gentlemen ‫) سيداتي كسادتي‬1
(Dear) Sirs ‫) أييا السادة‬2
(Dear) Ladies ‫) سيداتي‬3
Mr. / Sir ‫) سيد‬4
Mr. / Sir ‫) أستاذ‬5
Miss ‫) آنسة‬6
Mrs. ‫) سيدة‬7
Sir / Brother ‫) أخ‬8
Miss/Sister ‫) أخت‬9
(Dear) Sirs ‫) إخكة‬10
(Dear) Ladies ‫) أخكات‬11
Boss / Chief ‫) زعيـ‬12
Effendi / Mr. / Mr. ‫) أفندم‬13
Aga/Agha/ Sir ‫) آغا‬14
Bey / Sir / The Right Honorable ‫ بيو‬/ ‫) بيؾ‬15
Pacha / His Lordship / His Excellency / The Most Honorable ‫) باشا‬16

These titles are translated either directly into correspondent equivalents (1, 3, 6, 7, 10 and
12), literally (13, 16) or into cultural equivalents (4, 5, 8, 9, 11, 14-16). The last four are by
the way of Turkish origin.

The second group is formal titles for leaders, diplomats, politicians, academicians, etc. e.g.

His Majesty, The King; Her Majesty, The Queen )‫) جاللة الممؾ (الممكة‬1
His Excellency (to presidents in particular) ‫دكلة (رئيس الجميكرية‬/‫سيادة‬/‫) فخامة‬2
His Excellency (The Ambassador) )‫ معالي (السفير‬/ ‫) سعادة‬3
His Excellency: (to The High )‫ مدير الجامعة‬،‫الباب العالي‬/‫) معالي (المفكض العاـ‬4
Commissioner, Chancellor/rector)
His Highness, The Prince ‫) سمك األمير‬5
His Royal Highness, The Prince ‫) صاحب السمك الممكي األمير‬6
:‫دكلة (سعادة) الباشا‬/‫سيادة‬/‫سعادة‬/‫) معالي‬7

 The Right Honorable: (to The Prime Minister, The Mayor, The Minister,
The Earl, The Chancellor, The Viscount, The Baron, The Chief Justice of
England, The Justice of Appeal, A member of parliament);
253
  The Right Worshipful: (to: The Mayor);
 The Most Honorable: (to: The Marquess/Marquis;
 His Grace: (to: The Duke);
 The Honorable: (to: The Honorable: The speaker of parliament, Judges of high
courts.
His Honour: (to: Circuit Judges) ‫ سيادة‬/ ‫) حضرة‬8
Sir (to the Knight) ‫اآلغا‬/‫األفندم‬/)‫سعادة البيؾ(البيو‬/‫سعادة الباشا‬/‫) السير‬9
(Dear) Professor/Dr./Mr.) )‫ كغيره‬،‫حضرة (ألستاذ الجامعة‬/‫عطكفة‬/‫) سعادة‬10
)‫) حصرة (لضباط الصؼ في الجيش‬11
Non-commissned officers (USA):
 Sergeant Major: address as Sergeant Major
 First Sergeant: address as First Sergeant, or "Top"
 Master Sergeant: address as Sergeant
 Sergeant First Class: address as Sergeant
 Staff Sergenat: address as Sergeant
 Sergeant: address as Sergeant
 Corporal: address as Corporal
 Specialist: address as Specialist
 Private First Class: address as Private First Class
 Private: address as Private
:)‫) سٌادة (للضباط‬12
Commissioned officers (USA):
- General: address as General or sir/ma'am
- Lieutenant General: address as General or sir/ma'am
- Major General: address as General or sir/ma'am
- Brigadier General: address as General or sir/ma'am
- Colonel: address as Colonel or sir/ma'am
- Lieutenant Colonel: address as Colonel or sir/ma'am
- Major: address as Major or sir/ma'am
- Captain: address as Captain or sir/ma'am
- 1st Lieutenant: address as Lieutenant or sir/ma'am
- 2nd Lieutanant: address as Lieutenant or sir/ma'am
- Chief Warrant Officer: address as Chief or sir/ma'am
- Warrant Officer: address as sir/ma'am

Obviously, the Arabic forms of address are less in number, more general, less specific and
more confused and confusing than the English ones. The overwhelming solution to the
problems of translating them is to look for their English cultural equivalents, and when not
available, literal, direct translation can be the second best (e.g. Effendi, Pacha, etc.). A
third solution for translating all types of forms of address and titles, in case that the
students, or translators have no idea about them, is to translate them into general forms
like: Mr., Mrs., Sir, Madam/ma’am, lady, etc., and ‘sir/ma'am’ for military officers.

The third group of forms of address is religious titles. They are two types: Islamic, and
Christian:

254
1. Islamic Forms of Address: e.g. (only the recognized and formal ones)

His Eminence (the Mufti) )ً‫سماحة (المفت‬ )1

His Grace, Sheikh… ‫فضٌلة الشٌخ‬ )2
His Eminence / Sheikh of Islam ‫شٌخ اإلسالم‬ )3
The Reverend Scholar/Sheikh ‫العالم الجلٌل‬ )4
His Eminence/The Authority of Islam ‫حجة اإلسالم‬ )5
His Eminence/The well-informed in Hadith ‫الحافظ‬ )6
His Eminence/The all-informed in Hadith ‫الحاكم‬ )7
His Eminence/the well-informed narrator of Hadith ‫المحدِّث‬ )8
His Eminence/Eminent/distinguished Scholar ‫العالمة‬ّ )9
His Eminence/the all-erudite Scholar ‫الحبر‬/‫البحر‬ )10
Sheikh… ‫الشٌخ‬ )11
His Eminence/The Imam ‫اإلمام‬ )12
His Grace/the Jurisprudence Scholar/the Jurist ‫الفقٌه‬ )13
Our (reverend) Sheikh ‫موالنا‬ )14
Friday Sermon Speaker ‫الخطٌب‬ )15

These titles belong to Islamic culture, so they are difficult to attain easily, especially those
used to describe the best of the best Muslim scholars in the history of Islam (i.e. ‫(حجة‬
)‫البحر) ;(شيخ انسالـ) ;انسالـ‬/‫;(الحبر‬
‫ى‬ )‫;(الم ىحدث) ;(العالٌمة) ;(الحافظ‬
‫ي‬ )‫ (الفقيو) ;(العالـ الجميؿ‬and )‫(انماـ‬.
(Local titles and those that have not gathered consensus or full recognition by reliable
Muslim authorities are not included).

In fact, even references do not have entries for them. The only two resorts are Islamic
texts and good translations, and the Web where students and translators may find
something relatd to them in Arabic in particular. The daunting task for them is to translate
their meanings into Arabic. The translations above are attempts to render their literal
meanings in the shortest and best forms possible in English. Yet, and to avoid artificialness
of translating them literally into English, students and translators can use the general title,
‘Sheikh’ which implies high esteem for the person concerned. In the Arabic original, there
is no strict insistence on these titles, and ‘Sheikh’ will be fair enough.

2. Christian Religious Forms of Address:

His Holiness, The Pope ‫ الحبر األعظـ‬/ ‫) قداسة البابا‬1

The most Reverend, the Cardinal ‫) غبطة الكارديناؿ‬2
The Most Reverend, The Archbishop ‫ قداسة رئيس األساقفة‬/ ‫) غبطة‬3
The Most Reverend, The Patriarch )‫(البطرؾ‬
‫ى‬ ‫ط ًرىي ٍرؾ‬
ٍ ‫) (غبطة الب‬4
The Most Reverend, The Patriarch )‫المتركبكليس‬/‫) (نيافة المطراف‬5
the Right Reverend, The Bishop/The Abbot )‫رئيس الدير‬/‫) (نيافة األسقؼ‬6
The Very Reverend, The Dean/The Vicar )‫القس‬/‫) (األب عميد الكنيسة‬7
The venerable, the Archdeacon )‫السيد رئيس الشمامسة‬/‫) (األستاذ‬8
The Reverend, The Canon/The Minister )‫) (األب الكاىف‬9
255
 The Reverend, The Curate )‫) (نيافة راعي األبرشية‬10
The Reverend, The Priest )‫الخكرم‬/)‫القي ُّمص‬/‫) (األب القس(القسيس‬11
The Reverend, The Father )‫) (األب‬12
The Reverend, The Mother )‫) (األـ رئيسة الدير‬13

I hasten to point out here that these are strictly Christian forms of address and titles and
have no relation to the titles of Muslim scholars, which are crestricted to them only.

Obviously, these titles pose considerable problems not only to students, but also to many
professional translators. In addition, some people are sensitive to most of the Christian
titles. Well, translators are required to dispose of it as much as they can in translation in
normal circumstances. Yet, when they cannot, they may add the phrase (‫( )كما كردت‬i.e. ‘sic’)
immediately after the sensitive title. Translators can slot this phrase after any translation
for which they do not want to bear responsibility.

As to the complexity of all titles here, two main translations can be used as a good solution
in Arabic:

1. (Sheikh) for all titles of Muslim scholars.

2. (His excellency/Right Honourable) for leaders, diplomats, politicians, judges, and
lords (except (His/her Majesty) for ‘king /queen’; and (His Hyness) for
‘prince/duke’.

2.6.1.7 GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

Here are the most important of them:

1. Countries: Names of countries have established transliterations, naturalizations

adaptations, translations or more than one procedure together:

(1) Transliterations: e.g.

Qatar ‫) قطر‬1
Sudan ‫) السكداف‬2
Oman ‫) يعماف‬3
Dubai ‫) دبي‬4
Mali ‫) مالي‬5
Pakistan ‫) الباكستاف‬6
Australia ‫) أكستراليا‬7
Malaysia ‫) ماليزيا‬8
Indonesia ‫) إندكنسيا‬9
Portugal ‫) البرتغاؿ‬10

(2) Naturalizations: e.g.

256
 Saudi Arabia ‫) السعكدية‬1
Syria ‫) سكريا‬2
Jordan ‫) األردف‬3
Lebanon ‫) لبناف‬4
Algeria ‫) الجزائر‬5
Morocco ‫) المغرب‬6
England ‫) إنجمت ار‬7
Britain ‫) بريطانيا‬8
France ‫) فرنسا‬9
Belgium ‫) بمجيكا‬10
Germany ‫) ألمانيا‬11
Switzerland ‫) سكيس ار‬12
Japan ‫) الياباف‬13
India ‫) اليند‬14

(3) Adaptation: e.g.

Egypt ‫) مصر‬1
Austria ‫) النمسا‬2
Netherlands ‫) ىكلندا‬3
Deutschland ‫) ألمانيا‬4
Wales ‫) بالد الغاؿ‬5
Hungary ‫) المجر‬6
Mesopotamia/Iraq ‫) العراؽ‬7

(4) Translations: e.g.

South Africa ‫) جنكب أفريقيا‬1
The United Kingdom(UK) ‫) المممكة المتحدة‬2
The Ivory Coast / Code De Voire ‫) ساحؿ العاج‬3
The Central Republic of Africa ‫) الكاليات المتحدة األمريكية‬4
The Central Republic of Africa ‫) جميكرية أفريقيا الكسطى‬5

(5) Transliterations/naturalization & Translations: e.g.

‫) بريطانيا العظمى‬1

257
 Upper Volta ‫) فكلتا العميا‬2
Asia Minor ‫) آسيا الصغرل‬3
Northern Ireland ‫) إيرلندة الشمالية‬4
The Bahamas (Islands) ‫) جزر الباىاما‬5

In fine, transliterations and naturalizations are the rule, whereas translations and
adaptations are the exception, for it is a matter of respect and outright right for other
peoples, countries and cultures to have their local flavour of names of countries, cities,
streets, etc. retained in translation. Usually, there are recognized translations for foreign
countries in Arabic, which are used to translate them either from English or any other
foreign language. The problem here is not difficult to solve, then.

2. Cities: usually transliterated: e.g.

Amman ‫) ىع ٌماف‬1
Beirut ‫) بيركت‬2
Riyadh ‫) الرياض‬3
London ‫) لندف‬4
Paris ‫) باريس‬5
Rabat ‫) الرباط‬6
Berlin ‫) برليف‬7
New York ‫) نيكيكرؾ‬8
Sofia ‫) صكفيا‬9
Istanbul ‫) إسطنبكؿ‬10
Jakarta‫) جاكرتا ػ‬11
Madrid ‫) مدريد‬12

However, they are, sometimes, naturalized: e.g.

Damascus ‫) دمشؽ‬1
Cairo ‫) القاىرة‬2
Aleppo ‫) حمب‬3
Latakia ‫) الالذقية‬4
‫) جنيؼ‬5
Rome ‫) ركما‬6
Toledo ‫) طميطمة‬7
Cordova/Cordoba (back naturalization from Arabic) ‫) قرطبة‬8
Carthage (back naturalization from Arabic) ‫قرطاجة‬/‫) قرطاجٌنة‬9
Valladolid (back naturalization from Arabic) ‫) بمد الكليد‬10
258
 Constantinople ‫) القسطنطينية‬11
Only few cities are adapted: e.g.

Jerusalem ‫) القدس‬1(
Palmyra ‫) تدمر‬2(

A very limited number of names of cities are translated (sometimes along with
transliteration or translation): e.g.
Casablanca ‫) الدار البيضاء‬1
New Delhi ‫ نيكدليي‬/ ‫) دليي الجديدة‬2
New Mexico ‫ نيكمكسيكك‬/ ‫) مكسيؾ الجديدة‬3

Adaptations and translations are quite rare, whereas transliterations are predominant,
being a sign of respect for foreign cultures. Again, the problem is easy to solve here
because recognized translations are available and mostly known to students and
translators.

3. Seas and oceans: These are mostly translated, and occasionally transliterated: e.g.

The Arabian Sea ‫) بحر العرب‬1

The Mediterranean Sea ‫) البحر األبيض المتكسط‬2
The Mediterranean Sea ‫) بحر الركـ‬3
The Atlantic Ocean ‫) بحر الظممات‬4
The Red Sea ‫) البحر األحمر‬5
The Dead Sea ‫) البحر الميت‬6
The North Sea ‫) بحر الشماؿ‬7
Aegean Sea ‫) بحر إيجة‬8
Marmara Sea ‫) بحر مرمرة‬9
The Black ‫) البحر األسكد‬10
The Indian Ocean ‫) المحيط اليندم‬11
The Pacific Ocean ‫) المحيط اليادم‬12
The Atlantic Ocean ‫األطمنطي‬/‫) المحيط األطمسي‬13
The North Pole ‫القطب الشمالي‬/‫) المحيط المتجمد الشمالي‬14
The South Pole ‫القطب الجنكبي‬/‫) المحيط المتجمد الجنكبي‬15

All of these names are well-established translations and naturalizations. The problem for
students here is also not too difficult to sort out.

Generally speaking, geographical terms and names do not pose many problems as most of
them are transliterated and/or have recognized translations in English. The translation of
259
geographical terms of rivers, mountains, plains, etc. is not included, for they are usually
transliterated in English. So, perhaps, they are not so problematic.

2.6.2 (POLITICAL) INSTITUTIONAL TERMS

The following types of political institutions are the most important and recurrent in
translation.

a) Parliaments: Parliamental terms are either transliterated, translated, or both: e.g.

Shura Council (Saudi Arabia) ‫) مجمس الشكرل‬1

The People’s Assembly ‫) مجمس الشعب‬2
The National Assembly /‫ المجمس الكطني‬/ ‫) مجمس األمة‬3
The House of Representatives ‫األعياف‬/‫) مجمس النكاب‬4
The National Assembly ‫) الجمعية الكطنية‬5

-Adopted Parliamental terms: These terms are translations of the terms which are
originally English: e.g.

The US Congress ‫مجمس النكاب األمريكي‬/‫) الككنجرس األمريكي‬1

The US Senate )‫مجمس األعياف‬/‫) (مجمس الشيكخ األمريكي‬2
The House of Commons )‫البرلماف البريطاني‬/‫) (مجمس العمكـ‬3
The House of Lords )‫) مجمس المكردات (البريطاني‬4
The Westminster ‫) الكيست مينستر‬5
The French National Assembly ‫) الجمعية الكطنية االفرنسية‬6
The Bundestag )‫) البكندستاؾ (البرلماف األلماني‬7
The Knesset )‫) الكنيست (البرلماف انسرائيمي‬8

The English translations vary from one Arab Country to another. However, the naturalized
word (‫ )برلماف‬is the most popular in use throughout the whole Arab world.

b) Ministries: usually, ministries are translated into recognized Arabic equivalents

now that are originally adopted from English: e.g.

The Prime Minister; The Premier ‫) رئيس الكزراء‬1

The Cabinet ‫) مجمس الكزراء‬2
Minister (of the )... ،‫ الصحة‬،‫ الطاقة‬،‫ العدؿ‬،‫ الداخمية‬،‫ الخارجية‬،‫ الدفاع‬،‫) كزير (المالية‬3
Exterior/foreign minister; Defence, Interior; Justice; Energy/Oil, Health, etc.)
Secretary of State ‫) سكرتير الدكلة‬4
Minister of State ‫) كزير دكلة‬5

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 Minister without portfolio ‫) كزير بال ك ازرة‬6
Foreign Secretary (UK) ‫) كزير الخارجية البريطاني‬7
Secretary of the Exchequer ‫كزير المالية (البريطاني‬/‫) كزير الخزانة‬8
The Lord Chancellor )‫) كزير العدؿ (البريطاني‬9
Home Secretary (UK) ‫) كزير الداخمية البريطاني‬10
Plenipotentiary (UK) ))‫) كزير مفكض(في بريطانيا‬11
Secretary of State (USA) )‫كاتب الدكلة (األمريكي‬/‫) كزير الخارجية األمريكي؛ سكرتير‬12

From 7-10, they are ministry-specific terms to the United Kingdom and the United States.
They need special care from students and translators: e.g.

c) Buildings: Buildings of political importance are generally translated or, if cultural,

transliterated as follows:

Government Palace/Headquarters ‫السرايا‬/‫) السرام‬1

The Government Complex ‫) المجمع الحككمي‬2
The Security Headquarters/Square ‫) المربع األمني‬3
The Royal Palace ‫) القصر الممكي‬4
The Royal Divan/Bureau ‫) الديكاف الممكي‬5
The Presidential Palace ‫) القصر الرئاسي‬6
The Ministry Complex/Building ‫) مبنى الك ازرة‬7
Yamamah/Salam (Royal) Palace ...‫السالـ‬/‫) قصر اليمامة‬8

Some terms are originally adopted from English as follows:

The Pentagon ‫ك ازرة الدفاع األمريكية‬/‫ مقر ك ازرة الدفاع األمريكية‬:‫) البنتاجكف‬1
The Westminster‫البرلماف البريطاني‬/‫ مبنى البرلماف البريطاني‬: ‫) الكيست مينستر‬2
‘10’ Downing Street ‫رئيس كزراء بريطانيا‬/‫ مقر رئيس كزراء بريطانيا‬:‫‘داكنينج ستريت‬10’ )3
The Whitehall ‫الحككمة البريطانية‬/‫ مقر الحككمة البريطانية‬:‫) الكايت ىكؿ‬4
The Kremlin )‫الرئيس الركسي(حاليان‬/)‫ مقر القيادة السكفيتية (سابقان‬:‫) الكريمميف‬5
The Elysée ‫رئيس فرنسا‬/‫ مقر رئيس فرنسا‬:‫قصر انليزية‬/‫) انليزية‬6
The White House ‫الرئيس األمريكي‬/‫مقر الرئيس األمريكي‬/‫) البيت األبيض‬7
Wall Street ‫ شارع الماؿ في نيكيكرؾ‬/ ‫) ككؿ ستريت‬8
Fleet Street ‫ شارع الصحافة في لندف‬/ ‫) فميت ستريت‬9

Students must be careful not to translate the names of the streets at all. They should
avoid translations like (‫ )شارع الجدار‬for ‘8’; (‫ )شارع األسطكؿ‬for ‘9’ or any similar translation for
streets. They transliterate them only. Clearly, the names of buildings and streets are used

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in both languages to refer to presidents, governments, parliaments, ministries or
important activities. Therefore, in English, they need be both transliterated and translated
into political institutions and activities. Such translations reflect the functions of these
buildings. In the event students have a problem with recognizing the function of a term,
they simply transliterate it, bearing in mind that the readers may be know it.

2.6.3 Familiar Alternatives

These are popular names and nicknames used to replace and refer to other proper names
of different types: famous people, cities, places, etc. For full details and discussion of the
translation of familiar alternatives, and to avoid unnecessary repetition, readers are
referred back to the section on ‘Translating Synonymy’ above (see 2.3).

2.6.4 Comments on Translating Proper Names

Obviously, the translation of proper names of different types is not always a

straightforward process. Several translation procedures are employed to achieve this task:

(7) Transliteration/Transcription: when the Arabic name has no straightforward

equivalent in English. Names of ordinary people, places, cities, etc. are all
transliterated into English (e.g. Mohammad, Ali, Omar, Abu Bakr, Othman,
Aishah, Makkah, Madinah, Ka'ba, streets, buildings, parliaments, etc.).
(8) Naturalization: names that have one-to-one cultural / religious equivalents in
English (e.g. most names of the Prophets, the Virgin Mary, Sinai, Pharaoh, etc.)
(9) Translation: Names which are originally attributes and/or lexical words that
belong to the lexicon of both languages. Examples include: The Glorious Names
of God, the Prophet Mohammad, peace be to him, and familiar alternatives.
(10) Transliteration + Paraphrase: Familiar alternatives which are proper names
standing for other Arabic ones and have no one-to-one equivalents in English are
transliterated, first, and, then, paraphrased in brackets (e.g. Umm Al-Qura
(Makkah Al-Mukarramah), etc. In addition, all proper names that are Arabic
culture-specific are translated in the same way (e.g. Ka'ba (the Holy House of
God); Arafat (a Mount at Makkah); Ibn Abbas (the Prophet's Companion); Thun-
Noon (Johnah the Prophet / Jonah of the whale); Thul-Qarnain (Alexander the
Great); etc.).
(11) Translation + Paraphrase: This translation couplet is applied to the translation of
many familiar alternatives like nicknames, titles and attributes (e.g. Abu Turab
(the Prophet’s Cousin, Ali Bin Abi Taleb); Al-Muhajiroon (The Migrants: Makkah
Muslims who migrated to Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah); Al-Ansar (Citizens of Al-
Madinah who were in aid of their Muslim brothers, Al- Muhajiroon, coming from
Makkah), etc.).
(12) Usually, Proper Names that are culture-specific in any language are NOT
translated (e.g. ordinary people, special places, geographical names, and so on).

2.7 TRANSLATING CONCEPT WORDS

Concept words are defined as the "words denoting qualities, concepts or mental activities
*that+ conjure up mental pictures…often arising directly from their physical
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correspondents" (Newmark, 1991: 87; see also 1988). Concept words may have personal,
social, cultural, religious, moral or political associations, implications and specifications.
Most of the concept words of different types are nowadays re-lexicalized through a
positive-negative scale of politicization, although they were not originally politicized in any
way. Many of them do not have entries with their new definitions, nor do they
demonstrate flexibility in context for their politicized senses have overwhelmed their
other senses. More significantly, they are understood and translated into other languages
differently. They are positive in some cultures, negative in others, and vice versa. Besides,
many of these words are translated approximately, in accordance with proximity principle
(see 2.3 above).

In religious and political terminology in particular, there are numerous newly-coined

concept words that are currently in circulation in the mass media, translation theory and
practice. Among the most common in use are:

fundamentalism (negative) )‫) األصكلية (إيجابية‬1(

(Salafiyyah (Upholding original Islamic creed, fundamentalism) )‫) السمفية (إيجابية‬2(
(positive )
(Islamicization) (negative) )‫ تأسميـ (سمبية‬/ ‫) األسممة‬3(
political Islam (negative) )‫) انسالـ السياسي (سمبية‬4(
(reliognism / religiousness) (negative) )‫) التديف (سمبية‬5(
(atheisticization) (negative) )‫) التكفير (سمبية‬6(
(holy fight / war; fight in God's Cause) (negative) )‫) الجياد (إيجابية‬7(
extremism (negative) )‫) التطرؼ (سمبية‬8(
terrorism (negative) )‫) انرىاب (سمبية‬9(
religious fanaticism/bigotry (negative) )‫) التعصب الديني (سمبية‬10(
Zionism (positive/neutral) )‫) الصييكنية (سمبية‬11(
Nationalism (positive) )‫ القكمية (إيجابية‬/ ‫) الكطنية‬12(
(pseudo-nationalists) )‫) القكمجيكف (سمبية‬13(
Arabism (neutral/negative) )‫) العركبة (إيجابية‬14(
pseudo-Arabists (negative) )‫ العركبجيكف) (سمبية‬/ ‫) العركبيكف‬15(
The Arab Spring (positive) )‫) الربيع العربي (إيجابية‬16(

Under normal circumstances, the translation of these terms and words is a

straightforward process, and can hardly be described as problematic. As demonstrated by
their suggested translations above, they are treated as crucial Islamic and political terms
that have to be translated into English with their TL meanings and biases of positive and
negative connotations. Yet, now, these terms have been politicized and their original
biases have been viciously transgressed in English, and, then, back-translated into Arabic
through anti-Islamic movements or secular scholars. All these terms now have a quite
pejorative sense of International Islamic 'extremism' and 'terrorism', which is repugnant to
us, Muslims and Arabs, especially in regard to the three positive terms (of 1, 2 and 7)

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which are of noble and sublime implications in Islam (and those who misinterpret them
among Muslims are a minority) . Hence, translators have to be on the alert, as it were, at
using them in all texts and contexts. Yet, this does not mean that we have to concede
these prejudiced politicized anti-Islam and anti-Arab meanings every time they are
translated into English. In purely Islamic contexts, for example, they are translated
normally, non-specified and non-politicized into English. They translate some University
course titles quite normally (e.g. ‫( أصكؿ الديف‬Fundamentals of Religion), etc.). Further,
relevant Islamic terms are translated properly in religious contexts (e.g. ‫( السمؼ الصالح‬the
early righteous Muslim generation); ‫( الجياد في سبيؿ اهلل بالماؿ كالنفس‬fight in God's Cause with
one's wealth and life), etc.).

Another way to approach these terms in translation into English is to transliterate the
term into English (i.e. 'Salafiyyah' and 'Jihad'), followed by a paraphrase in brackets (as
done above).

Another group of concept words are originally adopted from English into Arabic and have
become established translations in the latter. They include the following terms:

Capitalism (positive in English, but negative or neutral in Arabic) ‫) الرأسمالية‬1

Communism (negative in English; negative more than positive in Arabic) ‫) الشيكعية‬2
Socialism (positive and neutral in English; positive and negative in Arabic) ‫) انشتراكية‬3
Hitlerism (negative in both) ‫) اليتمرية‬4
Stalinism (negative in both) ‫) الستالينية‬5
Dogmatism (negative in both) ‫ التعسفية‬/ ‫) التعسؼ‬6
Jingoism (negative in both) ‫ غمك في الكطنية‬/ ‫) التعصب لمكطنية‬7
Liberalism (neutral in English; negative more than positive in Arabic) ‫ التفمت‬/ ‫) الميبرالية‬8
Radicalism (negative in both) ‫ الراديكالية‬/ ‫) اليسارية المتطرفة‬9
Ideology (neutral in English; neutral or negative in ‫ إيديكلكجيػػة‬/ ‫ أدلجػػة‬/ ‫) تكجػػو فكػػرم‬10
Arabic)
Openness / open-mindedness (positive in both) ‫) االنفتاح‬11
Transparency (positive in English; positive/neutral in ‫كضػكح المكاقػؼ‬/)‫) الشػفافية (السياسية‬12
Arabic)
Coalition Forces (positive in both) )‫الدكلي‬/‫) (قكات) التحالؼ (العربي‬13
Demagogy/demagoguism (negative in both) ‫الفكضكية‬/‫ الدىماكية‬/ ‫) الديماغكجية‬14

No doubt, some of these terms are not quite clear, but the students and translators are
recommended to adopt these translations, being recognized and established in both
languages, English and Arabic. What they are required to attend to carefully is their
negative/positive bias, which can be on occasions decisive for the TL readership.

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In brief, concept words of different types are translated approximately and with caution
into general sense, or one of the senses of the SL term, with the aim to avoid potential
misunderstanding, insulting or abusing the target readers in some way.

2.8 TRANSLATING CULTURE

Hot arguments have been and are still going on about the translation of culture. The
hottest points include: the translatability of culture; cultural categories; layers of culture;
the possibility / impossibility of translating culture; the relationship between language and
culture and whether language is a part of culture, or culture is a part of language; the
cross-cultural differences; the sensitive areas of culture and how to deal with them in
translation; cultural relativism vs. cultural determinism; cultural translation or translating
culture; cultural ethnocentrism; the cultural dilemma; adoption, clash and reconciliation
of cultures in translation, etc.

The conclusions drawn from the discussions and arguments put forward in this Section
stress the possibility of translating culture, exactly as anything else in language which is
translatable into another language and its problems of translation can be sorted out by
means of many translation procedures and strategies. Culture is comprehensible and
translatable into another language and culture, not in the literal sense of one-to-one
equivalent, but in an approximate sense, and via using a huge number of translating
strategies. Translators have several approaches to deal with the problems of translating
culture including non-culturalization / neutralization (i.e. translating cultural terms into
neutral, non-cultural sense), acculturation / foreignization / deculturalization (i.e. what is
called here, adoption of SL culture); cross-culturalization (e.g. which is probably
reconciliation (or middle ground) between the SL and the TL cultures, which subsumes
non-culturalization), or, as suggested in this section, clashing culture (different and
sometimes sensitively conflicting SL and TL cultures, i.e. anti-culturalization). Apart from
non-culturalization, the remaining three leading strategies of translating culture will be
put forward throughout as the major strategies under one of which most cultural terms
and expressions can be labeled, and through one of which they can be translated.

It is claimed throughout that the problems of translating culture have been over-
exaggerated by translation theorists, especially those who believe in the fallacy that
everything in language is cultural. The fact is perhaps that language is only partly cultural,
but mostly universal. Further, and as argued throughout, the most part of culture is
translatable comfortably on the basis of the two major strategies of adoption and
reconciliation, whereas the real problem lies with translating the remaining part of culture
that represents some kind of clash between the SL and the TL cultures, be it political,
religious, social, linguistic or other). It is hoped that this Textbook may contribute to ease
the burden of translating the two cultures concerned, English and Arabic, both directions.

The argument throughout this part has a claim to the translatability of culture, and that
translation cannot be understood in terms of one-to-one equivalent to be looked for in
the TL language for the SL word, term or expression. It is an overall process that aims at
translating meaning into another language as closely or approximately as possible, either
as one-to-one, two-to-one, or probably three-to-one equivalent.

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2.8.1 Defining Culture

A number of definitions can be provided for culture. A good dictionary definition is

suggested for it by the American Heritage (2004) as “The totality of socially transmitted
behaviour patterns, arts, beliefs, institutions, and all other products of human work and
thought. Culture is learned and shared within social groups and is transmitted by non-
genetic means”. Another good definition by New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy (2005)
views it as: “The sum of attitudes, customs, and beliefs that distinguishes one group of
people from another. Culture is transmitted, through language, material objects, ritual,
institutions, and art, from one generation to the next”. Translation theorists have also
provided varying definitions for culture. For Snell-Hornby, “Culture refers to all socially
conditioned aspects of human life” (1988: 39). It is “ …..what people have to learn as
distinct from their biological heritage. This means that culture is not a material
phenomenon; it does not consist of things, people, behavior, or emotions. It is rather an
organization of these things. It is the forms of things that people have in mind, their
models for perceiving, relating, and otherwise interpreting them. As such, the things
people say and do, their social arrangements and events are products and by-products of
their culture…” (Öhring, in ibid.: 40). “Culture is the umbrella under which come many
things in a society, including language. So language is an integral part of culture, as clearly
stated in the Encyclopaedia Britannica.

A long time ago, a vital link between language and culture was found by Von Humboldt,
Sapir and Whorf, and that no language can exist unless it is rooted in the context of
culture. In the same way, no culture can exist without having at its center, the structure of
language (ibid.: 41; and McGuire, 1980/1991: 14). Newmark defines it as “the way of life
and its manifestations that are peculiar to a community that uses a particular language as
its means of expression” (1988: ch. 9). Finally, The FreeCulture Dictionary Online defines
culture as a reference to “the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs,
values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations,
concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of
people in the course of generations through individual and group striving”. The list is very
long indeed.

These definitions of the concept of ‘CULTURE’ have several things in common. According
to many of them, culture is seen as a totality concept that subsumes mental, social,
material, ecological, political, religious, linguistic, leisure, entertainment, emotional,
behavioral and all other features of human life specific to a particular community that
uses a particular language as its means of expression. Hence, culture has different
categories, the topic of the next point.

2.8.2 Categories of Culture

Newmark suggests five main categories for culture (1988: ch.9):

1. Ecology:
2. Material culture
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 3. Social culture
4. Organizations, customs, ideas
5. Gestures and habits

This categorization can be described as too loose, confusing and falls short of
comprehensiveness. The first category of ecological culture is fine, but the second is
confusing in practice. Although foods, drinks and clothes are artefacts, they are at the
heart of social culture in the first place. The third, ‘social culture’, is unjustifiably narrowed
down to work and entertainment, ignoring other social cultural aspects like, habits,
customs, salutations and greetings, social catch phrases, clichés and formulae, forms of
address, titles, socially sensitive topics like sex and prohibited foods (like pork meat) and
drinks (e.g. wine), social occasions and ceremonies. On the other hand, the fourth
category is in a mess. It confuses political and administrative culture (i.e. organizations),
social culture (i.e. customs), mental culture (i.e. ideas), religious culture (i.e. religious
organizations?), legal culture (i.e. legal organizations?) and arts culture (i.e. artistic
organizations?). As to the fifth and last category, it is an integral part of social culture and
should not be assigned an independent status, as gestures, habits and other non-linguistic
features are mainly social aspects of culture.

More seriously, Newmark’s categorization of culture has failed to encompass essential and
weighty categories like religious culture, mental culture, political culture and how to
express oneself in one’s native language in a unique cultural way.

Hence, though useful, Newmark’s categorization of the manifestations of culture is not

satisfactory. Instead, a re-categorization of cultural categories is urgently required. Here is
a suggestion:

(1) Religious culture (Islamic (especially Koranic, Prophetic and Jurisprudential),

Christian (especially Biblical) and other religious beliefs, rituals, worships,
obligations, terms, concepts, principles, creeds and socio-religious cultural
expressions and prohibitions, Belief in God, the concept of fear of God, sensitive
religious terms, etc.)
(2) Social culture (foods, drinks, clothes, work and leisure, habits, customs,
salutations and greetings, social catch phrases, clichés and formulae, forms of
address, titles, social organizations and clubs, national heroes, socially sensitive
topics like sex and prohibited foods (like pork meat and dancing terms) and drinks
(e.g. wine), socialized artefacts (e.g. the western/English traditional means of
transport, the cart, hence, cart culture, etc.), social occasions and ceremonies,
extra-linguistic symbols (i.e. colors, gestures, pictures, or objects that carry a
particular meaning which is only recognized by those who share a particular
culture, entertainment culture (social and sports games, sports and activities of
entertainment), socially sensitive terms, etc.

(3) Political culture (political concepts, parties, organizations, houses, institutions,

bodies, titles, acronyms, terms and expressions, positions, relations, democracy,
etc.)

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 (4) Mental and emotional culture (deterministic mentality, open-mindedness,
narrow-mindedness, freedom, sentimentality, romanticism, passion, emotions of
happiness, sadness, anger, calm, fear and magnanimity, self-esteem, selfishness,
philanthropy, charity, hospitality, miserliness, pride, haughtiness, vanity,
prestigiousness, courage, cowardice, timidity, racism, discrimination,
globalization, secularism, religiousness, righteousness / piousness, concepts of
charity, Samaritanism, otherness, accepting the different egoism, ethnocentrism,
superiority, inferiority, and the core of any formal culture, values (broad
tendencies for preferences of certain state of affairs to others (good-evil, right-
wrong, natural-unnatural). Many values remain unconscious to those who hold
them. Therefore, they often cannot be discussed, nor can they be directly
observed by others. Values can only be inferred from the way people act under
different circumstances.

(5) Linguistic culture: cultural way of expressing meaning (cross-cultural

expressions, figurativeness, idiomaticity, connotations, collocations, irony,
proverbial expressions, native-way of expressing meanings / English-English vs.
Arabic English, or Arabic-Arabic vs. English Arabic, etc.).
(6) Literary culture (literary traditions, conventions, values, styles of writing,
symbols, heroes, classics, men of letters, etc.)

(7) Ecological /geographical culture (the same as suggested above by Newmark).

(8) Material culture (de-socialized housing, transport, communications, weapons

(old and new, computer and Internet technologies, etc.)

This categorization seems more accurate and comprehensive than Newmark’s above,
though both do not appeal to some writers like, Goodenough who excludes material
culture, things, people, behaviour and emotions. He says: “...we would note that culture is
not a material phenomenon; it does not consist of things, people, behaviour or emotions.
Rather, it is an organization of these things” (1964: 36, in Snell-Hornby, 1988: 40). No it is
not. This is unrealistic and, hence, cannot be acceptable for culture can sometimes be
these elements only, sometimes, their organization only, and other times be both, but
never their organization only. The following people, material things, clothes, machines,
tools, institutions and sports cannot be anything else but cultural: Aren’t Saladin ‫)صال الدٌن‬
(ً‫األٌوب‬, Haroon Al-Rashid, Alhazen (‫)الحسن بن الهٌثم‬, Avicenna (‫)ابن سٌنا‬, Al-Jahez, Juha (‫)جحا‬,
Hasan The Shrewd (‫)الشاطر حسن‬, Aladin, Ali Baba, Sinbad and the rest of the characters of
The Arabian Nights (‫)ألؾ لٌلة ولٌلة‬, Qais and Laila (The English cultural equivalent for Romeo
and Juliet), Rayyah and Skeenah, Samson (‫)شمشون الجبار‬, Hercules (‫)هِر ْقل‬, Robin Hood ‫)روبٌن‬
(‫هود‬, Homer, Aphrodite / Astarte (‫)عشتار‬, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Romeo and Juliet, Pelé,
the Brazilian football player, David Beckham, the English footballer, and many other
famous English and Arab names in history reflexive of their own culture?

Aren’t siwak / miswak/tooth cleanser, kohl stick/eyeliner, pestle (‫)المهباج‬, hijab / women’s
veil, Jubbah, Sari, jeans, the Turkish Kaftan, the Brazilian Samba (‫)رقصة السامبا البرارٌلٌة‬, the
Brazilian coffee, the Arabian Camel, the English and European cart / Tilbury (‫)الحنتور‬, etc.
culture-specific material objects, tools, clothes and practices? Aren’t the ruler of the
country, the Caliph, the Prince of Believers, the minister, the Chancellor, the president, the
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mayor (ً‫الوال‬/‫)المحافظ‬, district/region (‫)مِنطقة‬, small region (‫)ناحٌة‬, province (‫ مقاطعة‬/ ‫)إقلٌم‬,
governorate /county (‫)محافظة‬, parliament, the right wing, the left wing, parties, the White
House, the Elysée, the Westminster, Wall Street, etc. political cultural terms and
concepts? Aren’t the Internet, the computer, the mobile, the car, the flyovers, the ring
roads, the trains, the railways, the railway stations, the aeroplanes, the airports, the
airways, the bikes, the motorbikes a western culture of new technology? Aren’t rifles,
automatic rifles, Kalashnikov, M-16, tanks, rockets, missiles, cruise missiles, the atomic /
nuclear bomb, the nuclear weapons, shells, bombshells, cluster bombs (‫)القنابل العنقودٌة‬,
ballistic missiles, mortar bombs, home-made bombs, grenades, nuclear disarmament, etc.
western and Russian military cultural artefacts? Aren’t tabbuleh (‫السوررٌة‬/‫)التبولة اللبنانٌة‬,
kabsah (‫)الكبسة السعودٌة‬, cuscus (ً‫)الكسكس المؽرب‬, the English white and black tea, the Scottish
and French wine, the Maroc oranges and satsuma / clementine, falafel, kushari, Fatteh,
the Arabian coffee, the sake, the sugar cane, the mango, and many others, food culture of
different origins?

By the same token, aren’t sports games of football / soccer, baseball, cricket, athletics,
American football, tennis, horse and camel races, rallies (‫)سبا السٌارات‬, racecourses,
wrestling, boxing, arenas, hockey, etc. culture? Aren’t finger biting (as an expression of
anger in Arabic), finger biting (as an expression of nervousness and tension in English), to
put one’s hands and feet in cold water (‫( )ٌضع ٌدٌه ورجلٌه بماء بارد‬an expression of peace of
mind), keeping one’s head (an expression of calm) cultural expressions? Isn’t silence an
expression of agreement in Arabic, red face an expression of shyness, anger or happiness
for many peoples, yellow face a reflection of fear or illness, shaking head up and down no,
and shaking head right and left yes, while quite the reverse in Bulgaria (etc.) cultural?
Finally, aren’t The Holy Koran, the Prophetic Tradition, mosques, Ka’ba, the pillars of
Islam, etc. Islamic culture? And The Bible, the Church, the clergy, the crusades and the
Cross a Christian Culture? And so on and so forth. The Answer to all these questions is
definite YES.

2.8.3 Translatability of Culture: Facts and Fallacies

It is made clear in the previous section that culture penetrates almost every aspect of life
as a cover term under which come many things in a society, including language. So,
language is an integral part of culture, as clearly stated in the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
and other definitions above. According to them, language is the heart within the body of
culture. The translators who ignore this strong interconnection between language and
culture will commit a serious mistake.

Writers of pro-cultural approach to translation have gone too far to consider language as
completely cultural. Stolze (1982) and Paepcke (1981) promote the holistic principle of the
gestalt unity of language, culture experience and perception (in Snell-Hornby, 1988: 42-3).
More to that, Robinson (1997/2007: Ch. 10) alleges that culture is untranslatable, which
implies the impossibility of translation. Also, Sapir-Whorf relativist linguistic theory
proclaims that language and thought are bound up tightly with the culture of the
community that speaks the language concerned would mean that eventually translation is
impossible (in ibid.: 41). Hence, the language-thought link and relative theory of language
is related in origin to Sapir (1949) and Whorf (1956) and their hypothesis.

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But this is a fallacy and certainly untrue, as translation persists and will persist so long as
there is life on earth. Ironically enough, Robinson himself and other pro-cultural writers on
translation are professional translators and staunch advocates of the persistence and
development of translation. To be more factual and practical in our argument for the
possibility of translation, and at the same time, the impracticality of the previous
allegation, we may pose the following questions, as a tester of facts about translation. If
the answer to these questions is ‘YES’, the impossibility of translations is a fallacy, if ‘NO’,
translation is a fact of life, then:

a. Is translation today a fact of life?

b. Is translation today a well-established discipline?
c. Is translation today a recognized profession practiced the world over?
d. Are there today professional translators everywhere?
e. Are there today translation colleges, centers, institutions, departments and
courses?
f. Are there today published translations of all types of texts into a foreign language
all over the world or not?
g. Are bookstores and libraries full of translations (Rojo, 2009: 26)?
h. Is four-thousand-year-old practice of translation enough to justify its possibility
(ibid.)?
i. Is the publication of translations today prosperous?
j. Are translations and interpretations today going on daily on the mass media, the
Website and communications of all types at local, national and international
level?
k. Are translation and interpretation today indispensable?
l. Do we understand “The House of Commons” )‫(مجمس العمكـ البريطاني‬, “Superman”
)‫(سكبرماف‬, “The British Council” ”)‫(المركز الثقافي البريطاني‬, “Put the cart before the
horse”, )‫(يضع العربة أماـ الحصاف‬, “this is your funeral”)‫(ذنبؾ عمى جنبؾ‬, the Japanese
“kimono” )‫ رداء ياباني نسائي فضفاض؛ رداء ياباني تقميدم نسائي‬:‫(الكيمكف‬, etc.?
m. Do they understand ‫ سكؽ‬،‫ أياـ العرب في الجاىمية‬،‫ ألؼ ليمة كليمة‬،‫العرض‬ً ،‫ مناسؾ الحج‬،‫(الكعبة‬
،‫( عكاظ‬Ka’ba: The House of God at Makkah, Muslim Hajj rituals, jealousy for
women, The famous Days of the pre-Islam Arabs, Pre-Islam Okaz poetry festival,
etc.?
n. Isn’t it the case that translation is not just one-to-one equivalent practice?
o. Is translation today continuing to exist?
p. Generally, at the age of high-tech, electronic life and sophisticated
communications of all types, is it easier to understand and accept the culture of
the other, or not?

The counter factual attitude toward translation is based on the principle of language
universals suggested by Chomsky and the school of generative grammar. Oddly enough,
this view was originally propagated by Humboldt, Whorf and Sapir who originated the
relativist theory of language. Whorf’s Hypothesis has come to be known as Sapir-Whorf
Hypothesis. It partly consists of (i) Linguistic Determinism; and (ii) Linguistic Relativity.
According to linguistic determinism, language determines thought. However, linguistic
relativity states that language encodes different distinctions (see Jakobson, 1960; Crystal,
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1987; Malmkjær, 2005; and Boase-Beier, 2006 for further details). Sapir and Whorf
maintain that each language involves two interplaying types of aspects: the particular,
cultural-specific aspects as a unique way of viewing the world, and the universal aspects
which languages may share with other live world languages. Some translation theorists
conclude that the particular, cultural specific relative aspect of language is untranslatable
(see Hyde, 1993). Newmark draws a similar distinction between the universal (the non-
cultural) and the cultural, adding a third type, i.e. the personal. He means by ‘universal’
common words of neutral reference like: ‘sleep, write, talk, eat, drink, man, woman,
building, university, street, door, some, many, mirror, happiness, moon, etc. The second
type, the ‘cultural’, is anything specific to a particular community in regard to all aspects of
human life expressed by its particular language (see above). As to ‘personal language’, it is
to express oneself in a personal way, like the use of one’s own dialect (or idiolect), style of
expression and personally preferred clichés and phrases (1988: 94). The last type can be
subsumed under either of the previous two types of language.

It seems that these views are good for translation as a middle ground between too an
overstated relativity (or particularity/culture) and an overemphasised determinism (or
universality/non-culture). Proponents of both parties tend to see translation as a way of
both recognising the cultural boundedness of language and of being free from it.
Therefore, some translation theorists see the language of translated texts as a separate
language that is different from untranslated texts, what Frawley calls a ‘third code’ (1984).
Duff calls it “The Third Language” (1981), whereas Bayely describes it as a “new” language
and the “third code” (1992, in Boase-Beier, 2006: 24)). Slobin suggests the term ‘thinking
for translation’ for it (i.e. translation has a special language of its own) (1987). Venuti has
suggested the term an ‘independent form of writing’ for the translated text (2000).
Hamburger (1994), on the other hand, has developed a style of translation that may “...
come to terms with the otherness of language” by way of enriching one’s own language
through the act of translation, and to move the translation toward the original source
language, as Benjamin and Pannwitz suggest (in Schulte and Biguenet, 1992: 8).

We also understand from this purview that culture is an integral component of language
and, hence, translation. Since 1990, we have to recognize the “cultural turn in Translation
Studies that served to extend and revitalize the discipline and to liberate it from the
relatively mechanical tools of analysis available in Linguistics”, as pointed out by Trivedi
(2005). It is a fact that translation is not just the activity of translating word by word from
the source language to another language. This cannot guarantee quality translation as one
language cannot express the actual meaning of the other if the translation concentrated
on words only. Obviously, there are differences between the meanings built in and the
meanings that must be captured and expressed. It is also a matter of course now that
translation is not simply replacing words with similar meaning but of finding appropriate
ways of saying things in another language. Hence, importance must be given to the culture
of the target language. It is the cultural aspect only that can help in communicating the
message in the way it should be (Carter, 2009, Platinum Author Online).

Therefore, we have to admit publicly that culture is a huge problem of translation, yet it is
a tangible fact that CULTURAL TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS ARE TRANSLATABLE, however
difficult and inconsistent that may be. Besides that, emphasizing culture in translation
excessively and more than required is neither advisable nor truthful, for culture is only
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one aspect of language and, hence, translation. It is far from reality to claim that language
is all in all cultural, or culture is untranslatable, for if this is true, translation definitely
ceases to exist altogether. But this has never been and will never happen one day. Quite
the reverse, it is flourishing by the day. Daily practice and experience of language,
translation and culture, and the many works -including this section- on translation and
culture, are indelible evidence for the translatability of cultural concepts and terms.
Hence, culture is only one part of language, and may be the least to occur, except in
cultural-specific texts. Such simplicity of definition and practicality of placing culture in its
proper status in language and translation would ease the burden of dealing with it and
reflect the factual and natural stand towards culture in translation. At the same time, it
counterbalances the complex, diabolic and less practical and factual maze of theorization
that language is all in all culture, and culture is language.

2.8.4 Translating Culture in Terms of Categories

Now we come to the practical discussion of translating Arabic culture into English.
Translated sample examples representing the main categories of Arabic culture pointed
out above (some of which are more English than Arabic culture (see Ghazala, 2015)) will
be given, followed by discussing their problems of translation and the possible solutions to
them by employing different translation strategies (i.e. procedures).

2.8.4.1 Religious Culture

Islamic cultural terms are overwhelming in Arabic. Many of them pose considerable
problems of translation that need be full attention by students and translators who can
make use of several translation strategies to overcome these problems (adopted from
Ghazala, 2014):

(a) Cities and towns: ).‫ إلخ‬،‫ بيت المقدس‬،‫ العاصمة المقدسة‬،‫ المدينة المنكرة‬،‫(مكة المكرمة‬
(Makkah Al-Mukarramah, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, the Holy Capital,
Jerusalem).
(b) Places / mosques: ‫ مسجد‬،‫ مسجد قباء‬،‫ المسجد األقصى‬،‫ المسجد النبكم الشريؼ‬،‫(المسجد الحراـ‬
)‫ مسجد نمرة‬،‫القبمتيف؛ مسجد الخيؼ‬
(Al-Haram Mosque (at Makkah), The Prophet's Mosque (at Al-Madinah), Al-Aqsa
Mosque (at Jerusalem), Qubaa Mosque (at Al-Madinah), Al-Qiblatain Mosque (at
Al-Madinah), Al-Kheef Mosque (at Mina, Makkah), Namirah Mosque (at Arafat,
Makkah)).
(c) Campaign fields: ).‫ إلخ‬،‫ الحزب‬/ ‫ الخندؽ‬،‫ القادسية‬،‫ اليرمكؾ‬،‫ يحنيف‬،‫يحد‬
‫ أ ي‬،‫(بدر‬
(Badr, Ohod, Hunain, Yarmouk, Qadisiah, Khandaq / Ahzab Campaigns).
(d) Acts / practices / worships: ).‫ إلخ‬،‫ حج‬،‫ عمرة‬،‫ تقصير‬،‫ حمؽ‬،‫ سعي‬،‫ طكاؼ‬،‫(صالة‬
(praying, circumambulation, Sai (fast walk between Safa and Marwah Mounts at
Makkah), shaving, hair cutting, Omrah (Small Hajj), Hajj / Pilgrimage, etc.)
(e) Activities / rituals: ،‫ الدعاء‬،‫ الكضكء‬،‫ استالـ الحجر األسكد‬،‫ تكبير‬،‫ تمبية‬،‫ شعائر‬،‫(مناسؾ الحج‬
).‫ إلخ‬،‫ التسبيح‬،‫ االستغفار‬،)‫انحراـ (بحج أك عمرة‬

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(Hajj rituals, rituals, Hajj / Omrah start ritual (here I am, Greatest God, here I am
at Your service), saying: 'God is the Greatest', kissing the Black Stone (at a niche
on Ka'ba), ablution, supplication, Hajj / Omrah intention, Praying for God's
forgiveness, God's glorification)
(f) Sites / Ihram spots: ‫ قرف‬،‫ آبار عمي‬،‫ الحرـ‬،‫عرفات‬/‫ عرفة‬،‫ مزدلفة‬،‫ ًمنى‬،‫ مشاعر‬،‫(البقاع المقدسة‬
).‫ إلخ‬،‫ غار ثكر‬،‫ غار حراء‬،)‫ مكاقيت (الحج كالعمرة‬/ ‫ ميقات‬،‫ يمممـ‬،‫ رابش‬،‫المنازؿ‬
(The Holy Sites (as Makkah and Al-Madinah), Hajj Holy Sites (at Makkah), Mina
Site (at Makkah), Muzdalifah Site (at Makkah), Arafa / Arafat Mount (at Makkah),
Al-Haram Area (at Makkah), Aabar Ali / Qarn Al-Manazel / Ghaber / Yalamlam (all
are places of starting Hajj / Omrah inside Saudi Arabia), specific places of starting
Hajj / Omrah inside Saudi Arabia, Hiraa Cave (at An-Noor Mount in Makkah),
Thawr Cave (at Thawr Mount in Makkah).
(g) Buildings: ،‫ المطاؼ‬،‫ تكسعة الحرميف‬،‫ الحرماف‬،‫ السقؼ المرفكع‬،‫ البيت المعمكر‬،‫ البيت الحراـ‬،‫(الكعبة‬
).‫إلخ‬
(Ka'aba (the Holy House of God), The Holy House (of God), The House Frequented
(by the Angels in Heaven), the Elevated Roof (the Sky), The Two Holy Mosques (at
Makkah and Al-Madinah), The Expansion of the Buildings of the Two Holy
Mosques, Circumambulation Area).
(h) Clothes: ).‫ إلخ‬،‫ غطاء الرأس‬،‫ سترة‬،‫ نقاب‬،‫ خمار‬،‫ حجاب‬،‫(لباس انحراـ‬
Ihram Garb (dressed at Hajj / Omrah), Hijab (Women's Islamic Cover), veil,
headcloth, prayer demarcation / interstice, head cover).
(i) Behavior: ‫ األمر‬،‫ انحساف لمغير‬،‫ إكراـ الضيؼ‬،‫ الدعكة إلى اهلل بالحكمة كالمكعظة الحسنة‬،‫(الطيارة‬
).‫ إلخ‬،‫ النيي عف المنكر‬،‫بالمعركؼ‬
(purification, invitation to God with wisdom and sound advice, hospitality, doing
good to others, enjoining good, forbidding evil).
(j) Remembrance habits: ،‫ الثناء عمى اهلل‬/ ‫ حمد اهلل‬،‫ الصالة عمى النبي‬،‫ قراءة القرآف يكميان‬/ ‫(تالكة‬
).‫ إلخ‬،‫ االستغفار‬،‫ التسبيح‬،‫التكحيد‬
(daily recitation of the Koran, saying 'peace and blessings be to him (Prophet
Mohammad), praising God, saying: "There is no deity but God", God's
glorification, asking God's forgiveness).
(k) Concepts: ).‫ إلخ‬،‫ األصكلية‬،‫ التشييع‬/ ‫ التشيع‬،‫ التديف‬،‫(التكفير‬
Atheisticization, religionization, Shiism /shiitization, fundamentalism (see
previous subsection).
(l) Thoughts / ideologies: ،‫ تكحيد األمة انسالمية‬،‫ التكافؿ‬،‫ التكسؿ‬،‫ الفكر انسالمي‬،‫(التكحيد‬
).‫ إلخ‬،‫ الصحكة انسالمية‬، ‫ النيضة انسالمية‬،‫االستقامة‬
Oneness / unification of God, Islamic thought, invocation (of dead people),
unification of the Muslim Nation, steadfastness / uprightness, Islamic
renaissance, Islamic awakening).
(m) Plants: ).‫ إلخ‬،)‫ الشجرة الممعكنة (الفرقد‬، ‫ الزقكـ‬،‫ األراؾ‬،)‫ الشجرة المباركة (الزيتكف‬،‫(النخيؿ‬
(palm (tree), the blessed tree (Olive tree), salvadora persica (siwak tree), zaqoom
tree, the cursed tree (farqad tree).
(n) Animals: ).‫ إلخ‬،‫ اليدىد‬،‫ الغراب‬،‫ طيكر أبابيؿ‬،‫ البيائـ‬/ ‫ األنعاـ‬،‫ الخيكؿ‬،‫ال ًج ماؿ‬
(camels, horses, cattle, flights of birds, the crow, the hoopoe).
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 (o) Mountains: ‫ صعيد‬،‫ جبؿ الرحمة‬،‫ جبؿ الطكر‬،‫ جبؿ أبي قبيس‬،‫ جبؿ أيحد‬،‫ جبؿ ثكر‬،‫(جبؿ النكر‬
).‫ جبؿ المركة إلخ‬،‫ جبؿ الصفا‬،‫عرفات‬
(The Mount of Light (at Makkah), Thawr Mount (at Makkah), Ohod Mount (at
Madinah), Abu Qubais Mount (at Makkah), Tur Mount (at Palestine), Mount of
Mercy (at Arafat, Makkah), Arafat Mount (at Makkah), Safa Mount (at Makkah),
Marwah Mount).
(p) Organizations & councils: ‫ جمعيات‬،‫ جمعيات البر كانحساف‬،‫ حمقات تحفيظ القرآف‬،‫(حمقات الذكر‬
،‫ منظمة المؤتمر انسالمي‬،‫ رابطة العالـ انسالمي‬،‫ منظمة التضامف انسالمي‬،‫ المستكدع الخيرم‬،‫الدعكة‬
).‫ إلخ‬،‫ىيئة كبار العمماء‬
(God's remembrance circles, Memorization of Koran circles, Charity society,
Invitation associations, Organization of Muslim Solidarity, Muslim World League,
Muslim Conference Organization, Senior Muslim Scholars Panel).
(q) Congregations: ‫ صالة‬،‫ الخسكؼ‬/ ‫ صالة الكسكؼ‬،‫ صالة العيديف‬،‫ صالة الجمعة‬،‫صالة الجماعة‬
)‫االستسقاء‬
(Congregation(al) prayer, Friday Prayer, the Two Bairams' (Feasts') Prayer, (Solar
and Lunar) Eclipse Prayer, Prayer for rain).
(r) Books and references: ،‫ اننجيؿ‬،‫ الكتب السماكية‬،‫ كتب التفسير‬،‫ الحديث الشريؼ‬،‫(القرآف الكريـ‬
).‫ إلخ‬،‫ مطكيات الحج كالعمرة‬/ ‫ دليؿ‬/ ‫ كتيبات‬،‫ كتب األدعية‬،‫التكراة‬
The Holy Koran, Prophetic Tradition, Books of interpretation (of the Koran),
Heavenly Books, The Gospel / Bible /New Testament, The Torah / Old Testament,
Supplication Booklets, Hajj and Omrah booklets).
(s) Graves and graveyards: ).‫ إلخ‬،‫ شيداء أيحد‬،‫ قبر الرسكؿ‬،‫ زيارة القبكر‬،‫الم ٍعال‬ ‫ ى‬،‫(البقيع‬
‫ى‬
(Al-Baqee' Graveyard (at Al-Madinah), Al-Ma'la Graveyard (at Makkah), visiting
graves, The Grave of the Messenger of God (at the Prophet's Mosque in Al-
Madinah Al-Munawwarah), Ohod Campaign Martyrs).
(t) Holy visits:( ‫ زيارة قبر الرسكؿ‬،‫ زيارة البقاع المقدسة‬،‫(زيارة المدينة المنكرة‬
(Paying a visit to Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, Paying a visit to the Holy Sites,
Paying a visit to the Grave of the Messenger of God, peace be to him).
(u) Greetings: )‫ السالـ عميكـ‬،‫تحية انسالـ‬
(Salutation of Islam, Peace be to you)
(v) Titles and forms of address: ).‫ إلخ‬،‫ سماحة‬،‫ فضيمة‬،‫البحر‬/‫الح ٍبر‬ ‫ ى‬،‫ الحافظ‬،‫ خطيب‬، ‫ شيخ‬،‫(إماـ‬
(Imam, Sheikh, preacher, Al-Hafez (the Memorizer), Al-Habr (an encyclopedic
scholar), His Grace, His Eminence (see 2.7. above)
(w) Religious authorities and posts: / ‫ مفتي المممكة‬،‫ كزير األكقاؼ كالدعكة كانرشاد‬،‫(كزير أكقاؼ‬
)‫ عمماء األمة‬،‫ عمماء الحرـ‬،‫ شيخ األزىر‬،‫الجميكرية‬
(Minister of Endowments, Minister of Endowments, Invitation and Guidance, the
State Mufti (chief Muslim Official), Al-Azhar Supreme Sheikh, Al-Haram scholars
(at Makkah), Muslim Nation's senior scholars).
(x) Religious stylistic formulas ،‫ ابف يعقكب‬/ ‫ برمء براءة الذئب مف دـ يكسؼ‬،‫(كشيد شاىد مف أىميا‬
‫ قدر اهلل كما‬،‫ ما شاء اهلل تبارؾ اهلل‬،‫ بارؾ اهلل لؾ‬،‫ حياؾ اهلل‬،‫ جكزيت كككفيت‬،‫ جزاؾ اهلل خي انر‬،‫شكر اهلل لؾ‬
).‫ إلخ‬،... ،‫ حسبنا اهلل كنعـ الككيؿ‬،‫شاء فعؿ‬

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 (One of her folk bore witness, as innocent as the wolf of the Blood of Prophet
Joseph, May God reward you, May God reward you handsomely, May you be
rewarded amply, May God Greet you, God bless you, God May guard you and
bless you, God forbid!, With the will of God, God willing, God ordains and God
does, God is sufficient with us, and He is the best Trustee).

In addition to these, there are terms that are also Islamic culture-specific and may cause a
really tricky problem of translation, for they are religiously and culturally absent from the
TL. More significantly, they are quite strange, sensitive and probably irrelevant and
repugnant to the English readership. After all, they cannot be found in the TL, hence the
Newmark's term, 'unfindable words' (1988). Here are some examples with their problems
of translation and solutions:

(Monotheism / Oneness of God) ‫) التوحيد‬1(

In Islam, the Oneness of God is the first and most important pillar upon which everything
else is established. However, for Christians, they are polytheists claiming that Jesus is the
Son of God. In translation, this difference means nothing for the basics of Islam and
cannot be negotiated for whatever reason. So, whether Non-Muslim readers are sensitive
to monotheism or not, it has nothing to do with its translation into any target language,
live or dead.
(Bigamy/Polygamy) ‫) تعدد الزوجات‬2(

This Islamic term is quite a problem in translation as it has no equivalent either as a term
or a concept Further, it is sensitive in English, as getting married to more than one wife is
not allowed religiously, legally, socially as well as culturally for the TL readers. More
seriously, legally, it is a crime in the English Law. Hence, English dictionaries define
'bigamy' - which is wrongly mistaken for the Arabic term from this angle – as "The crime of
marrying while one has a wife or a husband still living, from whom no valid divorce has
been effected" (Webster's, 1996). However, the meaning of the Arabic term has to be
rendered into English clearly and properly, and neither 'bigamy' nor 'polygamy' works for
they are applicable to both sexes. The other specific term for this forbidden practice in
English is 'polyandry', i.e. marrying more than one wife at the same time while alive.

Hence, the translator has to beware and be aware of these implications of the English
term. Suggestions like: "Islamic legal poly-marriage"; "Islamic multi-marriage", although
unfamiliar to native readers, can be introduced as a translation label in inverted commas
to indicate their new, but temporal form. This would help the TL readership to distinguish
between Islamic legal marriage as a practice allowed in Islam, but it is neither obligatory
nor recommended, but optional and usually for very special reasons.
(Zakat (prescribed charity)) ‫) الزكاة‬3(

This term is completely misunderstood in English as a tax. It is defined in Webster's

Encyclopaedic Unabridged Dictionary (1996: 1659) as: "a tax, supposedly 40 per cent of
personal income of every kind, levied for the relief of the poor". This definition is
contradictory with God's saying: )103 :‫( (خذ مف أمكاليـ صدقة تطيرىـ كتزكييـ بيا (التكبة‬Take Zakat

275
from their wealth in order to purify them and sanctify them with it". Therefore, the
translator has to resist such pejorative translations of 'Zakat', by either transliterating it
followed by a paraphrase in brackets (i.e. Zakat (nominal due charity in Islam), or by
translating it into its sense 'due / prescribed Islamic charity'.

(circumcision)‫) الختان‬4(

The problem with this word is not in finding an English equivalent which is available. The
problem is in its concept and application to both sexes, especially for women. It is
compulsory for men, but optional for women, only when the need arises. To avoid
sensitivity in the TL, the translator can translate the SL term into 'circumcision' and add a
footnote about its optional and very rare application to women these days. However, he /
she should not deny it as an Islamic concept, or its application to all men, and scarce
application to women.

(Physical Punishments Prescribed by God) ‫) الحدود‬5(

These punishments are cutting hand off the wrist (for stealing), lashing (for adultery and
wine drinking), stoning to death (for a married woman who commits adultery), and killing
the killer who commits a capital crime. Again, this term is problematic and sensitive to
English readers, as they look at them as markers of violating the so-called Human Rights in
the West. This is certainly not true and not acceptable to Muslims, for these punishments
are prescribed by God as a deterrent in the first place and are not carried out but in very
rare cases. Further, the messenger of God, peace be to him, used to do his best to avoid
applying them, unless in case of confirmed evidence for the crime concerned. In any case,
they are considered as types of punishment like any punishment sued today by any
human law anywhere in the world, including hanging, for example. So, sensitivity to them
is not justified. The translator is responsible not only for translating the term into a
satisfactory equivalent, but also for providing some explanation and justification of the
nature and background of prescribing these punishments in Islam.
(Bureau of Enjoining Good and ‫ هيئة األمر بالمعروف والنهي عن المنكر‬/ ‫) الحسبة‬6(
Forbidding Evil)

This is one of the widely mistranslated and misconceived terms for Non-Saudis. It is
mistaken for a kind of security or police. Hence, its pejorative translation into 'religious
police' )‫ (الشرطة الدينية‬is totally condemned. It is pitiful that some anti-Saudi and / or anti-
Islam individuals, movements, regimes or countries mistranslate it deliberately into a
negative term in English to abuse Saudi Arabia and Islam. Translators have to attend to
this prejudiced attitude and translate the term into an approximate English one, paying
due respect for this Islamic-specific Bureau as a means of counselling and safeguarding the
Muslim Community against aberrant conducts in the most lenient way possible.

(Forbidding Pork Meat) ‫) تحريم لحم الخنزير‬7(

As well-known for all Muslims – and perhaps for most of Non-Muslims - pork meat is
forbidden in Islam, whereas it is not forbidden in Christianity. Therefore, the English
276
readers find it inconceivable to forbid pork since they eat it daily as their favorite kind of
meat. Yet, translator
s cannot change anything in the Koranic text and, hence, should state this fact explicitly
without any paraphrasing or footnoting. The Target readers are required to take it with no
sensitivity for it is prescribed by God. By the way, pork meat is prohibited in Judaism too!
(Fight for God’s Cause/Holy War) ‫) الجهاد في سبيل اهلل‬8(

One of the hypersensitive Islamic terms these days is 'Jihad', which is taken into English
through the translation procedure of transliteration. It is defined by English Dictionaries as
'a holy war against infidels undertaken by Muslims in defense of the Islamic faith" (Collins,
2000: 827). However, its meaning as a valid holy war in Islam has been viciously distorted
in the West and by the West to become now synonymous to "Islamists' terrorism". This is
due to some individual violent acts under the false name of Jihad. More seriously, Anti-
Islam Western governments and countries have built on these acts false fabrications and
harsh accusations labeled against Islam to tarnish its reputation. However, the translator
is held responsible for rendering the positive original meaning of Jihad as a lawful holy war
in the Cause of God in Islam as stated in Islamic texts regardless of such anti-Islam
prejudiced views.

To conclude, no doubt, the translation of cultural words and terms is far from a
straightforward process. A number of translation procedures have been employed to
overcome their problems of translating. The majority of them have specific religious
cultural references and implications which have to be illustrated or unearthed, however as
briefly as possible. Among the translation procedures used frequently are the following:

(1) Translation: (Most of the terms are translated into Arabic directly, or translation
is involved in some way in the translation of other terms): (e.g. the majority of
the terms above).
(2) Transliteration: (writing the Arabic term in English letters as pronounced in
Arabic): (e.g. names of cities, places, sites, titles, people, etc.: (peace be to him),
Makkah, Al-Madinah, Imam, Sheikh, Al-Hafez, Abu Qubais, etc.).
(3) Transliteration & translation (the same term is partly transliterated, partly
translated): (e.g. Al-Haram Mosque (c.f. The Prophet's Mosque); Hiraa Cave;
Thawr Cave; Hajj / Omrah Booklets, etc.).
(4) Classifier (using an identifying word before or after the word) (e.g. Badr 'Mount',
Ohod 'Mount', etc. where 'mount' is implied in the original but not stated. So, the
Arabic word is transliterated, followed by the classifier, mount, to help TL readers
identify which type of word it is in general terms.
(5) Paraphrase (a short explanation following the Arabic word in brackets): (e.g.
Ka'ba (the Holy House of God at Makkah); Al-Baqee' (at Al-Madinah); Al-Haram
scholars (at Makkah); etc.). Paraphrase should not be too long, so, preferably, it
would not exceed five words to avoid boring reading and continual interruption
of the translation text. Long details can be given in a footnote at the foot of the
page, or notes / endnotes at the end of the translation.
(6) Translation couplet (using two procedures to translate the same term):

(1) Classifier + paraphrase: (e.g. ‫ المركة‬/ ‫( الصفا‬Safa / Marwah Mount (at Makkah).

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 (2) Transliteration + translation (e.g. Al-Hafez (the Memorizer), Al-Habr (an
encyclopedic scholar).
(3) Translation + paraphrase (The Mount of Light (at Makkah); Mufti (chief
Muslim Official); The Grave of the Messenger of God (at the Prophet's
Mosque in Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah)
(4) Transliteration + paraphrase (e.g. Ka'ba (the Holy House of God).

(7) Translation triplet (applying three translation methods at translating the same
term): (e.g. Ihram Garb / dress (dressed at Hajj / Omrah; Hajj); Omrah start ritual
(here I am, Greatest God, here I am at Your service; etc.).

2.8.4.2 Social Culture

Another basic category of culture is social culture, which subsumes numerous topics like
foods, drinks, traditional means of transportation, social activities like arts, sports, music,
dancing, etc. The translation of this cultural category will be through giving translated
examples, basically, from Arabic into English:

Lebanese/pâté bread (literal + trans.) ً‫خبر لبنان‬ -

Arabian bread (literal + trans.) ً‫خبر عرب‬ -
bran bread (literal trans.) ‫خبر نخالة‬ -
(camel’s meat) ً‫حاش‬/‫لحم جمل‬ -
(Halal meat) ‫مذبو على الطرٌقة اإلسالمٌة‬/‫لحم حالل‬ -
(baklava) ‫بقالوة‬ -
(halva) ‫حالوة‬ -
(sambosa) ‫سمبوس‬ -
(basbusa) ‫بسبوسة‬ -
(mushabak) ، ‫مشب‬ -
(katayef) ‫قطاٌؾ‬ -
(kunafah) ‫كنافة‬ -
Maroc (oranges) ً‫برتقال مؽرب‬ -
Maroc (satsumas/Clementine) ‫ٌوسؾ أفندي‬ -

Many of these meals and dishes have been brought into English Language and culture.
Hence, many English people have some idea about them, or tried them somewhere,
somehow in some part of the world. The adoption of these terms into English has mainly
been through transliteration, illustrations, sense, description of ingredients and, above all
naturalization, in order to make it easier for English people to spell, pronounce and use
(e.g. sambusa (rather than sambusak), halva and baklava (instead of halawah and
baqlawah)). The English are not embarrassed at all to adopt foreign cultures, be it Arabic
or other. An obvious problem of these terms is the differences among Arab peoples and
Countries in their terminology. To overcome this problem, the name of the country of
origin (e.g. Syrian, Lebanese, Saudi, Moroccan, etc.) and the multiple terms of some meals
have been stated after the translation. For example, ‘falafel’ is transliterated into English
from the Syrian and Lebanese ‫فالفل‬, but the Egyptian name ‫ طعمٌة‬is also provided to make
it clearer for the Arab readers of various nationalities.
(Arabian coffee) ‫) القهوة العربٌة‬46(
(Damask blackberry/mulberry drink) ً‫) شراب التوت الشام‬47(
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 (sugarcane drink)‫) قصب السكر‬48(
(mango drink) ‫) (شراب) المنجا‬49(
Chemise ‫) قمٌا‬50(
Hijab/hejab, veil, head cover, head and face cover ‫) حجاب‬51(
Niqab/nikab, veil (Islamic face cover for women except the eyes) ‫) نقاب‬52(
Burqua (Islamic face cover for women) ‫) برقع‬53(
Islamic cloak/veil Jilbab, Islamic long outer garment, ‫) جلباب‬54(
Kuftan Jubbah/jibba/jibbah ‫) جبة‬55(
Islamic black gown ‫عباءة‬/‫) عباٌة‬56(
Islamic dress ً‫) لباس إسالم‬57(
Non-Islamic dress ً‫) لباس ؼٌر إسالم‬58(
djellaba/djellabah ‫) جالبٌة‬59(
Arabian dress ً‫) الثوب العرب‬60(
Arabian fashion ً‫) الري العرب‬61(
tarboosh, fez ‫) الطربوش‬62(
‫) ال ِعرض والشرؾ‬63(

Most of the Arabic terms are transliterated in the first place, then, translated to illustrate
their sense by means of descriptive paraphrase either between brackets, or without
brackets. In fact, the transliterated versions are becoming increasingly more popular in
use than their translated counterparts, for they retain the flavour of their Arabic-Islamic
culture. Perhaps another reason implied in that is the sensitivity of western, non-Muslim
people toward the Islamic clothing terms for women, especially, hijab, niqab and burqua,
which they find quite strange and unacceptable. To them, these clothes are a sign of
backwardness, dogmatism and lack of freedom for women. Well, Muslims consider them
as a symbol of obedience to God, decency, purity and, above all, faith in God. In
translation, we will deal with them without any shade of prejudice and use the more
appropriate term in English.

2.8.4.3 Political Culture

(CALIPH/EMPEROR/KING)"‫) "خليفة‬1

It is defined as the title of the successors of the Prophet Mohammad (peace be to him) as
rulers of the Islamic world/state, later assumed by the Sultans of Turkey/the civil and
religious ruler of the Muslim community/polity (see Collins, 2000; Oxford, 1993 and
Chambers, 2008). It is a naturalized adoption that has been widely approved in English
Language and culture to distinguish it as a foreign, Islamic culture that is alien to them.
However, it has been translated (or mistranslated) by some disparaging orientalists into
the cultural equivalent, ‘Emperor’, with the sinister insinuation to Muslims as colonizers
who established an Islamic Empire in parallel to the Roman Empire. That said, its
translation into a well-known cultural equivalent, ‘King/Monarch’ can be justified on the
grounds that it is neutral and translates sense appropriately.

(SULTAN/KING/SUPREME RULER):"‫ "سلطان‬.2

Usually it is transliterated into ‘Sultan’ which has been an established adoption in English a
long time ago. However, its translation into a cultural equivalent like ‘King”, or into a non-
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culturalized sense like ‘The Porte’ (The Supreme Ruler) is possible when the reference is
especially to the Turkish Sultan in Constantinople (now Istanbul) )ً‫(الباب العال‬, which
replaced ‘Caliph’ in the Fifteenth Century. Yet, when it refers to a governor of a small
State, it is better acculturated into English as ‘Prince’. But ‘Sultan’ remains the better
choice being a foreign culture to the western target readers. So, we understand from this
that this title was given to several posts in the Islamic State (see Kanzul- Ommal, and Bihar
Al-Anwar, in :‫ موسوعة الكنور العلمٌة‬Online).

(MINISTER/CROWN PRINCE/THE CALIPH’S DEPUTY(?)): "‫ "وزير‬.3

This is one of the false friends in translation. In traditional Arabic political culture, it is a
post that is completely different from the minister’s position of today. It means exactly the
following:

‫ يطمعو عمى أمكرىـ‬،‫ كالكزير ىك الكسيط بيف الخميفة كالرعية‬.‫ ىك المنصب الثاني في الدكلة بعد الخالفة‬:‫الوزير‬
(The Minister is the second post in the State following the .‫كيساعده في إدارة شئكف الدكلة‬
Caliph. He is the mediator between the Caliph and his people, reporting to him about their
affairs, and helping him in running the affairs of the State).

Clearly, traditionally, the post of ‫ ورٌر‬is not equivalent to ‘minister’ of today, which is
adopted from western culture of the present time. While the traditional term names the
second post of the State, next to the Caliph, or Sultan, with formidable powers and
authorities, the latter is restricted to a specific type of affairs of the community’s life, as
well-known to everybody now. Hence, the Arabic word might be a false friend in a
traditional context for it is not exactly ‘minister’ as we currently understand it in the Arab
Countries; rather, it is ‘the Caliph’s Deputy’ )‫(نابب الخلٌفة‬, ‘Crown Prince’ )‫(ولً العهد‬, ‘the
Caliph’s Executive’ )‫(المدٌر التنفٌذي للخلٌفة‬, or ‘the Caliph’s personal advisor’ ‫(المستشار‬
)‫الخاا للخلٌفة‬/ً‫( الشخص‬equivalent today to ...‫األمٌري‬/ً‫ (المستشار بالدٌوان الملك‬either of which can
be an appropriate cultural equivalent in both cultures of the modern time, English and
Arabic. This is applicable to the first and most important and influential type of the post in
traditional Arabic culture (i.e. ‫(ورٌر تنفٌذي‬, but not to the second type )‫مفوض‬/ً‫(ورٌر تفوٌض‬,
which was common at some eras of Arabic history, and was not far from the modern
cultural equivalent, ‘plenipotentiary’ in regard to powers and functions.

(THE CALIPH’S GATEKEEPER/THE CALIPH’S SECRETARY(?)): "‫ "الحاجب‬.4

Unlike its reference today, this is one of the highest and most sensitive posts in Traditional
Arabic political history. Al-Hajeb was an influential man who was supposed to enjoy the
Caliph’s utmost trust and power. His job was defined as follows:

‫ كانت‬:‫ ظيرت ىذه الكظيفة في الخال فة األمكية في عيد معاكية بف أبي سفياف كاستمرت في عيد العباسييف‬:‫الحاجب‬
.‫ ككاف لو أف ييدخؿ مف يشاء كيرد مف يشاء إال إذا أمره الخميفة خالؼ ذلؾ‬.‫ميمة الحاجب إدخاؿ الناس عمى الخميفة‬

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(Al-Hajeb is a high office introduces at the era of the Umayyad Caliphate at the reign of the
Caliph, Muaweiah Bin Abu Sufian, and continued to persist over the Abbasid era. His
function was to give people permission to meet the Caliph. He had the right to allow
anyone, and disallow anyone in, unless commanded by the Caliph to do otherwise).

This term is no longer in use these days, but the post is still holding, though with another
naming, i.e. ‘secretary’ )‫مدٌر مكتب‬/‫ (سكرتٌر‬as a current cultural equivalent in English,
adopted into Arabic.
(PREFECT/ MAYOR / GOVERNOR): "‫ "الوالي‬.5

The Islamic Caliphate was divided into Emirates (or States/Provinces ‫إمارات‬/‫)والٌات‬, headed
by Al-Wali, or Prefect, who was appointed solely by the Caliph and entertained the latter’s
authorities and powers in his State.

Now, almost everything has changed. The two terms, their different types, their
references and functions no longer exist in modern political and administrative culture.
Apart from one or two Maghreb countries and Turkey, Wali, and Willaiah have given way
to modern terms adopted from western culture, i.e., ‫( محافظة؛ محافظ‬mayor; mayorship /
governorate). However, ‘Emirate’ is still in use in Arab Gulf States only. Therefore, the two
cultures, English and Arabic, meet at the new terminology, and the problems of translation
are hopefully not insuperable here.

(DIVAN / OFFICE / BUREAU / DEPARTMENT): "‫ "الديوان‬.6

This is a politico-administrative term that was used in Arabic political culture a long time
ago and still holds firmly.

However, ‘Divan’ is used loosely nowadays to refer to any department in a civil

administration in some Arab States, especially as a reference to register, records, or
archives (sometimes called ‫( القلم‬Pen Department)). Yet, in the royal Court, it is used not too
differently from its traditional use to refer to ‘The Royal Divan”. The Royal Divan is
different from the former types of divans, as the following description of the functions of
the Saudi Royal Divan demonstrates (c.f. ‘The Emir’s Divan’ )‫ (الدٌوان األمٌري‬in some Arab
Gulf States, which has similar functions):

‫ كيتبع لمديكاف مكاتب مستشارم‬.‫ ىك المكتب التنفيذم الرئيسي لممؾ المممكة العربية السعكدية‬:‫الديوان الممكي السعودي‬
‫ بانضافة لممكتب الخاص‬،)‫ كالمراسـ الممكية (التشريفات‬،‫ كالعالقات الدكلية‬،‫ كالشؤكف الدينية‬،‫الممؾ لمسياسة الداخمية‬
... .‫بالممؾ‬

(“The Saudi Royal Divan: the main Executive Bureau of the King of the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia. Supplemented to it are the offices of the King’s advisers for political, internal,
religious and international affairs; the royal protocols Bureau and the Privy Royal Office. …)

Hence, the Arabic word – which is of Persian origin – is translated into the adopted English
term, ‘divan’, or a cultural equivalent like ‘department, bureau, office’, etc.

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 )The Arab/Muslim East ‫انسالمي‬/‫ (مقابؿ المشرؽ العربي‬The Middle East ‫ الشرق األوسط‬.7

This term is too established in the Arabic careless media to uproot. Yet, this does not
change it into a positive or neutral one. The fact about it is that it is too negative to allow
into Arabic political lexicon. First, it has been exported from the western and Jewish media
and political idiom to replace natural terms like the two suggested earlier, which disallow
‘Israel’ to be a part of it. The area referred to is Muslim, and Arab countries and peoples in
the most part of it. Consequently, by using the cover term, ‘Middle East’, the west and the
Jews imply that the area is no longer Arab or Muslim only for the Jews and ‘Israel’ have
become a part of it in modern reality and geography. In other words, the term confuses
things and geographical and historical facts about the area. One feels sorry for the
popularity of this seriously negative term in the Arabic media.

‫الييكدم‬/‫ الكيػاف الصػييكني‬:‫ (مقابػؿ‬The Hebrew State ‫الدكلػة العبريػة‬/ The State of Israel ‫ دولـة إسـرائيل‬.8
)The Zionist/Jewish Entity

The term is a full recognition of the ‘Jewish Entity’ as a ‘an Israeli State’ which is the reality
on earth, as some might react. Well, facts are facts and nobody can change them; nobody
can obliterate the fact that the State is Palestine, not ‘Israel’, geographically, historically,
religiously, culturally as well as politically. We remained in Spain around seven hundred
years in history and called it )‫( (األنػدلس‬Andalus / Andalusia). Is it Andalus or Spain now and
over history? No doubt, it has remained Spain. The same applies to Palestine which has
been occupied for just over sixty years now, but it can never change into ‘Israel’, the State
of the Occupiers. ‘Israel’ is no more than a Zionist/Jewish Entity that occupies Israel. Again,
the Arabic media is disgraceful to use the Jews’ favourite term that turns Palestine into an
Israeli State!
(The Palestinian ‫ القضػػية الفمسػػطينية‬:‫ (مقابػػؿ‬The Palestinian Problem ‫األزمة الفمســطينية‬/‫ المشــكمة‬.9
Cause
The West and the Jews aim at minimizing the greatest cause of colonization in modern
history down to a mere problem, or a crisis that demands little attention to. Their vicious
intentions should be clearcut to translators who have to translate it into the latter version
suggested above.

)the Jewish colonies ‫ المغتصبات الييكدية‬:‫ (مقابؿ‬The Israeli settlements ‫ المستوطنات اإلسرائيمية‬.11
‘settlements’ gives the impression that they are normal areas of land prepared for
housing. Yet, the fact is that these settlements are Arab lands occupied by the Jews, the
settlers. Consequently, they are colonies and Arab land taken by force by the Jews, as
translated above.

Relevant to this set of examples is another set of Americanized and Israelized terms
which replace older ones like 'activist' )‫( (ناشبط‬to replace 'freedom fighter / commando /
resistance / revolutionist / guerrilla )‫ ثبابر‬/ ‫مقباوم‬ِ / ً‫ فداب‬/ ‫' ;)(مناضل‬Israel, Israelis, The Hebrew
State, the State of Israel' )‫ الدولببة العبرٌببة‬،‫ اإلسببرابٌلٌون‬،‫(إسببرابٌل‬, replacing ' 'the Occupying
Zionists, The Zionist enemy, 'The Zionist Entity, the Zionists, the Jews) ،‫(الصبهاٌنة المحتلبون‬
)‫ الٌهبود‬،‫ الصبهاٌنة‬،ً‫ الكٌان الصبهٌون‬،ً‫' ;)العدو الصهٌون‬the United States (of America), the American

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Administration, The White House (Administration) ‫ اإلدارة‬،‫ أمرٌكبا‬/ )‫(الوالٌبات المتحبدة (األمرٌكٌبة‬
‫ (إدارة) البٌبت األببٌض‬،‫' ;)األمرٌكٌبة‬terrorist / terrorism )‫ إرهباب‬/ ً‫(إرهباب‬, substituting fighter for
God's Cause / fighting for God's Cause )‫ جهباد‬/ ‫' ;(مجاهبد‬fundamentalists' ‫ متشبددون‬/ ‫(أصبولٌون‬
)‫ سبلفٌون‬/ ‫ إسبالمٌون‬for 'true Muslims / the faithful )‫ أهبل اإلٌمبان‬/ ‫ ;(المسبلمون الصبادقون‬and so on.
The surprising thing is that many of the older, original terms have lately made a strong
come back to the media, especially 'revolutionists', resistance, Zionism, Zionists, Zionist
Entity and long live (cf. the Syrian, Tunisian/Egyptian / and Libyan Revolutions). Yet, the
dictators and anti-freedom tyrants try to put down these genuine revolutions against
them by hook or by crook, but in vain! (See ‘Political Institutional Terms’ earlier for
further examples and details of the different types of political terms).

2.8.4.4 Linguistic Culture (including mental, emotional and literary cultures)

Linguistic culture is a reference to the cultural way of expressing meaning. It is

represented by cross-cultural expressions, figurativeness, idiomaticity, connotations,
collocations, irony, proverbial expressions, native-way of expressing meanings / English-
English vs. Arabic English, or Arabic-Arabic vs. English Arabic, etc. Subsumed under
linguistic culture are representative expressions of mental, emotional and literary cultures:
features of language that imply cultural indications like deterministic mentality, open-
mindedness, narrow-mindedness, freedom, passion, emotions of different types, courage,
cowardice, pride and so on and so forth. The translation problems of these lingua-cultural
features of language will be discussed through a good number of examples, followed by
potential solutions and translation procedures that may sort them out:

Group (A): Arabic Calques:

(1) Alcohol )‫(الكحول‬: a unique naturalization of the original classical Arabic )‫ (الؽ ْول‬then
exported back from English as )‫(الكحول‬, a transliteration of the naturalized English
term (see further similar examples in the next point).
(2) Hajj ) ‫)ح‬: used as a reference to Islamic pilgrimage in particular.
(3) Khamsin wind )‫)رٌ الخماسٌن‬: a transliteration and a naturalization
(4) Minaret)‫مبذنة‬/‫)منارة‬: a naturalization
(5) Monsoon )‫)رٌا موسمٌة‬: a naturalization
(6) Saffron)‫)عصفر‬: a naturalization
(7) Arsenal )‫)ترسانة‬: a naturalization
(8) Camphor )‫)كافور‬: a transliteration & naturalization
(9) Gazelle )‫)ؼرال‬: a transliteration
(10) Magazine )‫)مجلة‬
(11) Orange ) ‫)نارن‬: a naturalization taken in assimilation to ‘orange’ )‫(برتقال‬
(12) Safari )‫)سفر‬: a transliteration-naturalization with a slight change of meaning
(13) Fellah) ّ ‫)فال‬: a transliteration that is rare now, and is replaced by the English word
‘peasant’.
(14) Almanac )‫)المناخ‬: a transliteration
(15) Caliphate )‫)خالفة‬: a naturalization
(16) Amber)‫)عنبر‬: a transliteration
(17) Emir )‫)أمٌر‬: a transliteration
(18) Hijra/Hejrah )‫هجرة‬/‫(هجرٌة‬: a transliteration

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This first group of linguistic cultural terms is a collection of Arabic words and terms that
had originally been adopted into English Language to become a part of English Lexicon a
long time ago. Each of them is followed by the translation strategy used to Anglicize them.
They stress the possibility and usefulness of this strategy of adoption of cultural features
and aspects which is natural among languages.

Group (B) Miscellaneous Expressions of One-to-one Equivalent

as dirty as a hog (one –to-one equivalent) ‫أقذر من خنرٌر‬ )1

as fast as an arrow (one –to-one equivalent) ‫أسرع من السهم‬ )2
as vain as a peacock (one –to-one equivalent) ‫أرهى من طاووس‬ )3
as pretty as a picture (one –to-one equivalent) ‫أحلى من الصورة‬ )4
A lion’s share (one –to-one equivalent) ‫نصٌب األسد‬/‫حصة‬ )5
Put somebody in the picture (one –to-one equivalent) ‫ٌضع أحدهم فً الصورة‬ )6
You are killing yourself(one –to-one equivalent) ‫تمكت نفسؾ‬/ ِّ ‫أنت تقتؿ‬ )7
(one –to-one equivalent)Wash one’s hand from something ‫ٌؽسل ٌدٌه من كذا‬ )8
Some surgeons are butchers (one –to-one equivalent) ‫بعض الجراحٌن جرارون‬ )9
The world is a small village now (one –to-one equivalent) ‫العالم قرٌة صؽٌرة اآلن‬ )10
A Daylight robbery (one –to-one equivalent) ‫سرقة فً وض النهار‬ )11
The law of the jungle (one –to-one equivalent) ‫شرٌعة الؽاب‬/‫قانون‬ )12
Honeymoon(one –to-one equivalent) ‫شهر عسل‬ )13
Birds of a feather flock together (one –to-one equivalent) ‫الطٌور على أشكالها تقع‬ )14
All that glitters isn’t gold (one –to-one equivalent) ‫ما كؿ ما يممع ذىبان‬ )15
A wolf in sheep’s clothing(one –to-one equivalent) ‫) ذئب في ثكب حمؿ‬16

Group (C): Miscellaneous Expressions: Cultural Equivalent

Nice to meet you again (cultural equivalent) ‫) الحمد هلل على السالمة‬1(
Get well soon(cultural equivalent) ‫) عافا هللا وشافا‬2(
Look me in the eye (cultural equivalent) ً‫) ضع عٌن فً عٌن‬3(
The shorter the better (cultural equivalent) ‫) خير الكالـ ما قؿ كدؿ‬4(
He has a black eye (cultural equivalent) ‫) تلقى لكمة على عٌنه‬5(
Meet/break one’s promises (cultural equivalent) ‫ٌُخلؾ وعده‬/‫) ٌفً بوعده‬6(
Address a problem (cultural equivalent) ‫مسألة‬/‫) ٌعال مشكلة‬7(
White/black tea (cultural equivalent) ‫شاي‬/‫) شاي بحلٌب‬8(
Can’t help laughing (cultural equivalent) ‫) ال ٌتمال نفسه من الضح‬9(
As different as chalk from cheese ‫) شتان ما بٌن الثرى والثرٌا؛ كالفر بٌن السماء واألرض‬10(
(cultural equivalent)
As fit as a fiddle (cultural equivalent) ‫) أص من الحصان؛ أقوى من الحدٌد‬11(
As suspicious as a cat(cultural equivalent) ‫) أشد رٌبة من ثعلب‬12(
In a month of Sundays (cultural equivalent) ‫) وال فً األحالم‬13(
Lose one’s shirt (cultural equivalent) ‫) ٌخسر ما فوقه وما تحته‬14(
Money doesn’t grow on trees (cultural equivalent) ‫) إن السماء ال تمطر ذهبا وال فضة‬15(
From pillar to post (cultural equivalent) ‫) كثٌر الحركة قلٌل البركة‬16(
Make hay while the sun shines (cultural equivalent) ‫) إذا هبت رٌاح فاؼتنمها‬17(
In the making (cultural equivalent) ‫) فً المخاض‬18(

284
 Face the music (cultural equivalent) ‫) على نفسها جنت براقش‬19(
Fingers crossed/break a leg (cultural equivalent) ‫) وفق هللا‬20(
If you were in Rome, do what the Romans do ‫) إذا كنت فً قوم فاحلب فً إنابهم‬21(
(cultural equivalent)
Dash the cup from someone’s lips (cultural equivalent) ‫) ٌقطع رر أحدهم‬22(
An ill life, an ill end (cultural equivalent) ‫) بشر القاتل بالقتل والرانً بالفقر؛ ٌمهل وال ٌهمل‬23(
No summer, but has its winter (cultural ‫) دوام الحال من المحال؛ ما بعد الضٌ إال الفرج‬24(
equivalent)
Group (D): Conclusive Expressions

I think so (over-emphasis → normalization) ‫أنا متأكد ملٌون بالمبة‬ )1

That is a good solution (conclusive mentality → ‫ذا هو أفضل حل على اإلطال‬ )2
normalization)
Perhaps one of the best men (over-exaggeration → ‫إنه أفضل إنسان على وجه األرض‬ )3
normalization)
Most of us hate politics (overgeneralization → normalization) ‫كلنا ٌكره السٌاسة‬ )4
I accept any further argument about the )‫أرفض االستماع إلى أي نقاش بشأن الموضوع‬ )5
subject (sheer conclusiveness → tolerance/openness)
He is a very bad person (over-emphatic ً‫هو أسوأ شخا مر علً فً حٌات‬ )6
conclusiveness → reality)
This view can be held by some people ‫هذا هو الرأي الذي ٌجب أن ٌحمله الجمٌع‬ )7
(overgeneralization → undertoning)
Many can speak like that (overstatement → ‫ٌمكن ألي شخا فً العالم أن ٌتحدث هكذا‬ )8
logical statement)
Many people do not say the truth (pessimistic ‫كل الناس وكل شًء فساد بفساد هذه األٌام‬ )9
overgeneralization→ optimistic attitude)
Many people in the world do not say the truth (negative ‫ال أحد فً العالم ٌقول الح اآلن‬ )10
conclusiveness → positive openness)

Group (E): Emotional Exaggerative Expressions

He is a good student (exaggeration → normalization) ‫رابع‬/‫إنه طالب ممتار‬ (1)

we drink tea several times a day (over-exaggeration → ‫نشرب الشاي ألؾ مرة فً الٌوم‬ (2)
normalization)
It is a bit cold, isn’t it? (exaggeration → understatement) ‫ رمهرٌر‬/ ‫الجو صقٌع‬ (3)
‫ ٌا إلهً ال أصد‬،‫ تفضلوا تفضلوا! تشرفنا برؤٌة سٌادتكم‬،‫ أهال سٌادة الربٌس‬،‫أهال أهال أهال وسهال‬ (4)
Hello, yes? (overstatement → understatement) !ً‫نفس‬
the match was very good (over- ً‫كانت تل المباراة أفضل مباراة شاهدتها فً حٌات‬ (5)
exaggeration → normal exaggeration)
I told you several times… (over- ‫قلت ل للمرة األلؾ أن تقلع عن هذه العادة السٌبة‬ (6)
exaggeration → normalization)
she is eager to see… (over-exaggerated ‫إنها تموت لترى والدٌها فً اإلجارة الصٌفٌة‬ (7)
emotion → truthful emotion)
I am VERY sad for my dead mother (hyperbole → ‫سأبكً أمً المٌتة أبد الدهر‬ (8)
undertoned emotion)

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many people in the country rallied for… ‫( خرجت البالد عن بكرة أبٌها للقاء الرعٌم الجدٌد‬9)
(hypocritical overstatement → reality)
I love her very much (excessive emotion → normalized !‫( إنيا حبي األكؿ كاألخير‬10)
emotion)
‫الجيَّؿ‬
‫كيفكؽ جاىمنا فعاؿ ي‬ ‫( أحالمنا تزف الجباؿ رزانة‬11)
Our minds are solemn, and our uneducated people are ignorant (vanity → reality)
‫أسمعت كمماتي مف بو صمـ‬
ٍ ‫ك‬ ‫( أنا الذم نظر األعمى إلى أدبي‬12)
My literary works are famous, and my words are well-known (impossible
capabilities → possible reality)
Once upon a time (over-exaggeration ‫( "كاف يا ما كاف في قديـ الزماف في سالؼ العصر كاألكاف‬13)
→ normalization)
ً‫( (اللاير اإلرهابً المجرم السفا الفٌروس الذي ٌقضً على كل شًء بعد تدمٌر اللاير لكل فرٌ ف‬14)
(Real Madrid, the )...‫الكورونا واإلٌبوال‬...2014 ً‫الكورونا واإلٌبوال اللاير لكل فرٌ ف‬...2014
terrorist, the criminal, the mass killer, the Ebola, the Corona Club and the virus
that destroyed the other clubs in 2014). (No comment! We are not amused
anyway!) (abusing overstatement → demeaning understatement)
‫ يا سالـ! كعميؾ قطع تذكرة لمكمب الصغير سكاء‬،‫ فالقانكف ىك القانكف‬،‫ "عذ انر منؾ يا مداـ‬:‫ قاؿ المكظؼ‬... (15)
“I'm sorry, madam” said the conductor, “but rules are rules, and !‫أكاف يسير أـ يطير‬
you'll have to buy a ticket for the dog” (literary style → unmarked style)
‫ كخرج مف سماجة‬،‫ كلذلؾ القدر لىفىقان‬،‫ ككاف لذلؾ الحاؿ ىكفىقان‬،‫ المفظ معناه‬- ‫( "متى شاكؿ – أبقاؾ اهلل‬16)
‫ كجدي نار أف يمنع جانبو‬،‫ كحقيق نا بانتفاع المستمع‬،‫ كاف قمين نا بحسف المكقع‬،‫ كسمـ مف فساد التكمؼ‬،‫االستكراه‬
‫ كالصدكر بو‬،‫ كال تزاؿ القمكب بو معمكرة‬،‫ كيحمي عرضو مف مف اعتراض العائبيف‬،‫مف تأ ٌىكؿ الطامعيف‬
(136 :2009-1973 ،‫ الشكعة‬- ‫(الجاحظ‬ "... .‫مأىكلة‬

"When form reflects meaning in conformity and unity, with no hideousness, repulsiveness
or corruptive artificiality, it is then worthy of being impressive and useful to the listener,
dismissing any misinterpretation by fraudulent, fault finding interpreters, making hearts
confidently overwhelmed by it …”
(literary style → non-literary style) (From Ghazala, 2010: 75)

Commenting on the translation of these groups, the first three (A, B, C) are translatable
directly in some way: the first is originally Arabic adopted into English, and are a part of
English Lexicon now. The second can be translatable directly into one-to-one equivalents
which are available in English. The third is translated into the English cultural equivalent,
which is more difficult to attain, but, perhaps, the most effective and impressive to
readers. It could be the best version of translation if and when available in English
Language.

Regarding the remaining two groups (D & E), although translators are not going to change
the source text from conclusive, emphatic and exaggerative into open-minded, normalized
TL text, they may need to undertone many of these statements into normal state unless
they are meant to be taken literally. They do that to match the most appropriate English
style of saying the same Arabic statements in English linguistic culture. In any case,
extremist conclusive words like ‘impossible, definitely, absolutely, no way, never ever,
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whole, entire, all, everybody, always, ever, never’, etc. are, generally, avoided. By the
same token, they are advised to attend to small words of probability, modesty and open-
mindedness toward others (e.g. ‘may, perhaps, might, could, would, probably, many,
some, a number of, depersonalized and passive expressions like ‘the view can be held by
some people’, etc.).

The last two examples of the last group (15-16) represent remarkable features of stylistic /
linguistic differences between the two languages’ cultures. Example (15) is taken from a
back translation of an anecdote which is originally English humorous, non-literary culture,
but has gathered literary momentum in Arabic due to the overwhelming change of style
into prose-rhyme style (which is classical in Arabic Language, revived here to give the
sense of humour that is overwhelming in it). Expressive language is used to imply
emotiveness, effectiveness, rhetoric, prosody, figurativeness and, above all, overall ironic
tone of literary style, which is a linguistic cultural feature of Arabic Language.

The last example in the list (i.e. 16) is a culture-specific feature of Arabic classical literary
style of writing of ‘prose rhyme’ )‫)النثر المقفى‬. Typically, rhyme has always been a
distinguished feature of poetry of all types. However, in classical style of writing, it is a
feature which used to distinguish all types of writing, literary and non-literary alike. In
effect, this style is a part of Arabic culture of writing that has no equivalent in English
writing, especially of today. Hence, at translating a piece of prose-rhymed classical writing
like this into English, it is not recommended to produce a similar style in the latter for it is
outdated and might seem sarcastic. That is why the translation suggested above has not
been concerned with reproducing style of rhyme and rhythm as in the Arabic original.

2.8.5 Conclusions: Negotiating Cultural Differences in Translation: Culturalization,

Foreignization or Acculturation?

In conclusion to this section, many translation theorists and professional translators give
the impression that the problem of translating culture is formidable, the most difficult and
sometimes insuperable in the practice of translation. Well, first of all, nothing in
translation problems can be described as insuperable to sort out. Second, the cultural
differences between Arabic and English are overstated as hosts of examples of identical
culture exist in them. Third, cultural differences that are specific to each language and
have no one-to-one equivalent are approached differently and flexibly in translation.
Fourth, the biggest problems of translating culture lie especially in one group of cultural
terms and expressions, that is, the clashing sensitive ones that may be insulting,
aggressive, conflicting and repulsive and might result in a serious clash between the two
cultures and the SL and TL readerships concerned. The translator’s dilemma is how to
approach these clashing cultural expressions in translation.

As to the first, it is an ipso facto now that nothing in language is untranslatable, and that
“everything without exception is translatable”, as Newmark says (1988: 6). This basic
principle in translation draws heavily on the understanding of translation as not merely a
one-to-one equivalent practice, but as a translation of the SL meaning into the TL either
identically, closely, approximately or by transference whichever is applicable. That is,
‘Hand of God’ has an identical Arabic expression as ‫‘ ;يد اهلل‬God forbid’ has the close Arabic

287
equivalent ‫ال قدر اهلل‬/‫ال سمح اهلل‬, whereas ‫ الحرماف الشريفاف‬is translated approximately into the
‘Two Holy Mosques’, but ‫ القرآف‬is transferred into English as ‘Koran’, without changing the
Arabic pronunciation, and without giving its meaning. All these and other types of
rendering cultural meanings into another language disregard the number of words of the
SLT, which are as few as possible and as many as required.

The second issue about overstating the cross-cultural differences is best confirmed by the
huge number of similar cultural expressions of different types between Arabic and English
Languages, as illustrated by the examples provided as evidence of linguistic culture above.

The third point related to the specific cultural differences that have no one-to-one
equivalent is approached differently and flexibly in translation. A great number of
translation procedures and strategies are employed to solve the problems of translating
culturally different terms, as pointed out earlier.

The Fourth point regarding the tricky problems of translating sensitive cultural terms
would result in a serious clash between the two cultures and the SL and TL readerships
concerned. The translator’s dilemma is how to approach these clashing cultural
expressions in translation, especially from English into Arabic. For the time being, the
procedure of responding by a counter comment can be suggested here, to be followed up
by other strategies below.

- The Koran is Mohammad’s Book )‫(القرآف كتاب محمد) (بؿ ىك كتاب اهلل‬
- Assad of Syria fights terrorism )‫(يقاتؿ األسد في سكريا انرىاب) ( بؿ ىك انرىاب نفسو‬
- Palestine is the Promised Land for the Jews ‫(فمسطيف ىي أرض الميعاد لمييكد) (بؿ ىي كطف‬
)‫الفمسطينييف‬
- Islam is the religion of the Arabs of the Peninsula only. ‫(انسالـ ديف عرب شبو الجزيرة‬
- )‫العربية فقط) (بؿ ىك ديف العالميف‬
- The Persian Gulf can never be Arabian. ‫(لف يككف الخميج الفارسي عربيان) (بؿ ىك عربي كلف‬
)‫يككف فارسيان أبدان‬
etc.

For more options, and to put forward an inclusive, simplified approach to the translation
of the cultural terms of all types, four major encapsulating strategies are proposed to
envelope all types of approaches to the translation of culture: (1) acculturation /
foreignization (i.e. ADOPTION of SL culture); (2) cross-culturalization (e.g. RECONCILIATION
between the SL and the TL cultures); (3) CLASHING culture (different and sometimes
conflicting SL and TL cultures) and (4) non-culturalization (i.e. NEUTRALIZATION:
translating cultural terms into non-cultural sense, or, stripping the cultural word off its
cultural element). It is hoped that this section may contribute to easing the burden of
translating the two cultures, English and Arabic, both directions. These four strategies
subsume many translation procedures to realize them in practice. Here they are in brief to
round up this section:

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2.8.5.1 Cultural Adoption: Acculturation / Foreignization

Some time ago, Pannwitz has voiced an appeal for welcoming the foreign culture by
means of language to expose the TL readership to some kind of shock of the foreign (in
Schulte et al, 1992: 81). Indeed, this is an invitation to make use of the foreign culture with
the aim to enrich and contribute to the TL culture. This protects it against backwardness
and lagging behind other nations and civilizations. Although this invitation is open, it can
be useful, especially in relation to the translation of many cultural terms. More
significantly, it eases down the negative attitude held by some TL readers toward the
foreign (hence, the pejorative Arabic term )‫ (الترجمة الدخيمة‬for loan translation, or calque)
however on the condition that it does not exceed the normal limits of borrowing into the
TL.

That said, there are conflicting interpretations of this adoptive approach to the translation
of culture. Some are agreeable, some are not. They include the following:

(1) Adopting the foreign culture in translation with the aim to enrich, refresh,
develop and modernize the Target Language and the Target Culture, with a view
to establish strong links between it and other languages, cultures and
civilizations. Calques cited above are good examples that may illustrate how this
is done in Arabic. I re-stress my objection to the Arabic term for calque,
suggested above. However I single out the proverbs and proverbial expressions of
“d, i, j, k” that may add something new and useful to the Arabic Language and
culture. This kind of borrowing can be described as harmless and positive as a
good sign of reciprocal influence and exchange of culture-specific ideas and
information between English and Arabic cultures. This also applies to food and
drink terms including borrowings like ‫ دجاج‬،‫ ىامبكرجر‬،‫ صندكيش‬،‫بطاطس‬/‫سمؾ كبطاطا‬
‫ كغيرىا‬،‫ كالدكنات‬،)‫ ماكدكنالدز (ىامبكرجر كبيج ماؾ‬،‫( كينتاكي‬fish & chips, sandwich,
hamburger, Kentucky Chicken, McDonalds (hamburger, big Mac, etc.), dough
nuts, etc.) from English into Arabic, and “kebab, kuftah, homos, falafel, fatoosh,
tabbuleh, kabsa, couscous, Arabian coffee, etc. ،‫ فتكش‬،‫ فالفؿ‬،‫ الحمص‬،‫ الكفتة‬،‫(الكباب‬
)‫ كغيرىا‬،‫ القيكة العربية‬،‫ كسكس‬،‫ كبسة‬،‫ تبكلة‬from Arabic into English. Such adoptions have
really added to the other culture in an interesting way.
(2) Opening the door for culture-specific terms that do not exist in the other
language. Hence, ‫ الكعبة‬has been taken into English as such, “Ka’ba”, through
transference, with the possibility of following it with short paraphrase in brackets
like (The Holy House of God), or longer paraphrase, if necessary, adding (at
Makkah, for Muslims). By analogy, “ Disneyland”‫ديزني الند‬, followed by short
paraphrase like ‫مدينة األلعاب المشيكرة‬, or, only when urgent, longer paraphrase
adding 1955 ‫ مؤسسيا ككلت ديزني في عاـ‬،‫في كاليفكرنيا‬. Further, some terms can be
transferred and explained very shortly by applying the procedure of translation,
Classifier” as follows: Disneyland )‫(مدينة ديزني الند‬, The Alps )‫(جباؿ األلب‬, cricket / ‫(لعبة‬
)‫رياضة الكريكت‬, etc. A third way of rendering cultural terms into the other
language is by means of transferring and / or translating it as follows: “The
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 Westminster” can be either transliterated into )‫(الكيست مينيستر‬, transliterated with
a classifier as )‫ (مبنى الكيست مينستر‬, or deculuralized and translated into sense as
)‫(مبنى البرلماف البريطاني‬. We may also include those borrowed terms that are adopted
in the other language despite the fact that a native term is available. A unique
case in point is the adoption of the term )‫ (حج‬into English as “Hajj”, although
“pilgrimage” already exists in it. However, while the latter is a general reference
to this worship in all religions, the former is a specific reference to the Muslim
Hajj to Makkah Al-Mukarramah.
(3) Transliterating/naturalizing the International terms (i.e. internationalisms) as a
valid translation strategy for their currency all over the world, especially in our
age of globalization. Examples include: OK, hamburger, FIFA, Mafia, Masonry,
Hitlerism, Marxism, dictator, romanticism, ideology, surrealism, Hippis, e-mail,
OPEC, UNESCO, UNICEF, FAO, IMF (and all other famous UN and international
acronyms), etc. They are taken into Arabic unashamedly as ،‫ الفيفا‬،‫ ىامبكرجر‬،‫(أككي‬
،‫ انيميؿ‬،‫ اليبيكف‬،‫ السريالية‬،‫ إيديكلكجية‬،‫ الركمانسية‬،‫ دكتاتكر‬،‫ الماركسية‬،‫ اليتمرية‬،‫ الماسكنية‬،‫مافيا‬
.‫ كغيرىا‬،)‫إؼ (ككؿ المختصرات الدكلية الشييرة‬-‫إـ‬-‫ آم‬-‫ الػ‬،‫ الفاك‬،‫ اليكنيسيؼ‬،‫ اليكنيسكك‬،‫األكبيؾ‬.
Usually, there is no harm adopting such terms, thus, indicating their foreign origin
and nature in Arabic, and, at the same time, in one or two case, hiding the other
meaning implied in some terms (e.g. Romanticism implies in addition other
undesired meanings like sexuality and atheism).
(4) Transliterating the other culture despite its existence in the TL with a false claim
to retain its foreign origin and flavor. This might result in quite awkward Arabic
terms regarding pronunciation spelling and meaning. Example include the
transference of hermeneutics )‫ (عمـ التأكيؿ‬into ‫ىيرمينيكطيقيا‬, semantics )‫(عمـ المعاني‬
into )‫(سيمانطيقيا‬, semiotics )‫ عمـ انشارة‬/ ‫ (السيميائية‬into )‫(سيميكطيقيا‬, psychology )‫(عمـ النفس‬
into )‫ بسيككلكجيا‬/‫(سيككلكجيا‬, etc. Lately, many repulsive jargon terms like these have
been transferred unjustly into Arabic, unfortunately by specialists in the field,
although their Arabic versions (in brackets above) are as old as the hills, as it
were! This is unfair as they may give the impression that Arabic is unable to have
pure Arabic terms for them, and that they are preferred to the original Arabic
terms. This is not acceptable even though the foreign terms might be for some
more common in use than their Arabic translations. Yet, the fact of the matter is
that these are vague and awkward terms that should not replace original Arabic
ones which are easy to understand, read and spell. Still worse is the co-existence
of duality of terms, which creates unnecessarily new problems of translation for
the translator as which to go for. It should be pointed out that such negative
dualism is different from a positive dualism of some calques (see above) that are
originally foreign culture, whether transferred, naturalized or translated, whereas
the former are already a part of the Arabic Lexicon and are, therefore,
unnecessary to suggest in the first place.
(5) Deculturalization: negative adoption of the culture of the other for false reasons
like prestige, social hypocrisy and inferiority complex toward the superiority of
English, the International Language of communication, science, technology and
all fields of knowledge. By contrast, Arabic is described harshly and pejoratively

290
 as the Language of backwardness, deterioration and of the Arabs who have
contributed nothing to the modern civilization. This is tommyrot! It is true that
the Arabs have not contributed much to the world today, but Arabic has never
been a backward, or underdeveloped language. In fact we have mentally ill
translators, specialists and theoreticians only. Among the examples for negative
adoption are: )‫السيستر‬/‫ سيستر‬،‫ الباركينج‬،‫ البريمير ليج‬،‫ ىافباؾ‬،‫ المكندياؿ‬،‫( (شيزكفرينيا‬for
“schizophrenia, the Mondial, halfback, the Premier League, parking, sister/nurse,
boss, prince"), used as examples of deculturalization of the simple, clear and well-
known Arabic terms ‫ الدكرم‬،)‫ الظيير (في كرة القدـ‬،)‫ كأس العالـ (لكرة القدـ‬،‫( انفصاـ الشخصية‬
)‫ أمير‬،‫ رئيس‬/ ‫ رٌيس‬،‫ممرضة‬/‫ أخت‬،‫ مكقؼ سيارات‬،‫ اننجميزم الممتاز‬. This is a defamed,
harmful type of adoption that has bad consequences on the useful types of
adoption.

2.8.5.2 Cultural Reconciliation: Cross-culturalization

Some specialists in the field have assumed a reconciliatory approach that may bring the
different cultures closer to one another in translation. In other words, they look at the
points at which differing cultures can meet to achieve some kind of balance,
rapprochement, acceptability, mutual understanding and amicable communication on
equal footing. This approach is reflected in several ways, especially with reference to
collocations, similes, metaphors and proverbial expressions. These ways are:

(1) The use of cultural identical equivalence, when available (see above for
examples).
(2) The use of partial/close cultural equivalence, when (1) is not available (see also
1.5 earlier for illustrative examples).
(3) The frequent use of the translation couplet procedure when necessary which
combines both cultures, the SL and the TL, together as a sign of middle ground
between them. Examples include the translation of: ‘AIDS’ into :‫(نقص المناعة امكتسبة‬
)‫انيدز‬, using the two procedures of literal translation, and transliteration;
‘Trafalgar Square’ into )‫افالج ٍر‬
‫(ساحة تر ى‬, employing translation and transliteration;
‘Internet’ into )‫ اننترنتت‬:‫(شبكة المعمكمات‬, applying the two procedures of translation
and transliteration (it should be noted that the term ‫ شبكة اننترنت‬is inaccurate for
it repeats itself, i.e., ‫ شبكة‬is included in ‫( (اننترنت‬see ‘calques’ above for more
examples).
(4) The use of the TL cultural term that is favored for the other when available in the
TL provided it does not insult its culture or readership. The first and best example
is the Word ‘God’ which translates the Arabic word )‫ اهلل (جؿ جاللو‬normally and
perfectly for English readership and, hence, there is no need to transfer it into
English as “Allah” (unless the target readers are Arabs, or Muslims); “Christians”
is better translated into ‫ مسيحيكف‬if preferred to ‫ نصارل‬or ‫ أىؿ كتاب‬if preferred by
the Arab Christian readership; The preferred transference of the Arabic version of
‘Makkah Al-Mukarramah’ replaced the well-known English transferred term
‘Mecca’ some time ago and, therefore, has to be used by the translator; etc.
291
 (5) The use of any new term suggested by a recognized body, or the country
concerned to replace old one in its culture. Hence, ‘Mecca’ is replaced with the
new version, ‘Makkah Al-Mukarramah; The Ivory Coast’ has turned to become
the French version, ‘Côte d’Ivoire’ )‫(ككت ديفكار‬, ‘Ceylon’ has been changed into
‘Srilanka’; the Sudan has become two Republics: ‘The Republic of Sudan’, and
‘The Republic of South Sudan’, and so on. By so doing, the translator shows a sign
of respect to the national choices for it is the right of any nation to change
anything related to it.
(6) The use of “familiar alternatives” (i.e. favorable, popular terms) when they are
approved in the other culture. For example, There is no harm using ‘The Boot’
)‫ (الجزمة‬for ‘Italy’; the humorous ‘Uncle Sam’ )‫ (العـ ساـ‬for ,The United Sates’; the
humorous, ‘The Bastard’)‫ابف الحراـ‬/‫ (المعيف‬for ‘Napoleon Bonaparte’ as an abnormal
way of praising somebody!, etc. (See Newmark, 1988: 59, and its Translation by
Ghazala, 2004); )‫( (الفاركؽ‬the distinguisher between right and wrong) for ‫عمر بف‬
‫( الخطاب‬Omar Bin Al-Khattab), ‘The Imam’ )‫ (انماـ‬for ‫( (الرئيس) ;عمي بف أبي طالب‬The
President) for )‫( (ابف سينا‬Avicenna), etc.
(7) The use of titles and attributes to show respect or awe in relation to certain
terms. The first is the use of the glorifying ‘The Almighty’ before or after ‘God’;
the use of ‘peace be to him’/'peace and blessings be to him'/ peace be upon him
after every mention of the name of Mohammad, the Prophet and the Messenger
of God. The same phrase is usually stated when other Prophets of God are
mentioned; and the addition of the expression 'May God be pleased with him' is
expected to follow any mention of the Companions of the Prophet, peace be to
him. It is commendable in English as well (see also Ghazala, 2014).

2.8.5.3 Cultural Clash: Anti-acculturation

The Twenty First Century is the century of globalization, stunning electronics, technology
of communications, media and open-mindedness with the other. It is the age of bringing
the world closer and making it smaller. At the same time, it is the age of individualism,
localism, nationalism, national pride, global anti-culture, and adherence to one’s own
culture, character, tradition, conventions, customs, beliefs and values of all types. Here we
have an ambivalent situation. It is true that the people everywhere are open to one
another which in turn may create great opportunities for them to co-exist and have better
mutual understanding, but, their fanatic devotedness to their own culture, homeland,
traditions and values have become essential in dealing with the other. This in turn has
brought to the forefront the issue of sensitivity in some of these conflicting cultural
aspects among them, that is, the clash of cultures in translation. This clash has
overburdened the translator with serious responsibilities as how to deal with conflicting
cultural terms of the SL and the TL (be religious, social, sexual, political, moral or
personal), especially when his/her own culture is involved. As such, he/she cannot assume
a neutral attitude and keep at a distance from the text for he/she is meant in person.
Hence, he/she should do something about it. The pretext that the text says that is no
longer acceptable because the translator is not at the disposal of the SL text, especially
when the SL author insults, attacks or despises his/her own people, culture, religion or
social values. The justification that “it is the SL author’s fault not mine” no longer holds;
292
the translator is also held responsible for what he/she translates. Confirmed evidence is
the several translators who paid their life for their profession (e.g. in Iraq), and those
translators who jeopardized their career for not responding appropriately to cultural
insults or blasphemies hurled by some insolent SLT authors. Are you personally going to
hurl the same terrible things at your TL readership? I guess not. At least you slot a short
comment of some kind (e.g. ‘sic’ ‫كما كرد‬, ‘not true’ ‫كىذا غير صحيح‬, minimum) after
translating the repugnant SLT term.

This approach to translating conflicting cultural expressions should not be taken as an

appeal for the translator to change the insults of the SLT author into words of praise and
turn a bad author into a good one. Rather, it urges him/her to be on the alert and act and
react to such sensitive expressions and interfere semantically, ideologically, stylistically or
pragmatically in a proper way, and on every occasion in his/her translation. The translator
is NOT a BYSTANDER; he/she is supposed to be involved in the translation as an essential
part of what he/she translates. An Arab translator should not turn deaf ears to “The
Persian Gulf’ and translates it into ‫ الخميج الفارسي‬for to him/her, it is definitely Arabian )‫(عربي‬.
Aren’t most of the Countries that overlook it Arab States? Isn’t that an integral part of our
geographical, historical and political culture? Shouldn’t we feel jealous toward it when the
Persians call it ‘Persian’? The least a translator could do is to translate it literally, and
refute right after it in square brackets (e.g. ‫– (بؿ ىك عربي‬which I did in my translation of the
term used by Newmark (1988) (see Ghazala, 2004 and 2015). I was once bewildered at the
translation of an Arab Ph.D. Candidate (University of Sydney, Australia, 2012, who I
refereed his Thesis) of: “Sharon came back home from the States” into ‫(عاد شاركف إلى أرض‬
)‫الكطف‬. Which Homeland? Isn’t it Palestine? Or it is Israel? The SL Text said that and he was
faithful to it. Well, how about faithfulness to himself to the truth and as an Arab
translator? How about faithfulness to his Arab readership who is insulted by his
translation? He could have commented on this translation in some way to plead himself
innocent of this preposterous allegation of the SLT. Has it become a reality that after 60
years or so of Jewish occupation, Palestine became Israel? Well, we, the Muslims and
Arabs, remained 791 years in Spain, but it remained Spain, and stopped to be Andalusia,
didn’t it?

Hence, the clashing cultural terms require from the translator to be extra cautious at
translating them. For the time being, a group of the most frequently used strategies (or
translation procedures) for translating these terms can be introduced here:

1. Non-culturalization/Neutralization of the cultural term, i.e., translating the

cultural term into its sense )‫( (معناىا المقصكد‬e.g. ‘a dog’s chance’ )‫((فرصة شبو معدكمة‬.
2. An approved cultural equivalent that renders the same meaning in a different
image, or context (e.g. ‘a dog’s chance’ )‫((أمؿ إبميس بالجنة‬.
3. Euphemization: Euphemisms are less harsh terms than the original (e.g.
‘boyfriend/girlfriend’ )‫ خطيبة‬/‫ خطيب‬instead of ‫ عشيقة‬/ ‫((عشيؽ‬.
4. Deletion if unimportant (e.g. swear words like ‘son of a pitch’ etc. can be dropped
most of the time).
5. Paraphrase (e.g. ‘polygamy’ ‫(تعدد زكاجات شرعي في انسالـ‬.
293
 6. Translating a cultural fallacy into its original truthful term (e.g. “The Persian Gulf”
(‫)(الخميج العربي‬
7. Commenting lightly and shortly on the SL sensitive cultural term (e.g. ‘Jesus is
Lord’ )‫((عيسى رب (بؿ ىك بشر‬.
8. Modulation + alleviation (e.g. positive into negative: ‘He is a dirty rat’ ‫((إنو غير‬
)‫محترـ‬.
9. Overtranslation (e.g. ‘he has ants in his pants’ ‫((ال يعرؼ ليمو مف نياره مف القمؽ؛ ال ييدأ لو‬
)‫باؿ مف شدة القمؽ‬
etc.

2.8.5.4. Cultural Neutralization: De-fusing the Cultural Element

This can be the last resort for the translator, when the previous three strategies are found
not comprehensible to TL readers, vague or unconvincing to the translator. It could be also
used as an alternative strategy that goes side by side with another one: e.g.

to make things worse ‫) كزاد في الطنبكر نغمان‬1

ً ‫) شر البمية ما ي‬2
the most serious calamity is that which invites a big laugh ‫ضحؾ‬ ‫ي‬
The Holy Sites for Muslim Hajj in Makkah City ‫) المشاعر‬3
The Holy House of God for Muslims at Makkah/the Prayer Direction for ‫) البيت الحراـ‬4
Muslims at Makkah
Prophet Mohammad’s close Companion, Omar Bin Al-Khattab ‫) الفاركؽ‬5
The first Battle won by the Arabs in history ‫) ذم قار‬6
The first Abbasid Caliph in Islamic history ‫) السفاح‬7
Egypt ‫) أرض الكنانة‬8
Prophet Mohammad (peace be to him) ‫) خاتـ النبييف‬9
Islamic dress ‫) الحجاب‬10

This strategy is based mainly on the translation procedure of PARAPHRASE (i.e. short
explanation), and literal translation of sense.

In sum, at translating culture, we, sometimes, adopt the culture of the other; sometimes
we reconcile it with the SL culture, yet other times, and when the two cultures clash, we
are in a dilemma. But we have to face it and approach any cultural clash with courage and
a twenty first century background of overstressed individuality, nationalism, subjectivity
and pride at own culture, tradition, religion, belonging and values of all types. However,
when the three strategies are not quite helpful for some good reason, the translator
resorts to translating the sense of the cultural term, discharging it from its culture-specific
element(s). A good number of translation procedures have been put in use to realize these
major approaches and solve the problems of translating cultural terms both ways (Arabic-
English-Arabic). Translators are required to overcome the dilemma of translating all
categories of culture in general, and conflicting culture in particular, with a determination
294
to confront it bravely, rather than evade it with heads down. Coward translators may eke
out a living, but will lose dignity.

2.8.6 SUMMARY

This Chapter (the longest in the book) has dealt with major lexical problems of translation
and how to sort them out in practical, simplified, concretized and lucid terms. It has
covered the following topics: literary translation, translating synonymy, polysemy,
collocations, figurative language (including idioms, proverbs and metaphors), concept
words, proper names, titles, geographical and institutional (including political) terms and
culture. The problems of translating these topics from Arabic into English have been
investigated extensively and in minute details and with a huge number of illustrative
practical examples. Along with these problems are suggested solutions to them via
employing many translation procedures/strategies (see Appendis 1 at te end of the
Chapter) and steps. Probably, the translation of Arabic lexis has become clearer, more
convenient and much easier for students and translators to tackle and overcome, no
matter how difficult they might be.

295
‫‪EXERCISES‬‬

‫‪1) In the light of understanding ‘literal meaning’ in four senses, translate the‬‬
‫‪following statements into English, and name the type of literal meaning of each‬‬
‫‪one:‬‬

‫لم ٌب معً شًء من الراتب‪ ،‬وال فلس‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫لم ٌب له أحد بعد والدته إال هللا‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫البقاء هلل‪ .‬كل من علٌها فان وٌبقى وجه رب ذو الجالل واإلكرام‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫هبت علٌهم رٌ صرصر ال تبقً وال تذر‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫‪2) Translate the following statements with special focus on the underlined words.‬‬
‫‪Choose the right word from the list of synonyms of ‘SYSTEM’ in 2.2 earlier:‬‬

‫جهار المناعة ضعٌؾ عند مرضى األمراض المرمنة‬ ‫(‪)1‬‬

‫األجهرة األمنٌة موجودة لخدمة المواطن وراحته‬ ‫(‪)2‬‬
‫لماذا ال ٌوجد نظام فً هذه المدرسة؟ لماذا هذه الفوضى؟‬ ‫(‪)3‬‬
‫ٌنا النظام األساسً لؤلمم المتحدة على المساواة فً الحقو بٌن الدول األعضاء‬ ‫(‪)4‬‬
‫هل عند كلمة السر لفت النظام؟‬ ‫(‪)5‬‬
‫تنا األنظمة واللواب الجامعٌة على قبول عدد معٌن من الطالب‪.‬‬ ‫(‪)6‬‬
‫ال ٌوجد على وجه األرض نظام أظلم من نظام طاؼٌة الشام‪.‬‬ ‫(‪)7‬‬

‫‪3) Translate the next terms into their familiar alternatives:‬‬

‫محمد صلى هللا علٌه وسلم‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫علً بن أبً طالب‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫سعد بن أبً وقاا‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫عبد الرحمن الداخل‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫مكة المكرمة‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫مدٌنة القدس‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫أبو قراط‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫قارة أفرٌقٌا‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫الوالٌات المتحدة األمرٌكٌة‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫لاير مدرٌد‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫األهلً السعودي‬ ‫‪-‬‬
‫الهالل السعودي‬ ‫‪-‬‬

‫‪4) Translate the following examples, pointing out the polysemous meanings of the‬‬
‫‪( (word) and its derivatives:‬كلمة) ‪word‬‬
‫‪ )1‬كلمات ؼامضة صعُب علٌنا فهمها‬
‫‪ )2‬القرآن كالم هللا‬
‫‪ )3‬ألقى الربٌس كلمة مطولة لٌلة أمس‬
‫‪ )4‬أعطٌ كلمة شرؾ‬
‫‪ )5‬أعطً الكلمة اآلن للسكرتٌر العام‬
‫‪ )6‬ما هذا الكالم؟ كالم مردود علٌ‬
‫‪ )7‬كلمة لو سمحت‬
‫‪ )8‬أقول ل كلمتٌنضعهما حلقة فً أذن‬

‫‪296‬‬
 ‫‪ )9‬لم ٌسمحوا له أن ٌنط بكلمة‬
‫‪ )10‬أعذب الكالم‬

‫‪5) Translate the next list of miscellaneous collocations into English collocations:‬‬

‫(‪ )1‬وسابل الراحة الحدٌثة‬

‫(‪ )2‬ذهب خالا‬
‫(‪ )3‬دقة متناهٌة‬
‫(‪َّ ٌ )4‬تبع التعلٌمات بحذافٌرها‬
‫(‪ٌُ )5‬تقلد سٌفا‬
‫(‪ )6‬إن لم تخ ّنً الذاكرة‬
‫(‪ )7‬سٌل من الشتابم‬
‫(‪ )8‬على حسب علمً‬
‫(‪ )9‬خٌر الكالم ما قل ودل‬
‫(‪ )10‬أر من النسٌم‬

‫‪6) Translate the following Arabic collocations into either collocations or semi-‬‬
‫‪collocation. Say which is which:‬‬
‫‪ )1‬خرج ولم ٌعد‬
‫‪ )2‬عاد والعود أحمد‬
‫‪ )3‬الحمد هلل على السالمة‬
‫‪ )4‬دفع الؽالً والنفٌس لتحقٌ موربه‬
‫‪ )5‬جوقة المنشدٌن‬
‫‪ )6‬مخر عباب البحر‬
‫‪ )7‬ارتدوا على أدبارهم‬
‫‪ )8‬هرٌم الرٌ‬
‫‪ )9‬خرعة طبٌة‬
‫‪ )10‬قوافل الخٌر‬

‫‪7) Translate the following idioms, phrasal verbs and proverbs into direct, or‬‬
‫‪indirect English equivalents. Priority is given to the former. State which is‬‬
‫‪which:‬‬

‫(‪ )1‬اشتد ساعده‬

‫(‪ )2‬علم على رأسه نار‬
‫(‪ٌ )3‬قد الشرر من عٌنٌه‬
‫(‪ )4‬نفض عنه ؼبار التعب‬
‫(‪ )5‬أخذ الجمل بما حمل‬
‫(‪ )6‬فً العجلة الندامة وفً التأنً السالمة‬
‫(‪ )7‬األمور بخواتٌمها‬
‫(‪ )8‬من حفر حفرة ألخٌه وقع فٌها‬
‫(‪ )9‬مسبع الكارات قلٌل البارات‬
‫(‪ )10‬واف شن طبقا‬
‫(‪ )11‬إذا هبت رٌاح فاؼتنمها‬
‫(‪ )12‬عاد عن قراره‬
‫(‪ )13‬عاد بخفً حنٌن‬
‫(‪ )14‬ما عاد على ما كان علٌه أٌام رمان‬
‫(‪ )15‬ما عاد من ؼٌبوبته‬

‫‪297‬‬
‫‪8) Translate the next examples of SL metaphors into their TL equivalent types:‬‬

‫أقعده المرض‬ ‫‪)1‬‬

‫شرب من الكأس نفسها التً سقانا منها‬ ‫‪)2‬‬
‫أنشبت المنٌة أظفارها‬ ‫‪)3‬‬
‫رأس الحكمة مخافة هللا‬ ‫‪)4‬‬
‫فت على نفسه أبوابا لم تخطر له على باب‬ ‫‪)5‬‬
‫نفد برٌشه من القضٌة كالشعرة من العجٌن‬ ‫‪)6‬‬
‫بلؽت القلوب الحناجر فً ؼروة األحراب‬ ‫‪)7‬‬
‫اشترى هللا من المؤمنٌن أنفسهم‬ ‫‪)8‬‬
‫هبت رٌا التؽٌٌر فهرت عروش الطؽاة‬ ‫‪)9‬‬
‫ٌٍخ‪ٛ‬ف ٍِّظ ثعٍت ٌغ‪ٛ‬ي‪ ،‬فال ٔذسي‪ :‬رش‪ٚ‬ضٕب اٌثعبٌت أَ ٔش‪ٚ‬ض‪ٙ‬ب (محمود دروٌش)‬ ‫‪)10‬‬

‫‪9) Translate the following Miscellaneous proper names into English, and point out‬‬
‫‪the translation procedure used for each:‬‬

‫(‪ )1‬الخلفاء الراشدون‬

‫(‪ )2‬عابشة أم المؤمنٌن‬
‫(‪ )3‬صال الدٌن األٌوبً‬
‫(‪ )4‬العباسٌون واألموٌون‬
‫(‪ )5‬األترا والعثمانٌون‬
‫(‪ )6‬بالد الحرمٌن‬
‫(‪ )7‬بالد الرافدٌن‬
‫(‪ )8‬القطبان المتجمد الشمالً والمتجمد الجنوبً‬
‫(‪ )9‬قارة أوقٌانوسً‬
‫(‪ )10‬آسٌا الصؽرى‬
‫(‪ )11‬جبال الهٌمالٌا فً الهند‬
‫(‪ )12‬وادي فاطمة بمكة المكرمة‬

‫‪10) Choose the right translation of each of the next titles:‬‬

‫)‪(a‬‬ ‫(مرجعٌة ‪(Credibility/authenticity/ authority) (for‬‬

‫)‪(b‬‬ ‫العلماء ‪(Knowledgeable/means of science/scholars) (for‬‬
‫)‪(c‬‬ ‫(سماحة (المفتً)) ‪(His Glory/His right honourable/ His eminence) (for‬‬
‫)‪(d‬‬ ‫(المطران ‪(The Pope/the Metropolitan/ the Cardinal) (for‬‬
‫)‪(e‬‬ ‫أسماء ‪(God’s Names/God’s beautiful adjectives/God’s Glorified Epithets) (for‬‬
‫هللا الحسنى)‬
‫(صاحب السمو الملكً ‪(f) (His highness/his high majesty/his royal highness (for‬‬

‫‪11) Translate the following concept words into English.‬‬

‫اللٌبرالٌة واللٌبرالٌون‬ ‫‪)1‬‬

‫اإلسالمٌة واإلسالمٌون‬ ‫‪)2‬‬
‫التكنوقراط والتكنوقراطٌون‬ ‫‪)3‬‬
‫الدٌالكتٌكٌة التارٌخٌة‬ ‫‪)4‬‬
‫االنطباعٌة واالنطباعٌون‬ ‫‪)5‬‬

‫‪298‬‬
 ‫‪12) Translate the next Arabic cultural terms into English . Point out the translation‬‬
‫‪procedure you applied for each:‬‬

‫(‪ )1‬المشاعر المقدسة (عرفات – منى – مردلفة – الجمرات)‬

‫(‪ )2‬الربع الخالً فً أرض نجد‬
‫(‪ )3‬ال ناقة لً باألمر وال جمل‬
‫(‪ )4‬على نفسها جنت براقش‬
‫(‪ )5‬أحلم من قٌس‬
‫(‪ )6‬الجالبٌة والقمٌا والثوب شابعة بٌن كثٌر من العرب‬
‫(‪ )7‬سترة النساء مختلفة عن سترة الرجال‬
‫(‪ )8‬مع السالمة‪ .‬بأمان هللا وحفظه ورعاٌته‬
‫(‪ )9‬أنت ترٌد وأنا أرٌد وهللا ٌفعل ما ٌرٌد‬
‫(‪ )10‬األسلوب – ٌا رعا هللا – جرء ال ٌتجرأ من المعنى هذه األٌام‬
‫(‪ )11‬أهل مكة أدرى بشعابها‬
‫(‪ )12‬العرض والشرؾ أؼلى ما عند المسلمٌن والعرب‬
‫(‪ )13‬كان الحاجب من أعلى مناصب الدولة أٌام الخالفة‬
‫(‪ )14‬ما عندي أطٌب من الكباب والمشاوي واللحم بعجٌن والفالفل‬
‫(‪ )15‬من أنواع الكبسة السعودٌة‪ :‬الكبسة التقلٌدٌة (الحمرا)‪ ،‬ومضؽوط باللحم‪ ،‬وبرٌانً الدجاج‪ ،‬والرر البخاري‪،‬‬
‫والمندي السرٌع‪ ،‬وسلٌ الدجاج‪ ،‬وؼٌرها‬

‫‪299‬‬
APPENDIX I

TRANSLATION PROCEDURES/STRATEGIES

Below is a list of the vast majority of translation procedures, exemplified for, to be used as
guidelines for stuents and translators for solving many problems of translation of all types,
cultural or other (borrowed from Ghazala, 2014):

1. Translation of Sense

It is the translation of meaning. According to this procedure, many thousands of terms

have been translated into Arabic terms: e.g.

1. informal housing: ‫سكف عشكائي‬

2. Word-for-word Translation

The foreign term is translated into Arabic a word for word as such, without any change:
e.g.
1. data base: ‫قاعدة بيانات‬
3. Paraphrase

A short explanation of the foreign term: e.g.

1. aids: ‫( مرض نقص المناعة المكتسبة‬instead of ‫)نقص المناعة ؛ انيدز‬
4. Naturalization

It is the adaptation of the foreign terms to the grammar, spelling and pronunciation of
Arabic Language:

1. Philosophy ‫فمسفة‬
5. Transference/transliteration/transcription

It is the copying of the sounds of the foreign term as usually pronounced into Arabic
letters: e.g.
1. Hamburger ‫ىامبكرجر‬
2. bank ‫بنؾ‬
6. (Figurative) Semantic Extension

It is the use of old words with new meanings which are extensions of those of the old
ones: e.g.
1. microscope: ‫ مجيار‬/ ‫مجير‬
7. Allegory

300
Metaphorical language is sometimes used to render foreign scientific terms into Arabic
meanings: e.g.
1. globe amaranth ‫( (زىرة) العاشؽ كالمعشكؽ‬a lover and his sweetheart are humans, not
plants)
8. Classifiers

Classifiers are Arabic words used to identify a vague foreign term in general sense. Usually,
classifiers occur before the terms to define it, but they can be used at the end as well: e.g.
(the classifying words are underlined):
1. Camellia: ‫زىرة الكميمية‬
2. The Thames )‫نير التايمز (في لندف‬
9. Expansion

It is the translation of a term in full, usually longer than the original. This procedure is
similar to paraphrase pointed out above. Yet, it differs from it in giving details implied in
the literal sense of the term: e.g.
(1) Richter scale ‫مقياس ريختر لمزالزؿ‬
10. Reduction

Or the-shorter-the-better procedure. One of the good reasons for those who prefer the
short foreign term is long Arabic terms. This procedure describes the use of an Arabic term
that is shorter than the foreign original. e.g.
(1) penetrating power ‫ ينفكذية‬/ ‫( قكة نافذة‬instead of ‫)قكة قادرة عمى النفاذ‬
(2) Sandwich ‫ صندكيشة‬/ ‫( لفافة‬replacing !‫)الشاطر كالمشطكر كما بينيما‬
11. Compounding

A merger of the full form of two words in one term. It can be two-word or one-word term:
e.g.:
(1) preglacial ‫قبمجميدم‬

12. Translation Couplet

It means the use of two procedures to translate the same term like translation +
transference; translation + naturalization; transference + classifier, etc. This procedure is
similar to the procedure of 'classifier' (see above), but, unlike the latter, the two or more
words are a part of the original foreign term: e.g.
(1) biological weapons ‫( أسمحة بيكلكجية‬translation + naturalization)
13. Translation Triplet

Three procedures are used here, as demonstrated by the following example:

(1) x-ray technology ‫( تكنكلكجيا أشعة إكس‬naturalization + translation / classifier +
transference)
14. Transposition

301
Transposition (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1995) (also called 'shift' by Newmark, 1988) involves a
change of the grammatical class of terms from, say, a verb into a noun, a noun into a verb,
an adjective into a verb, and so on. It also involves changing grammatical structures into
different structures in the other language, such as changing singular into plural, a phrase
into a clause, or vice versa, a verb phrase into a verb, or vice versa, a noun phrase / a
collocation into a single noun, and vice versa, etc.: e.g.

(1) inexhaustible ‫( ال ينضب‬adjective → verb phrase)

(2) furniture ‫( مفركشات‬singular →plural)

15. Modulation

It is a reversal of the SL grammatical form into its opposite TL form to mark a TL

grammatical convenience as well as a change of focus of style. Among the types of
modulation are the reversal of passive into active, or vice versa; positive into negative, or
vice versa; nominal phrase into genitive, or vice versa; one part for the whole, or vice
versa, etc. e.g.
(1) power ‫( كيرباء‬a whole → translated into one of its parts)
(2) he was poisoned ‫تسمـ‬
َّ (passive → active)
16. Translation Label

It is the procedure of suggesting a provisional Arabic term for a new, non-Arabized foreign
term. Once another term is recognized and in circulation, it is ignored. Usually, a
translation label is made in inverted commas to indicate its temporary nature. However,
once it is established as a recognized translation, the inverted commas are dropped: e.g.
(1) nanotechnology "‫ "تكنكلكجيا التناىي في الصغر‬/ "‫"تكنكلكجيا النانك‬
(2) intranet "‫ "شبكة إنترنت محمية‬/ "‫"اننترانت‬

17. Through-Translation / Calques

Some terms are described as international. So they are Arabized as such through
transference, naturalization or blind literal translation that is publicly approved, but not
accurate. They are described as through translations, calques or loan translations: e.g.
(1) dictator ‫دكتاتكر‬
(2) liberalism ‫ليبرالية‬
(3) good appetite ‫شيية طيبة‬

18. Functional Equivalence

Some terms of science and technology, material or abstract, may have a descriptive, or
functional equivalence. For example, a crane is described as a machine consisting of "a
pivoted boom rotating about a vertical axis with lifting gear suspended from the end of
the boom"; it has the function of "lifting and moving heavy objects" (Collins, 2000: 369).
When Arabized, its function, not description, has been translated into Arabic as ‫رافعة‬.: e.g.

302
 (1) lorry / truck ‫( شاحنة‬its function is to freight things)
(2) heart failure ‫( قصكر القمب‬the heart does not perform its normal function)

19. Descriptive Equivalence

Some foreign terms are translated into Arabic through their description. These terms
include names of diseases, instruments, and abstract concepts: e.g.
(1) steel ingot ‫صٌبة فكالذية‬
‫( ي‬the ingot is described as made of steel)
(2) rickets ‫( كساح‬it is a description of repercussions of this disease)
20. Deculturalization / Neutralization

This procedure clarifies a vague cultural term, taking the cultural aspect(s) off it by
translating its sense into Arabic. In other words, it is deculturalized, or made neutral. Here
are examples:
(1) French roof ‫( سقؼ سندم‬rather than ‫)سقؼ فرنسي‬
(2) Venus-hair ‫ شعر الجف‬/ ‫( كزبرة البئر‬instead of )‫(شعر عشتار (آلية الحب عند اليكناف‬

21. Accepted Standard Translation

This procedure recommends translators to be committed to an accepted translation of a

term that has been rendered directly and has become current, no matter where it comes
from. Therefore, people do not argue about it. Here are some examples for traffic terms:
(1) The Middle East ‫( الشرؽ األكسط‬bringing together Arab States with Israel).
(2) motorway / high way ‫طريؽ سريع‬

22. Recognized Translation

The translation of some terms have become established with the passage of time.
Therefore, they are approved even though they are not quite right, for any change or
modification on them might be misunderstood as different terms: e.g.
(1) alcohol ‫( الكحكؿ‬not the Arabic origin of the word ‫)الغكؿ‬
(2) arsenal ‫( ترسانة‬not the Arabic original ‫)دار الصناعة‬
23. Componential Analysis

It is concerned with taking the English scientific term into its meaning components to
translate them into Arabic equivalents. These components are, in other words, units of
meaning which are translated into equivalent units in Arabic, but not necessarily into one-
to-one equivalent unit (see Newmark, 1988: ch. 11, and Ghazala, 2012: ch. 4): e.g.
(1) antenatal ‫( قبكالدم‬two components: ‫ كالدم‬+ ‫( قبؿ‬ante- + natal))
(2) interplanetary ‫( بيكككبي‬two components: ‫ الككاكب‬+ ‫( بيف‬inter + planetary))
24. Cultural Equivalence

303
This procedure is based on having something similar in Arabic culture that is of the same
sense but with different cultural environment (see above): e.g.
(1) Samson ‫( عنترة‬cf. ‫)شمشكف‬
(2) If you are in Rome, do what the Romans do: ‫إذا كنت في قكـ فاحمب في إنائيـ‬

25. Cultural Correspondence

There are identical expressions in both languages that translate one another literally and
appropriately (see also above): e.g.
(1) The law of the jungle: ‫ شريعة الغاب‬/ ‫قانكف‬
(2) As rapid as lightning ‫أسرع مف البرؽ‬
26. Compensation

Usually, this procedure is used at the level of the sentence and the whole text. It can also
be employed by specifying a general term to compensate for its insufficient reference to a
specific type of concept: e.g.
(1) endoscope; speculum )‫( منظار (التجاكيؼ‬the second term is added in brackets to
indicate a specific type of 'endoscope' due to the many types available, and,
hence, different terms.
(2) extraction )‫'( استخراج (في النبات‬in botany' is slotted to compensate for unclear
reference of the major term which is applicable to humans, animals as well as
abstract things).
(3) “The UN humanitarian aid to the bereaved Syrians is dribbling and trickling. Poor
Syrians! The whole world has let them down”. ‫(إف المساعدات اننسانية لمسكرييف المنككبيف‬
)‫ كما ليـ إال اهلل‬،‫ يا لمسكرييف المساكيف! لقد خذليـ العالـ بأسره‬.‫( بالقطارة‬the underlined
statement added at the end of the translation is a compensation for the
bitterness and no-hope implied in the political original metaphor “dribbling and
trickling” (underlined) but the Arabic translation )‫ (بالقطارة‬falls short of its great
sense of disappointment).

27. Synonymy
This procedure is meant to be taken in the sense of providing an illustrative synonymous
word or phrase. It suggests a simpler alternative translation for a difficult, very formal or
specialist term. The difference between this procedure and paraphrase is that the latter is
a whole main phrase, whereas synonymy is another translation of the term. Taken from a
different angle, this procedure is more of simplification than explanation of the scientific
term: e.g.
(a) crossword puzzles ‫الم ىع َّميات األفقية الرأسية؛ كممات متقاطعة‬
‫( ي‬the term ‫الم ىع َّميات‬
‫ ي‬is explained
by the next two adjectives ‫ األفقية الرأسي‬, and simplified by the other synonymous
term ‫)كممات متقاطعة‬
(b) Delinquency )‫( جنكح (انحراؼ في السمكؾ‬the bracketed phrase is another translation as
well as an illustration of the first term to avoid understanding it in different
contexts.

304
28. Undertranslation

This procedure suggests translating meaning as crisply as possible, without any specific
detail. It is analogous to other procedures like reduction and word-for-word translation in
some respects. However, in other respects, it is different from them. The undertranslated
terms include not only those translated through transference and naturalization, but also
terms translated literally with no specific details about their meanings. Further,
undertranslation insists on using one-to-one term in Arabic, usually one word-term.
Besides that, it does not matter whether the Arabic term is ambiguous or clear. Here are
examples:
(1) AIDS / aids ‫انيدز‬
(2) cloning ‫استنساخ‬

29. Overtranslation

This is opposite to the previous procedure of undertranslation. Details are provided here,
sometimes fully, to make the foreign term very clear, disambiguating meaning by giving as
many details as necessary, whether long or short. The same examples above are re-
translated in accordance with overtranslation procedure:
(1) aids ‫مرض نقص المناعة المكتسبة‬
(2) cloning ‫أخذ خمية مف كائف حي ننتاج جنيف مطابؽ‬
Broadly speaking, this procedure is similar to expansion and paraphrase (see above), but
different from them in that the details can be as short as required and as long as
necessary. The important point here is to make meaning clear as much as possible.

30. Blends
Blending is the formation of one new word out of some letters of two or more different,
basically unrelated words. It involves taking parts of these words to form a shorter single
word on the basis of carefully ordered letters merged together. The outcome of this
merger is a new term called 'blend' )‫ (منحكتة‬whose parts of meaning are relevant to the SL
original constituent words which are also blends: e.g.
(1) interlingual ‫( بيمغكم‬from ‫ المغات‬+ ‫)بيف‬
(2) intergovernmental ‫( بيحككمي‬from ‫ الحككمات‬+ ‫)بيف‬

The translation critic is expected not only to be familiar with these procedures, but also to
have the dexterity and expertise as how and when to apply them in a translation, and
which is more favored to apply in a particular type of text and context.

305
 CHAPTER 3

STYLISTIC PROBLEMS
3.0 Introduction: Importance of Style to Meaning

This Chapter tackles the stylistic problems of translation from three angles: (1) the critical
importance of style in language studies these days; (2) the relevance of style to meaning
as a part of it in understanding language and translation; and (3) the unjustified negligence
of style in translation by many translators. Style is no longer marginalized now as a mere
decoration of language, but as an integral part of meaning and message that is, if it is
changed, meaning will change, or, at least, will be affected somehow, either directly, or
indirectly, consciously or unconsciously. Hence, the concept of style need be reconsidered
by students, translators and teachers of translation alike.

The most remarkable evidence for the utmost importance and relevance of style to
meaning is the preconditioning of the whole religion of Islam with the style of politeness
and kind-heartedness of the Messenger of God, Mohammad (peace be to him) in his
invitation to Islam and treatment of people. This is stated clearly in the Holy Koran in the
Chapter of The Family of Imran: 159. (The underlining is mine)

"‫"فبما رحمة من اهلل لنت لهم ولو كنت فظاً غميظ القمب النفضوا من حولك‬

(It was by the Mercy of God that you were lenient with them. Had you been harsh and
hard of heart, they would have abandoned you).

"Would have abandoned you" is, in other words, there would have been no religion of
Islam. But the Messenger of God, peace be to him, was definitely neither harsh nor hard-
hearted, but lenient and gentle with people, all people. That explains the critical
importance of style in the Prophet's invitation to Islam and the survival of Islam until
eternity.

Therefore, style is an integral part of meaning, minor or major, and cannot be

marginalized in language in any type of text for any reason. And since translation is
concerned with the rendition of meaning, and since style is a part and parcel of meaning,
it is useful to discuss the relationship between stylistics and translation.

Style, then, may be defined in terms of the variant linguistic choices made in the text by
the individual author, which are in effect stylistic choices made in preference to others
potentially available in a language system. The concept of style as choice has become well-
established these days. (Traugott and Pratt, 1980; Wales, 1989: 436, Carter and Nash,
1990, Jeffries et al, 2010, Ghazala, 1987, 2011 and 2012). This is because style is a
linguistic choice in the first place. Style is, then, a linguistic choice in the first place. A
linguistic choice is made on the basis of options available in language. It is the total

306
options available in the syntactic, semantic, phonological, pragmatic and other systems.
The first three levels of language specify the ranges of structural possibilities which can be
chosen or deviated from. The fourth specifies, in part, the contextual basis of the use of
language for choice, including factors like intended audience, topic, genre, channel,
degree of formality (ibid.: 33). In this sense, expression and content “can be viewed as a
matter of choice”. The latter is fundamentally semantic / lexical, involving choice of
semantic structures; whereas the former is primarily pragmatic / contextual, involving
choice of pragmatic functions and contextual features. Choice in both components of
language / grammar is the basis for phonological, syntactic and lexical choices (p. 29).

In contemporary studies of style and stylistics, style is reinstated as an important and,

sometimes, crucial part of meaning. No meaning can be described as complete unless
style is taken into account. All the examples given below in this section can be considered
as practical evidence for the importance and relevance of style to meaning.

Since the concern of translation is with meaning, and since style is a part of meaning, the
relevance of the two to one another is too obvious to question. The concern with
meaning, then, is the common denominator between translation and stylistics. Usually
'stylistic meaning' (i.e. stylistic function), which is a type of underlying meaning implied in
the different features of style, is a preliminary to consider the meaning of a text as
complete. Hence, it is inconceivable to ignore stylistic meaning in translation. Further, had
there been no difference between passive and active as two different styles, there would
have been no need in language for two voices (Fowler, 1986/1996). In other words,
passive and active are two different styles of language, with different stylistic implications
or functions. By analogy, complex sentence/clause structure is different from simple
structure; ambiguity is not like clarity; lexical repetition is different from variation; the use
of imagery, figurative and rhetorical language is dissimilar to the use of ordinary language;
foregrounding and backgrounding are not used haphazardly; decent language is
completely different from indecent language; rhythmical and rhymed language is certainly
not equalled to dull, non-rhythmical language, sacred language is treated differently from
ordinary language, and so on and so forth.

This means that there are a number of grammatical structures, words and phonological
features available in language from which the writer of a text makes specific choices.
These choices are the style of the text in question. That is to say, short sentences are not
like long sentences. The passive voice is different from the active voice. A complex,
difficult and ambiguous grammatical structure stands in contrast with an easy, clear and
simple structure. On the other hand, colloquial words and formal words are not used for
the same reason, or to express the same meaning. Likewise, rhythmical language has
different effects and functions from those of ordinary language. This functional view to
style stresses the importance of style in language, being inseparable from meaning.
Therefore, in translation, it should be concentrated on, and its problems require solutions,
as the negligence of the style of SL results in an incomplete meaning in the TL. (For further
details about the concept of style, see Hough (1969), Crystal and Davy (1969), Chatman.
(1971), Enkvist (1973), Widdowson (1975), Traugot and Pratt (1980), Freeman (ed.) (1981),
Leech and Short (1981), Carter (ed) (1982), Carter and Burton (eds.) (1987), Carter and
Long (1987), Ghazala (1987, 1994/ 1999, 2011, 2012a and 2012c); Fabb et al (eds.) (1987),
Wales (1989), Carter and Nash (1990), Durant et al (1990), Bradford (1997), Thornborrow
307
et al (1998), Toolan (1998), (Simpson (2004), (Boase-Beier (2006), Jeffries (2010); Ghazala
(2011/16, and many others.
Hence, we may conclude from this view of style as choice that language repertoire stores
several types of linguistic components. Each type contains many choices that are made
available to users.

The levels of language at which stylistic choices are made are mainly grammar, vocabulary,
phonology and pragmatics. (See Traugott and Pratt, 1981; Carter and Nash, 1990; Simpson
(2004: 5); Ghazala, 1994 & 2011, and others for further discussion).

Hence, style consists of linguistic choices made from the repertoire of language. It is a type
of domain in the sense of the certain choices made by a particular writer, in a particular
genre, in a particular text. On the other hand, although stylistic choices involve a freedom
of choice, they are made from a restricted range of potentials of language components.
Therefore, authors are responsible for their choices which they make more consciously
than unconsciously. Our knowledge of language becomes, at advanced stages of age, so
intuitive that it is not easy to distinguish which of our choices are conscious, and which are
not, for many writers claim to write intuitively. Yet, they are responsible even for their
unconsciously made preferences, such as grammatical structures. These structures are
thought to be restrictive in the sense that they are arbitrary, inflexible, and "about which
we have no choice”, to use Vinay and Darbelnet’s words (1995: 16).

However, when a writer goes for a certain structure, say, active, transitive verbs, simple
sentences and postmodification, it means he/she has intentionally preferred them to their
counterparts in English grammar, passive, intransitive verbs, complex sentences and
premodification. Although we cannot invent new rules and principles of grammar (like,
say, starting well-formed English sentences with verbs instead of subjects), we have a
wide range of choices inside the restricted grammatical structures.

As pointed out in the course of discussion, stylistic choice involves the choice of stylistic
features and functions / effects, two constituent components of stylistic analysis.

3.1 Stylistic Features

A ‘stylistic feature’ is a linguistic feature, be it grammatical, lexical, phonological or other,

that is, for a good reason, taken by the reader or analyst to be significant. This definition is
based on the notion of markedness (or distinctiveness) as the criterion which determines
whether a feature is linguistic or stylistic. This means that all linguistic features are
stylistic, but every stylistic feature is originally linguistic. It is also possible to understand
every linguistic feature to be potentially stylistic.

Among the established stylistic features are:

‘deviation, foregrounding, backgrounding, formality vs. informality,

ambiguity, simplicity, complexity, nominalization vs. verbalization,
passivization vs. activization, passivity vs. activity, transitivity, intransitivity,
lexical repetition, lexical relationships (like paradox, synonymy, etc.), specific
patterning of deixis, lexis and grammatical sequence in a particular way,
308
 pomposity, figurative language (e.g. pun, irony, metonymy, trope, etc.), and
many others."

An example of linguistic feature is the use of intransitive verbs in a certain text. It

becomes a stylistic feature when it is used consistently, frequently, or not used at all,
taken in juxtaposition with the use of transitive verbs, and when questions of how and
why it is used are posed and answered.

3.2 Stylistic Functions

A Stylistic Function is a stylistic meaning which is an implied meaning(s) of a stylistic

feature. It can be understood as the reason behind using it. Hence, it may be understood
as the answer to the question: 'Why is such and such stylistic feature used?' For example,
why is passive, not active, used? Why long sentences, not short sentences are used? What
is a metaphor, not ordinary language use? Why is formal, not colloquial used? And so on
and so forth. In other words, it is the hidden meaning behind using a stylistic feature, and
considered as a stylistic part of the meaning of a text. There are several guiding criteria to
explore stylistic functions:

Stylistic Functions can be defined as a reference to all kinds of hidden or underlying

reasons, meanings, implications or effects of 'stylistic features'. Like ‘stylistic features’,
stylistic functions equally have guiding criteria to explore:

a. A stylistic function is in a sense a reason behind using a stylistic feature. It is an

answer to the question: Why is such and such stylistic feature used? What for?
(See above).
b. Sometimes, we are required to answer two ‘whys’, rather than one ‘why’; what
may be called a ‘double-decker function’ (e.g. a stylistic feature is fronted for
emphasis (the answer for the first why), to indicate a certain important meaning
(the reply to the second why).
c. Checking both the micro- and macro-contexts of stylistic features.
d. Relating stylistic features of the same type to their counterparts in the text.
e. Relating stylistic features of different types to one another.
f. Finding out about some kind of conformity of form to content (i.e. broken
grammar might reflect broken man/thing, etc.; a simple, easy-going structure
would imply simple, easy-going plot, temper, events, etc.; onomatopoeia and
reflection of meaning, and so on).
g. Looking for a relationship between a stylistic feature and a cultural, religious,
social, political, etc. implication, connotation or insinuation.
h. Establishing certain kinds of lexical relationships (of synonymy, contrast, etc.)
among lexical stylistic features which may bring about significant stylistic
functions.
i. Perhaps the most impressive and convincing ‘tester strategy’ to justify these
explorations of stylistic functions in practical terms is ‘re-writing strategies’. They
mean to suggest a hypothetical different version of word order, clause order of
sentences, conversion of backgrounded and foregrounded items, or phrases, etc.
to draw a comparison between the two versions of the same statement, which
would confirm the function(s) concluded for the original.
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Indeed, style is given greater status by considering it in relation to language and meaning.
That is, it has a role to play in any aspect of language and, consequently, in any aspect of
meaning. It can be defined now as follows:

Style is defined in terms of the different choices made by writers from

the language stock in regard to layout (or shape), grammar, vocabulary
(or words) and phonology (or sounds).

This means that there are a number of layouts, grammatical structures, words and
phonological features available in language from which the writer of a text makes specific
choices. These choices are the style of the text in question. That is to say, if the shape of
the text is a line by line (e.g. poetry), or a sentence by sentence, it means that it is
preferred to its shape in paragraphs. Short sentences are not like long sentences. The
passive voice is different from the active voice. A difficult, ambiguous grammatical
structure stands in contrast with an easy, clear structure. On the other hand, colloquial
words and formal words are not used for the same reason, or to express the same
meaning. Likewise, rhythmical language has different effects and functions from those of
ordinary language. This functional view to style stresses the importance of style in
language, being inseparable from meaning. Therefore, in translation, it should be
concentrated on, and its problems require solutions, as the negligence of the style of SL
results in an incomplete meaning in the TL. (More details on this functional concept of
style are provided in the references on style above.

The question now: Shall we retain the style of the Arabic text, or change it into an
equivalent English style? The answer is: Generally, we keep the English style in English but
only when possible and available. However, when not possible, or when an equivalent
English style is available, we translate the Arabic style into it. In all cases, the style of the
English translation depends on, and is derived from the style of the Arabic original. This
leads to suggesting 'Stylistic Equivalence', which is the proper choice of the style of the TL
text (i.e. English) based on that of the SL text (i.e. Arabic), unless unavailable or not
advisable in the TL (e.g. the style of prose rhyme is not a part of non-literary English. See
below). By this, emphasis is laid on both styles of English and Arabic. How and when to
apply that in translation will be illustrated in the numerous examples given in the
following discussion of the main stylistic problems of translation, associated with their
possible solutions, starting with the style of formality and informality.

3.3 TRANSLATING STYLE AS TONE: FORMALITY VS. INFORMALITY

Style can be understood as ‘tone’, i.e. formal and informal language. Formality has
different grades (or scales) in both languages, Arabic and English. In Arabic, generally,
there are two major styles of formality: FORMAL and COLLOQUIAL. More specifically,
there are now four main styles of formality in Arabic Language:

 Classical Arabic )‫( (المغة العربيػة التراثيػة‬very formal (i.e. the language of the Holy Quran,
the Prophet's Tradition and classical literature).
(to deliberate)‫تمكث في األمر‬e.g.

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  Modern Standard Arabic )‫( (المغػة العربيػة الفصػحى الحديثػة‬MSA) (i.e. the formal written
Arabic of today).
(to take one’s time)‫ ال يتعجؿ في األمر‬/ ‫تأنى‬/‫تميَّؿ‬e.g.
 Colloquial Arabic )‫الدارجة‬/‫( (المغة العربية العامية‬i.e. the language of conversation).
(to take it easy; lighten up)‫يطكؿ بالو‬
ِّ /‫ ما يستعجؿ‬/‫يستنٌى‬e.g.
 Vulgar / slang Arabic )‫( (المغػػة السػػكقية‬i.e. the very local, unkind and / or bad
language).
(to put one’s feet up; hang loose)‫يحط إيديو كرجميو بالمية الباردة؛ ال تككف بصمتو محركقة‬e.g.
There is a clear-cut line between these scales of formality in Arabic, especially between
written and spoken Arabic, classical and MSA and formal and colloquial Arabic. The native
speakers of Arabic do not confuse them, especially written Arabic which is strictly formal,
and spoken Arabic which is colloquial and is not tolerated in written formal Arabic.
However, there is another story in English Language. On the other hand, the differences
between these styles can be sometimes crucial. The first, the classical style, is no longer in
use in written Arabic, except in literary texts, perhaps. So, using it say, in general texts, or
a newspaper article would be unusual and might be taken ar ironic. The second MSA style
is formal and cannot be expected in a conversational colloquial text. The third and fourth
styles are colloquial-specific and cannot be used in formal texts. This implies that the
translator into English should take these differences among the four styles into
consideration.

As to English styles of formality, they are not exactly the same. In 1962, Joos suggested a
scale of five ‘styles’ (or tones) of English language, which is general but proved to be
widely acceptable by most people:

(1) Frozen formal )‫قح‬/‫متصمب‬/‫(فصيح جدان‬

e.g. be seated )‫(خذ مكانؾ‬
(2) Formal )‫(فصيح‬
e.g. have a seat )‫(تفضؿ بالجمكس‬
(3) Informal )‫شبو فصيح‬/‫(غير فصيح‬
e.g. sit down, please )‫مف فضمؾ‬/‫(اجمس لك سمحت‬
(4) Colloquial )‫(عامي‬
e.g. feel at home )‫خكد راحتؾ‬/‫(خد‬
(5) Vulgar (or slang) )‫(سكقي‬
e.g. sit bloody down ‫ اجمس عمرؾ ما جمست‬/ ‫ انثبر‬/‫(انقبر‬

(I owe much to my students of Umm Al-Qura University for the translations of the example
of style 5)

Although the message of all the statements in the example is the same in Arabic (i.e. ‫)اجمػس‬,
each statement has different effects and, hence, meaning. ‘1’ is so official and/or impolite
in both languages, said by a harsh person, or a man of a high position (i.e. a king, a
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president, a minister, a manager, a boss, etc.) to strangers and ordinary people; whereas
‘2’ is official in English as well as Arabic, yet polite, used in a similar context to that of ‘1’,
but to friends and personal acquaintances. Moreover, it can imply that a person is polite.
‘3’ is not official and more polite than ‘1’ and ‘2’ (the informal use in Arabic is (‫)لػك سػمحت‬
which is between formal and colloquial, and ‘please’ is informal as a friendly word), but ‘4’
is quite friendly, intimate and so kind in Arabic: ((‫استىريح‬/‫)استٍريح‬, (‫ )استٍريَّح‬and (‫ )ارتاح‬and ‘feel at
home’ in English in particular reflect a colloquial tone). On the other hand, ‘5’ is strong and
rude in both languages (although, in Arabic, it can be said humorously to a close friend).

Clearly, these five tones cannot be interchangeable in social relations among people. That
is, we do not say to a stranger ‘feel at home’ (‫)خػذ راحتػؾ‬, nor to a friend ‘be seated’
(‫عميػؾ بػالجمكس‬/‫)اجمس‬, nor to a respected person ‘sit bloody down’ ( ‫)انقبػر فػي مكانػؾ‬. Confusing
these terms in such a way will result in serious mistakes in translation, and serious
situations among individuals. Hence the importance of reserving them in translation into
Arabic.

Having said that, the students are not advised to use the last tone (i.e. slang) in English if
bad, obscene or sensitive to TL readership. Instead, they resort to euphemized and less
sensitive words.

There are three comments on this scale:

First, in English, the five styles are sometimes reduced to two main ones only, especially in
dictionaries and other language references, for easiness of classification and
comprehension, as follows:

1. Frozen formal
1. FORMAL
2. Formal

3. Informal
4. Colloquial 2. INFORMAL
5. Slang / vulgar

Such a shortened version of these styles of language is adopted in some language

references (e.g. Longman Dictionary of English Idioms, Collins and Webster’s English
Dictionaries). Some of these references use 'colloquial', or 'slang' instead of 'informal'.

Second, sometimes it is difficult to draw a clear-cut line between the following four pairs:
‘frozen formal and formal’/ ‘formal and informal’ / ‘informal and colloquial’ / and
‘colloquial and slang’. Some English words and grammatical constructions come at the
borderline. For example, ‘idioms and phrasal verbs’ are classified either as formal or
informal, or both; grammatical contractions like “can’t’, ‘don’t’, ‘haven’t”, etc. are
considered by some as formal (especially American English), by other as informal, and yet
by others as colloquial. The most difficult distinction is that between formal and informal
styles of English language.

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Third, in Arabic, and as pointed out above, there are usually only four major styles that can
be translated into, and juxtaposed with these English styles as follows:

(English) (Arabic)

1. Frozen formal } → Classical Arabic

2. Formal → MSA
3. Informal

4. Colloquial } → Colloquial Arabic

5. Vulgar (or slang) } → Vulgar (or slang) Arabic

The most familiar styles in Arabic are the formal and the colloquial ones, used in
general to bring the four styles above down to two only as follows:

1. Classical Arabic } → Formal

2. MSA

3. Colloquial Arabic } → Colloquial

4. Vulgar / slang

(See also Newmark’s scale, 1988, and Crystal’s scale, 1969, for alternative, more detailed
but less popular formality styles). Although both styles of formal and colloquial are
tolerated and overlap in English, the translator is recommended to be wise and uses the
style of formality that is close to the original’s, or appropriate to the type of text and
language used by the SL text. In other words, translators may not be committed to the SL
style when it is not available, or appropriate in the TL, as. A good example is classical
Arabic which does not have a one-to-one-equivalent style in English, so the translator can
translate it into a formal style that is similar to MSA style. To illustrate the point further,
here is a list of juxtaposed examples of classical and MSA styles translated into formal
English:

Classical Arabic The SL Word MSA

‫خشرـ‬ → warm ← ‫سرب‬
‫النسيئة‬ → on credit sale ← ‫بيع بالديف‬
‫الحرابة‬ → highway robbery ← ‫قطع الطريؽ‬
‫المحجر‬ → refuge ← ‫ممجأ‬
‫حجَّمو بعينو‬ → Look in the eye ← ‫كضع عينو بعينو‬
‫قيرط‬ → Earring ← ‫حمىؽ‬
‫صكاع‬ → Measure ← ‫مكياؿ‬
‫قيظ‬ → Blazing heat ← ‫حر شديد‬/‫لييب‬

313
 ‫لساف القكـ‬ → Mouthpiece ← ‫المتحدث الرسمي‬/‫الناطؽ‬
ً
‫الميذار‬/‫ذماذ‬ ‫الم‬ ‫الثرثار‬
‫ى‬ → garrulous ←
etc.

We must admit that the problems of formality scales are not quite easy to sort out,
especially in certain texts like spoken Arabic, classical texts and texts of general nature
which are generally informal. However, scientific, legal and most of literary texts are
formal and, hence, may not pose big problems in this regard. Here are two examples for
colloquial and classical types of texts:

Example 1: A general text:

! ‫أكيد فى واحد فينا مش حينسى‬

‫ ومٌن‬،‫ ومش مهتم أفهم إٌه هى الخطة‬،‫ كنت لسه صؽٌر وقتٌها‬.‫كنت بأتفرج على ماتش كورة للمنتخب مع أبوٌا هللا ٌرحمه‬
.‫ أبوٌا قال لى ما تقلقش هانكسب‬.‫ كنت باكل فى بعضً وكل اللى انا مهتم به إن مصر تكسب وخالا‬.‫الدفاع والهجوم‬
‫ أكٌد واحد‬:‫ إٌه بس اللى عرف وخال متأكد؟ قال لى بسخرٌة‬:‫سألته ببجاحة طفل عاور كل حاجه تبقى مؤكدة وفى وقتها‬
.‫ ألؾ اللً موجودٌن فى اإلستاد دول ربنا راضى عنه وحٌستجٌب لدعوته‬100 ‫من الـ‬
‫ كل ما نخسر ماتش فى اإلستاد أفتكر كلمته دى وأتأكد أن الجمهور كله شوٌة أنجاس‬،‫ ومن ساعتها‬.‫وفعال كسبنا الماتش‬
(raafatology.net/category/ ) ... .‫ألن ربنا ما إستجابش ألى حد فٌنا‬

(When I was a kid, I was watching with my dad a football match for the National squad,
and I knew nothing then about plans or the defence or the offensive and it was all Greek to
me! All I had in mind was Egypt win and that’s that! My dad said to me: “Don’t get in a
sweat, we will win”. I asked him like a naughty boy: “How you know that?” He said bitchily:
“Sure one among the 100 thousand fans in the stadium God love ’im and will answer his
prayer.
And his words were true and we won the match. And since then, every time we lose a
match in the stadium, I remember my dad’s words and that all fans are worthless for the
Lord did not answer the prayer of anyone of us!).

The Arabic text is an Egyptian dialect. It poses several problems of comprehension to the
translator who is not an Egyptian (and I am not). I have chosen a dialect different from
mine deliberately to experience the difficulties of understanding the text that non-
Egyptian students and translators would have. Among these problems are the following
words and expressions:
ً‫) كنت باكل فى بعض‬1
)‫) ببجاحة (بكقاحة‬2
)‫) أفتكر (أتذكر‬3
)‫) ما استجابش (لـ يستجب‬4
The translator has to solve these dialectal puzzles before translating any part of the text.
He/she may check some references on colloquial Egyptian, browse the web or ask
Egyptian informants (as I did) who know these colloquial expressions. Not only these four
features are colloquial features, in fact the SL text is entirely colloquial, with one or two
exceptions of formal features that are usually slotted in between (e.g. ‫ ربنا‬،‫(بسخرية‬. Even

314
those formal exceptions are changed into colloquial in pronunciation (i.e. ‫( ٍب يسخريو‬c.f.
‫)بًسخر و‬, ‫( ربنا‬c.f. )‫ربنا‬/‫)ربًنا‬, ‫( ص ىغيَّر‬c.f. ‫)ص ًغير‬, etc. The colloquial features of the SL text include
‫ية‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ى‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ى‬
grammatical and lexical features as follows:

(a) Grammatical features:

‫اهلل يرحمو → رحمو اهلل‬- word order and tense
)‫مع أبكيا → مع أبي‬- disrupted endings of prepositional and other phrases (e.g.
ُ → ‫كنت لسه صؽٌر وقتٌها‬- Absence of vocalization (e.g.
)‫كنت صؽٌرا وقتها‬
)‫ربنا ما استجابش → لم ٌستجب ربنا‬- disrupted negative structure (e.g.
etc.
(b) Lexical structure: most of the text, as the following rewritten version confirms:

! ‫أكيد يوجد واحد منا لن ينسى‬

‫ ولست مهتما بفهم‬،‫ كنت ما أرال صؽٌرا وقتها‬. ‫كنت أتفرج على مباراة كرة قدم للمنتخب مع أبً رحمه هللا‬
‫ قال‬.‫ كنت باكل فى بعضً وكل ما انا مهتم به أن تكسب مصر وحسب‬.‫ ومن الدفاع والهجوم‬،‫ما هً الخطة‬
.‫ آل تقل سوؾ نكسب‬:ً‫لً أب‬
‫ ما الذي جعل تعرؾ وتكون متأكد؟ قال لى‬:‫سألته بوقاحة الطفل الذي ٌرٌد كل شًء مؤكدا وفى وقته‬
.‫ ألؾ الموجودٌن فى اإلستاد ربنا راض عنه وسٌستجٌب لدعوته‬100 ‫ أكٌد واحد من الـ‬:‫بسخرٌة‬

‫ كلما نخسر مباراة فى اإلستاد أتذكر كلماته تل وأتأكد أن الجمهور‬،‫ ومننذ ذل الحٌن‬.‫وفعال كسبنا المباراة‬
.‫كله مجموعة أنجاس ألن ربنا لم ٌستجب ألى أحد منا‬
The English translation is dialectal, using several informal and colloquial features
(underlined) as follows:

1. Kid → (child)
2. dad (father)
3. squad (team)
4. or … or (…or)
5. win (wins)
6. that’s that! (that is all)
7. My dad (my father)
8. Don’t (do not)
9. get in a sweat (worry)
10. a naughty boy (mildly rude)
11. How you know that? (how do you know that?
12. Bitchily (ironically)
13. Sure one (surely)
14. God love God loves)
15. ’im (him)
16. The use of simple words throughout

Obviously, only some features of the English text are used as representative indications of
the colloquial nature of the source text. In other words, it is not necessary to translate the
Arabic informal features into the same English equivalents because it is not advisable or
possible to do so. Moreover, some of these features (such as vocalization‫ )التشػكيؿ‬have no
equivalents in English. Rather, alternative features are used elsewhere by way of
315
compensation (e.g. ignorance of end vocalization and absence of punctuation and
sentences). After all, it is not required to have the same number of the Arabic informal
features in English, but to use some informal expressions here and there in the TL that are
suggestive of English colloquial style. The insistence on using informal features of the style
of English Language in the text is to reflect the light, common and low educational level of
the original and the people involved in the dialogue. More importantly, the overall
colloquial tone of the original is cordial and less serious, which can be reflected by a
matching tone in English. Hence, a formal English translation like the following might
appear less appropriate:

(When I was a child, I and my father used to watch a football match for the National team.
Then, I had no idea about the team’s plan, defence or offensive. All that was Greek to me.
All I was concerned about was that Egypt would win and there is nothing more! “Don’t
worry, we will win”, said my father. I asked him rudely: “How did you know that?” He
retorted sarcastically: “For sure, one amongst the 100 thousand spectators in the stadium
is loved by God and will answer his prayer.

And his words came true for we won the match. Since then, every time we lose a match in
the stadium, I remember my father’s words and understand that all spectators are
worthless for the Lord answered the prayer of none of us!).

Notice the absence of informal features like contractions, ungrammatical constructions

and colloquial words and expressions (like kid, dad, ‘get in sweat, bitchily, that’s that,
squad, fans, etc.). They are replaced by formal features such as the disappearance of
contractions, the well-formed grammatical sentences, the use of passive (i.e. …is loved by
God) and formal words and expressions suchlike child, father, sarcastically, team,
spectators, worry, his words came true, etc.). Besides that, the overall tone of the text has
changed from cordial to serious tone which does not suit the occasion of the original (i.e.
an intimate dialogue and relationship between a father and his child.

Example 2: a classical text:

‫ فمػػف درت لػػو بحالكتيػػا‬.‫ كجعػػؿ فييػػا أقسػػامان مختمفػػة بػػيف أىميػػا‬،‫ فػػإف اهلل جعػػؿ الػػدنيا محفكفػػة بػػالكره كالسػػركر‬،‫"أمػػا بعػػد‬
‫ كذميػػا‬،‫ قالىػػا نػػاف انر عنيػػا‬،‫ كمػػف قرصػػتو بأظفارىػػا كتكطأتػػو بثقميػػا‬.‫كسػػاعده الحػػظ فييػػا سػػكف إلييػػا كرضػػي بيػػا كأقػػاـ عمييػػا‬
‫ كأرضػػعتنا مػػف درىػػا أفػػاكيؽ اسػػتحمبناىا ثػػـ‬،‫ كق ػد كانػػت الػػدنيا أذاقتنػػا مػػف حالكتيػػا‬،‫ كشػػكاىا مسػػتزيدان منيػػا‬،‫سػػاخطان عمييػػا‬
،‫ ففرقتنػا عػف األكطػاف‬.‫كخ يشػف لًينيػا‬ ‫ ى‬،‫ كأم َّػر حمكىػا‬،‫فمميػح عػذبيا‬
‫ ى‬.‫ كرمحتنػا مكليػة‬،‫ كأعرضػت عنػا متنكػرة‬،‫شمست منا نػافرة‬
‫ كأعقبػت بال ارحػة‬.‫ كتباعػدت مثػؿ مػا تقربػت‬،‫ قػد أخػذت كػؿ مػا أعطػت‬.‫ كطيرنػا بارحػة‬،‫ فدارنا نازحػة‬.‫كقطعتنا عف انخكاف‬
،‫ ال تػرحـ مػف اسػترحميا‬.‫ كبالحيػاة مكتػان‬،‫ كبالسػراء ضػراء‬،‫ كبالخبرة حاجة‬،‫ كبالعز ذالن‬،‫ كباألمف خكفان‬،‫ كبالجذؿ ىمان‬،‫نصبان‬
‫ى‬
."‫ مقطكعيف عف األحياء‬،‫ منفييف عف األكلياء‬،‫سالكة بنا سبيؿ مف ال أكبة لو‬
)59-58 :2009 ،‫ الشكعة‬:‫(عبد الحميد بف يحيى‬

This classical text is characteristic of the so-called style of ‘prose rhyme’, i.e. the abundant
use of rhyme, rhythm, alliteration and other prosodic features which are features of
poetry in the first place. The prosaic passage appears to be a semi-poem, as it were, as
illustrated in the following rewriting of it in a form of a poem:
316
 ‫جعؿ فييا أقسامان مختمفة بيف أىميا‬
‫كساعده الحظ فييا‬ ‫فمف درت لو بحالكتيا‬
‫كرضي بيا‬ ‫سكف إلييا‬
‫كمف قرصتو بأظفارىا‬ .‫كأقاـ عمييا‬
،‫قالىا ناف انر عنيا‬ ،‫كتكطأتو بثقميا‬
،‫كشكاىا مستزيدان منيا‬ ،‫كذميا ساخطان عمييا‬
،‫أذاقتنا مف حالكتيا‬ ‫كقد كانت الدنيا‬
‫أفاكيؽ استحمبناىا‬ ‫كأرضعتنا مف درىا‬
،‫كأعرضت عنا متنكرة‬ ،‫ثـ شمست منا نافرة‬
.‫كرمحتنا مكلية‬
،‫أمر حمكىا‬
َّ ‫ك‬ ،‫فمميح عذبيا‬ ‫ى‬
.‫كخ يشف ًلينيا‬
‫ى‬
.‫كقطعتنا عف انخكاف‬ ،‫ففرقتنا عف األكطاف‬
.‫كطيرنا بارحة‬ ،‫فدارنا نازحة‬
‫كتباعدت مثؿ ما تقربت‬ ،‫قد أخذت كؿ ما أعطت‬
،‫كبالجذؿ ىمان‬ ،‫نصبان‬
‫كأعقبت بالراحة ى‬
،‫كبالعز ذالن‬ ،‫كباألمف خكفان‬
،‫كبالسراء ض ارء‬ ،‫كبالخبرة حاجة‬
.‫كبالحياة مكتان‬
،‫سالكة بنا سبيؿ مف ال أكبة لو‬ ،‫ال ترحـ مف استرحميا‬
"‫مقطكعيف عف األحياء‬ ،‫منفييف عف األكلياء‬

Now, the translator of this text into English runs across several problems regarding, first,
the difficulties of the classical words and expressions (like ‫دارنػا ;رمحتنػا مكليػة ;أفػاكيؽ اسػتحمبناىا‬
‫;نصػب ;طيرنػا بارحػة ;نازحػة‬
‫ )أكبػة ;الجػذؿ ى‬that are not in circulation among native speakers today.
Good Arabic dictionaries and references have to be resorted to in order to sort these
difficulties out. Secondly, he/she might approach translating this type of style into English
in the same way and try hard to produce it in the TL to make a similar effect on the TL
readership. Yet, he/she will try that in vain for, first, it is far-fetched in English; secondly,
and more importantly, it is not required I English for it is neither habitual, nor desired.
Further, it might produce a counter effect of irony and sarcasm. As a consequence, an
English translation that aims at giving the intended sense of the original is what can be
required from him/her at best, using formal and literary words and expressions. Colloquial
words are irrelevant at translating such text for it might do harm to it and, as a result,
undermine its rhetorical values and implications. Here is a suggestion:

(I proceed to say that God the Almighty had made this World shrouded with hate and
happiness, and made its people of different classes. Those overwhelmed with its sweetness
and good luck lulled to it and felt satisfied with it; and those scraped with its claws and
overburdened with its burdens shunned it in repulsion, slandered it in indignation and
317
complained asking more of it. The World has made us taste its sweetness, sucked us from
its nipples remains of milk that we milked and emulsified. Then it repulsed us, got restful of
us, turned away from us in denial, and kicked us off before running away from us. So its
delight turned into salt, its sweetness into bitterness and its softness into coarseness,
expelling us away from home countries and cutting us off our brothers. Our home is so
remote and our bird is flying from right to left as a bad omen, taking everything it had
given to us. It departed away in the same way it once approached down. Its comfort
turned into fatigue, joy into trouble, security into fear, glory into humility, plenty of food
into want, well-being into ill-being and life into death. It shows no mercy for those who ask
it mercy, leading us on a pathway which had no way back, banished away from righteous,
holy men, cut out from the living. (Ghazala, 2010: 45)

Although there has been an attempt to produce similar balanced clauses and phrases,
rhyme, rhythm and other sound features have not been deliberately on the agenda for the
reasons just pointed out.

In conclusion to this section, styles/tones of language of formality scales are sometimes

crucial to the message, especially the two most important tones: formal and
informal/colloquial. There is a considerable difficulty for the students in both languages,
especially in English, to distinguish tones. A satisfactory solution is to translate any Arabic
tone into Standard English, if and when students and translators are unable to match it in
English. In this case, a part of the meaning will be lost, but it is better than losing the
whole of it when they are confused in English.

On the other hand, it is not necessary to match every Arabic informal feature – if and
when - with an English equivalent one. One or two token features of informal English are
sufficient to suggest the informal tone of the Arabic informal original, as shown in the
previous examples. However, some Arabic texts (i.e. classical, formal and serious text) are
formal only and do not create a problem of tone because they have to be translated into
Standard (or fomal) English only. Any use of colloquial Arabic in the translation of such
texts will be misplaced, ironical or demeaning and, hence, unacceptable.

It is hoped that the discussion of the importance of the different stylistic tones in both
languages will invite the students to attend to them in some texts, and try to take them
into consideration as much as possible. However, the situation in English is different from
that in Arabic in this respect. English allows more space for using informal features in
writing than Arabic which makes a clearcut distinction between formal written Arabic and
informal spoken Arabic. Finally, these tones are chiefly marked either at the level of
grammar, or words , or at both levels.

3.4 TRANSLATING THE STYLES OF FOREGROUNDING AND BACKGROUNDING

Foregrounding (or fronting) is an important stylistic feature, used widely at both the
sentence and text levels. It means to move a word, a phrase or a clause from its original
place in the middle or at the end of a sentence to the beginning (or the front position) of
that sentence. By contrast, backgrounding (i.e. delaying) is to delay an important word or
expression until later in the sentence in an unusual way. In other words, the two types are
styles of disrupting the natural grammatical word order of a language. This can be
318
understood by recognizing the normal word order in both Arabic and English languages. In
Arabic, the two basic sentence types are:

1. Verbal sentences (i.e. ‫( فعؿ كفاعؿ كمفعكؿ بو‬verb-subject-object))

2. Nominal sentences: (i.e. ‫( مبتدأ كخبر‬topic – comment)

When these normal orders of the two types are disrupted into, say, subject-verb-
object/object – verb - subject/verb-object-subject, for the first, and comment-topic, for
the second, it means that the style of fronting (or foregrounding), a back (or
backgrounded) element is manipulated for a good reason. Here are examples:

ً
(The girl worshipped God) (normal order) )‫عبدت الفتاةي اهللى (الترتيب الطبيعي‬ )1
ً ‫ الفتاةي عب‬-
(It is the girl that worshipped God) (fronting the sub.) )‫دت اهللى (تقديـ الفاعؿ‬
ً
God the girl worshipped) (fronting the Object) )‫عبدت الفتاةي (تقديـ المفعكؿ بو‬ ‫ اهللى‬-
(It is the girl that God worshipped) (fronting )‫عبدت (تقديـ الفاعؿ كالمفعكؿ بو‬
ٍ ‫الفتاةي اهللى‬ -
the subject and the object)
ً
(worshipped God the girl) )‫عبدت اهللى الفتاةي (تقديـ المفعكؿ بو عمى الفاعؿ‬ -

(The second and fourth are not allowed in English grammar. Therefore, they can be re-
formulated into permissible structures like ‘The girl did worship God’ ‘Who worshipped
God was the girl’).
Strictly no smoking in here; )‫ التػدخيف ممنػكع‬:‫ػدخيف منعػان باتػان ىنػا (بػدالن عػف‬
‫) ممنكعه الت ي‬2
smoking is strictly prohibited in here
You are right; it is right what you said ‫صحيح قكليؾ‬ ‫ه‬ )3
This restaurant’s food is really delicious. What a tasty ‫) لذي هذ طعاـ ىػذا المطعػـ‬4
food does this restaurant have!

(the comment is foregrounded in Arabic to receive greater emphasis, which is

to be taken into account in English).

More examples from the Holy Koran - the first, best and most reliable source of
Arabic Language grammar, lexicon and style - can be provided for both types of
style, foregrounding and backgrounding of nominal and verbal sentences:

(from the far end of the )... ‫ كجػاء رجػؿ مػف‬:‫كجػاء مػف أقصػى المدينػة رجػؿ يسػعى (أم‬ )6
town a man came running)
(and when Abraham was tested )‫اىيـ‬ ُّ ‫ كاذ ابتمػى‬:‫اىيـ ربيػو (أم‬
‫رب إبػراىيـ إبػر ى‬ ‫كاذ ابتمػى إبػر ى‬ )7
by his Lord)
(The learned servants of God do )‫ػاء اهللى‬
‫ يخشػى العمم ي‬:‫ػاء (أم‬‫يخشػى اهللى مػف عبػاده العمم ي‬ )8
fear Him)
(You alone do we worship, and to )‫ نعبػد إيػاؾ كنسػتعيف إيػاؾ‬:‫إياؾ نعبػد كايػاؾ نسػتعيف (أم‬ )9
You alone do we turn for help

319
(and for the moon we have appointed )‫ قػدرنا القم ىػر منػاز ىؿ‬:‫) كالقم ىػر قػدرناه منػاز ىؿ (أم‬10
phases)
(and the mountains He fixed firmly) )‫ أرسى الجبا ىؿ‬:‫) كالجباؿ أرساىا (أم‬11
(God bitterly mocks them) )‫ يستيزئ اهلل بيـ‬:‫) اهللي يستيزئ بيـ (أم‬12
(God only takes the souls )‫ يتكفى اهلل األنفس‬:‫) اهلل يتكفى األنفس (أم‬13
(God )‫ يصػطفي اهللي رسػالن مػف المالئكػة كمػف النػاس‬:‫اهلل يصطفي مف المالئكة رسالن كمػف النػاس (أم‬ )14
surely chooses Messengers from Angels and people
(In their hearts is sickness / they are sick at )‫ مػرض فػي قمػكبيـ‬:‫فػي قمػكبيـ مػرض (أم‬ )15
heart)
and, they (the )‫ كىـ سيغمبكف مف بعد غمبيـ‬:‫) (أم‬2 :‫كىـ مف بعد غمبيـ سيغمبكف (الركـ‬ )16
Romans) after their defeat (by the Persians), will be victorious
‫ ربي إني فقير لما أنزلت إلي مف‬:‫) (أم‬24 :‫رب إنى لما أنزلت إلي مف خير فقير (القصص‬ )17
"My Lord, Surely, I am of whatever good you bestow on me in need )‫خير‬
‫و‬
And they are from the )‫يكمئذ‬ ‫ كىـ آمنكف مف فزوع‬:‫) (أم‬89 :‫) كىـ مف فزوع يكمئذ آمنكف (النمؿ‬18
terror on the Doomsday safe

The first example highlights 'victorious' perhaps to stand in contrastive balance to the first
verse which states the defeat of the Romans by the Persians, first (i.e. ‫( يغمبت الركـ‬The
Romans were defeated)). Another reason is to give the word more assertive tone. The
second example backgrounds 'we shall return' to reflect an identification of the end of the
verse and the end of human life in this world as we are all going back to God at the end.
The third example, on the other hand, delays 'disapproving' until the end of the verse to
put more emphasis on it and its implication of Prophet, Lot's detestation of the horrible
action of his people (i.e. sodomy). The fourth example highlights 'needy / in need' to
reflect the complete humbleness of Moses, peace be to him, to God eventually, following
specifying the things he is in need for. The final example postpones the comment of the
topic 'they' till the end of the verse not only to assert it, but also to reflect the safety of
the pious at the end of this life from terror when they return to God in the Hereafter.
Further, 'terror' is first, then, followed by 'safety' which appeases it at the end.

As to the first example, the delayed subject and object are reflected in the translation into
English to background it to an end-focus position: 'a man came running' (of 'a') and 'share'
(of 'b').

The second and third examples have the subject and object reversed, again for
grammatical as well as stylistic reasons. The normal word order of both (v+s+o) would
disrupt the statements grammatically as well as semantically as follows:

ً
- ‫العمماء مف عباد اهلل اهللى‬
‫ي‬ ‫يخشى‬
- ‫اىيـ‬
‫اىيـ إبر ى‬‫رب إبر ى‬
‫ابتمى ي‬

Awkwardness is obvious owing to the undue, stumbled repetition of 'God' and 'Abraham'
respectively.

320
Examples 4-6 have a special case of fronting the OBJECT in Arabic. This is an unusual word
order, but we cannot say it is unfamiliar or non-recurrent. Now the English translations are
generally committed to foregrounding the object as in the original to receive a greater
attention as also in the original. By the way, the foregrounding position of the objects in
the original is not to create the end rhyme of the delayed verbs, as the Holy Koran makes
no concessions of any kind.

As to 7-9, the topic – which is normally a subject that follows the verb - is fronted to
receive a greater emphatic focus and assertive tone. Originally, these nominal sentences
are supposed to be verbal with the word order: v+s+o. However, due to the unusual
significance of the subject, it is foregounded to become a topic in a nominal structure.
Although this is not the normal case in Arabic grammar, it is permissible, anyway. In
English, this is the normal word order. Therefore, the Arabic abnormal order has to be
translated into the normal English order with a word of emphasis to be added before the
verb to reflect the emphasis of the original.

In example 10, the fronting of the functional prepositional phrase is meant to be assigned
more importance and urgency than the postponed topic. Hence, at translating the verse
into English, the assertive word order of the original is recommended to be retained, as
illustrated in the first translation of the example above. However, the second version is
acceptable, but less emphatic and accurate than the original.

The style of backgrounding (or end focus) is reflected in 12-13. This style can be
sometimes essential to meaning, yet, most translators have not given enough heed to it.
They have gone for normal word order in English, which disregards this significant stylistic
feature and its potential functions. Perhaps, they regard backgrounding as a way of
achieving rhyme and rhythm among verses, which is irrelevant in the Holy Koran, or the
Prophet's Tradition. All the words underlined in the examples above are backgrounded to
an end position to receive special focus for several reasons.

So much for foregrounding and backgrounding of words and phrases. As to clauses, the
normal clause order in English is the main clause, first, then the subordinate clause: When
the subordinate clause precedes the main clause, it is fronted: e.g.

‫ ىطمػػت أمطػػار غزيػرة بينمػػا‬:‫) ( أم‬1( ‫ ىطمػػت أمطػػار غزيػرة‬،)2( ‫) بينمػػا كنػػت خارجػان مػػف البيػػت‬1
While leaving home, heavy rain fell )‫كنت خارجان مف البيت‬
‫ حكػػـ عمػػى المجػػرـ‬:‫) (أم‬1( ‫ حكػػـ عمػػى المجػػرـ بانعػػداـ‬،)2( ‫) بمػػا أنػػو كػػاف متمبس ػان بالجريمػػة‬2
As he was caught red-handed, he was sentenced to )...‫بانعػداـ بمػا أنػو‬
death)
،...‫ كجػد عميػو أمػة‬:‫) (أم‬23 :‫) كلما كرد ماء مػديف كجػد عميػو أمػةن مػف النػاس يسػقكف (القصػص‬3
And when he arrived at Madyan water, he found )‫لمػػا كرد مػػاء مػػديف‬
thereon a group of men watering their flocks
But if they incline to )‫ فػػاجنح لمسػمـ إف جنحػكا ليػػا‬:‫لمسػٍمًـ فػاجنح ليػػا (أم‬
َّ ‫) كاف جنحػكا‬4
peace, then incline to it
321
Such frontings are made for good reasons. That is, the fronted words or clauses
have a more important function of emphasis, etc. than the other parts of the
sentence. This means that they play a vital role in understanding meaning.

In the first example, the subordinate clause is fornted to underline where the
speaker is, and that he is surprised by an unexpected rainfall. In the second
example, The subordinate clause, ‘ as he … red-handed’ is fronted because it
includes the cause of the criminal’s sentencing to death. That is, the sentence
has the relation of cause and effect.The cause is ‘catching the criminal red-
handed’ (‫)القبض عمى المجػرـ متمبسػان‬, and the effect is ‘sentencing him to death’ ( ‫الحكػـ‬
‫)عميػػو بانعػػداـ‬. This relation is important and, requires to be reflected and
respected in Arabic, as the suggested translation shows. The subordinate clause
of the third example is fronted to indicate that the Prophet Moses, peace be to
him, has approched the wells of Madyan before he saw people there. The
fourth example is a conditional clause, the second part of which is conditioned
by the first. This is an important function for fronting the latter, despite being
subordinate. In English, this order should be retained to convey the same
condition, as confirmed by the version above.

Foregrounding is used not only at the sentence level, but also at the text level.
Consider the following example:

،‫ كبػؾ أمسػينا‬،‫ " الميػـ بػؾ أصػبحنا‬:‫) كاف النبي صػمى اهلل عميػو كسػمـ يقػكؿ إذا أصػبح كاذا أمسػى‬5
) )1076 ‫ ريػاض الصػالحيف‬- ‫ (ركاه ابف داكد كالترمػذم‬."‫ كاليؾ النشكر‬،‫ كبؾ نمكت‬،‫كبؾ نحيا‬
(The Prophet, peace be to him, used to say morning and evening: “My
God, with Your Power we have come to the moring; with your power
we have come to the evening; with Your Power we live and we die, and
to You will return”.

There are four prepositional phrases that are foregrounded in this Prophetic Tradition,
with an intention to lay more emphasis on them, being the decisive power to what comes
next, and without it, no one would have morning or evening. Hence, in the English
translation, these phrases are fronted in the same way as in the original Arabic.

To conclude this section, backgrounding and foregrounding are two styles used sometimes
by the SL author to make something more important and prominent than usual, or to
achieve a function of some kind that is a part of the intended message. This requires the
English translation to echo both styles of the Arabic original.

3.5 TRANSLATING THE STYLE OF PARALLELISM

When two or more statements have identical grammatical or lexical structure, they are
described as parallel. Such parallelism can be important to meaning, implying a balance
between two or more messages. Arabic Language, especially Classical Arabic texts of all

322
types, is characteristic of its style of parallelism as much rhetorically as semantically,
phonologically and grammatically. Here are examples:

‫ كسامحني فسامحتو‬،‫ كمازحني فمازحتو‬،‫ كمدحني فمدحتو‬،‫) نيرني فزجرتو‬1

This series of rhetorical expressions is made parallel, to imply a balance between pairs of
actions and reactions in the same coin of the two persons involved. Such parallelism is
indicative of balance and counterbalance of action and attitude for which the first
interlocutor is responsible. Such implications of this style are too significant to ignore,
though the rhyme and rhythm of the original is not strictly required in English for it is not
quite habitual in it:

(1) (He reproached me and I rebuked him; he praised me, and I praised him; he jested
with me, and I jested with him; he forgave me and I forgave him).

In this version, the use of the conjunction ‘and’ makes the two persons’ actions parallel to
one another by way of demonstrating action and reaction. Besides that, the parallel
rhetorical, grammatical and semantic structure of the original is retained in full. Yet,
another version that demonstrates an action-reaction, or cause-and-effect sequence, can
be justified, using the connector of result, ‘so’:

(2) (He reproached me, so I rebuked him; he praised me, so I praised him; he jested
with me, so I jested with him; and he forgave me, so I forgave him).

However, a third version that ignores the style of parallelism of the original and its implied
functions may not be quite appropriate, though it is acceptable in terms of sense. e.g.

(3) (He reproached me so I retorted vehemently and I rebuked him; he praised me,
that is why I held high esteem for him; when he cracked jokes with me, I did the
same and jested with him; finally, when he forgave me I did forgive him
wholeheartedly).

In the same way, a contracted version that translates this squence of parallelisms into one
long sentence is not recommended for it distorts the functions of this valuable rhetorical,
literary and quite interesting type of style:
(4)

(He reproached me and I rebuked him, praised me, I praised him, jested with me, I jested
with him, forgave me and I forgave him).

:)‫(خطبة جمعة‬ )2
... ،‫عظيـ‬
ٍ ‫تنيخ أمتنا انسالمية مطاياىا بيف يدم شير‬
،‫بضيائو‬
ٍ ‫الككف‬
‫ى‬ ‫غمر‬
‫القمكب المعناة بحبو‬
‫ى‬ ‫كعمر‬
.‫كسنائو‬
ٍ ‫ببيائو‬
،‫أنيارٍه‬ ‫و‬
‫شير جرت بالطاعات ي‬
323
 .ٍ‫ىاره‬
‫كتفتقت عف أكماـ الخير كالبر أز ي‬
،‫كاستمع المسممكف في ليؼ كشكؽ لمقاصده كأسر ًارٍه‬
ً ‫كأصاخكا في خشكع كاىطاع إلى م ارميو المستكنة ك‬
.‫أخبارٍه‬
(Al-Minbar Net. In Ghazala, 2011).

Indeed, this is a lofty style of rhetoric of a religious text of a Friday Sermon about the
Month of Ramadan. Yet, it is misplaced in a situation that requires simplification for the
audience who is in the most part average people. So, a translation that matches the
rhetorical features of the original Arabic, chief among which is parallelism, is theoretically
possible, but hard to attain, or construe:

(1)

"…Our Muslim Nation bows down their mounts in the presence of a great Month, and a
venerable, generous Guest,
It has suffused the whole universe with its illumination,
and filled in hearts tired of its love
with splendor and eminence.
It is a Month whose rivers are running with worships,
and the perianths of its flowers of good and philanthropy have ripped open.
Muslims have harkened attentively, hankeringly and eagerly to its intents and secrets,
and lent their ears in submission and humbleness to its underlying purposes and tidings.
…"

In this version, a hard attempt is made to keep to the parallel and other rhetorical features
of the structure of the Arabic original, but the latter seems farfetched in English. Further,
this type of style is not recommended in English for the English audience, would reject it
as opaque and complex, not to say sarcastic. Third, it appears artificially literary, and it is
not. Fourth, it is not popular among the SL readers, and perhaps it is for they are
‘estranged’ from the text. One wonders to what extent this sophisticated, bombastic,
rhetorical and complicated style of text may fit in the intended purpose and message of
the sermon.

This urges for an alternative version to be suggested, ignoring the rhetoric of the original,
being artificial, pompous, less impressive and less comprehensible than the previous
version. The simple reason for this is that the purpose of a Friday sermon is to deliver a
short public preaching for Muslims about their religion and life in the light of Islam, which
is recommended to be simple, clear and sharp and to the point (i.e. abiding by the adage
‫‘( خٌر الكالم ما قل ودل‬the shorter the better’)). It is true that the affected style of syndetic
symmetry, parallelism, synonymy, and prosodic and rhetorical features have added to the
aesthetic effects of the text, but that was at the expense of the message of the sermon.
Hence, for all these reasons, a version of simple, natural and more straightforward version
of style and meaning can be interesting to put forward now:

324
(2)

(… Our Muslim Nation receives the blessed Month of Ramadan, a generous Guest, with
abundance of blessings and graces. It is the month of worships, good deeds and
mercifulness. Muslims have welcomed it with eagerness and submissiveness.)

This version is suggested in accordance with the two rules of ‘the shorter, the better’ and
‘be sharp and to the point’. The original has been reduced to its core message, the
ultimate objective of any Friday sermon anywhere, anytime. Priority is given to the
normally educated public target readership as much as to the message, the ultimate
purpose of the sermon. Possibly, such version of translation does a favour to the original
by reconstructing it into a text of a plain, direct style, thus freeing it of its complicated and
bombastic features and implications.
‫ ووجد عابال فأؼنى‬/ ‫ ووجد ضاال فهدى‬/ ‫) أم ٌجد ٌتٌما فووى‬3
‫ وأما بنعمة رب فحدث‬/ ‫ وأما السابل فال تنهر‬/ ‫فأما الٌتٌم فال تقهر‬
These six statements (i.e. verses from the Chapter of )‫( (الضبحى‬The Forenoon/The Whole
Day) have double-parallel structures in a very special way. The first three have the same
structure of a rhetorical question of cause and effect formula. The second three are
strongly related to, and a consequence of the first three. The whole relationship between
the six parallel statements can be illustrated as follows:
‫ ألم ٌجد ٌتٌما ←←← فووى؟ ↔ ↔↔ فأما الٌتٌم فال تقهر & وأما السابل فال تنهر‬
……………… ‫ ووجد ضاال ←←← فهدى؟‬
‫ ووجد عابال ←←← فأؼنى؟ ↔ ↔↔ وأما بنعمة رب فحدث‬
On the other hand, these statements state facts that already took place beyond doubt,
and perhaps in the same order and with the same level of emphasis, volume and
significance. Added to all that is the parallel use of the emphatic form of rhetorical
questions, followed by three Godly orders to the Prophet as well as to all Muslims on
earth, related to the previous facts. These implications of the verses and their style of
parallelism are recommended to be retained in the best way available in English, as
follows:

Did He not find you an orphan, and shelter you?

Did He not find you erring, and guide you?
Did He not find you needy, and suffice you?
For the orphan, do not oppress him.
For the beggar, do not scold him.
And for your Lord's blessing, declare.

This version keeps right to the parallel structure of the original to achieve accuracy, first,
and, second, emphasise every single detail of the statements (or verses). Another version
that is more English, less literal and focuses on the facts can be suggested next:

He found you an orphan, so He sheltered you?

He found you erring, so He guided you?
He found you needy, so He sufficed you?

So do not oppress the orphan;

do not scold the beggar;
325
and declare your Lord's blessing.

Here, parallelism is retained, with more concentration on more flowing English structure.
Further, cause-and-effect relation is established between the six interrelated verses to
replace the more emphatic rhetorical question forms of the first three.

:(Supplication) )‫) (دعاء‬4

Islamic Supplications suggest striking examples for parallelism of different types:
grammatical, semantic and phonological. They aid memorization and loud recitation of
them secretly as much as publicly. However, their translation into equivalent parallel and
rhythmical structure is not easily attainable, and not required in the first place, for English
may not insist on this type of style in prayers. Insistence is perhaps on formal Standard
English. Here is a suggestion:

The same can be said of the literary style of prayers, or supplications. Here is an example:

My God! I seek your refuge with you ‫اللهم إنً أعوذ‬

: ‫ب‬
From Knowledge that brings no good, ‫مف عمـ ال ينفع‬
And from a heart that has no fear of you, ‫كقمب ال يخشع‬
And from a prayer that cannot be answered, ‫كدعاء ال ييسمع‬
And a self that cannot be satisfied. ‫كنفس ال تشبع‬

The sound features of rhyme and rhythm, the syntactic parallelisms and collocations are
apparently clear, but, as we all know, English are not strictly rhythmical. On the other
hand, a concise version of English translation like the next one is not recommended for it
distorts the humbleness and assertive nature of the original and the holiness of a
Prophetic prayer:
My God! I seek your refuge with you from bad knowledge that brings no good; a heart has
no fear of God, an unanswerable prayer and a discontented self.

Although short, sharp and to the point, it is a de-spirited and deadened compositional
translation. In effect, it is not recommended.
Classical text) ‫) نص تراثي‬5
‫ كخذلػو‬،‫ كأكبقتػو عيكبػو‬،‫ مػف عبػد أسػممتو ذنكبػو‬،‫ كخميفة رب العالميف‬،‫ كاماـ المسمميف‬،‫ كخميفة الميدييف‬،‫("ألمير المؤمنيف‬
ً ‫ كنػػزؿ بػػو‬،‫ كمػػاؿ بػػو الزمػػاف‬،‫ كرفضػػو صػػديقو‬،‫شػػقيقو‬
،‫ كعػػالج البػػؤس بعػػد الضػػعة‬،‫ فحػػؿ فػػي الضػػيؽ بعػػد السػػعة‬،‫الحػػداثاف‬
‫ كش ػػارؼ‬،‫ كق ػػد ع ػػايف الم ػػكت‬،‫ كليمت ػػو دى ػػر‬،‫ س ػػاعتو ش ػػير‬،‫ كاكتح ػػؿ الس ػػياد بع ػػد اليج ػػكد‬،‫كافت ػػرش السػ ػ خط بع ػػد الرض ػػى‬
)68 :2009 :‫(الشكعة‬ )...‫الفكت‬

In the Arab political history, Yahya Al-Barmaki was imprisoned by Haroun Ar-Rasheed, the
famous Abbasid Caliph, at an old age with the rest of his sons. He felt he was innocent,
and what befell of him and his sons was a conspiracy against them to force them out of
rule to be replaced by their rivals. So, from prison he wrote a letter to Ar-Rasheed. This

326
classical text is entirely based on the style of parallelism between pairs of phrases and
expressions as follows (underlined):

،‫ كخميفة رب العالميف‬،‫ كاماـ المسمميف‬،‫ كخميفة الميدييف‬،‫ألمير المؤمنيف‬ 

،‫ كأكبقتو عيكبو‬،‫مف عبد أسممتو ذنكبو‬ 
،‫ كرفضو صديقو‬،‫كخذلو شقيقو‬ 
ً ‫ كنزؿ بو‬،‫كماؿ بو الزماف‬
،‫الحداثاف‬ 
،‫ كعالج البؤس بعد الضعة‬،‫فحؿ في الضيؽ بعد السعة‬ 
،‫كافترش السخط بعد الرضى‬ 
،‫كاكتحؿ السياد بعد اليجكد‬ 
،‫ كليمتو دىر‬،‫ساعتو شير‬ 
‫ كشارؼ الفكت‬،‫كقد عايف المكت‬ 

The aesthetic features of style are too evident to mistake. All prosodic features of rhyme,
rhythm, alliteration paradox, rhetorical figures and, most prominently, parallelism to
achieve the following functions: (a) to show of muscles of the compact style of rhetoric on
the part of the writer; (b) to reflect the general tendency of the style of writing at the time
of writing the text; and, more significantly, (c) to impress the addressee to a maximum (i.e.
The then Caliph, Haroun Ar-Rasheed) so that he might release the addresser.

Perhaps, the first two functions are irrelevant to the target readers who belong to a
different culture, mentality and epoch. However, the third function is essential to the
message that is intended to be delivered by the SL writer. Yet, it is a kind of style that is
not available or appropriate these days as far the English readership is concerned. All the
translator is recommended to do is sort out the biggest problems of understanding the SL
text properly, and, then, render sense in a formal English style, and do his/her best to
achieve sample examples of parallelism as representatives of it, though it is not required
urgently. Here is an attempt:

(To the Prince of Believers, the Caliph of the guided, the Imam of Muslims and the Trustee
Caliph of the Lord of the Worlds, from a slave subdued by his sins, ruined by his flaws, let
down by his brothers, turned down by his friends, turned away by time, afflicted by
calamities, hit by hardship after ease, suffering destitution and humility, lying down on
discontent after content, eye-lined with insomnia after slumber. His hour is one month, his
night is lifetime, on the verge of death, and about to pass away…)
(Translation by Ghazala, 2010: 49)

The English version is an attempt to match the rhetorical structure of the Arabic original as
closely as possible with respect to parallelism in particular, as the next table of
juxtaposition may indicate:

6) To the Prince of Believers, the ‫ كامػ ػ ػػاـ‬،‫ كخميفػ ػ ػػة الميػ ػ ػػدييف‬،‫ألميػ ػ ػػر المػ ػ ػػؤمنيف‬ 
Caliph of the guided, the Imam of
،‫ كخميفة رب العالميف‬،‫المسمميف‬
Muslims and the
7) Trustee Caliph of the Lord of the ،‫ كأكبقتو عيكبو‬،‫مف عبد أسممتو ذنكبو‬ 
327
 Worlds, from a slave subdued by his
sins, ruined by his flaws,
8) let down by his brothers, turned
،‫ كرفضو صديقو‬،‫كخذلو شقيقو‬ 
down by his friends,
9) turned away by time, afflicted by ً ‫ كنزؿ بو‬،‫كماؿ بو الزماف‬
،‫الحداثاف‬ 
calamities, ‫ كعػالج البػؤس بعػد‬،‫فحؿ في الضيؽ بعد السػعة‬ 
10) hit by hardship after ease, suffering
destitution and humility, ،‫الضعة‬
11) lying down on discontent after ،‫كافترش السخط بعد الرضى‬ 
content,
12) eye-lined with insomnia after ،‫كاكتحؿ السياد بعد اليجكد‬ 
slumber.
13) His hour is as long as a month, his ،‫ كليمتو دىر‬،‫ساعتو شير‬ 
night is as long as a lifetime,
14) on the verge of death, and about to ‫ كشارؼ الفكت‬،‫كقد عايف المكت‬ 
pass away…)

In sum, the style of parallelism is recurrent in Arabic Language past and present. It is one
of the pillars of rhetorical style which is still popular in Arabic, but not necessarily in
English. It is a functional type of style, implying a significant part of meaning. Hence, in
translation into English, we do not have an equivalent style available to students and
translators, nor is this type of style recommended in it. Hence, providing representative
indications of this style of parallelism can be endeavored, but not highly commended
when artificial or unattainable. The best resort for the translator is to use Standard
English, though with some loss of rhetoric, aesthetic effect, and a part of the meaning of
the original.

3.6 TRANSLATING THE STYLE OF AMBIGUITY: JARGON

Ambiguity is simply unclarity. It is one of the universal language features, for it is common
to all languages (Wales, 1989). To Newmark, it is a word or a syntactic structure which has
more than one meaning in context or in spite of it. ‘Vagueness’ and ‘obscurity’ are parts of
ambiguity for they can be reduced to it. He points out seven types of ambiguity in
translation (i.e. grammatical, lexical, pragmatic, cultural, idiolectal, referential and
metaphorical) (1988: 218-20). More types of ambiguity can be recognized at the levels of
jargon, politics and religion. However, probably, the most prominent and recurrent are the
following three types: the grammatical, the lexical and the metaphorical (see also Wales,
1989).

Ambiguity is a major stylistic feature, used frequently in language to achieve functions

like: lack of clarity of message, complicating meaning, hiding the truth, avoiding
straightforward expression of opinion, reflecting the nature of a character, a person, an
idea, etc. and interconnecting style and meaning in such a compact, artistic way that they
reflect one another. These functions are vital to the message, and, hence, are extremely
important to retain in translation to match the same implications and functions of the
original. Perhaps there are translators and translation theorists who might claim that it is
the job of the translator to clear up ambiguity. Yes, but only occasionally. The SL writer
could have clarified everything, but he/she has opted for ambiguity for specific reasons to
328
be undestood (or misunderstood) from the context of the SL text. Here are some reasons
for using the style of ambiguity in politics:

(a) to hide meaning or a part of it;

(b) to avoid mentioning a critically important information, name, etc.;
(c) to avoid embarrassment (being embarrassed, or embarrassing others);
(d) to avoid insulting others;
(e) to avoid disclosing a secret;
(f) to insinuate something;
(g) to open the door for more than one possibility;
(h) to imply undeclared ignorance on behalf of the speaker;
(i) to obscure a picture, an idea, or a situation that can otherwise be clear;
(j) to cover up something on purpose.
etc.

Consequently, it is not wise to disambiguate an ambiguous style, or else, a significant

function that can be crucial to the whole statement or speech in question might be
wasted. Thus, ambiguity is intentional and functional, and usually used for a significant
function.

In principle, certain texts, especially religious, humorous, literary, political and advertising
texts, have proportional potentials of ambiguity, implying more than one possible
meaning. Here are miscellaneous examples:

Modern Sciences Centers/Modern Centers of Sciences? ‫) مراكز العمكـ الحديثة‬1

New Specialisms Clinics/ New Clinics of specialisms? ‫) عيادات التخصصات الجديدة‬2
Don’t use your mobile )‫) ال تتصػػؿ حتػػى تصػػؿ (إعػػالف إرشػػادم لعػػدـ اسػػتعماؿ الجػكاؿ فػػي السػػيارة‬3
before you arrive/don’t call your family in order to arrive safely
The stick-and-carrot policy ‫ سياسة الترغيب كالترىيب‬/ ‫) سياسة العصا كالجزرة (سياسة الميف‬4
Give-and-take policy (a policy of )‫ سياسػة التسػكية‬/‫) سياسػة األخػذ كالػرد (سياسػة المصػالح المتبادلػة‬5
mutual interest in the negative sense/policy of compromise
‫ فيمػػا تتعمػػد‬،‫) "لمػػاذا تمتػػزـ بعػػض الجيػػات الصػػمت حيػػاؿ مقتػػؿ مئػػات اآلالؼ فػػي سػػكريا كالعػػالـ‬6
‫إثػارة الضػػجيج نعػداـ شػػخص كاحػػد فػي السػػعكدية فػي الكقػػت الػػذم تقػكـ فيػػو بإمػداد نظػػاـ األسػػد‬
)2016/1/7 :‫" (السيد أردكغاف‬.‫بالماؿ كالسالح بشكؿ مباشر كغير مباشر‬
“Why do some governments keep their quiet about killing hundreds of people in
Syrian and the World, and make a lot of fuss about hanging one man in Saudi
Arabia, while thet keep supporting Assad regime with money and weapons
directly and indirectly?
‫( ٌدا أوكتا وفو نفخ‬7
“Your hands have fastened your water skin and your mouth has blown it out". But
it means "blame yourself/ it is your fault/you are to blame/this is your coffin").
There is a big problem of understanding the wording of this classical proverb (e.g.
‫ أوكتببا‬which is not in modern use any more) and its figurative implications.
However, references are available for translators now including the Web. They
desperately need to check them, but, at the same time, have to work hard on
329
comprehending the intended figurative meaning of the proverb, as illustrated
above.”
‫) اكدح لي أكدح لؾ‬8
“Work for me so I work for you. But it is: "serve me so I serve you / scratch my
back and I scratch yours").

This statement is perhaps meant to be understood literally, but this is a potential

serious miscomprehension. Hence, the translator has to attend carefully to the
metaphorical sense of this idiom as much as to its negative implications.

This first set of examples (1-8) can be described as ambiguous either linguistically
(1-3), by implication (4-6) or idiomatically and culturally (7-8). All of them involve
some kind of linguistic ambiguity in the sense that there are two possible senses
for the source expression neither of which can be written off completely. A
special case of insinuation is presented by the media text 7 which does not state
who is meant on purpose to be understood by implication as a reference to the
aggressive and terrorist State, Iran. So, the students and translators have to work
harder than usual to decide which meaning or implication is intended.

The next set examples is an anthology of literary (9-11), religious (12-13) and
political (14 and next) jargon terms and expressions that might cause a good
proportion of ambiguity:
!‫) ما لكـ تكأكأتـ عمي كتكأكئكـ عمى ذم ًجنة؟ إفرنقعكا عني‬9
“Why have you amassed around me as though you amass around a madman? Go
away!”

The difficulty of understanding this statement (by ‫( أبػك عمقمػة النحػكم‬Abu Alqamah,
the notorious Grammarian)) is its Arabic Language jargon, the so-called ‫المغة المقعرة‬.
In Arabic, jargon is )‫ (رطانبة‬which means )‫ أو كبالم ال ٌفهمبه الجمهبور‬،ً‫( (كبالم أعجمب‬non-
Arabic language, or a language unintelligible to the public) (Al-Waseet Arabic
Dictionary; 1987). It is also defined in clear terms by Baalbaki (1990: 266) as ‫(عٌبب‬
‫( كالمببً ٌتمٌببر بتتببابع بعببض الكلمببات ؼٌببر المفهومببة عنببد اآلخببرٌن خببالل النطب‬a language defect
characterized by a succession of some unintelligible words to others at
articulating them). Even at the time of the Grammarian in question, the persons
addressed by him then commented on his out-of-the-way statement as “ ‫"اترككه فإف‬
‫( جنيتو تػتكمـ بالينديػة اليػكـ‬leave him alone for his she-Jinni is speaking Indian today!) (Al-
Faseeh Net for Arabic Language). Hence, the task of the translator is demanding
at comprehending and translating this uncommon type of language.

‫ فطسػئت‬،‫ أمتع اهلل بؾ إنى أكمت البارحػة مػف لحػكـ ىػذه الجػكازؿ‬:‫) دخؿ أبك عمقمة النحكم عمى طبيب فقاؿ لو‬11
‫ فيػؿ‬.‫ فمػـ يػزؿ يربػك كينمػك حتػى خػالط الخمػب كالش ارسػيؼ‬،‫طسأة فأصابني كجع ما بيف الكابؿ إلى دايػة العنػؽ‬
‫ فقػػاؿ أبػػك‬.‫ فزىزقػػو كزش ػرقو كاغسػػمة كاش ػربو‬،‫ خػػذ خرنق ػان كشػػمفقان كشػػبرقان‬،‫ نعػػـ‬:‫عنػػدؾ دكاء لػػي؟ فقػػاؿ الطبيػػب‬
‫ يعني أنا مف فيـ؟‬:‫ فقاؿ الطبيب‬.‫ لـ أفيـ ما تقكؿ أييا الطبيب‬:‫عمقمة‬

330
Abu Alqama, -the pedantic grammarian- visited the Doctor and said: “May God
please you. Yesterday, I ate jawazel meat, so I sneezed a sneeze and I felt pain
between wabel and the throat dayah, which grew bigger and bigger until it
affected the Khilb and sharaseef. Do you have a treatment for me? The Doctor
said: “Yes, take kharnaqan, shalfaqan and shabraqan, then zahziqhu, zashriqhu,
wash it and drink it. Abu Alqamah said: I did not understand what you said,
Doctor. The Doctor said: neither did I?”

This is a classical joke based on mysterious jargon words that are not
construable, with a puch line that no one undestands anyone. That is why one
suggested way of demonstrating that is to transfer the Arabic difficult words
into English as such without translating their sense to achieve the purpose of
misapprehension by the English readership. Another way of doing it is to use
nonesense words in English as follows:

“… Yesterday, I ate foodinization meat, so I sneezed a sneeze and I felt pain

between abdomina and throat malgamina, which grew bigger and bigger until it
affected the chestinatum and intestinatum. Do you have a treatment for me?
The Doctor said: “Yes, take cholecystalgina, chondroxina, and choriothena, then
menchalize it, tastalize it, whashanize it and then drink it. Abu Alqamah said: I
did not understand what you said, Doctor. The Doctor said: neither did I?”

‫ كأعف ػكا‬،‫( فػػإني أريػػت كثي ػ انر مػػف كتٌػػاب أىػػؿ زماننػػا كسػػائر أىمػػو قػػد اسػػتطابكا الدعػػة أك اسػػتكطؤكا مركػػب العجػػز‬11
".‫ كبمغ ػكا البغيػػة بغيػػر آلػػة‬،‫ حػػيف نػػالكا الػػدرؾ بغيػػر سػػبب‬،‫أنفسػػيـ مػػف كػػد النظػػر كقمػػكبيـ مػػف تعػػب التفكيػػر‬
“I did notice that like people of our time, many authors favoured )156 :‫(المرجع نفسو‬
meekness, succumbed to disability, exempted themselves of looking and their
hearts of the trouble of thinking, for they achieved their ends effortlessly, and
mounted to the top unequipped.”

The example is crammed with classical jargon that is unfamiliar to modern

readers of classical literary Arabic words that make the translator’s task daunting.
As, suggested above in relation to translating classical texts, the translator’s main
concern is to render the text into Standard English of today, as done in the
version put forward here.

(The (‫ىمػػؾ المتنطعػػكف" )مسػػمـ‬...‫ىمػػؾ المتنطعػػكف‬...‫ "ىمػػؾ المتنطعػػكف‬:‫) قػػاؿ رسػػكؿ اهلل صػػمى اهلل عميػػو كسػػمـ‬12
Messenger of God peace be to him said: “Perished are the bigots … perished are
the bigots … perished are the bigots!”). The central problem of comprehending
‫( ’المتشػددكف‬i.e. ‫المتنطعػكف‬this Prophetic Tradition is the key obsolete, unknown term ‘
(the extremists on simple themes). The translator’s utmost care ‫في غير مكاضػع التشػدد‬
should be taken at translating the term for it is a part of a holy text.

(Ambiguous political jargon) ‫) الرطانة السٌاسٌة الؽامضة‬13

Political jargon is the most type in circulation nowadays. It is marked by one of the
following features (adopted partly from Ghazala, 2012):

331
 (a) The use of the ending 'iyyah' )‫ ( ٌّببة‬of the so-called ً‫( المصببدر الصببناع‬factitious
nominal infinitive) (e.g. ،‫ مصبطلحاتٌة‬،‫ رادٌكالٌبة‬،‫ شبٌوعٌة‬،‫ إسبالمٌة‬،‫ إٌدٌولوجٌبة‬،‫ لٌبرالٌبة‬،‫أصولٌة‬
.‫ إلخ‬،‫ استقرابٌة‬،‫ استنتاجٌة‬،‫ انتحارٌة‬،‫ دٌماؼوجٌة‬،‫ تعسفٌة‬،‫;)انفصالٌة‬
(b) The informal use of double factitious ending of nominal infinitive (e.g. ،‫إسبالموٌة‬
).‫ إلخ‬،‫ سالموٌة‬،‫ لٌبرالوٌة‬،‫ دٌمقراطوٌة‬،‫ قوموٌة‬،‫عروبوٌة‬

(c) The informal use of triple factitious ending of nominal infinitive (e.g. ،‫إسبالموجٌة‬
.‫ إلخ‬،‫ سالموجٌة‬،‫ لٌبرالوجٌة‬/ ‫ لٌبرالجٌة‬،‫ قوموجٌة‬/ ‫ قومجٌة‬،‫ عروبوجٌة‬/ ‫)عروبجٌة‬
(d) The chaotic use of foreign words and terms in preference to Arabic equivalents
(e.g. in addition to transferred-naturalized concept words like ،‫ رادٌكالٌبة‬،‫لٌبرالٌبة‬
،‫إٌدٌولوجٌببة‘ دٌمقراطٌببة‬, etc. cited above: ً‫( الفاٌببل الشخصبب‬instead of ً‫)الملببؾ الشخصبب‬,
‫( المسباعدات اللوجسبتٌة‬instead of ‫)المسباعدات ؼٌبر العسبكرٌة‬, ‫( الهباوس أوؾ كمبونر‬rather than
ً‫)مجلبس العمبوم البرٌطبان‬, ‫( ببولٌتٌكس‬not ‫)سٌاسبة‬, ‫اللٌبرالٌبون‬/‫( اللٌبرالر‬for ‫)األحبرار‬, ٌ‫( البدٌالٌكت‬for
)‫ فن الجدل‬/ ‫)الجدل‬, etc.
(e) The use of irregular verb forms in literal translation of the English forms (e.g. ‫ٌبؤدل‬
(from ‫إٌدٌولوجٌببة‬/ ‫)أدلجببة‬, ‫( ٌُل ْبببرل‬from ‫)لٌبرالٌببة‬, ‫( ٌُسببٌس‬from ‫)تسببٌٌس‬, ‫ ٌؤتمببت‬from ‫أتمتببة‬
(automation)), etc.
(f) The use of newly coined words which imitate the foreign noun formation (e.g.
‫( دمقرطببة‬for democratization / democraticization)), ‫( لبرلببة‬for liberalization /
liberality), ‫( أتمتبة‬for automation), ‫( مواطنبة‬for citizenship), ‫( أمركبة‬for Americanization
/ Americanism), etc.
(g) Terms which are politically vague and pretentious to the public, originally
borrowed into Arabic from English as ‘calques’: e.g.

(Historical dialectic) ،‫الدٌالٌكتٌكٌة التارٌخٌة‬ 

(centralized/decentralized democracy) ،‫ الالمركرٌة‬/ ‫الدٌمقراطٌة المركرٌة‬ 
(ballistic missiles) ،‫الصوارٌخ البالستٌة‬ 
(strategic weapons) ،‫األسلحة االستراتٌجٌة‬ 
(enriched uranium) ،‫تخصٌب الٌورانٌوم‬ 
(uranium depletion / depleted uranium) ،‫ المنضَّب‬/ ‫الٌورانٌوم المخضب‬ 
(federation ،‫ فٌدرالٌة‬/ ً‫اتحاد فٌدرال‬ 
(confederation / confederacy) ‫كونفدرالٌة‬ 
(tactical war – strategic war) ،‫ حرب استراتٌجٌة‬- ‫حرب تكتٌكٌة‬ 
(cantons) ،‫كانتونات‬ 
(the possible indictment (by the Special International Tribunal .‫ إلبخ‬،ً‫القبرار الظنب‬ 
for Lebanon))

(h) The use of sophistry )‫ (السفسبطة‬or misleading argument and reasoning. In other
words, it is nonsense: e.g.
‫ إن األسباب الدٌالكتٌكٌة فً الدٌمومة التارٌخة موجبة للعقم اإلٌدٌولوجً الرببقً؛‬
(The dialectical reasons of the perpetuity of historicity are exigent for mercurial
ideological barrenness)
ً‫ فً حناٌا اإلستراٌجٌة الكمونة وخباٌا التكتٌ المتؽلؽل فً ثناٌا الطر اإلٌدٌولوجً السرٌال‬
(In the-depth of the latency of the strategy, and the mysteries of the tactic infiltrating
the innermost of the Surrealist ideological contention)

332
 Naturally, jargonized words and expressions are reflected in English in a similar
pretentious English style of language with respect to word choice and syntactic
structure in particular.

Here is an Arabic example of media jargon, used partially as a style of bitter sarcasm
of certain mentality and ideology (Numbers are provided in both texts to be
compared in pairs with one another (borrowed from Ghazala, 2012):

‫سبب فقر العالم الثالث هو الفيل الضخم في قاعة المؤتمر‬

‫ فٌل اسمه‬.)1( ‫ فٌل اسمه الفساد والرشوة وسرقة أموال الشعوب وتهرٌبها إلى الحسابات السرٌة فً سوٌسرا‬...
‫) تصدر‬3( ‫ فٌل اسمه آٌدٌولوجٌة ثورجٌة مجنونة‬... .ً‫ ) التً تجر البالد إلى حروب ال تنته‬2( ‫اآلٌدٌولوجٌة العدوانٌة‬
‫ أو تكون اآلٌدٌولوجٌة من‬... .‫اإلرهاب باسم الثورة أو الدعوة أو ما ٌشابههما من أسماء ما أنرل هللا بها من سلطان‬
‫ والتً ال ٌمت‬،‫) فً القرن التاسع عشر‬5( ‫) الذي عكس التركٌبات الطبقٌة لمجتمع الثورة الصناعٌة‬4( ً‫الفكر الماركس‬
‫) من عولمة‬6( ‫واقعها االقتصادي والتجاري وأنماطه اإلنتاجٌة وطبٌعته االستهالكٌة المحدودة بصلة ألنماط استهالكٌة‬
...‫القرن الحادي والعشرٌن‬
(11624‫ العدد‬2010 ‫ سبتمبر‬25 ‫ هـ‬1431 ‫ شـوال‬17 ‫ جرٌدة الشر األوسط السبـت‬:‫(عادل دروٌش‬

Poverty in the Third World is caused by the monolithic

elephant inside the conference hall.
It is an elephant called corruption, bribery, and stealing of their peoples' money and
smuggling of it to their clandestine bank accounts in Switzerland (1). It is an elephant
called an aggressive ideology (2) which drags the country to endless wars. … it is an
elephant described as 'lunatic revolutionaristic ideology' (3) that exports terrorism in the
name of revolution, invitation to Islam, or names that God has sent down no authority for
them. … Or perhaps an ideology of a Marxist thought (4) which reflects the class strata of
the industrialist revolution's society (5) in the Nineteenth Century, whose economic and
commercial status, modes of production and habits of consumption(6) were quite alien to
the Twenty First Century globalization …)

The translation seems as jargonized and sarcastic as the original. The SL has exploited the
style of jargon to achieve an ironic effect with respect to the SL writer’s bias to the
ideology he supports. This ideology is anti-Marxist, anti-corrupt Arab regimes; anti-leftist,
anti-Saddamist and anti-Iranian. Indeed, the journalist's point is made through the use of
wooden, vague political jargon.

In sum, ambiguity is a well-established style used to play a decisive role in the reception of
the message intended. It can be linguistic, media, political, cultural, literary, humorous,
religious and political jargon, as illustrated in the examples and their discussion above.
Usually, under normal circumstances, translators do not change an ambiguous style into a
clear style unless the SL text is general, not serious, humorous, classical, obsolete or
unnecessarily verbose and pompous. When finding it difficult to translate into English, or
take a decision about it, students and translators are commended to render it literally
with no change as a last resort.

3.7 TRANSLATING COMPLEX vs SIMPLE STYLE

Complexity of style can be dominant in a text to achieve a function of some kind, which
has a significant bearing on meaning. Complexity and simplicity is not meant to be taken in
333
the sense of complex and simple sentence structure, but in the sense of complication or
simplicity of style of the grammatical and lexical difficulty or easiness of understanding
meaning of a complex or a simple sentence. Usually, simple style does not pose as many
problems of translation as complex style does. Following are translated examples of
grammatical and lexical complexity and simplicity followed by discussion of the problems
of translating them into English, starting with grammatical style of complexity:

3.7.1 Translating Grammatical Complexity vs. Simplicity of Style

Lest we forget ‫( حتى ال ننسى‬1

The complexity of this short statement (which is not a full sentence) lies in the particle ‫حتى‬
which means ‘until’, ‘even’ or ‘in order to’. The common mistake that might be committed
by students and some translators is to translate it hastily into one of the first two (until /
even) as ‘until we forget’. The third option, ‘in order to’ is not wrong but less English than
the version suggested above, which resolves any complexity of the original.

And, no doubt, all of these Centuries ‫( كاف كػؿ لمػا جميػع لػدينا محضػركف‬2
without exception shall be brought altogether before Us

The grammatical structure of this verse is quite unique and complicated to understand in
Arabic. Translators of the Holy Koran have translated it into an emphatic literal meaning
like: “and every one of them is summoned before us” (Zidan, 1996); “and surely, all –
everyone of them will be brought before Us.” (Al-Hilali and Khan, 1996); and “But each
one of them – All- will be brought befor Us (for Judgement)’ (Yusef Ali, 1976). Perhaps the
closest is the third one who understood ‫إف‬ ٍ properly here as ‘but’. Yet, all the translations
have not translated the verse clearly. According to the authentic references of the
interpretation of the Holy Koran, this verse can be rephrased in simple style as follows: ‫كما‬
‫ إف كؿ‬/ )‫جميعا عندنا يكـ القيامة لمحساب كالجزاء (القرطبي‬
‫ن‬ ‫ إال محضركف‬،‫كؿ ىذه القركف التي أىمكناىا كغيرىـ‬
‫ أم ليس إحضارىـ في أكقات مختمفة كال في أمكنة متعددة ؛ فكممة (كؿ) أفادت أف‬، ‫القركف محضركف لدينا مجتمعيف‬
‫ ككممة (جميع) أفادت أنيـ محضركف مجتمعيف فميست إحدل الكممتيف‬، ‫انحضار محيط بيـ بحيث ال ينفمت فريؽ منيـ‬
.)‫بمغنية عف ذكر األخرل (ابف عاشكر‬
Hence, the translation suggested above, which states the pronoun reference of ‫( كؿ‬i.e.
Centuries) to link it with the previous verse (i.e. (‫(كـ أىمكنا قبميـ مف القركف أنيـ إلييـ ال يرجعكف‬.
Also, and more importantly, the two emphatic meanings of ‫ كل‬and ‫ جمٌع‬are stated
separately in the translation to demonstrate the difference between them as explained in
Ibn Ashour’s interpretation cited above.
And verily, either we or you ‫( كانػي أك إيػاكـ لعمػى ىػدل أك فػي ضػالؿ مبػيف‬3
are rightly guided or in manifest misguidance
In a simpler structure, the original means the following: ، ‫(ما نحف كأنتـ عمى أمر كاحد‬
)‫ كأحد الفريقيف ميتد كىك نحف كاآلخر ضاؿ كىك أنتـ‬،‫بؿ عمى أمريف متضاديف‬. Hence, the style of
the original of demonstrating a difference between two counter parties and the

334
priority order of the guided, first, and the misguided, second, would be retained
in English, as indicated in the translation above.
My Lord, indeed, I am in need of your bounty / ‫( رب إني لما أنزلت إلي مف خير فقير‬4
My Lord! Truly, I am in need of whatever good that You bestow on me!

Well, the two translations are literal and superficial in style and sense, with the retention
of the style of backgrounding of the delayed nominative of ‫إن‬. In fact, Moses’ style of
asking God is matchless and reflects good manners with His Lord. He was very hungry and
ُ (a meal). He did not ask Him directly in the style of
all he asked his Lord was ‫شببعة مبن طعبام‬
‘give me’ but indirectly in form of expressing his lack of God’s giving. Hence the following
translation:

‘My Lord! I am to what you sent to me of whatever food is needy / I am in need of food ’

Far, very far is that which you are promised! ‫( ىييػػات ىييػػات لمػػا تكعػػدكف‬5
/impossible, impossible is that which you are promised

Perhaps the problem is with translating ‫ ىييػات ىييػات‬which indicates double farfetchedness
of an action of some kind. So, translating it into double ‘far’ or double ‘impossible’ for
stronger emphasis, with clearer style in the TL, as follows:

‘It is very very far what you are promised!’

A good question that might be raised by a student or a translator is: can we start the
statement from the end and say’ : “What you are promised is very very far”? The answer is
yes, we can, but the foregrounded emphasis laid on ‘very very far’ in the original would
be lost. Another good question would be posed about the volume of this loss in relation to
meaning, the answer to which is that it is not big, but in terms of accuracy of translating
the Holy Koran in particular, it is advisable not to drop any detail of the original.

ِّ ‫ كتيػ‬،‫ "مػػف يزي ػػد فػػي عممك ػػـ منطقيػػو‬:‫ "مػػف نج ػػالس؟" ق ػػاؿ‬:‫( قيػػؿ لممس ػػيح عميػػو الس ػػالـ‬6
،‫ػذك يركـ اهللى رؤيتيػػو‬
Christ, peace be to him , was )230 :2008 ،‫كيي ىػرغبكـ فػي اآلخػرة عمميػو" (البيػاف كالتبيػيف‬
asked: “who do we keep company with? He said: “who you extend your
knowledge when he speaks, who you remember God when you see, and
who makes you love the Hereafter by his deeds”.

The style of backgrounding (or end-focus) of the original is retained in English to

give more weight to the most significant three subjects: "‫عمؿ‬/‫رؤيػة‬/‫( "منطؽ‬speech,
sight and deeds). Normally, in Arabic, these words follow their verbs as follows:

"‫كي ىرغبكـ عممو في اآلخرة عممو‬ ِّ ‫ كتي‬،‫”مف يزيد منطقو في عممكـ منطقو‬
‫ ي‬،‫ذك يركـ رؤيتو اهلل رؤيتو‬

Of course, this does not mean that the rest of the statements may not be
important; rather, everything in the original is important with extra emphasis
received by the backgrounded subjects.

335
‫ كخرج مف سماجة‬،‫ كلذلؾ القدر لىفىقان‬،‫ ككاف لذلؾ الحاؿ ىكفىقان‬،‫ المفظ معناه‬- ‫( "متى شاكؿ – أبقاؾ اهلل‬7
‫ كجدي انر أف يمنع‬،‫ كحقيقان بانتفاع المستمع‬،‫ كاف قمينان بحسف المكقع‬،‫ كسمـ مف فساد التكمؼ‬،‫االستكراه‬
،‫ كال تزاؿ القمكب بو معمكرة‬،‫ كيحمي عرضو مف اعتراض العائبيف‬،‫جانبو مف تأ ٌىكؿ الطامعيف‬
َّ
،‫ ككاف سميمان مف الفضكؿ‬،‫متخي انر مف جنسو‬ ،‫ كمتى كاف المفظ كريمان في نفسو‬.‫كالصدكر بو مأىكلة‬
‫ كارتاحت‬،‫ كىشت لو األسماع‬،‫ كالتحـ بالعقكؿ‬،‫ كاتصؿ باألذىاف‬،‫ يحبب إلى النفكس‬،‫بريئ نا مف التعقيد‬
‫ كصار مادة‬،‫ كشاع في اآلفاؽ ذكرىف كعظـ في الناس خطره‬،‫ كخؼ عمى ألسف الركاة‬،‫لو القمكب‬
،‫ كأفرغ عميو مف محبتو ىذنكبان‬،‫ كمف أعاره مف معرفتو نصيبان‬،‫ كرياضة لممتعمـ الريِّض‬،‫لمعالـ الرئيس‬
‫ كأراح قارئ‬،‫ ككاف قد أغنى المستمع عف كبر التكمؼ‬،‫حبب إليو المعاني كسمس لو نظاـ المفظ‬
)131 :2007-1793 ،‫ الشكعة‬- ‫(الجاحظ‬ ."‫الكتاب مف عالج التفيـ‬

"When form reflects meaning in conformity and unity, with no hideousness, repulsiveness
or corruptive artificiality, it is then worthy of being impressive and useful to the listener,
dismissing any misinterpretation by fraudulent, fault finding interpreters, making hearts
confidently overwhelmed by it. Further, when form is carefully and nobly used,
appropriately selected to suit specific listeners, disposed of unfitting curiosity and free of
complication, it becomes close to souls, tied to minds and reasons, comforting to ears and
hearts, light on the narrators' tongues, common to people everywhere, serious to them all,
befitting material to eminent scholars, and a training exercise for the untamed learner.
And if one takes it with a proportion of knowledge, loves it at heart, one will fall in love
with its meanings and fluency of its system, thus relieving the listener of haughty
artificiality, and the reader of awkward perception".

The biggest problems with this text lie in the following syntactic points:

(a) the intricate complexity of the clause structure (the whole text is one
sentence only, with a network of intermingled qualifying clauses of
different types);
(b) the insertions of subsequent postmodifying clauses (e.g. ... ‫متػى شػاكؿ‬
...‫( كػاف قمينػان‬When form reflects meaning in conformity and unity, with
no hideousness, repulsiveness or corruptive artificiality, it is then
worthy of…);
(c) the interruptive clauses/phrases (e.g. ‫( )أبقبا هللا‬which is left out of the
English translation, being an unfamiliar style to English readers);
(d) disrupting the normal word order of clauses especially by
backgrounding/end-focus (e.g. ‫ كالصدكر بو مأىكلة‬،‫;)كال تزاؿ القمكب بو معمكرة‬
َّ ،‫كمتػى كػاف المفػظ كريمػان فػي نفسػو‬
(e) appositive clauses and phrases (e.g. ‫متخيػ انر مػف‬
‫;)جنسو‬
(f) syndetic phrases and clauses (i.e. connected by the conjunction ‘and’);
etc.

The translator into English does his/her best to render these grammatical features of the
style of the original to reflect their functions of giving particular details in a particular style
336
of significance, emphasis and rhyme and rhythm. While these features and functions are
observed in the version suggested above, the last two sound features and functions are
ignored, being inappropriate in English Language. Further, the original sentence is divided
more appropriately into two sentences, and another translator may break it into three or
more sentences in English to facilitate readability and comprehension.

3.7.2 Lexical Complexity vs. Simplicity of Style

He is useless; ‫) ال فً العٌر وال فً النفٌر‬1

Complexity is reflected by the likelihood of misinterpreting this common proverbial

statement into ‘careless/carefree/impartial’. None of these meanings is acceptable for the
original is negative and describes a coward who lags behind and does nothing useful ‫(الرجل‬
)‫البذي ال ٌصبل ألمبر مهبم‬. Translators may have other suggestions for the sense, but should
avoid translating it literary for it is Arabic linguistic culture-specific.

Woe to you and again, then woe to you and ‫ ثم أولى لب فبأولى‬.‫) أولى ل فأولى‬2
again woe to you!

The lexical problem here is in the misunderstanding of the key word ‫ أولبى‬as ‘had better/
would be better’ and ‘nearer to you’ (see Arberry, 1967). Mor to that, the rhetorical,
emphatic style of its repetition four times could be overcome too.

God is absolutely the most just of judges ‫) ألٌس هللا بأحكم الحاكمٌن؟‬3

The Arabic original is a rhetorical question that requires no answer, especially when the
speaker is God the Almighty, Who does not need the consent of His creations to His being
the ‘the best of Judges/the most just of Judges”. Hence, it cannot be translated literally as
a normal question, but pragmatically as an emphatic statement, using the intensifier
‘absolutely’ and a declarative statement )‫ (جملببة خبرٌببة‬instead of a question form (as
suggested above).

Verily, by your life, Mohammad, they are still ‫) لعمر إنهم لفً سكرتهم ٌعمهون‬4
in their wild intoxication, they are wandering blindly/by your life, they
are definitely wandering blindly in their dazzlement

The two main lexical problems of translation relate to ‫لعمبر‬, ‫ سبكرة‬and ‫ٌعمهبون‬, the first of
which is an emphatic word of swearing used solely in the Holy Koran as an oath by the
Prophet’s life, peace be to him. The second can be translated literally into ‘intoxication’,
being metaphorical, and into sense as amazement/dazzlement. The third word can be
understood generally as ‘completely lost, wandering blindly, bewildered, baffled, etc.’
Indeed, there is a unique use of the style of metaphoric semantic density of expressive
and emphatic meanings of horrible punishment lying ahead for the infidels concerned,
that the translator may be dazzled as how to express them satisfactorily in English. He/she
has the aim of translating them as appropriately as possible into their approximate sense
whether metaphorically or non-metaphorically, as proposed by the version above.

‫) إن هللا ومالبكته ٌصلون على النبً ٌا أٌها الذٌن آمنوا صلوا علٌه وسلموا تسلٌما‬5
337
God sends His mercy on the Prophet, and His Angles ask God to forgive him. You believers,
ask God to bless him, and greet him with warm greeting).

The richness of the meanings of the key word ‫ صمى‬is manifested in this verse in three
different contexts that should be attended to by the translators extra carefully. Here they
are:
(God’s prayer for the Prophet is His mercy of him) ‫) صالة اهلل عز كجؿ عمى النبي بالرحمة‬15
(The Angels’ prayer for him is ask God’s forgiveness for ‫) صالة المالئكة عميو باالستغفار لو‬16
him)
(The believers’ prayer for the Prophet is ‫) صالة المؤمنيف عميو بالسالـ عميو بالصيغة المعركفة‬17
bless and greet him warmly in a special form)
This matchless density of the meanings of this word in one and the same statement is an
incompatible style in English, and the translator cannot produce it, so he/she resorts to
the specific meaning of the word in each of its three contexts just pointed out. He/she
must be warned against translating it into the same word, ‘prayer’, which is, religiously, a
grave mistake, for it fits in none of the context pointed out above.

‫ واسبو ّد منبً مبا‬،ّ‫ "أجدنً قد ابٌض منً ما كنت أحب أن ٌسود‬:‫ "كٌؾ تجد ؟ قال‬:‫) قٌل لعبد المل بن مروان‬6
Abdul ."‫ والن منببً مببا كنببت أحببب أن ٌشببتد‬،‫ واشببتد منببً مببا كنببت أحببب أن ٌلببٌن‬،‫كنببت أحببب أن ٌبببٌض‬
Malek Bin Mawan, the famous Umayyad Caliph, was asked: “ How do you find
yourself?” He said: “what I wished to be blackened has whitened, and blackened
what I wished to become whitened; and what I wished to become yielding has
hardened, and what was yielding I wished to become hardrened”.

The source text is fully figurative and metonymic, insinuating several implications that
cannot be clearly defined or identified. Hence, this figurativeness can be translated
directly and literally unchanged into English, treated as an original metaphor and an
international metaphor that is applicable in any live language in a broad context of human
life.

‫) ىػػك الػػذم أنػػزؿ عميػػؾ الكتػػاب منػػو آيػػات محكمػػات ىػػف أـ الكتػػاب كأخػػر متشػػابيات فأمػػا الػػذيف فػػي قمػػكبيـ زيػػش‬7
‫فيتبعكف ما تشابو منو ابتغاء الفتنػة كابتغػاء تأكيمػو كمػا يعمػـ تأكيمػو إال اهلل كال ارسػخكف فػي العمػـ يقكلػكف آمنػا بػو‬
)7 :‫ (آؿ عمراف‬‫كؿ مف عند ربنا كما يذكر إال أكلكا األلباب‬

(God is the One Who revealed the Book to you, some of its verses are definitive, these are
the essence of the Book, and others are metaphorical. Those who have swerving in their
hearts adhere to what is metaphorical desiring sedition through their own interpretation,
but only God knows its interpretation. And those who are well-grounded in knowledge say,
"We believe in it, it is all from our Lord". And none receive admonition except men of
understanding)

The potential problem of translating this verse as one long statement is to misunderstand
the interpretation of the Koran as known to God as well as to the men of knowledge. This
would be a serious mistake that might be committed by disregarding a full stop after ‫كمػا‬
.‫ يعمػـ تأكيمػو إال اهلل‬to divide the statement into two sentences to make the crucial point clear.
338
The fact is that only God knows its interpretation, and 'men of knowledge' would be the
fronted subject of a new sentence whose predicate is 'say, "We believe in it, it is all from
our Lord".

Clause and sentence structures are sometimes cluttered with complexity and
complication. The students and translators have to work very hard to sort out grammatical
and lexical complex structures which are partly caused by irregular grammatical uses,
lexical/semantic density and intricacy and/or lack of proper punctuation of sentences, as
usually the case in Arabic (see the section on punctuation below).

Better fire consume you than live in disgrace/better ‫تموت الحرة وال تأكل من ثدٌٌها‬/‫( تجوع‬8
die with honour than live with shame (literally: A free woman prefers to suffer
the pangs of hunger to disgraceful humiliation)

It is really difficult to translate this proverb even when we know its origin in Arabic culture.
Well, probably, the two English proverbs suggested above may render the sense of the
original. Yet, if in doubt, one can give the literal meaning of the source propverb literally in
English to illustrate the intended sense. In any case, the literal translation of words is not
recommended by any means to avoid likely serious misunderstanding.

...:‫قػاؿ القممػس‬... ً‫) "ذهبت جمعة وهند بنتا الخس إلى سبو عكباظ فبً الجاهلٌبة فاجتمعتبا عنبد القلمِّبس الكنبان‬9
ُّ ‫ أيحػ‬:‫فػػأم النسػػاء أحػػب إليػػؾ يػػا جمعػػة؟ قالػػت‬
‫ػب الغريػرة العػػذراء الرعبكبػػة العيطػػاء الممكػػكرة المفٌػػاء ذات الجمػػاؿ‬
‫ كصػػفت‬:‫ كيػػؼ تسػػمعيف يػػا ىنػػد؟ قالػػت‬:‫ ق ػاؿ‬.‫ البضػػة الرخصػػة كأنيػػا فضػػة بيضػػاء‬،‫كالبيػػاء كالسػػتر كالحيػػاء‬
‫ قالت أحػب كػؿ مشػبعة الخمخػاؿ ذات‬.‫ قاؿ فقكلي‬.‫إلي منيا‬
ٌ ‫أحب‬
ٌ ‫جارية ىي حاجة الفتى كنيية الرضا كغيرىا‬
)201-200 :2009 ،‫" (الشكعة‬...‫ قاؿ القممس كمتاكما محسنة‬.‫شكؿ كدالؿ كظرؼ كبياء كجماؿ‬
(Jumu'ah and Hind, two daughters of Al-Khass, went to 'Okaz Market in the Pre-Islamic
Jahiliah and met at Al-Qalammas Al-Kinani… . He asked them: Which of the women is
more favourable to you?" She replied: "I like the one who is unblemished, inexperienced,
virgin, soft-skinned, white, pretty, crane-necked, round-legged, fleshy-thighed, gorgeous,
splendid, veiled, bashful, tender-skinned, full, and as smooth as velvet". He asked his sister:
"How do you find that, Hind?" She said: "She described a maid who satisfies and gratifies
lads, but my liking is for a different woman". He said: " Describe her, then". She resumed: "I
like the one who is fully ankletted, well-shaped, coddled, light-hearted, splendid and
gorgeous". Al-Qalammas said: "Both of you have done well. (See Ghazala, 2010: 114-115)

This descriptive rhetorical dialogue is a genuine literary text that is overcrowded with
lexical complexities, semantic densities and rhetorical features. Most of the literary
features are pointed out in relation to the art of letter writing (see above). Yet, further
features can be explored here:

(a) Asyndetic coordinate binomials (i.e. dropping ‘and’): (e.g. ‫الرعبكبػة‬ ‫الغريػرة العػذراء‬
‫( ى‬
‫العيطاء الممككرة المفٌاء‬
(b) Synonymic coordinate binomials: (e.g. ،‫(الجماؿ كالبياء؛ الستر كالحياء‬
(c) Crisp genitive binomials: (e.g. ‫(حاجة الفتى كنيية الرضا‬
(d) Syntactic parallelism: (e.g. most phrases are in parallel pairs)
339
 (e) Elaborate literary similes (e.g. ‫)كأنيا فضة بيضاء‬
(f) Dense descriptive literary adjectives (e.g. most of the adjectives used)
(g) Elaborate Synonymy (e.g. ‫(جماؿ كبياء كستر كحياء‬
(h) Figurative expressions (e.g. ‫(فضة بيضاء‬
(i) Semantic-syntactic elaboration (backgrounding and complexity: ‫أحػػب كػػؿ مشػػبعة‬
‫)الخمخاؿ‬
(j) Classical Arabic (e.g. ‫(الغريرة العذراء الرعبكبة العيطاء الممككرة المفٌاء‬
(k) Semantic elaboration (the whole statements by both sisters as a show of
rhetorical feat)

The translator’s task is demanding indeed as he/she spends a long time to check the
meanings of many classical and literary terms of the original. On the other hand, he/she
will do his/her best to avoid osolete words and, instead, employ formal, rhetorical and
literary English of today to get to the mind and heart of the target reader. The word-for-
word follow-up of these lexical elaborations and rhythmical sequences and combinations
may not be required. What is needed at translating such a classical rhetorical text is to get
the meanings of words right, match the word classes of the original appropriately (e.g.
adjectives with adjectives, nouns with nouns, phrases with phrases, etc.) and suggest
figurative expressions (e.g. compounds (like crane-necked, round-legged, fleshy-thighed,
tender-skinned, well-shaped, and light-hearted) and figurative proverbial similes (such as
as smooth as velvet, etc.). That might compensate for the loss of rhyme, rhythm and other
prosodic and rhetorical features of the source text. Indeed, hard works is required from
the translator on translating such a text crammed with complex lexical elaborations of
features of elaborate descriptive style. It is a lofty, grand and far-fetched piece of literary
work.

To round up, grammatical and lexical complexities are features of style used elaborately
and on purpose to achieve several stylistic functions. Failing to take them into account
would render the message incomplete. On the other hand, the style of simplicity of
grammar and lexis may not pose serious problems of translation, but is a different kind of
style that has equally to be retained in translation into English. It should not be changed
into a complex style for each style has different functions and implications, as will be
demonstrated later in regard to ‘show of muscles’ style’ (see below).

3.8 TRANSLATING THE STYLE OF SHORT SENTENCES vs. LONG SENTENCES

The normal, unmarked style of the sentences of a text is the medium length sentences, or
with a variation of long, short and medium sentences. However, short and long sentences
are two marked styles when used significantly and overwhelmingly in a text. They have
different stylistic functions and implications in relation to meaning. Therefore, they need
be attended to in translation into English due to their relevance to meaning either directly
or indirectly.

340
3.8.1 Translating the Style of Short Sentences

The style of short sentences, to start with, can be dominant in the Arabic text. If so, the
English translation needs be so too. More than one reason can be behind that, as the next
three examples may confirm:

‫ اتق ػكا مػػف تبغضػػو‬.‫ "مػػف كػػتـ س ػره كػػاف الخيػػار فػػي يػػده‬:‫قػػاؿ عمػػر بػػف الخطػػاب رضػػي اهلل عنػػو‬ )1
‫ ال تػؤخر عمػؿ يكمػؾ إلػى‬.‫ أعقؿ النػاس أعػذرىـ لمنػاس‬.‫ أشقى الكالة مف شقيت بو رعيتو‬.‫قمكبكـ‬
‫ مػػا الخمػر صػرفان بأذىػػب لعقػػكؿ الرجػػاؿ مػػف‬.‫ مػػف لػػـ يعػػرؼ الشػػر كػاف أجػػدر أف يقػػع بػػو‬.‫غػدؾ‬
‫ قممػا أدبػر‬.‫ يم ٍػر ذكم الق اربػات أف يتػزاكركا كال يتجػاكركا‬.‫ ال يكف حبؾ كمفان كال بغضؾ تمفان‬.‫الطمع‬
".‫ إلى اهلل أشكك ضعؼ األميف كخيانة القكم‬.‫شيء فأقبؿ‬
)30 :2003 ،‫ الثعالبي‬:‫(التمثيؿ كالمحاضرة‬

(The Prophet’s Companion, Omar Bin Al-Khattab – may God be pleased with him – said:
“He who keeps his secret has the choice of breaking it in his hand. Fear who you hate
blindly. The most miserable ruler is that who makes his people miserable. The wisest of
men is he who finds execuses for men. Never put off till tomorrow what may be done
today. He who knows not evil deserves to suffer it. Bright wine is no more dangerous than
greed to men’ reasons. Neither love blindly nor hate blindly. Relatives visit relatives, but
never neighbors. Bygones never come back. To God I complain the faithful weak, and the
faithless strong.)

These statements are wisdoms that many of them became a part of the heritage of
provebs in Arabic Language and culture. They are laid down in the style of short
sentences. The text is not intended to be flowing, but to present a group of wisdoms in
the form of short sentences. Its hidden force is mainly the truths about life and people,
stated by a great name in Islamic and Arabic history. The employment of the technique of
short sentencing is probably the best way to impress the reader by these proverbial
statements. Indeed, provebs are short in both Arabic and English languages. Further, short
forms of proverbs may be helpful to memorization. Finally, proverbial sayings are
expected to be sharp and to the point, being crisp, succinct and rhetorical. Hence,
disregarding sentence length means the loss of these stylistic functions which support the
message. That is why the English translation is laid out in form of short sentences too.
Some of the statements have been translated into standing one-to-one English
equivalents (e.g. Never put off till tomorrow what may be done today/do not put off your
duty till tomorrow), which would be most appropriate when available in English. However,
when it is not, students and translators do their best to render sense in as short form as
possible, as done above in the suggested translation. Some are formed by analogy to
existing similar proverbs (cf. “bygones never come back” is taken in simulation to “let
bygones be bygones”). Yet, when unable to imitate forms of proverbs, translate the
statement into its intended sense in proper English (e.g. the last one). It is not wise, then,
to change short sentencing into long sentencing in such a text of short wisdoms as the
latter has different stylistic functions.

341
.‫ انطمػؽ جػرس اننػذار‬.‫ بػدأت الكػاميرات تعطػي إشػارات‬.‫"سمعت الشػرطة حركػة خفيفػة داخػؿ البنػؾ المركػزم‬ )2
.‫ طكقػت المكػاف‬.‫ طاردتػو الشػرطة‬.‫ حفف حفنة مػف النقػكد كى َّػـ بػالخركج‬.‫ أراد أف يمكذ بالفرار‬.‫الحظ المص ذلؾ‬
‫ أشػير سػكينان‬.‫ اجتمػع عميػو جمػع مػف النػاس‬.‫ قاـ آخر بسد طريقػو‬.‫ صاح أحدىـ بالمص‬.‫المارة المشيد‬
ٌ ‫الحظ‬
".‫ حينئذ كصمت الشرطة كاعتقمتو‬.‫حادة‬

(The police heard a little noise inside the Central Bank. The security cameras started to
flash. The alarm went off. The robber noticed that. He wanted to escape. He took a handful
of money in his way. The police chased him. They enclosed the area. Pedestrians noticed
the scene. One of them shouted at the robber. Another blocked his way. A group of people
gathered around him. He pulled out a sharp knife.Then, the police arrived and arrested
him.)

The style of short sentences here has the crucial function of precipitation. It heightens the
tempo of action in this text which is written in the form of action story. It accelerates
events and arouses suspense. Maybe it is the only type of style that reflects this function
of precipitation that can be sensed at reading the text aloud and quickly. That is why this
style is reproduced in the English translation. No sentence connectors of coordination and
result (like ‘and’, ‘then’) are used to reflect the quick follow-up of events a step by step. It
is not advisable to write the text in one or two long sentences for this would spoil the
rapid action and suspense of the whole text.

ً َّ
‫ض ىمػف ىذا الػذم ىي ٍشػفىعي‬ً ‫ات ك ىمػا ًفػي األ ٍىر‬ً ‫ٍخػ يذه ًس ىػنةه كالى ىنػكـ لَّػو مػا ًفػي الس‬
‫َّػم ىاك ى‬ ‫ى‬ ‫ى ٍه ي ى‬ ‫ػكـ الى تىأ ي ي‬ ُّ ‫) المٌػوي الى إًلىػػوى إًالَّ يى ىػك اٍل ىح‬1(
‫ػي اٍلقىُّي ي‬
ً ‫ًع ٍن ىده إًالَّ بًًإ ٍذنً ًو يعمىـ ما ب ٍيف أ ٍىي ًدي ًيـ كما ىخٍمفىيـ كالى ي ًحيطيكف بً ىشي وء ِّم ٍف ًعٍم ًم ًػو إًالَّ بًمػا ىشػاء ك ًسػع يكرًسػيُّو السَّػماك‬
‫ات‬ ‫ى ى ٍ ي ىى‬ ‫ى‬ ٍ ‫ى‬ ‫يٍ ى ي‬ ‫ٍ ىى‬ ‫ىٍ ي ى ى ى‬ ‫ي‬
‫يـ‬ ‫ظ‬ً ‫كده ًح ٍفظييما ك يىك اٍلعًم ُّي اٍلع‬
‫ى ي‬ ‫يى ى ى ى‬ ‫ىكاأل ٍ ى ى ى ى ي ي ي‬
‫ؤ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ال‬
‫ك‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ىر‬

(God, there is no deity but He, The Ever-Living, the Eternal. (1) No slumber can seize Him,
nor sleep. (2) To Him belongs all that is in the heavens and on earth. (3) Who is there that
can intercede in His presence except by His permission? (4) He knows that which is to
come unto them and that which past them. (5) And they shall not attain any of His
Knowledge except as He wills. (6) His Knowledge extends over the heavens and the earth.
(7) And He feels no fatigue in preserving them. (8) And He is the Most High, the Most
Great). (9))

This verse of the Throne )‫(آيػة الكرسػي‬, the greatest in the Koran, can be divided into nine
sentences ending up with a full stop each (indicated by numbers) with a view to assigning
special emphasis to every single detail for its huge significance and grandeur. Indeed,
every sentence of these nine has received special study and interpretation being all
indelible and ultimate truths about the Almighty God. Hence, to maintain the assertive
style and sublimity of the Original, the English translation has to respect this and give
every short statement its due weight and significance. By the way, and to draw further
evidence for the division of this great verse into several sentences, numerous stoppages
are marked at reciting it aloud by good readers and Imams.

342
3.8.2 Translating the Style of Long Sentences

Long sentences are used in language, but they are not the norm. They represent a type of
style of sentences whose function is to reflect certain functions pertaining to meaning and
message. Therefore, they are usually retained in translation. The SL text can be one long
sentence, or a group of long sentences, for several reasons including: (1) the strong unity
of the topic; (2) reflection of a boring subject matter, (3) emphasis or non-emphasis of a
subject, a predicate, a phrase, or a clause; (4) description of a scene of some kind;
(5)avoidance of any shade of ambiguity and addition of any extra thing to the text -
especially in legal texts -; (6) giving full account of details in a normal sequence with no
interruption (e.g. in a political speech, a legal article, a scientific experiment or result,
etc.). Long sentences can be constructed by one of the three types of modification of
clauses for different stylistic functions:

(a) Postmodification (i.e. after the main clause);

(b) premodification (before the main clause);
(c) or interruption (inside the main clause)

These can be illustrated in the translation and discussion of the following examples:

‫) "تكصمت أبحاث الشرطة البريطانية إلى اختػراع جيػاز إلكتركنػي صػغير يتػكلى انرشػاد عػف المصػكص كيتػكلى‬1
.‫إعطاء بيانات عف األماكف السرية التي يحتفظكف فييا بالمسركقات المختمفة‬
‫كيمكػػف كضػػع الجيػػاز الصػػغير جػػدان داخػػؿ سػػيارات أك د ارجػػات كاسػػتقباؿ المكجػػات التػػي يرسػػميا عبػػر شاشػػة‬
.‫خاصة لدل قكات األمف التي تياجـ أككار الجريمة كتضبط المجرميف كىـ في حالة تمبُّس‬
‫كقد بدأت الشرطة بػزرع الجيػاز الصػغير لمغايػة فػي عػدة د ارجػات كتركيػا بػال ح ارسػة كطعػـ يسػتيدؼ اسػتدراج‬
)100 :2001 ،‫ – عبد الرؤكؼ‬77 :1418 ،‫" (الثقافية‬.‫المصكص إلى السرقة‬

(Research by British police has led to the invention of a small electronic device that is able
to guide the police to burglars and give data about their hide-outs where they keep their
stolen things.
This device can be put inside cars or bikes and receive the frequencies and send them to a
special display screen of the security forces who immediately raid the hide-outs of the
criminals and catch them red-handed.
The police started to plant this device in unguarded bikes to be used as traps for thieves to
steal them.)

The text consists of three long sentences. They are structured in the normal sequence of
postmodification, that is, the main clause first, followed by clauses and phrases that add
further details about the subject (or the topic) of the main clause. Here are the details
(main clauses underlined, and numbers indicate posmodifying clauses and phrases):

‫) يتػػكلى انرشػػاد عػػف المصػػكص‬1( ‫) "تكصػػمت أبحػػاث الشػػرطة البريطانيػػة إلػػى اختػراع جيػػاز إلكتركنػػي صػػغير‬1
.‫) التي يحتفظكف فييا بالمسركقات المختمفة‬3( ‫) كيتكلى إعطاء بيانات عف األماكف السرية‬2(

343
‫) التػي يرسػميا عبػر شاشػة‬1( ‫) كيمكف كضع الجياز الصغير جدان داخؿ سػيارات أك د ارجػات كاسػتقباؿ المكجػات‬2
.‫) كىـ في حالة تمبُّس‬4( ‫) كتضبط المجرميف‬3( ‫) التي تياجـ أككار الجريمة‬2( ‫خاصة لدل قكات األمف‬
)3( ‫) كتركيػػا بػػال ح ارسػػة كطعػػـ‬2( ‫) بػػزرع الجيػػاز الصػػغير لمغايػػة فػػي عػػدة د ارجػػات‬1( ‫) كقػػد بػػدأت الشػػرطة‬3
".‫يستيدؼ استدراج المصكص إلى السرقة‬
1) Research British police has led to the invention of a small electronic device (1)
that is able to guide the police to burglars and (2) give data about their hide-outs
(3) where they keep their stolen things.
2) This device can be put inside cars or bikes to receive the frequencies and (1) send
them to a special display screen of the security forces (2) who immediately raid
the hide-outs of the criminals and (3) catch them (4) red-handed.
3) The police started (1) to plant this device in unguarded bikes (2) to be used as
traps for thieves (3) to steal them.

The target translation has the same number of postmodifying clauses and phrases. This
means that the same style of postmodification is adopted for the same reasons of the
original to reflect the normal order of giving information about something new by starting
with it, followed by any important detail about it. So, changing it into another style would
distort this normal sequence of things, which is not required here.
‫إذا لـ يجدد العقد كما ىك مذككر بيذا البند فعمى المستأجر أف يأخذ كصالن خطيان مف المؤجر يتضمف‬..." )2
‫ [؟] كبحالة إخالئو لممأجكر بانتياء المدة كاشعار المؤجر بذلؾ قبؿ ثالثة‬،‫استالمو لممأجكر كتكابعو سالمان‬
‫أشير مف انتياء ىذه انجارة أك بانتياء السنة التي تجدد العقد بيا بحكـ ىذا البند بدكف استحصالو عمى‬
‫ال كمي نا أك جزئي نا فيو أك فييا أف يقكـ‬
‫كصؿ فمممؤجر إف كجد عيب نا في المأجكر أك تمف نا في التكابع أك خم ن‬
‫مصدؽ في قكلو مف جية كجكد العيب كالتمؼ‬ َّ ‫بتصميحو كيعكد بما ينفقو ىذا السبيؿ عمى المستأجر[؟] كىك‬
‫كالخمؿ كبمقدار ما أنفؽ كال تطمب منو بينو كقكلو مصدؽ بال يميف [؟] كما يجب عمى المستأجر في حالة‬
‫انتياء مدة العقد كعدـ رغبتو في تجديده إخبار المؤجر بذلؾ خطيان قبؿ انتياء مدة العقد بثالثة أشير عمى‬
)186 :1995 ،‫" (حاتـ كشناؽ‬.‫األقؿ كاال يعتبر مستأج انر لممأجكر لمدة سنة أخرل إذا أراد المؤجر ذلؾ‬

(… in the event that the contract is not renewed as referred to in this clause, the lessee
must obtain a written receipt from the lessor stating that the lessor has received intact the
rented property and its accessories. In the event of the lessee vacating the rented property
at the expiry of the period of the lease and having notified the lessor of this three months
prior to the expiry of this lease, or by the end of the year in which the contract is renewed
in accordance with this paragraph, without obtaining the receipt, then the lessor has the
right at finding any fault in the rented property or harm to the accessories or ant total or
partial damage to this or these (8), to repair this (9) and reclaim the costs from the lessee.
The lessor is deemed to be trustworthy in his account of the fault, the harm or the damage,
and does not have to provide any evidence as he is to be trusted without recourse to any
oath. In the event of the expiry of the period of the contract and with no desire to renew
the contract, the lessee must similarly give written notification, otherwise he/she will be
deemed to be the lessee of the rented property for another year if the lessor so wishes.)

The Arabic original is surprisingly (or not surprisingly!) one very long, complicated and
unpunctuated sentence, which is quite normal in legal language in both languages

344
concerned. This is really demanding to students and translators in terms of the
grammatical complication of the SLT structure for the main categories of sentences are
hugely confusing and confused, and the interconnected clauses that might be so difficult
to sort out. However, it is a good idea that the translators of the Arabic text have rightly
divided the English translation into four less complicated sentences (marked in the original
text by a question mark in square brackets). To show the intricate complication of the
sentences and clauses of this text, here is an analysis of the second sentence, the most
complicated, into postmodifying, premodifying and interrruptive clauses alongside the
English translation:
‫) كبحالة إخالئو لممأجكر بانتياء المدة‬1(
premodification ‫) كاشعار المؤجر بذلؾ قبؿ ثالثة أشير مف انتياء ىذه انجارة‬2(
‫) أك بانتياء السنة التي تجدد العقد بيا بحكـ ىذا البند‬3(
‫) بدكف استحصالو عمى كصؿ‬4(
‫) فمممؤجر‬5(
‫) إف كجد عيبان في المأجكر‬6(
interruption ‫) أك تمفان في التكابع‬7(
‫) أك خمالن كميان أك جزئيان فيو أك فييا‬8(
‫) أف يقكـ بتصميحو‬9(
postmodification ‫) كيعكد بما ينفقو ىذا السبيؿ عمى المستأجر‬10(

(In the event of the lessee vacating the rented property at the expiry of the period of the
lease (1) and having notified the lessor of this three months prior to the expiry of this
lease(2), or by the end of the year in which the contract is renewed in accordance with this
paragraph (3), without obtaining the receipt (4), then the lessor has the right (5) at finding
any fault in the rented property (6) or harm to the accessories (7) or any total or partial
damage to this or these (8), to repair this (9) and reclaim the costs from the lessee(10).

This style of unusual complication of long sentences is hard to follow and swallow by
students and translators because it poses big problems of translation into English. The
biggest problem of all is to construe and follow the Arabic original which looks like a jigsaw
puzzle that is intermeshed and interlocked uncomfortably. The English translation is made
to match the SLT maze of structural complications due to their vital functions about the
style of legal language: to achieve accuracy, avoid ambiguity, misinterpretation and
addition of anything extra information to legal documents (though this does not apply to
us, translators, as legal texts are the most difficult to tackle in translation). So, it is not
recommended by any means to replace it with any other type of style, or changes the
positions of phrases and clauses since this would mean a change of meaning and open the
door of potential loopholes before men of law in particular (see Crystal et al, 1969 and
Ghazala, 1999 & 2012 for further argument).
‫) "في محاكلة يائسة لتبرير كصمة العار باستدعائو لالحتالؿ الركسي الغاشػـ لبمػده لمعاكنتػو فػي تػدمير مػا تبقػى‬3
‫ كسػعيان منػو‬،‫ كقتػؿ كػؿ مػف طالػب بالحريػة كالػتخمص مػف الظػالـ‬،‫مف سكريا كابادة ما تبقى مف الشعب السػكرم‬
‫لتحكيػػؿ أنظػػار الع ػالـ عػػف أبشػػع جريمػػة فػػي التػػاريخ التػػي يرتكبيػػا فػػي مضػػايا بمحاص ػرة األبريػػاء كتجػػكيعيـ‬

345
‫ اختػرع طاغيػة الشػاـ الخػائف بشػار األسػد كذبػة جديػدة‬،‫ قبؿ أف يمكتػكا‬،‫كتحكيميـ إلى ىياكؿ عظمية كىـ أحياء‬
".‫بأف ركسيا تدافع عف نفسيا في سكريا بسبب كجكد آالؼ المقاتميف الشيشاف فييا‬
)14.1.2016 :‫(مصادر إعالمية‬
(In a desperate attempt to justify his disgraceful summoning of the brutal Russian
occupation of his country, Syria, to help him destroy what has remained of Syria
and annihilate what has remained of the poor Syrian people, and kill anyone who
calls for freedom and deposing of the oppressor, and trying to divert the eyes of
the world away from the ugliest crime ever in history he commits in the city of
Madaya, besieging, and starving the innocents and turning them into skeletons
alive before they die, the treacherous Syrian tyrant fabricated a new vicious lie
that Russia is defending itself due to the presence of thousands of Chechen
fighters there.)

The SLT style of complicated long sentence structure is achieved by using premodification
which is made very long indeed (8 clauses and phrases) on purpose to imply the following
functions:
(a) Empty the delayed main clause from its value and meaning;
(b) Point out stark facts about the crimes of the brutal dictator in question;
(c) Condemnation of the many attrocities and war crimes committed by the said
tyrant;
(d) Appeal for condemnation by readers of the said dictator;
(e) Confirm the adamant attitude of the SLT writer toward the tyrant;
(f) Make the image of this tyrant uglier than it originally is
(g) Prove the dictator’s statement coming next to be a monstrous lie.

These are good reasons to retain this style of long premodification in the taget translation,
as suggested above. Hence, students and translators are not required to make it simpler in
the target language to avoid wasting these huge implications of the style of
premodification.

To sum up, the style of long sentences is preferably preserved in English, not as a sign of
favoring literal translation, but because it has considerable stylistic functions that are a
part of the meaning of the text. On the other hand, translating an Arabic long sentence
into an English long sentence might be less problematic than breaking it into shorter
sentences. The major difficulty that is common to the previous examples is the location of
the main grammatical categories of the SL sentence (i.e. subject-verb-object /
complement), to have a grammatical start for a proper TL sentence type, prior to anything
else. The examples display three different types of style of complicated long sentences:
Postmodification (clauses and phrases after the main clause), premodification (before the
main clause) and interruption (insertions inside the main clause). Each style has functions
and implications peculiar to it and might relate to meaning effectively.

3.9 TRANSLATING PASSIVE vs. ACTIVE STYLE

Passive and active are two contrastive voices (i.e. forms) of grammar. Viewed from a
stylistic angle of choice, they are two different styles of language. They have different
functions. Therefore, they should not be confused or ignored in the Arabic translation.
346
There is a common mistake of changing the passive into active by some translators who
claim that Arabic is an active language, but English is passive. This is not confirmed by any
linguist/grammarian or language reference, as both passive and active are used in all types
of texts of both texts when the need arises. This means that both styles have to be
reflected in translation for their important functions to the message. Here are examples:

The Russian invaders killed fifty Syrian children ‫) قتىؿ الغزاة الركس خمسةى أطفاؿ سكرييف أمس‬1
in one day
Fifty Syrian children were killed in one day ‫) قهتًؿ خمسة أطفاؿ سكرييف أمس‬2

At first glance, the two sentences have the same meaning. Yet, careful consideration may
prove that they are different. That is, while the first is active, stating clearly the doer of the
action of killing (or the killers), the second is passive, hiding the killers. This makes a big
difference as the active style aims at focusing on the murderers for human and political
reasons, and is expected to be used by Pro-human and pro-Syrian revolution against the
most brutal dictator in history. The passive style, on the other hand, aims at concentrating
on the result of the action and the action itself (i.e. the killiings of fifty Syrian children),
hiding the identity of the killers, and, at the same time, ignoring the killers as if they were
unimportant, or suggesting that perhaps the murder was committed by somebody else
like. Moreover, such passive style is expected to be used by the Pro-Russian, pro-Assad
and anti-human people and media. Hence, these significant functions for each style
require to be retained in the English translation so that meaning would be conveyed in
full, as in the version proposed above. The passive, by the way, can be changed into active
in one form which keeps the doer of the action hidden: that is, the use of the verb of
completion (‫)تـ‬, followed by the noun of the main verbs of the sentence, as follows:

‫) تـ قتؿ خمسيف مدني نا‬3

This kind of passive-active form has the same functions of passive voice indicated above.

So, passive and active are two different styles of language. Both are highly recurrent in
English as well as in Arabic. Each one is used to achieve certain functions that are relevant
either directly or indirectly to the message / meaning of a text. These functions of the two
types of style are mostly contrastive with each other, which is why we retain them in the
TL translation as much as possible. Their use is not a matter of tendency of the whole
language to go this way or that way; rather, it is a matter of characteristics of certain types
of text (i.e. passive is recurrent in scientific and legal texts; active is dominant in
conversational, advertising, personal correspondence and many newspaper texts, etc.)
(see Crystal and Davy (1969), Carter and Nash (1990), Freeborn et al (1985) and Ghazala
(1994/1999)), or some writers' idiosyncratic styles of using passive more than active, or
active more than passive for specific reasons in a specific text, as illustrated by the
following pairs of examples the first is passive, and the second is active):

The president was received by the queen ‫آ استيقبًؿ الرئيس مف الممكة‬/1

The queen received the president ‫ئيس‬
‫ب استقبمت الممكةي الر ى‬/1

347
Innocent civilians were killed ‫آ قيتؿ مدنيكف أبرياء مف جراء قصؼ النظاـ لألحياء السكنية بحمب‬/2
by the bombing of the Syrian regime of the populated areas in Aleppo
The Syrian regime’s bombing of ‫ب قىتػؿ النظػاـ بقصػفو لألحيػاء السػكنية بحمػب مػدنييف أبريػاء‬/2
the populated areas in Aleppo killed innocent civilians
No responsibility has been ‫آ لػػـ تيعمىػػف المسػػؤكليةي عػػف االنفجػػار فػػي المسػػجد مػػف أم طػػرؼ‬/3
claimed for the mosque’s explosion
Nobody has claimed responsibility for ‫ب لػـ ييعمًػف أح هػد المسػؤكليةى عػف االنفجػار فػي المسػجد‬/3
the mosque’s explosion

In the first pair of sentences, the passive is used in the first to emphasize the "president",
whereas the active is used in the second to front the "queen". Therefore, neither can be
relegated to a second or back position, in which case meaning would be affected directly.
That is, neither the president will accept to be de-emphasized, nor the queen agrees to be
dethroned from her front position. After all, active and passive are two distinctive styles in
both English and Arabic, and have to be respected and retained in translation, and should
not be confused, or, else, why need the two of them in language? That is to say, their
existence in language justifies as much as entails their retention in translation. Hence, the
translation “the president was received by the queen”, for the first, and “the queen
received the president”, for the second. By the way, it is quite normal in English to use the
passive and state the doer of the action at the end of the sentence using the preposition
‘by’. For those who object to the stating of the doer of the action in the passive statement
in Arabic using one of the following prepositional phrases:)‫مف طػػرؼ‬/‫مف لػػدف‬/‫مػػف ًقىبػػؿ‬/‫(مف‬,
claiming that it does not exist in Arabic, as grammar books state, I would refer them to the
Holy Koran and the Prophet's Tradition, where there are examples confirming the use of
this style. Here are some from the Holy Koran (passives underlined):

)285 :‫) آمف الرسكؿ بما أينزؿ إليو مف ربو كالمؤمنكف (البقرة‬1(
)67 :‫) يا أييا الرسكؿ بمش ما أينزؿ إليؾ مف ربؾ كاف لـ تفعؿ فما بمغت رسالتو (المائدة‬2(
)78 :‫) لي ًعف الذيف كفركا مف بني إسرائيؿ عمى لساف داكد كعيسى بف مريـ (المائدة‬3(
)1 :‫"(ىكد‬.‫صمت مف لدف حكيـ خبير‬ ِّ ‫ ًكتب أيحكمت آياتو ثـ في‬.‫) "الر‬4(

This confirms that Arabic grammatical structure does not reject this construction, but uses
it freely when the need arises.

As to the second pair of sentences above, the difference between passive and active is a
difference of crucial focus. That is, in the passive form focuses on the victim, the killed
innocent Syrian civilians as an insinuation to the volume of the vicious murder of the
murderer, Assad militias. The active form, on the other hand, draws attention to the killer
who is stated bluntly as a sign of condemnation. Hence the following two translations:
“innocent civilians were killed by the bombing of the Syrian regime of the populated areas
in Aleppo”, and “the Syrian regime’s bombing of the populated areas in Aleppo killed
innocent civilians" respectively. Therefpre, the two styles are definitely not the same.

348
The third pair of examples again has two different points of focus; the first (the passive)
concentrates on who claims responsibility, whereas the second (the active) centers on
responsibility, whether claimed or not by somebody. Thus, we have two different
translations for them into English successively: “no responsibility has been claimed for the
mosque’s explosion” and “nobody has claimed responsibility for the mosque’s explosion”.

Such argument about the stylistic functions of active and passive would add to the
translators and students' knowledge of translations problems as much as translation skills
of the many different functions of passive and active in language and, consequently, in
translation. Here are some major functions of active and passive with exemplification in
both languages (see Ghazala, 2012: 102-3):

Active style, to start with, is used to express a number of functions including the following:

a. Action and activity (He worked hard ‫)عمل بجد‬

b. Subjectivity (I personally think ‫أعتقد شخصٌا‬/‫)أظن‬
c. Selfishness (She refused to help anyone ‫(رفضت أن تساعد أحدا‬
d. Positivity (We should all cooperate ‫)علٌنا جمٌعا أن نتعاون‬
e. Bearing responsibility (I claim; it is I who did that ‫)أرعم؛ أنا من فعل ذل‬
f. Candour: "dotting the i's and crossing the t's" (I don’t like you ‫)أنا ال أحب‬
etc.

Passive style on the other hand, has many stylistic functions. Here are a number of them:

(1) ْ ‫) ُسل‬
Inaction/inactivity (He has been helpless ‫ قدرته‬/‫ِبت إرادته‬
(2) Negative action/reaction/response (she was shocked ‫ت‬ ْ ‫(صُدم‬
(3) Indirectness (it was said that she left her husband ‫)قٌل إنها تركت روجها‬
(4) Avoiding insulting others (it has been claimed that there was an action of
indecency ‫) ُرعم أن هنا تصرفا مشٌنا‬
(5) Showing politeness (I was declared the award winner ‫أُعلببن أننببً الفببابر‬
‫(بالجابرة‬
(6) Scientific objectivity (it has been discovered that cancer can be cured
(‫(اك ُتشِ ؾ أن السرطان ٌُشفى شفاء تاما‬
(7) Hiding facts about something / somebody for fear, respect, etc.
(innocent people were starved to death ‫)جُوِّ ع أناس أبرٌاء حتى الموت‬
(8) Well-known doer of action (‫( إلٌه ُترجعون‬to Him you will be returned))
(9) Unnecessary to mention the doer of action for the focus is on something
else (‫( و ُنفِخ فً الصور‬the Trumpet will be blown))
(10) No alternative form of verb (e.g. ّ‫( ٌُجبن‬to go mad); ‫( ٌُعمَّبر‬to live long);
‫( ٌُحتضر‬dying / in the throes of death); etc.
(11) Pinpointing the end focus of a closed end of an action (e.g. ‫ال‬/‫ال ٌُضباهى‬
‫( ٌبوارى‬unbeatable / unparalleled / peerless/ unmatchable). Nothing is
expected after the passive action here.
(12) Assuming hidden authority (e.g. ‫)وقٌل ٌا أرض ابلعً ماء‬
etc.

Here are individual examples to translate, followed by two texts to translate and discuss:

349
 Much has been said about the issue ‫قيؿ الكثير حكؿ ىذه القضية‬ )1
The Ph.D. Thesis was discussed before ‫نكقشػت رسػالة الػدكتكراه بحضػكر الفػت‬ )2
good audience
How come that the country be ruled by a ‫كيؼ تيح ىكـ البالد مف طاغيػة متػكحش؟‬ )3
brutal dictator?
The State of ‫يرفع ػػت حال ػػة الطػ ػكارئ ف ػػي ال ػػبالد ب ػػأمر م ػػف الػ ػرئيس المنتخ ػػب الجدي ػػد‬ )4
Emergency was lifted by the newly elected president
His application was rejected by the committee ‫قكبؿ طمبو بالرفض مف المجنة‬ )5
cursed were the people of the Ditch ‫) قيتؿ أصحاب األخدكد‬6
They repented; they regretted (it) ‫) يسقط في أيدييـ‬7
The old man lived for one hundred and twenty ‫) يع ِّمػر الشػيخ مائػة كعشػريف سػنة‬8
years
His head was fructured with the door ‫) يش َّج رأسو بالباب‬9
she went raving mad at learning ‫) يجف جنكنيا لما عممت بأف زكجيا تزكج امرأة أخرل‬10
that her husband married another woman
I figure you look like my brother ‫) يخِّيؿ إلي أنؾ تشبو أخي‬11

These individual examples are mainly general. Hence, they are translated normally and
naturally into the target language to avoid blind literalness and artificialness. Some Arabic
examples are always used in the passive form but are translated into active English (e.g.
7,8, 10, 11). On the other hand, when the doer of the action is stated at the end of the SL
example, they are translated fluently into English in different ways as properly done (see
2-5). Now to specific uses of passive vis-à-vis active:

‫ ىػراء بيػراء بيػراء!! صػحيح أف‬.‫) "ىناؾ مف يتشدؽ بأف المثؿ الشعبي الػرخيص (حكممػي ألحكمػؾ) حكمػة بالغػة‬12
‫ لكف ليس إلػى درجػة الخساسػة فػي التعامػؿ المصػمحي الػرخيص‬،‫المصالح الشخصية سائدة في عالقات البشر‬
‫ كيؼ نعتبر االتفاؽ بيف شخصيف عمى غش اآلخريف كخػداعيـ حكمػة بالغػة؟؟! كيػؼ نسػمي‬.‫بيف األشخاص‬
‫تػػامر شخصػػيف عمػػى ثالػػث لسػػمبو حقػػو فػػي شػػيء بسػػبب التقػػاء مصػػالحيما حكمػػة بالغػػة؟؟!! بػػؿ كيػػؼ نقبػػؿ أف‬
‫ندعك تحكيؿ المصالح المشتركة القائمة عمى األخػالؽ النبيمػة إلػى تجػارة رخيصػة تعبػث بيػا أيػدم دنيئػة حكمػة‬
"!!!!‫بالغة؟؟؟!!! حقان إف البمياء كحدىـ ىـ الذيف يصفكف ىذا المثؿ التافو بالحكمة البالغة‬

Obviously, this is a provocative text. Its tone is sharp, harsh and very strong. It is laid down
bluntly in active style, and used as a straightforward, provocative, candid and aggressive
style. It implies an invitation to some kind of campaign against the recurrence of such
proverbs in language . The SL writer seems to express an attitude of agitation against such
slang and miserably misunderstood proverbial. Hence, it is not advisable, then, to ignore
these functions in the English translation:

(There are those who drawl that the popular proverbial “scratch my back and I scratch
yours” is a far-reaching wisdom. Tommyrot! It is true that personal interests are common
in the relationships among people, but not to such a mean extent of cheap personal
interests between individuals. How do we consider the consent of two men to cheat and
350
deceive others a far-reaching wisdom? How do we call the collaboration between two
persons against a third one to deprive him one of his rights just because their interests
meet a far-reaching wisdom? Or, rather, how come that we accept to call the transposition
of reciprocal interests that are originally based on noble manners to a cheap trade messed
around by villains a far-reaching wisdom? Definitely, only fools describe this petty proverb
as a far-reaching wisdom)

The English translation is loyal to the active tone of the Arabic text to reflect the same
stylistic functions aimed at by the SL text. The passive is entirely left out of the text and
everything is said and described directly, sharply, daringly, violently, provocatively and
unashamedly. Nothing is hidden; everything is stated bluntly.

A version of the same text in the passive style will have different functions and, at the
same time, would illustrate the points suggested about the previous active version:

‫ ييعتقىػد‬.‫ لعمػو بكلػش فػي ىػذا الكصػؼ‬.‫يكصؼ بأنو حكمػة بالغػة‬ ‫ظف أف المثؿ الشعبي القائؿ (حكممي الحكمؾ) ى‬ ‫) ي"ي ى‬13
‫ػتبعد أف تكػػكف إلػػى درجػػة يصػػعب تقبميػػا فػػي التعامػػؿ‬
‫ لكػػف ييسػ ى‬،‫بػػأف المصػػالح سػػائدة فػػي العالقػػات بػػيف البشػػر‬
‫يكصػػؼ االتفػػاؽ بػػيف شخصػػيف‬
‫ مػػف غيػػر المرغػػكب فيػػو أف ى‬.‫المصػػمحي غيػػر المحمػػكد بػػيف بعػػض األشػػخاص‬
‫عمػػى بعػػض التالعػػب حكمػػة بالغػػة؛ أك ييسػػمى التقػػاء شخصػػيف عمػػى مصػػمحة قػػد ال تتكافػػؽ كمصػػمحة شػػخص‬
‫ثالث حكمة بالغة؛ أك ييدعى اعتبار المصالح المشتركة القائمة عمى حسف التعامػؿ إلػى تجػارة بػالمعنى المػادم‬
".‫حكمة بالغة؟ لعمو مف غير المستحسف أف يقاؿ ىذا المثؿ الشعبي بالحكمة البالغة‬

The passive style is dominant in this Arabic version. As a onsequence, the stylistic
implications and functions are not the same as those of the active above. That is, it
changes the tone of the text into a kind of neutrality of attitude, calm and withdrawal on
the part of the speaker. It helps him to be distant from being sharp and critical, which is
typical of academic dialogue. In other words, it is an indirect, polite style. These are good
reasons for us to retain it in English as follows:

(It might be thought that the popular proverb “scratch my back and I scratch yours” can be
described as a far-reaching wisdom. It is believed that the personal interests in the
relationships among people are commonplace, yet it can be hardly accepted to get to such
an extent that it would become difficult to accept in the uncommon relationship among
some people. It is not desired to have the consent between two persons on some trick
described as a far-reaching wisdom; or two men agreeing on some interest that may come
at odds with a third man to be called a far-reaching wisdom; or the consideration of
reciprocal interests of good will to a materialistic trade to be regarded a far-reaching
wisdom. Probably, it is not recommended to be said that this popular proverb is a far-
reaching wisdom.)

By using passive style, the subjects (or the doers of the actions) are not mentioned, which
helps avoid embarrassing others or being embarrassed. This in turn supports the style of
indirectness, appeasement and non-provocation aimed at by the frequent use of passive
here.

351
To demonstrate more sharply the difference between the features of the two styles of
active and passive in the two texts above (12 & 13), here is a table that juxtaposes them in
the TL:

Active style Passive style

1. Those who drawl
2. Tommyrot! … mean personal interests
3. How do we consider … cheat and deceive
4. How do we call … to deprive one’s right
5. How come that we accept cheap trade
6. Messed around
7. Villains
8. Definitely, only fools describe …
9. Petty proverb
1. It might be thought … can be described
2. It is believed … can be hardly accepted
… difficult to accept in the uncommon
3. It is not desired … some trick described
4. Or two men at odds with .. to be called
5. Or consideration … a materialistic trade
to be regarded …
6. (zero)
7. (zero)
8. Probably, it is not recommended to be
said
9. Popular proverb

The words and phrases of the active version are sharp, whereas those of the passive one,
they are undertoned and lenient. Also, while the former uses personal pronouns as
subjects and doers of the actions to meet the functions of this style indicated earlier, the
latter avoids using them completely to achieve the functions of the passive pinpointed
earlier.

To conclude, this section aims to demonstrate that the two styles of passive and active are
employed in language to express different stylistic functions and achieve different
objectives in relation to the message. They are not the same as confirmed above and have
different functions and implications (Ghazala (2007 & 2014) points out thirteen functions
for the active, and twenty seven functions for the passive in language). If they are not two
different styles, why are they in language in the first place, then? Therefore, the students
of translation and translators are recommended to insist on using the same active/passive
style of the SLT in the TL translation unless unavailable. Yet, generally, and when the
translation tends to be natural for some types of text, and when there is no serious loss if
either style replaces the other, it is possible to go for the style that is more normal and
natural in the TL.

3.10 TRANSLATING EMPHATIC, EXPRESSIVE AND EXAGGERATIVE STYLES

The styles of emphasis, expressivity and exaggeration are frequent and recurrent in
language. They imply different functions that can be a significant part of the text's
meaning in translation. Hence, translators and students of translation have to know that
and how to mark these styles and conclude their functions. No doubt, these types of styles
pose a number of translation problems to students and translators. To solve these
problems, here is a long list of exemplified and translated grammatical and lexical
elements through which these types of style can be achieved in both languages involved,
especially in Arabic. Then some conclusions are drawn from the list

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 (a) The use of intensifiers (e.g. very, much, so, so much , a great deal, a lot
of, etc.)
(b) The use of intensifying adjectives (big, huge, fantastic, great, astonishing,
exciting, etc.
(c) The use of intensifying adverbs of manner (e.g. greatly, deeply, fully,
excessively, astoundingly, etc.).
(d) The use of adverbs of certainty (e.g. absolutely, definitely, categorically,
certainly, bluntly, etc.
(e) The use of exclamatory sentences (e.g. What a goal!)!‫ ;(يػا لػو مػف ىػدؼ‬What
a beautiful child! )!‫ما أجمؿ ىذا الطفؿ‬/‫(ما أجممو مف طفؿ‬
(f) The use of amplifications (e.g. The use of 'thousands' instead of
'hundreds'; 'it takes ages' instead of 'it takes some time'; the use of
phrases like 'everybody / all of them / men and women) )‫عف بكػرة أبييػا‬/‫(قاطبةن‬
in the following example: 'Many people of the town went out to receive
the president' )‫( (خرجػت المدينػة عػف بكػرة أبييػا السػتقباؿ الػرئيس‬instead of ‫(عػدد كبيػر‬
)‫ مف الناس‬.
(g) The use of the effective language of rhetoric (e.g. idioms / proverbs,
collocations, figures of rhetoric / figures of speech like metaphor, pun,
metonymy, word play, imagery etc. (See the previous Chapter on
vocabulary for examples).
(h) The use of rhetorical figures of exaggeration (e.g. tautology, pleonasm,
redundancy, litotes, hyperbole, synecdoche, etc.).
etc.

('g' is mostly used in an expressive style, whereas 'h' is for the style of
exaggeration).

All these features of the three styles concerned are applicable to Arabic language. On the
other hand, Arabic styles of emphasis are achieved through many linguistic devices as
follows (illustrative examples are taken mainly from the Holy Koran, the major source of
Arabic language. See Ghazala, 2008 & 2014):

(1) Inna )‫إف‬

ٌ ( (e.g.)‫إف اننساف لظمكـ كفار‬/‫إف اهلل عميـ خبير‬/‫إف ربؾ لبالمرصاد‬/‫(إف المتقيف في جنات كنيىر‬
(Verily the pious are in Gardens and Rivers/verily your Lord is surely ever
Watchful/verily God is All-Knowing, All-Aware/verily man is a serious wrongdoer,
an extreme ingrate).
(2) The double-stressed emphatic noon )‫ ( َّف‬at the end of the present tense of verb
(e.g. ‫سألف يكمئذ عف النعيـ‬
ٌ ‫( )كلتي‬and verily you shall be questioned that day about the
bliss and delights).
(3) The single-stressed emphatic noon )‫(ف‬ ٍ (e.g.‫يككنف مف الصاغريف‬
ٍ ‫نف كلى‬
ٍ ‫سج‬
‫( )لىيي ى‬Verily and
surely he will be cast in prison and certainly will be among the contemptible).
(4) The cognate causative object emphasizing the verb )‫( (المفعكؿ المطمؽ‬e.g. ‫إذا يرَّجت‬
)‫كتسير الجباؿ سي انر‬/‫يكـ تمكر السماء مك انر‬/‫نعد ليـ عدان‬/‫أز‬
‫تؤزىـ ٌان‬/‫كبست الجباؿ بسان‬/‫رجان‬
ٌ ‫)األرض‬.

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 (the earth shall be shaken with a great shake / the mountains shall be powdered
to dust / to incite them to do terrible evil/we count to them out a limited count /
On the Day when the heaven shall reel with a dreadful reel / and the mountains
will move away with a great motion).
(5) The emphatic 'lam' /l/ prefixed to the present tense of verb )‫( (الـ التككيد‬e.g. the
lam(‫)الـ‬at the beginning of ‫ليككنف‬
ٍ /‫يسجنف‬
ٌ ‫لى‬/‫لىتيسأليف‬/‫ لىظمكـ‬in the examples of 2-3)
(6) Repetition of all types (e.g. ‫ ثـ كال‬.‫كال سكؼ ستعممكف‬/‫ كما أدراؾ ما الحاقة‬.‫ ما الحاقة‬.‫الحاقة‬
‫كأصحاب اليميف ما أصحاب اليميف؛ كغيرىا‬/‫كالسابقكف السابقكف‬/‫ كال لك تعممكف عمـ اليقيف‬.‫سكؼ تعممكف‬
‫( )كثير‬see the next section for full discussion of the style of repetition)
(7) Swearing )‫( (القسـ‬e.g. ‫ال أقسـ بيكـ‬/‫تاهلل ألكيدف أصنامكـ‬/‫فكرب السماء كاألرض‬/‫كالسماء كالطارؽ‬
‫()القيامة‬By the heaven and the celestial Star, At-Tareq / by the Lord of the Heaven
and the Earth / I swear by Allah I shall circumvent your idols/I swear by the
Doomsday).
(8) Nominalization (e.g.‫إف اهلل عميـ بذات الصدكر‬/‫كاف اهلل ليادم الذيف آمنكا‬/‫( )إنؾ ميت كانيـ ميتكف‬
Verily you are mortal and verily they are mortal / verily God is the guider of those
who believe / verily God is the Knower of the thoughts of your breasts).
(9) Verbalization (e.g. ‫( إف الذيف اتقكا ربيـ‬those who feared their Lord) instead of ‫إف المتقيف‬
(verily the fearful/the pious); ‫( إف الذيف آمنكا‬verily those who (truly) believe) instead
of ‫( إف المؤمنيف‬verily the (true)believers); ‫( يا أييا الذيف آمنكا‬you who believe) instead of
‫( يا أييا المؤمنكف‬you, believers); ‫( يا أييا الذيف كفركا‬you who disbelieve) instead of ‫يا أييا‬
‫( الكافركف‬you, disbelievers)
(10) Emphatic words and phrases (e.g. (emphatic words underlined): ‫فسجد المالئكة كميـ‬
)‫ كغيرىا‬،‫نعـ‬/‫بمى‬/‫ كال‬/‫ خالديف فييا أبدان‬/‫( أجمعكف‬then the angels prostrated all in all/dwelling in
it(Paradise)eternally for ever and ever / definitely nay / absolutely yes)
(11) Foregrounding (e.g.:Verb-Subject→Topic-verbalized comment: ‫الرحمف عمى العرش‬
‫اهلل يتكفى األنفس‬/‫إياؾ نستعيف‬/‫إياؾ نعبد‬/‫()استكل‬The Most Gracious upon the Throne sat/ You
alone do we worship/You alone do we turn for help/Verily Allah takes away the souls
of men) (see above)
(12) End focus / backgrounding (e.g. ‫كاذ‬/‫العمماء‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ إنما يخشى اهللى مف عباده‬/ ‫إني لعممكـ مف القاليف‬
‫اىيـ ربُّو بكممات فأتميف‬
‫((ابتمى إبر ى‬verily I am to your doing(of sodomy) a detester/ verily
who fear God most among His servants are the knowledgeable/look when
Abraham was tried by His Lord with certain words that he fulfilled)
(13) The use of imperatives (e.g.‫أستجب لكـ‬ ٍ ‫ادعكني‬/‫( (اق أر باسـ ربؾ الذم خمؽ‬Read in the Name
of Your Lord Who created everything/call upon Me and I will answer you)
(14) Sarcastic questions (e.g. ‫ أـ (عندىـ‬/‫أـ لو البنات كلكـ البنكف‬/‫أـ يخمقكا مف غير شيء أـ ىـ الخالقكف‬
‫( الغيب فيـ يكتبكف‬Or, they have been created out of nothing, or they were the
creators?/Or He (God) has the daughters only and you have the sons? / Or they
know the unseen so they write it down?)

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 (15) Rhetorical questions (e.g. ‫ أال‬/ ‫ أليس اهلل بأحكـ الحاكميف‬/ ‫أليس ذلؾ بقادر عمى أف يحيي المكتى‬
‫( )تحبكف أف يغفر اهلل لكـ‬Is not He (God) Able to give life to the dead? / Is not Allah the
most conclusive of all judges?/Do not you like Allah to forgive you?)
(16) The use of vocative form (e.g.‫ يا عبادم فاتقكف‬/‫يا أييا الكافركف‬/‫( (يا أييا الذيف آمنكا‬You who
truly believe/you who disbelieve/ you My servants, fear Me)
(17) The use of the particle of exemption )‫((إال‬e.g. ‫إال‬/‫إال أصحاب اليميف‬/‫إال الذيف آمنكا‬
‫إال المتقيف‬/‫( المصميف‬except those who believe / except the companions of the right /
except the devotees to prayers / except the pious)
(18) The use of double emphasis (e.g. the initial emphatic lam and the final emphatic
noon in the following examples: ‫ليككنف‬
ٍ ‫ليسجنف؛‬
ٌ ‫( )لنسفعان بالناصية؛‬verily we will catch
him with the forehead / verily he shall certainly be put in prison/ verily he will
certainly be…)
(19) the strong negative particle )‫( (ال‬e.g./‫ ال خكؼ عمييـ كال ىـ يحزنكف‬/ ‫كال تصؿ عمى ال تقكلكا‬
‫( )أحد منيـ كال تقـ عمى قبره‬never say/verily no fear for them and verily they
themselves do not feel sad / never pray (the funeral prayer) for anyone of them
and never stand at his grave)
(20) The use of the two initial particles, 'qad' and 'laqad'(‫لقد‬/‫( )قد‬e.g. ‫قد‬/‫قد أيجيبت دعكتكما‬
‫لقد كاف لكـ في رسكؿ اهلل أسكة حسنة‬/‫لقد رضي اهلل عف المؤمنيف‬/‫( )ضممت إذنا‬verily your
supplication is accepted / verily I have gone astray then / verily Allah was
pleased with the believers / indeed there is for you in the Messenger of Allah a
good example)
(21) Statistics of the number of times of recurrence of certain words(e.g. 'Allah/God' is
the most mentioned: over 3000 times)
(22) Negative forms by all negative particles (e.g. .‫ لف‬،‫ لـ‬،‫ ال‬،‫)ما‬
(23) Contrastive parallel forms (e.g. /‫ الظممات كالنكر‬/‫ األعمى كالبصير‬/‫الميؿ كالنيار‬/‫الخير كالشر‬
‫ خافضة رافعة‬/‫الحركر‬
‫( الظؿ ك ى‬good and evil / the blind and the seeing/darkness and
light/the shade and the heat/abasing, exalting)
(24) The emphatic insertion of personal pronouns (e.g. ‫ إف ربؾ ىك يفصؿ‬/ ‫إنو ىك السميع العميـ‬
‫( )بينيـ يكـ القيامة‬He is indeed the All-Hearer the All-Knower/ Verily your Lord who
shall judge between them).

The following conclusions can be drawn from the previous account about translating
emphatic, expressive and exaggerative styles:
First, any letter, word, or phrase of any of these three styles has to be taken into account
in translation. For example, ‘inna-sentence’ in Arabic is mainly emphatic, and, hence, a
word of emphasis like ‘verily, surely, definitely, etc. has to be slotted at the beginning of
the sentence, especially when accuracy is paramount (as in the translation of the Holy
Koran).

Second, the grammatical features of these styles can be in the disruption of the normal
word order of sentences (e.g. foregrounding, backgrounding, etc.) have to be translated
with emphatic words.

355
Third, many letters at the beginning and end of words in Arabic are emphatic in function,
so they should be attended to in the translation into English, slotting a word of emphasis
of some kind toward the beginning of sentences (see chapter 2 earlier for a huge account
of these letters and their functions and how they are translated).

Fourth, an elaborate emphatic repetition of the functional and rhetorical types has to be
reproduced in the TL translation without reduction due to their significant stylistic
functions and implications in relation to meaning, or message.

Fifth, the decision of translating any of the abovementioned styles of emphasis,

exaggeration and expressivity is based on the type of text and whether accuracy is
required or not. Among the types of texts that rate accuracy high are religious, literary,
some political, humorous and informative texts.

Sixth, another deciding factor in the translation of these styles is the SL writer’s status.
That is, a president or a king’s statement is not like an ordinary man’s, a famous name is
not like a layman, etc.

Seventh, a third factor is the tone of language used, i.e. formal, colloquial, slang, etc. (see
above). A formal tone, for example, is stricter and, sometimes, more serious than
colloquial, or slang tone, etc.

Yet, exceptions can occur and it is left to the translator’s discretion to decide whether or
not any of these styles should be translated either accurately, partly or normally.

3.11 TRANSLATING THE STYLES OF REPETITION AND VARIATION

Many would think that repetition is a bad style and, therefore, has to be avoided in
translation. This is generally imprecise, for this style is a part of rhetoric, and can be used
on purpose to have important functions that affect the message considerably. The best
examples are available in abundance in the Holy Quran, the best language and style of any
book on earth. Hence, generalization about the style of repetition is unacceptable, as also
illustrated in the forthcoming discussion.

In a text where important words are repeated over and again, we are required to render
them fully into Arabic, however boring they might look to some. The writer of the English
text could be willing to repeat a word, or a phrase to reflect something important to the
whole message.
So, it is a common misconception among many translators, students, writers on
translation and readers that repetition is a bad style of writing. They claim that it is
equivalent to the word monotony, which is not agreeable to readers. This is a fallacy, for,
like emphasis, repetition is one of the major functional styles of rhetoric and eloquence in
language. Al-Zarkashi (in Al-Samuraei et al, 2006: 229), for example, defines the style of
repetition as follows: ‫ ولبٌس كبذل ببل هبو مبن‬،‫"وقد ؼلط من أنكر كونه من أسالٌب الفصاحة ظانا أنه ال فاببدة فٌبه‬
"...‫( محاسنها السبٌما إذا تعلب بعضبه بببعض‬He is mistaken who denies it (i.e. repetition) to be one of
the styles of eloquence misconceiving it as useless, which is not the case. Rather, it is one
of its (i.e. eloquence) meritorious styles. …). Al-Zamakhshari (1990: 137) equates emphasis
with repetition whose function is to stress something beyond doubt. For Al-Khattabi (in
356
Matloob, 1996: 140), and Al-Ghalayeeni (1999: 231-232), repetition is two types: useful
(or functional) and useless (non-functional). Having said that, this exercise of suggesting
variations on a repetition has constructive effects on the development of the students'
knowledge, whetting their appetite and curiosity for practicing such informative activity of
guessing the widest range possible of variation on a repeated item. As such, variation
refers here to the words which are similar or identical to the key word(s) used deliberately
to avoid the repetition of the latter. It is a relationship of general synonymy aimed at
preserving the meaning of the key words and, at the same time, allegedly making it/them
less boring.

Therefore, repetition and variation are among the common styles of language, spoken or
written. They are thought to be interchangeable in translation. Some translators attempt
to avoid repeating the same word several times, especially in a short text, by using
variations on it to dispose of the allegedly monotonous, redundant repetition. By so doing,
they claim to improve the style of the original and make it more readable to the TL
readership. However, there are reservations on this claim as each of the two styles has its
characteristic functions that should not be confused, as demonstrated below in this
section. Indeed, repetition is one of the styles available to writers in language to achieve
certain functions that are directly relevant to the message, or meaning of text. Among
these functions are: emphasis of a key word, term, topic or concept; helping readers to
understand; reflection of a monotonous, boring subject matter, making a word or a topic
exceptionally prominent, etc. After all, rhetorical repetition is a style used to realize a
certain function that has to be taken into consideration in translation. Here are some
types of rhetorical repetition in both languages involved:

(24) anaphora (e.g. Children are a comfort, children are amusing, and children are
sometimes a nuisance) ‫ األطفال أحٌاا مصبدر‬،‫ األطفال مسلون‬،‫ تكرار الصدارة (األطفال مرٌحون‬-
)‫إرعاج‬
(25) epistrophe (e.g. you may not like rules, you might spend your time breaking the
rules) )‫ ربما تقضً وقت وأنت تخر القوانٌن‬،‫ ربما ال تحب القوانٌن‬:‫ تكرار ختامي‬-
(26) chiasmus / antimetabole (e.g. one should eat to live, not live to eat (Moliere)
)‫ ال أف نعيش لنأكؿ‬،‫ (عمينا أف نأكؿ لنعيش‬:‫ تكرار متصالب‬/ ‫ قمب نحكم‬-
(27) polyptoton (I don't enjoy singing, nor the singer)
(28) antanaclasis / ploce (a handsome young man with a handsome salary)
)‫ )شاب حلو براتب حلو‬:‫ تكرار تكرية‬-

(For further types and details, see Nash, 1989; Ghazala, 2000; Ateeq, 1987; Al-Jurjani,
1982; Al-Maidani, 1996; Al-Mat’ani, 2007 and others).

The next examples will deal with the problems of translating (1) functional (or useful)
repetition, and (2) non-functional (or useless) compard to potential varians on them to
explore the differences between the two styles (for further details and examples about
the two styles, see Nash, 1980, and Ghazala 2011, 2013 & 2014):

357
‫ كػرة القػدـ ىػي‬.‫ كػرة القػدـ ىػي الرياضػة التػي يشػاىدىا عمػى التمفػاز‬.‫) "كرة القدـ ىػي المعبػة التػي يحبيػا صػديقي‬1
‫ ىػػا ىػػك ذا اآلف العػػب ك ػرة قػػدـ‬.‫ كػػاف أممػػو أف يمعػػب ك ػرة القػػدـ كالعػػب محتػػرؼ‬،‫ ككطفػػؿ‬.‫ىكايتػػو المفضػػمة‬
."‫كبير‬
(Football is the game my friend loves. Football is the sport he watches on the television.
Football is his favorite hobby. As a child, his dream was to play football as a professional
player. Here he is now a great football player.)

The key word of this passage is football. It is repeated in every sentence to be emphasised
and echoed in every part of the text. Also, it implies that football is everything in my
friend’s life, which is what the message of the whole text is about. For all these reasons,
the Arabic version has to produce the same repetition, as follows:

It is possible to use variations on the key word ‘football’ as follows:

(Football is the game my friend loves. Soccer is the sport he watches on the television. The
beautiful game is his favorite hobby. As a child, his dream was to play footie as a
professional player. Here he is now a great footballer.)

Well, this variation might not be quite advisable to use on ‘football’ because the text will
lose its natural, easy-going, fluent flow, and the important functions of ‘football’ will in
effect disappear. Instead, there would be a boring, awkward text and unclear stylistic
functions. More emphatically, this style of variation is artificial, aiming at avoiding
repeating the key term with the claim that such repetition might be boring, which is not.
That said, since the text is general, cutting down on the number of repetitions of the key
word and using one or two variations on it can be allowed, and perhaps favored if our
purpose is to read the TL translation more fluently without much disruption the stylistic
functions pointed out above:

(Football is the game my friend loves. It is the sport he watches on the television. It is his
favorite hobby. As a child, his dream was to play football as a professional player. Here he
is now a great footballer.)

،‫ كلكف كلكف كلكف بشرط كلكف بشرط‬،‫ طبعان طبعان مكافؽ أف نتعاكف عمى إنجاز ىذا المشركع‬،‫ نعـ‬،‫) نعـ‬2
‫ ىؿ‬،‫ بمفردم‬،‫ نعـ‬،‫ أنا سكؼ أعمؿ بمفردم‬... ‫ أنا‬... ‫كاال فأنا‬.،‫كىك أف تعمؿ بجد كجد الجد في المشركع‬
.)‫تفيـ؟ بمفردم‬

Though some of the repetitions of this passage seem to be emphatic and imply a state of
nervousness on the part of the speaker, they are boring and not necessary or quite
influential on the message. As to the TL, four versions are suggested and discussed below:

(Yes, yes, of course, of course, I agree with you that we must cooperate to accomplish this
project, but but but on one condition, but on one condition that you work hard and hard
and hard on the project. Otherwise, I I I work on my own, yes, on my own, do you
understand? on my own!)
358
Apparently this is not quite sensible English. The text is boring, non-fluent and translated
artifically and literally, which is neither required nor important to rendering the message.
In fact, the original is closer to informal dialogue that is crammed with unorganized and
nervous repetitions. Therefore, an informal English translation can be closer to the original
than a formal version like the one put forward above:

(O, Ya, ya, of course, of course, I agree with you that we’ve got to get together to finish
this stuff, bu’ bu’ bu’ on one condition, but’ on one condition that you work hard and hard
and hard on tha’ stuff. Otherwise, I I I got to work on me own, ya, on me own, yo got it? on
me own!)

In this version, which is rather conversational, there are what might be described as
unnecessary repetitions. That is, some words and phrases are repeated unnecessarily as
meaning is quite clear without repeating them. This translation sounds Like the SL original
as an informal dialogue in which colloquialisms (underlined) are allowed. This is true
despite the fact that they might be used for a specific purpose to achieve greater
emphasis. Perhaps a version of translation disposed of unnecessary repetitions might be
preferred:

(O, Yes, I agree with you that we have to cooperate to accomplish this project, but on the
condition that we work hard on the project. Otherwise, I work on my own, do you
understand?)

A final version of variation on the same translation can be suggested to juxtapose the two
with one another in terms of stylistic functions:

(Yes, ya, of course, naturally, I agree with you that we must cooperate to accomplish this
project, but, yet, however on one condition, on one basis that you work hard and harshly
and toughly on the project. Otherwise, I myself me work on my own, yes, for myself, do you
understand? No one else but me!)

It is true that the translation has avoided boring repetitions, but has displayed new
weaknesses in regard to artificial and hypothetical variations that can be hardly imagined
to put in practical, and have rendered the target text not quite proper English. In fact, a
conversational text is usually full of unnecessary repetitions and nonbody complains about
translating it as such into the TL, but it cannot be accepted with artificial variations like
those suggested above for being inapplicable in practice.

(Repetition in literature) )‫) (التكرار في األدب‬3

".‫ ضػػعيفة فػػي حيرتيػػا مػػع األقػػدار‬،‫ ضػػعيفة فػػي كحػػدتيا‬،‫ ضػػعيفة فػػي فقرىػػا‬... ‫) "فقػػد كانػػت أيم ػان ضػػعيفة‬1(
))2001 ،‫ (عبد الرؤكؼ‬27 :1972 ،‫ أنا حرة‬:‫(إحساف عبد القدكس‬

(Indeed she was a weak mother, weak in her poverty, weak in herlonliness, weak in her
indecisiveness about Fate.).

359
،‫ دنيػػا اهلل‬:‫" (نجيػػب محفػػكظ‬.‫) "سػػيخرج مػػف السػػجف كػػؿ مػػف ال يسػػتحؽ السػػجف حق ػان كلػػك فرغػػت السػػجكف‬2(
))‫ (المرجع نفسو‬196 :1972

(Every one who deserves not to be in prison will be set free from prison even though
prisons would turn empty.)
‫) مػػف أنػػا؟ ككيػػؼ صػػرت أنػػا أنػػا؟ مػػاذا أريػػد؟ كأيػػف أقػػؼ؟ كالػػى أيػػف أتجػػو؟ كأم األكقػػات كاألمكنػػة حمتنػػي‬3(
،‫ التي أشرع فييا في حفػر مالمحػي بإزميػؿ ًمػف صػدؽ عمػى ىػذه األكراؽ‬،‫كسافرت بي حتى ىذه المحظة‬
)20 :2010 ،‫التي لربما كاف ليا شأف ذات يكـ؟ (ثابت‬
(Who am I? How did I become ‘I’ ? What do I want? Where do I stand? Where am I
heading? What are the times and places that took me, transported me, to this moment, in
which I am starting to sculpt my features with a chisel of truth in these pages, which may
someday be of value?)

The repetitions of the three key words in the three examples are copied in English
unchanged for their prime significance for focus is on them. That is, in the first, the key
word, ‘weak’ which is overwhelming in effect and sympathy with the poor mother. In the
second, ‘prison’ is the most influential word in the example. In the third, the pronoun ‘I’ is
repeated abnormally three times at the beginning of the original excerpt for it is what the
whole introductory paragraph is about. Therefore, the target translation has retained all
these repetitions even abnormally (i.e. ‘I’ is used exceptionally instead of the accusative
‘me’) in respect for their influential effect on the message, literary passages, and in
literature, repetition is usually treated as functional and rhetorical. That is why no
suggestions of alternative versions that would drop these repetitions, or replace them
with variations are put forward for this is not allowed in literary translation.

(Repetition in the Holy Koran and the Prophet’s ‫) التكػرار فػي القػرآف الكػريـ كالسػنة الشػريفة‬4
:Tradition)
‫) الَّبذِي‬4( ‫باس‬
ِ ‫ب‬ َّ
‫ن‬ ‫خ‬ ْ
‫ال‬ ‫اس‬
ِ ‫بو‬
‫ب‬ ْ‫س‬‫و‬ ْ
‫ال‬ ِّ‫بر‬
‫ب‬ ‫ش‬ ْ‫بن‬
‫ب‬ ‫م‬
ِ (3) ‫باس‬
ِ ‫ب‬‫ن‬َّ ‫ال‬ ‫ه‬
ِ ‫ب‬ ‫ل‬ِ ‫إ‬ (2) ‫باس‬ِ ‫ب‬‫ن‬َّ ‫ال‬ ِ ‫ب‬ ‫ل‬
ِ ‫م‬ ) 1( ‫باس‬ِ ‫ب‬‫ن‬َّ ‫ال‬ ِّ‫ب‬‫بر‬
‫ب‬ ‫ب‬
ِ ُ
‫بوذ‬
‫ب‬ ‫ع‬
ُ ‫أ‬ ْ
‫ل‬ ‫) قُ ب‬1(
)6( .‫اس‬ َّ َّ ْ
ِ ‫( مِن ال ِجن ِة والن‬5) ‫اس‬ َّ
ِ ‫ُور الن‬
ِ ‫صد‬ ُ ًِ‫ٌُوسْ ِوسُ ف‬
(Say: “I seek refuge with the Lord of mankind, The King of mankind, The God of mankind,
from the evil of the whisperer, the slinking Satan, who whispers in the breasts of mankind,
from among Jinn and mankind.”)

In this last Chapter of the Holy Koran, grammatically speaking, it is one sentence only with
five repetitions of ‘mankind’ and three variations on the word of ‘God’ (Lord, King and
God/Deity). It is a perfect type of style that may produce the greatest effect possible on
the reader and lay a special emphasis on both terms alongside the unique rhyme of the
verses of the whole Chapter. It must be re-stressed that the repetition of ‘mankind’ is not
to achieve rhyme for this is inapplicable to the Holy Koran. To illustrate the point sharply,
we rephrase the Chapter in our normal use of language as follows:
)‫ الذم يكسكس في صدكرىـ مف ال ًجنة كمنيـ‬،‫ الخناس‬،‫ مف شر الكسكاس‬،‫ كالييـ‬،‫ كممكيـ‬،‫*( قؿ أعكذ برب الناس‬

(Say: “I seek refuge with the Lord, King and God of mankind, from the evil of the whisperer,
the slinking Satan, who whispers in their breasts, from among Jinn and them.”)

360
Readers can easily notice the huge difference between the original and this ordinary
version in terms of effect, impact, beauty and impressiveness. So, it is not possible to
dispose of any of the repetitions or variations of the original Arabic in the English
translation. Above all, the translation of the Holy Koran is the most accurate among all
types of texts, which means, in principle, that nothing can be dropped in a good English
translation as everything is relevant to meaning in some way (see Ghazala, 2014 for
extensive details about the point).

‫ ٌا رسول هللا من أح الناس بصحبتً؟ قال‬:‫( جاء رجل إلى رسول هللا صلى هللا علٌه وسلم فقال‬2)
(‫ قال ثم من؟ قال أبو )رواه الشٌخان‬. ‫ قال ثم من؟ قال أم‬. ‫ قال ثم من؟ قال أم‬. ‫أم‬
(A Man came to the Messenger of God, peace be to him, and said: "who is the most worthy
of my company?" He (the Prophet) said: "Your mother". He said: "Then who?" He said:
"Your mother". He said: "Then who?" He said: "Your mother". He said: "Then who?" He
said: "Your father".)

This is a Prophetic Tradition where repetition is recurrent for good reasons and significant
functions (e.g. ... .‫ثـ أبػكؾ‬...‫ثـ أمػؾ‬...‫ثـ أمػؾ‬...‫قػاؿ أمػؾ‬. One of them is to lay emphasis on caring
for the mother more than the father as a sign of greater recognition for the double efforts
of mother in the bringing up of children, and in response to the fact that mother need
more care and love of children, being more sensitive and passionate than fathers. A third
good reason is that repetition is meant to aid understanding for the Prophet (peace be to
him) used to repeat anything he said three times to make easier for people to understand
)‫(كػاف رسػكؿ اهلل صػمى اهلل عميػو كسػمـ يكػرر كػؿ شػيء ثالثػان لإلفيػاـ‬. The same applies to other types of
texts, especially literary, legal and political texts, where repetition is expected to be
functional and expressive of some stylistic implications of meaning. Hence, the general
rule in the translation of in the Holy Koran and the Prophetic Sunnah, repetition is to
retain it, and not to replace it by variation but only exceptionally when repetition is
unusually unnecessary (as in conversational, casual and general texts). Hence, the style of
repetition here is understandably justified, and the English readership is expected to
appreciate it.

To sum up, the style of repetition is one of the commonest styles of language in general.
However, it can be either useful (as in the translation of religious, literary and other types
of serious texts) or useless (as in conversational, advertising, general and many newspaper
articles and colloquial, less serious texts). When useful, the students and translators will
reproduce it in the TL fully, but when useless, it is left to their discretion as to preserve it,
reduce it, drop it altogether or suggest variations on it instead. That said, students and
translators should avoid artificial and awkward variations and synonyms that might do
harm to the stylistic implications of the message of the original.

3.12 TRANSLATING THE STYLE OF REDUNDANCY: PERIPHRASIS: ELABORATE VARIATION

Redundancy (or circumlocution) )‫ (الحشك‬is defined simply as 'elongation' and 'unnecessary

use of words that exceeds what is needed to express meaning. Arab scholars of Arabic
Linguistics define language as follows: )‫(المغة انيجاز‬, which is reflexive of its sense compared
to defining it as: )‫(المغة ىي انيجاز‬, where )‫ (ىك‬is extra and, therefore, has to be dropped, as

361
in the former version (See Al-Maidani, 1996: 60-61). In English, redundancy implies a
reference to superfluity and unnecessary elongations of lexical and grammatical structures
for no good reasons. The non-technical meaning of redundancy has a pejorative
connotation of superfluity due to lack of careful planning, but may be used deliberately for
emphasis, or to suggest strong feelings (see Wales, 1989: 395).

As to the good style of redundancy, Periphrasis, it is a statement or a phrase which uses

more words than are necessary. It is equivalent to redundancy, but periphrasis is usually
associated with politeness, formal or elevated styles of speech and writing. It is often
characteristic of euphemism and jargon, used to avoid unpleasant associations. I take
periphrasis here to refer to a style of planned, elaborate variation used to construct the
same concept into different creative concepts, whether referential or metaphorical, to
further our knowledge and comprehension of a certain term, attitude or ideology (see also
Nash, 1980). Thus, periphrasis is a creative style that is more sophisticated and
distinguished than the two less notorious formal terms, redundancy and circumlocution,
both of which imply a reference to superfluity and unnecessary elongations of lexical and
grammatical structures for no good reasons (see Nash, 1980; Wales, 1989 and Ghazala
2011).

There are several types of redundancy in both languages, Arabic and English. However, for
the purposes of this textbook, it will be looked at as three main types in general terms,
both of which will be exemplified, translated and discussed:

(a) FUNCTIONAL REDUNDANCY;

(b) ELABORATE REDUNDANCY: PERIPHRASIS
(c) UNNECESSARY REDUNDANCY

Here they are discussed individually in detail for convenience of simplification:

3.12.1 Functional Redundancy: e.g.

)31-30 :‫ إال إبميس أبى أف يككف مف الساجديف (الحجر‬.‫فسجد المالئكة كميـ أجمعكف‬ )1(
(Instantly all the angels without exception prostrated altogether, save a devil who refused
to be among the prostrators)
God )18-17 :‫ قاؿ ىي عصام أتككأ عمييا كأىش بيا عمى غنمي كلي فييا مارب أخرل (طو‬.‫كما تمؾ بيمينؾ يا مكسى‬ )2(
asked: "And What is that in your right Hand, Moses? Moses said: "It is my rod whereon I lean
and with which I beat down leaves for my flock of sheep, and I have other uses for it"
(He (Pharaoh) said: "I believe in he who the Children )90 :‫قاؿ آمنت بالذم آمنت بو بنك إسرائيؿ (يكنس‬ )3(
of Israel believe in…")
‫ليس عمى الذيف آمنكا كعممكا الصالحات جناح فيما طعمكا إذا ما اتقكا كآمنكا كعممكا الصالحات ثـ اتقكا كآمنكا ثـ اتقكا‬ )4(
There is no blame on those who believe and do righteous )93 :‫كأحسنكا كاهلل يحب المحسنيف (المائدة‬
deeds for what they may have eaten in the past, if they fear God and believe and do
362
righteous deeds, then fear God and believe, then fear God and do good. And God loves the
good-doers.
Make things easy for people and do not make them )‫ كبشركا كال تيىنفركا (متفؽ عميو‬،‫) يسركا كال تعسركا‬5(
uneasy, and cheer people up by conveying glad tidings, and do not repulse them by bad
tidings

These examples are enshrined with redundancies, rhetorical redundancies, that is. They
are all functional. To illustrate the point about the redundant words and expressions of
these examples, we may suggest rewriting them without the latter as follows:
.‫ إال إبميس أبى أف يككف مف الساجديف‬...‫) فسجد المالئكة‬1(
(Instantly the angels prostrated, save a devil …)
… "And What is that in your right Hand, Moses"? .‫ قاؿ ىي عصام‬.‫) كما تمؾ بيمينؾ يا مكسى‬2(
Moses said: "It is my rod/staff".
(He (Pharaoh) said: "I believe in God…" )90 :‫) قاؿ آمنت باهلل (يكنس‬3(
There is no blame on those .‫) ليس عمى الذيف آمنكا كعممكا الصالحات جناح فيما طعمكا كاهلل يحب المحسنيف‬4(
who believe and do righteous deeds for what they may have eaten. And God loves the
good-doers.
Make things easy, and cheer people up by conveying glad tidings )‫ كبشركا (متفؽ عميو‬،‫) يسركا‬5(

Perhaps this is the normal way of expressing the general meanings of these examples. But
they are not meant to be just normal, but more implications are intended to be added to
them.

The first example has two synonymous words )‫ (كميـ أجمعكف‬added to imply several
additional effects and functions. The first effect is to add a strong tone of emphasis to
meaning. Secondly, they reflect the absolute and instant obedience of all the Angels to
God's Command. Thirdly, they serve to sharpen the next exemption )‫ (إال إبميس‬and feeling
of contempt toward the Satan who refused to prostrate to Adam, peace be to him.

The second example is unique in its prophetic rhetorical redundancy. That is, the verse is a
long answer by the Messenger of God, Moses, peace be to him, to God's very short
question about what he had in his right hand (i.e. his stick). A Messenger of God, is
expected to be sharp and to the point., but here in this specific context, Moses was said to
have done it on purpose on the special occasion of talking to his Lord, so he wished to
elongate the time of the dialogue. This is a Prophet-specific justification for a uniquely
rhetorical redundancy.

The third example is a statement of faith uttered pretentiously by Pharaoh when he

started to drown in the Red Sea at his desperate attempt to chase Moses, and the
Children of Israel. His claim of faith was recognized by scholars as pretentious on the basis
of his unnecessarily long and redundant pronouncement, avoiding the word ‫( اهلل‬God), for
had he been honest in his faith, he would have said it directly and succinctly in one word:
"I believe in God". In other words, we understand from this unnecessarily long statement
that he did not recognize the existence of God in a straightforward way, but he claimed to

363
have believed in what the Children of Israel believed. Hence, this redundancy is a crucial
indicator of Pharaoh's faithlessness.

Example 4 is a redundant repetition that cannot be described as unnecessary for it is

meaningful. The number of repetitions of the same phrase (‫ )اتقكا كآمنكا كعممكا الصالحات‬is an
indication of scalar consecutive stages of faith, good deeds and piety, indicated by ‫ثـ‬
(then). At the same time, it asserts and reasserts the repeated conditional triple message
to be met properly. All this can be understood as an incentive for doing good and pious
deeds unceasingly.

The final example juxtaposes two contrastive pairs to be attended to simultaneously and
equally. Although making things easy implies avoiding making them uneasy, the mention
of both together entails attendance to them both by way of encouraging doing the first
and warning against doing the second. The same applies to the next two pairs of
conveying good news, not bad news to people.

Obviously, the English translations of the above examples have been committed to the
original functional redundant Arabic, due to the special significance of its stylistic functions
and implications which are essential parts of meaning. The main reason is that they are
quoted from the Holy Koran and the Prophet's Tradition which are sacred expressive texts
that require to be translated as accurately and closely as possible, whether or not the
translator explores their stylistic functions.

3.12.2 Elaborate Redundancy: Periphrasis: e.g.

‫ سػػكف‬،‫ كسػػاعده الحػػظ فييػػا‬،‫ فمػػف درت لػػو بحالكتيػػا‬...‫ فػػإف اهلل جعػػؿ الػػدنيا محفكفػػة بػػالكره كالسػػركر‬،‫أمػػا بعػػد‬ )1
،‫ كذميػا سػاخطان عمييػا‬،‫ قالىا ناف انر عنيػا‬،‫ كتكطأتو بثقميا‬،‫ كمف قرصتو بأظفارىا‬،‫ كأقاـ عمييا‬،‫إلييا كرضي بيا‬
‫ ثػـ شمسػت‬،‫ كأرضعتنا مف درىا أفػاكيؽ اسػتحمبناىا‬،‫ كقد كانت الدنيا أذاقتنا مف حالكتيا‬.‫كشكاىا مستزيدان منيا‬
)59 :2009 ،‫ في الشكعة‬:‫" (عبد الحميد‬...‫ كرمحتنا مكلية‬،‫ كأعرضت عنا مستنكرة‬،‫منا نافرة‬

(I proceed to say that God the Almighty had made this World shrouded with hate and
happiness … . Those overwhelmed with its sweetness and good luck lulled to it and felt
satisfied with it; and those scraped with its claws and overburdened with its burdens
shunned it in repulsion, slandered it in indignation and complained asking more of it. The
World has made us taste its sweetness, sucked us from its nipples remains of milk that we
milked and emulsified. Then it repulsed us, got restful of us, turned away from us in
denial, and kicked us away before running away from us…)

The SL text is rich with elaborate variations that can be described as rhetorical
redundancy. Here are the main lines of periphrastic phrases in the Arabic original, first:

‫ فمػػف درت لػػو بحالكتيػػا ← كسػػاعده الحػػظ فييػػا ← سػػكف إلييػػا ← كرضػػي‬...‫) الػػدنيا محفكفػػة بػػالكره كالسػػركر‬1(
‫بيا ← كأقاـ عمييا‬

364
‫) كمف قرصتو بأظفارىا ← كتكطأتو بثقميا ← قالىا نػاف انر عنيػا ← كذميػا سػاخطان عمييػا ← كشػكاىا مسػتزيدان‬2(
.‫منيا‬
،‫) كقد كانت الدنيا أذاقتنا مف حالكتيا ← كأرضعتنا مف درىا ← أفاكيؽ استحمبناىا‬3(
.‫) ثـ شمست منا نافرة ← كأعرضت عنا مستنكرة ← كرمحتنا مكلية‬4(

The arrows represent the continuation of the same line of elaborate variations to make
meaning richer, sharper and clearer. The first, that is, represents the line of happy world;
the second symbolises miserable world; the third describes the temptations of the world,
and the fourth depicts the rejection of the world to people at the end of life. Every line
represents a new rhetorical and figurative image of this world, which is though in line with
the superordinate conception of happiness, misery, etc. but it adds a new dimension to it.
Hence, these variations on the first phrase of each bundle represent enlightening
constructions of newly created concepts of them. The world is reconstructed positively in
the first bundle as the source of happiness, sweetness, good luck and satisfaction,
whereas it is reconstructed as the source of misery, dissatisfaction, repulsion and
indignation; and so on and so forth.

Readers are not bored but really enlightened by periphrastic creative, rhetorical and
aesthetic enrichment of meaning by reconstructing it in different images, the central
function of periphrasis. Hence, these periphrastic elaborative variations and their
implications are elaborate constructions of the stylistic choices made in the SL that they
have to be constructed appropriately in the target text by the translator in a similar way
for their resemblance to them. New explorations of ideas are also created in English by
these periphrastic variations. Therefore, we have here additions, modifications and
contributions to our experience and knowledge of reality of this world. It is not
recommended, then, to reduce them in any way, as suggested in the version below:

(I proceed to say that God the Almighty had made this World shrouded with hate and
happiness … . Those overwhelmed with its sweetness and good luck lulled to it and felt
satisfied with it; and those scraped with its claws and overburdened with its burdens
shunned it in repulsion, slandered it in indignation and complained asking more of it. The
World has made us taste its sweetness, sucked us from its nipples remains of milk that we
milked and emulsified. Then it repulsed us, got restful of us, turned away from us in denial,
and kicked us away before running away from us…)

To elaborate how variations have been reconstructed in English, here are the four linses of
constructive variations to be compared with those of the Arabic original:

(1) God the Almighty had made this World shrouded with hate and happiness … .
Those overwhelmed with its sweetness and good luck lulled to it and felt satisfied
with it;
(2) those scraped with its claws and overburdened with its burdens shunned it in
repulsion, slandered it in indignation and complained asking more of it;
(3) The World has made us taste its sweetness, sucked us from its nipples remains of
milk that we milked and emulsified;

365
 (4) Then it repulsed us, got restful of us, turned away from us in denial, and kicked us
away before running away from us.

The English translation has abided by the lines of elaborate variations of the original in
general terms to produce a similar sequence of conceptualization of the quadrilateral
image of this World. Therefore, it is not recommended to reduce the text down to one
statement, summing up the message as follows:

This World is a mixture of contrasts of sweetness, bitterness temptation and finally denial
and death of man.

It is true that this is what the source text would like to say in brief, but it is a minimization
of several creative concepts and figurative images of the World, which is not
recommended for the losses could be considerable in the TL. In other words, elaborate
variation cannot be treated as unnecessary redundancy discussed below.

3.12.3 Unnecessary Redundancy

This type of redundancy - which earned it a bad reputation - is the use of unnecessary,
extra words to express meaning. It is a long, boring way of expressing meaning, using, say,
two, three or more words instead of one word only. It is usually considered as a bad style
of language and is, therefore, disposed of in translation. This type of redundancy is
claimed to be a characteristic feature of Arabic Language, which is partly true in certain
types of text like conversarional, general, newpaper and sports commentry texts, but not
in serious texts (as argued earlier in relation to the previous two types). Here are examples
to translate and discuss:
"‫) "بصراحة كمف غير لؼ كدكراف كعمى المكشكؼ أنت كاحد نصاب محتاؿ‬1
(Frankly, and without beating around the bush, you are an impostor and a cheat)

The statement is rather conversational and general in nature. Therefore, the style of
redundancy here is not crucial to the message. That is why the translator into English can
drop it altogether, with no loss of any part of meaning or function as follows (redundant
words and phrases are crossed):

(Frankly, and without beating around the bush, you are an impostor and a cheat) →
Frankly, you are an impostor → You are an impostor)

Both versions (underlined) have disposed of unnecessary words and can be acceptable.
Yet, the latter is perfectly pure of any shade of redundancy. That is, ‘frankly’ is implied in
the next statement which is put bluntly in response to the well-known rule ‘be sharp and
to the point’. Yet, if the SL redundancy is expressive of the speaker’s hesitation or shyness,
it might be reconsidered by the translator and reproduced in English.

‫ بعد انتظارم‬،‫ أكالن كقبؿ كؿ شيء أكد أف أشكر سيادة الرئيس عمى إعطائي الكممة أخي انر‬،‫) "سادتي كسيداتي‬2
".‫حكالي ساعة تقريبان‬

366
(Ladies and gentlemen, first and foremost, I would like to thank Mr. Chairman for giving
me the floor at last, having been waiting for an hour or so)

Redundancy here is a long, boring, traditional and undesirable cliché of starting a speech.
The speaker has chosen to begin with a long introduction instead of going directly to the
point. Therefore, contrary to the previous version which retains redundance in full, other
versions of translation into English could suggest the disregard of redundancy completely:

(Ladies and gentlemen, I would like to thank Mr. Chairman for giving me the floor / Thank
you ladies and gentlemen /Thank you Mr. Chairman /Thank you)

Any of these versions can be satisfactory for giving the gist, the message of the original,
especially the last two, the shortest and the sharpest. Yet, when insinuative, ironical and
bad style of language is aimed at by the speaker, it is possible to retain redundancy in full
for SL bad style should be transmitted into the TL as bad, not good style. There is no
difference between the two styles to translators for they express the style of other
people, and not their own.

Hence, the non-redundant version above is a summary of the former’s full version. It is
brief and written in a good style, whereas the other is long, written in a bad style and
might have the stylistic function of irony and dissatisfaction that the speaker is not
satisfied with the chairman because he ignored him for a long time. In the event, the
retention of redundancy in the target language can be justified:

.‫ كأتباعيػا‬،‫ شرسػان عمػى الحككمػة كمؤيػدييا‬،‫ يشف ىجكمان شػديدان‬،‫ إنو دائمان يقكد‬.‫ متطرؼ‬،‫) عضك البرلماف ذاؾ متشدد‬3
،‫حمايػة‬ ‫ إذ يعتبركف أنفسيـ مسؤكليف عػف‬."‫ زعيـ مجمكعة في البرلماف تدعى "المدافعكف عف الحقكؽ‬،‫فيك رئيس‬
.)‫ مؤامرات الحككمة‬،‫ الجماىير ضد أالعيب‬،‫الدفاع عف حقكؽ الشعب‬

(That member of parliament is a hardliner, a militant. He always leads, launches a severe,

ferocious attack on the government, its supporters and followers. He is the chairman, the
leader of a group in the parliament called ‘The defenders of the rights’. They hold
themselves responsible for protecting, defending the rights of the people, the masses
against the government’s tricks, conspiracies)

Here, redundancies, probably, mark the speaker’s hesitation and ‘self-correction’. That is,
in each pair of words, the second corrects the first and is, hence, better, more expressive
and more proper than it. In English, however, the above version is awkward and
unnecessarily copies the Arabic original which has a monotonous style of using redundant
synonyms unnecessarily too. In any case, there might be a good possible version that is
short, sharp and to the point, to replace the long, redundant and literal one with the
original:

(That member of parliament is a hardliner. He always launches a severe attack on the

government and its supporters. He is the leader of a group in the parliament so-called ‘The
defenders of the rights’. They hold themselves responsible for defending the rights of the
people against the government’s tricks)

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This translation is based on disposing of either redundant synonym of each pair. Now it
sounds more English and less boring. It stands in contrast with the former redundant
version which is awkward and bad English to reflect the bad style of redundancy of the
original. A little improvement on the redundant version that may make it more fluent and
acceptable in English is the addition of the correction word of contrast, ‘but’ and other
connectors between the two words of each of the redundant pairs as follows:

(That member of parliament is not just a hardliner, but a militant. He always leads, or,
rather, launches not only a severe, but also a ferocious attack on the government, its
supporters and followers. He is the chairman, or, say, the leader of a group in the
parliament called ‘The defenders of the rights’. They hold themselves responsible for
protecting or defending the rights of the people, the masses in general against the
government’s tricks and conspiracies)

With the aid of some connectors of alternation (or), contrast (not only…but also), addition
(and) and generalization (in general), the target translation has become more readable
than the first tedius one. Yet, it is rather artificial, pretending to be what the Arabic
original is not. Hence, the previous, short, non-redundant version, is the better one among
the three suggested above.

To round up, the style of redundancy is traditionally regarded as a bad style of language
for it is non-functional and uses extra words than usual and breaks the rule of ‘the shorter,
the better’. Yet, this is one type of redundancy that, in translation, we normally dispose of
it, especially in not very serious texts. There are two more types of functional redundancy
that translators are recommended to retain in the TL due to their significant stylistic
implications in relation to meaning: functional redundancy, and periphrasis.
TNevertheless, on special occasions, when it is required to reproduce the bad style of
redundancy in the TL, the translator can do that as a part of his/her faithfulness to the SL
text as much as towards his/her profession of translation. That is, a bad style in Arabic → a
bad style in English; a good style → a good style. He is not required to change an SL bad
style into a TL good style. Yet, it is possible to dispose of unnecessary redundancy in
translation as a general rule.

3.13 TRANSLATING SIMPLICITY INTO A SHOW OF MUSCLES’ STYLE

Sometimes, more than one English equivalent is available for the same Arabic word,
phrase or expression. Yet, they may not fit equally in different stylistic contexts, because
they have different degrees of expressivity. That is, one can be normal and, therefore, is
not suitable in a very formal and expressive context, whereas another may be too strong
and too big to be used in an ordinary text, or a text for children, for instance. In other
words, there can be a problem of confusing the use of the proper word in the proper
context for the proper readership.

The main reason behind such confusion of context is the tendency on the part of
translators into English toward using an expressive, pompous and ostentatious translation,
368
disregarding the style of the language of the text, context and readership, in an attempt to
show one's muscles )‫(اسػتعراض عضػالتو‬, which is an artificial special, pedantic skill in English.
Those translators do that on the background misconception that such an artificial,
pompous and rhetorical style is the best in translation, which is unacceptable. The
following examples illustrate the point further:

‫) لماذا يمكمكنني دائمان؟‬1

This statement is a very simple piece of language. It is smooth, natural, direct and anything
but complicated, rhetorical or bombastic. In theory, it can have the following translations
in English:

(1) Why do they always blame me?

(2) Why do they always hold me responsible?
(3) Why do I always take the blame?
(4) Why do I always take responsibility?
(5) Why am I always the bad guy?
(6) Why do I always carry the can?
(7) Why should I always bear the brunt?
(8) Why should I always take the heat?
(9) Why should I always face the music?
(10) Why should I always be in the front line?
(11) Why should I always grin and bear it?
(12) Why shouls I never say die?

These translations are three styles:

1. Normal formal language: (1-4): There is nothing special or metaphorical about

the words used. All of them are ordinary, common, easily understood and used
by everyone.
2. General figurative informal language: (5) this is a figurative phrase used loosely
and emotionally in any type of informal context of an amicable protest against
unjust blame by others.
3. Bombastic colloquial language: (7-12), demonstrated by the underlined phrases
in the examples above. All of them are figurative, pompous and colloquial catch
phrases. They are regarded as much more expressive than those of '1' because
they are:

1. Exaggerative
2. Pompous
3. Rhetorical
4. Metaphorical
5. Colloquialisms

Many students and translators prefer to use one of the last group as a show of muscles,
mistaking it for the better version of translation among the three options suggested
above. This leads them to the misjudgment of types and levels of readership, contexts and
369
carelessness about differences among them. In other words, different contexts pose the
problem of choosing the more appropriate version for each one since the same translation
cannot fit in all contexts. That is, being simple and natural, the Arabic original poses no big
problem of translating it into English simply, naturally, normally and directly. Hence, it
requires a straightforward translation that may match the source text without resorting to
artificialness, figurativeness, rhetoric and pomposity, as demonstrated by any of the first
group of versions. This gives hints to students and translators to be natural and simple in
the TL at tackling SL simple and natural texts, and to distrust the fake claim that rhetorical
and pompous version of translation is always the best.

)‫(زيت الزيتكف كسرطاف الثدم‬

‫) امػرأة مصػابة بسػرطاف الثػدم أف ىنػاؾ عالقػة‬2564( ‫ كأيجريت عمػى‬،1995 ‫) أكدت دراسة نشرت في نكفمبر‬2
‫ كأف انكثػار مػف زيػت الزيتػكف سػاىـ فػي‬،‫عكسية بيف احتماؿ حدكث سػرطاف الثػدم كبػيف تنػاكؿ زيػت الزيتػكف‬
‫ أف‬1998 ‫ كأكػػدت د ارسػػة نيشػػرت فػػي مجمػػة أرشػػيؼ الطػػب البػػاطني فػػي أغسػػطس‬.‫الكقايػة مػػف سػػرطاف الثػػدم‬
‫تناكؿ ممعقة مف طعاـ مف زيػت الزيتػكف يكميػان يمكػف أف تيػنقص مػف خطػر حػدكث سػرطاف الثػدم بنسػبة تصػؿ‬
".%40 ‫إلى‬

This is a scientific text forwarded to the interested general public, using straightforward
terminology with no sign of exaggeration, rhetoric or pomposity. For example, the word
used by the original is the popular, non-technical term, ‘cancer’ which is preferred to an
unknown, technical term that would be most likely not understood by the public. So, a
bombastic, exaggerative and technical translation like the one suggested next would be a
show of muscles in terms of style:

(The Magic of Olive Oil at the Despicable Breast Cancer

A promising recent study published in November 1995 in a famous magazine, on 2564
miserable women with horrendous ductal carcinoma, that there is definitely a
counteractive link between the incidence of the epidemic ductal carcinoma and taking the
magical olive oil, and that taking more olive oil contributes to the the absolute prevention
from dreadful ductal carcinoma. The brilliant study- published in August 1998 by the
widely reputed Archives of Internal Medicine Magazine – affirmed without a doubt that
taking only one table spoon of the supernatural olive oil a day will certainly reduce the
catastrophic hazards of the incidence of contemptible ductal carcinoma by a very high
percentage of 40%)

The purpose of such a medical text directed to the general public is to inform them of the
findings of a latest study about breast cancer in scientific terms and from an accreditted
source as simply and clearly as possible. Yet, this version meets none of the aims and
purposes of the original for it suggests a very difficult text using unfamiliar techncal terms
(e.g. ‘carcinoma’ for ‘cancer’, and ‘ductal’ for ‘breast’, etc.). More seriously, it uses extra,
unnecessary words of exaggeration and intensification (in bold type). They might be aimed
at giving more credibility to the contents of the text, but the fact is that they complicate
meaning and comprehension, on the one hand, and overstate things which would give
quite the counter effect and reaction to such a text that talks about facts, statistics and
scientific experiments. Further, the translator who adopts such a version of translation

370
would create new problems of translation for himself/herself and new problems of
comprehension for readers. In fact, all these are evidence of unnecessary artificialness
that could make readers shun the translation altogether as bombastic, showy and
unacceptable. Hence, a natural, normal and fluent version is recommended like the one
suggested next:

(Olive oil and breast cancer

A recent study published in November 1995, on 2564 women with breast cancer, that there
is a counteractive link between the incidence of breast cancer and taking olive oil, and that
taking more olive oil contributes to the prevention from breast cancer. The study-
published in August 1998 by the Archives of Internal Medicine Magazine – affirmed that
taking one table spoon of olive oil a day may reduce the hazards of the incidence of breast
cancer by 40%)

This translation is now readable and fluent for it avoids unnecessary affectation that might
do harm to it and its authenticity. Artificialness and pomposity can sometimes have dire
consequences on the TL translation. So, students and translators are requested to dismiss
them as inappropriate if they aim to translate naturally and normally.

(show of muscles vs. ordinary translations) ‫) ترجمات استعراضية مقابؿ ترجمات عادية‬3

Another remarkable show of muscles’ style is in the translation of general texts for the
public at large. Here translators may use expressive, very formal words and expressions
that are too difficult for not highly educated readership to understand clearly and
completely. The best examples can be traced in the subtitled (or translated by writing) and
doubled (or translated orally) T.V. foreign series, films and programs. Translators tend to
choose ostentatious words at every possible opportunity in the text to show up their
distinguished knack in Arabic. This can be harmful to a translation forwarded to a public
who mostly has an average level of education and expects a simplified, easily understood
and commonly used standard English. Here is a list of examples illustrating the point,
including the pompous words (or big words) used and their ordinary, more appropriate
substitutes (i.e. small words) (see also Best 1991/2000):

Bombastic English Ordinary English Ordinary Arabic

(1) Encephalon (1) brain ‫دماغ‬ )1(
(2) Impecable (2) blameless ‫ال لكـ عميو‬ )2(
(3) Grandi- (3) bombastic ‫طناف رناف‬ )3(
loquent ً
‫ميمؿ‬ )4(
(4) Perfunctory (4) careless ‫مختصر‬ )5(
(5) Succinct (5) brief
‫خساسة‬ )6(
(6) Turpitude (6) baseness
‫م اررة‬ )7(
(7) Acerbity (7) bitterness
(8) Opprobrium (8) disgrace ‫عار‬ )8(
(9) Cecity (9) blindness ‫عمى‬ )9(
(10) Pugnacious (10) aggressive ‫) عدكاني‬10(
(11) Procrasti- (11) postpone ‫) يؤجؿ‬11(

371
 nate ‫) عظمي‬12(
(12) Osseous (12) bony ‫) طفكلي‬13(
(13) Puerile (13) childish ‫) كاضح‬14(
(14) Pelluci (14) clear ‫) كامؿ‬15(
(15) Acatalectic (15) complete ‫) صكرة‬16(
(16) Simulacrum (16) image
‫) حماقة‬17(
(17) Insipience (17) foolishness
‫) صيانة‬18(
(18) Alimony (18) maintenance
‫) طعاـ‬19(
(19) Aliment (19) food
(20) Nescient (20) ignorant ‫) جاىؿ‬20(

(21) Otiose (21) lazy ‫) صالة‬21(

(22) Orison (22) prayer ‫) مفمس‬22(
(23) Senile (23) old ‫مسف‬/‫) عجكز‬23(
(24) Afflatus (24) inspiration ‫) إلياـ‬24(
(25) Rectitude (25) uprightness ‫) استقامة‬25(
(26) Cogitate (26) think ‫) حقيقة‬26(
(27) Veracity (27) truth ‫) يفكر‬27(
(28) Pertinacious (28) stubborn ‫) عنيد‬28(
(29) Lentitude (29) slowness
‫) بطء‬29(
‫) راتب‬30(
(30) Emolument (30) salary
‫) لص‬31(
(31) Depredator (31) thief
(32) Hebdomadal (32) weekly ‫أسبكعينا‬/‫) أسبكعي‬32(
(33) Penitentiary (33) prison ‫) سجف‬33(
(34) Gueron (34) reward ‫) مكافأة‬34(
(35) Rapacious (35) greedy ٌ )35(
‫طماع‬
‫) سرم‬36(
(36) Surreptitious (36) secret
‫) يبصؽ‬37(
(37) Expectorate (37) spit
‫) حقيقي‬38(
(38) Veritable (38) real
‫) طمع‬39(
(39) Cupidity (39) greed
(40) Oblivion (40) forgetfulness ‫) نسياف‬40(
(41) Mendicant (41) beggar ‫) شحاد‬41(
(42) malediction (42) curse ‫) لعنة‬42(

The list is very long indeed. (For more discussion of how to differentiate between
synonymous words like these, see 2.3 on ‘Synonymy’ above).

The problem becomes worse when the translated text is forwarded to low-educated
readers, or children through children’s T.V. programs and cartoons, for example. Children
need a very simplified language. Such a show of muscles’ translations of the ‘pompous
group’ in the list above are frequent and may spoil the original, do harm to English and
create difficulties of understanding to children in particular. For example, using
‘penitentiar’ for ‘prison’, ‘cecity’ for ‘blindness’, or ‘encephalon’ for ‘brain’ would turn
them dumbfounded, whereas using the normal simple words would make the translation
clear and fluent. If the translator uses the bombastic group with the pretext that it is
better in English. Certainly not. Rather, it is artificial, complicated and misplaced in a

372
simple context and meaning. Only with the aid of their educated parents can they
understand what they mean.

To conclude, usually, the students prefer a show of muscles’ translations, mistaking them
for the best versions of translation. However, this is not exactly the case. Rather, the
students are advised not to use bombastic, very formal translations in most texts and
contexts and for any type of readership. They are recommended to bear in mind that
these factors can sometimes be sharply different. Therefore, one and the same version of
translation in English does not fit in all types of texts, contexts, and for all types of readers.
Yet, this is not to say that show of muscles' translations are never used in translation. They
can be accepted only with an appropriate type of readership (i.e. educated readers),
context (i.e. literary, rhetorical, expressive, exaggerative, etc.) and type of text (i.e. a short
story, a poem, a political speech, an advertisement, a collocation, a metaphor, etc.). In
such texts and contexts, rhetoric, expressivity, effectiveness, pomposity and exaggeration
are allowed, not to say required. This is what can be called 'creative translation'.

3.14 TRANSLATING THE STYLE OF NOMINALIZATION vs. VERBALIZATION

Nominalization is the use of nouns, while verbalization is the use of verbs instead of
nouns (e.g. ‫ م ْنببع‬/ ‫( ٌمنببع‬prevent / prevention). In terms of style, nominalisation and
verbalisation are two derivative grammatical transpositions that involve either a
preference of the use of nouns to verbs (nominalisation), or the choice of verbs over
nouns (verbalisation). The use of one style in preference to another might imply
significant stylistic functions and effects. Those effects for nominalization include power,
authority, crispness, disguise, neutrality, generalisation, politicization, etc. However, for
verbalization, these functions may involve activity, process, action, vividness, directness,
subjectivity, explicitness, and so on (for further details and functions, see Nash (1980: 69;
Toolan, 1998: 96, and Ghazala, 2011: ch. 3).

It is an interesting stylistic practice to avail from the possibility of switching a noun into a
verb, or a verb into a noun as a kind of alternative style. Our concern in the translation of
these two styles is to find out about the implications of each style in relation to meaning
in both source and target languages. They might seem to be the same for many students
and translators, but they are not as the functions of each are different from those of the
other, as argued above. Indeed, nouns and verbs represent two different activities and
processes. For example:

In English, ‘saying’ involves someone who ‘says’; ‘invitation’ implies one who ‘invites’ or
‘is invited’; ‘satisfaction’ means that there is someone who ‘satisfies’ someone else, or ‘is
satisfied’, and so on.

In Arabic, the same applies to the use of nouns in the Koranic verse:

)13:‫ لقمان‬: ‫إن الشر لظلم عظٌم‬

(Verily, polytheism is grievous iniquity)

There are two nouns:" ‫( "شببر‬polytheism) which involves someone who ‘associates
somebody or something with God’; and ‘‫( ’ظلبم‬iniquity) which entails one who ‘abuses’
373
oneself (which is the sense intended here in the verse) or somebody else when one is a
polytheist.

The above argument about nominalisation and verbalisation can be developed further in
connection with a highly significant and politicised issue in contemporary cognitive stylistic
studies and translation: nominalisation as a means of expressing Authority and Power,
especially in legal and political texts. Nominalisation is employed in these texts to inject
texts with abstraction, fixity indirectness and authority of hidden power. Verbalization, on
the other hand, represents subjectivity, directness and normality. To confirm that, here is
an example from Arabic legal texts to translate into English and discuss:

(political text) ً‫) نا سٌاس‬1

‫ فبالخالؾ‬. ‫ والقبول بتوقبع نتباب ملموسبة قرٌببا ؼٌبر دقٌب‬،3 ‫"من السباب ألوانبه الحبدٌث عبن مبؤتمر جنٌبؾ‬
‫ ال سٌما المعارضبة فبً محاولبة مبن النظبام وأسبٌاده‬،‫أصال قابم حتى هذه اللحظة حول الحضور من الجانبٌن‬
‫" (مصببادر‬.‫ وكسْ بب مرٌببد مببن الوقببت لمواصببلة تببدمٌر سببورٌا وقتببل األبرٌبباء مببن أبنابهببا‬،‫الببروس لتمٌٌعهببا‬
)2016/1/27 :‫إعالمٌة مختلفة‬

Normally, and as a general rule, the change of the grammatical class of words is allowed
(i.e. adjective into noun or vice versa, noun into verb or vice versa, adverb into noun or
vice versa, adjective into verb or vice versa, etc.). However, when one class of the words
of the SL text is overwhelming, we are urged to produce it in the TL translation due to
significant stylistic functions and implications. The whole text here, which is two sentences
long, has no one single verb used in it. It is perfectly nominal, and the verbalized nouns are
underlined, marking the overwhelming style of nominalization underscored by the SL. This
style is aimed at by the SL writer to achieve the following underlying functions: (i)
generalization of the statement; (ii) avoidance on the part of the writer of mentioning
names or pronoun references (e.g. ‫ الحبدٌث‬rather than ...‫تتحبدثون‬/‫تتحدثٌن‬/‫تتحدث‬/‫نتحدث‬/‫ ٌتحدث‬to
avoid embarrassing others or oneself; (iii) preference to a diplomatic, indirect and evasive
style of expressing one’s opinion; (iv) reluctance to act or take any provocative action; (v)
reflection of the writer’s unwillingness to say the truth for one reason or another; and (vi)
passivity of the SL writer’s attitude. All these functions and implications of the style of
nominalization of this text are good reasons for students and translators to be keen to
reflect them in the TL by using the same style of nominalization in English, as suggested in
the next version:

(It is too early talk about Geneva 3 Conference on Syria, and the expectation of concrete
results shortly is imprecise. Differences are still there up to this moment about attendance
from both sides, especially the opposition, in an attempt from the regime and its Russian
allies to liquidating them and winning more time for the continuation of the destruction of
Syria and the killing of its innocent people.)

Now, a hypothetical verbalized text can be put forward to illustrate further the point
about the differences between the two styles of nominalization and verbalization
(verbalized nouns underlined):

374
‫ فمبا رالبت‬.‫ وأن نقول إننا نتوقبع نتباب نلمسبها قرٌببا ٌفتقبر إلبى الدقبة‬،3 ‫"من الساب ألوانه أن نتحدث عن مؤتمر جنٌؾ‬
‫ والتببً ٌحبباول النظببام‬،‫ ال سببٌما المعارضببة‬،‫الخالفببات أصببال تتواصببل حتببى هببذه اللحظببة حببول مببن ٌحضببر مببن الجببانبٌن‬
".‫وأسٌاده الروس أن ٌمٌعوها وٌكسبوا مرٌدا من الوقت لٌواصلوا تدمٌر سورٌا وٌقتلوا األبرٌاء من أبنابها‬

The SL writer is now positive, active, straightforward, transparent and clear. Nothing is
hidden this time for the writer is using an active tone. That is, now he talks and expects,
differences go on; people attend, or do not attend; the Syrian regime and Russians try to
liquidate the opposition, win time, destroy Syria and kill Syrians. This means that the SL
text’s attitude has undergone drastic changes, which is why the style of verbalization is
required to be preserved in the TL, as proposed in the following English version
(verbalizations are underlined):

(It is too early for us to talk about Geneva 3 Conference on Syria, and to expect concrete
results shortly is imprecise. The Differences are still going on up to this moment about who
attends from both sides, especially the opposition, with the regime and its Russian allies
trying to liquidate them and win more time to continue to destroy Syria and kill her
innocent people.).

Obviously, the translation reflects the verbalized nouns of the source text, reproducing the
same effects and functions of its style of verbalization, with some artificialness and
difficulty, though. In fact committing oneself to the same replica of either style,
nominalization or verbalization of the SL, would be sometimes difficult to achieve in a
straightforward way due to the grammatical differences between English and Arabic word
order and word combination in particular. In the event, students and translators will be
urged to exert more efforts to achieve that. However, when that could be artificial,
awkward or complicated, they are recommended to desert the style concerned in favour
of proper English.
(Legal Text) ً‫) نا قانون‬2
)3
:‫ ٌنتهً العقد قبل انتهاء مدته فً الحاالت اآلتٌة‬-13 ‫مادة‬

.‫ قبول االستقالة‬-‫أ‬
‫ االنقطاع عن العمل دون عذر مشروع تقبله الورارة لمدة ترٌد على خمسة عشر ٌوما متوالٌة متى‬-‫بـ‬
.‫رأت الورارة انهاء العقد لهذا السبب‬
.‫ إلؽاء الوظٌفة‬-‫جـ‬
.‫ العجر الدابم عن العمل‬-‫د‬
.‫ عدم الصالحٌة للوظٌفة‬-‫هـ‬
.‫ الفصل التأدٌبً بقرار من مجلس المحاكمة‬-‫و‬
.‫ الفصل للمصلحة العامة‬-‫ر‬
‫ الحكم على المتعاقد بحد شرعً أو الحكم علٌه فً جرٌمة مخلة بالشرؾ أو األمانة أو بالسجن لمدة‬-‫حـ‬
(Hatim and Shunnaq, 1995) .‫ترٌد على سنة فً أٌة جرٌمة أخرى‬

This legal text (quoted from Ghazala, 2011) is strict and final in tone. It is written in form
of dictations that are loaded with the powerful authority of the government, without
stating this clearly. The style of initial, depersonalized nominalisation is exploited here to
be charged with this power, however indirectly and by implication. Being legal, the text
requires the translator to attend to every minute detail and type of style at translating it,
for accuracy is paramount. Having taken into account such nuances of style and content,
the translators opt for direct translation to reflect these nuances.
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“Article Thirteen
The contract shall terminate before the expiry of its period in the following cases:

a) Acceptance of resignation;
b) Absence from work for more than fifteen consecutive days without a legitimate excuse
acceptable to the Ministry and when the Ministry decides to terminate the contract for
this reason;
c) Cancellation of the post;
d) Permanent disability to perform the work;
e) Unfitness for the post;
f) Disciplinary dismissal by decision of a court council;
g) Dismissal in the public interest;
h) Conviction of the Contracted Party of a transgression of Islamic Law or a crime against
honour or honesty or sentencing to a period of imprisonment which exceeds one year for
any other crime.”

The following power-charged nominal phrases used in both texts are as follows:

i. Acceptance (of resignation) )‫قبول (االستقالة‬

ii. Absence from work ‫االنقطاع عن العمل‬
iii. Cancellation of the post ‫إلؽاء الوظٌفة‬
iv. Permanent disability ‫العجر الدابم‬
v. Unfitness (for the post) )‫عدم الصالحٌة (للوظٌفة‬
vi. Disciplinary dismissal ً‫فصل تأدٌب‬
vii. Dismissal in the public interest ‫الفصل للمصلحة العامة‬
viii. Conviction of the Contracted Party ‫الحكم على المتعاقد‬

All these nominalisations imply a powerful authority which has the right to take, make
and implement decisions related to the other Party of the contract. These decisions are
delivered in those depersonalised forms with a view to unburdening the official in charge
of signing the contract with the second party from personal responsibility, and at the
same time to avoid insulting the contracted party. The authority implications of these
nominalised phrases can be made clear. ‘Acceptance of resignation’, for example, involves
a reference to a hidden authority which is the only body to accept or refuse resignation of
the contractee, with no intervention from, or consultation of, the latter. ‘Absence from
work’ is left undefined by the hidden authority, which is to decide on the duration and
reasons of this absence. ‘Cancellation of the post’ is decided solely by this authority at any
time and perhaps without notification of the contractee. ‘Permanent disability’ is also
estimated by the authorised power in charge, which has the final word on its extent,
reasons and date. ‘Unfitness for the post’ is decided by that authority through its channels
and sources concerned at the university (e.g. faculties and departments). ‘Disciplinary
dismissal’ is one aspect of explicitly relentless authority which has a strict policy on
intolerable conducts.

As to ‘dismissal in the public interest’, it is the strongest and vaguest of all measures taken
by the authority in charge. I say the vaguest because it might be primarily for political,
social, personal, religious or other reasons (put in a descending order). What is more, the
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contracted party will not be notified or informed of the reasons behind the decision. The
final one, ‘conviction of the contracted party’, is the most serious reason for terminating
the contractee’s contract. The conviction means another authority other than the first
one is involved (i.e. the authority of Justice). The charge could be presented by the latter
authority against the contractee, in coordination with the former, or by notification or
briefing from the former to the latter.

We may conclude from this that these nominalisations are so loaded with power of
authority that an alternative verbalised style does not imply, as confirmed by the
hypothetical replacements of these nominal phrases with verbalised ones:

i. to accept the contractee’s resignation )‫أن ُتقبل (استقالة المتعاقد‬

ii. to be absent from work ‫أن ٌنقطع عن العمل‬
iii. to have the post cancelled ‫أن ُتلؽى الوظٌفة‬
iv. to become permanently disabled ‫أن ٌصاب بالعجر الدابم‬
v. to be unfit (for the post) )‫أن تنعدم صالحٌته (للوظٌفة‬
vi to be dismissed disciplinarily ‫أن ٌُفصل فصال تأدٌبٌا‬
vii.to be dismissed in the public interest ‫أن ٌُ ْفصل للمصلحة العامة‬
viii to be convicted (against the contractee) )‫(فً حقه‬..‫أن ٌصدر حكم‬

The ‘to-infinitive’ )‫ ٌفعبل‬+ ‫ (أن‬verbal forms have changed the whole tone of the original into
less abstract, less formal, less depersonalised and, hence, less authoritative and powerful
text. The second version comes closer to the contractee (especially ‫( أن ٌنقطبع عبن العمبل‬to be
absent from work) ‫( أن تنعدم صبالحٌته‬to be unfit); )‫( أن ٌصبدر حكبم قضبابً (فبً حقبه‬to be convicted
(against the contractee), all of which mean ‘him/her’ in person) and goes a little away
from the contractor (all forms). In effect, the powerful authority lying behind the original
has been weakened in this version, in which case a new construction of different
conceptualisation of authority is now in effect. However, it is the nominalised, more
indirect, formal, abstract, depersonalised and powerful authority of the original text
which is characteristic of legal documents. On the other hand, the verbalised,
personalised, less direct, abstract, formal and weakened authority of the second artificial
version is not a feature of the style of such language.

In short, nominalization and verbalization are two different styles. Each implies specific
functions that do not have the same impact on the message and the readership.
Therefore, both styles need to retained in Arabic. Ignoring them would render meaning
incomplete and the reaction to it inappropriate. Having said that, when it appears
artificial, less grammatical or complicated, students and translators are recommended to
leave it and give priority to proper and normal English.

3.15 TRANSLATING THE STYLE OF IRONY

One of the most difficult types of style to realize and recognize in language is the style of
irony. The general, simple dictionary definition of irony is “a method of humorous or
subtly sarcastic expression in which the intended meaning of the words is the direct
opposite of their sense” (e.g. it is irony to call a stupid plan, ‘clever’) (Webster's World
Dictionary, Third College Edition); "The humorous or mildly sarcastic use of words to imply
the opposite of what they normally mean (Collins English Dictionary); and "Irony is found
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when the words actually used appear to mean quite the opposite of the sense actually
required by the context and presumably intended by the speaker (Wales, 1989: 263).

Other definitions of irony centre more or less around the same meaning. For example,
Leech (1969) describes irony as a notion of disguise, a mask and a concealment that is
meant to be found out. For example, if someone dresses up as a monkey to entertain
children, he does not intend to be mistaken for a monkey. Also, Nash (1989: 118) defines
irony in simple terms as it "… says what it does not mean and means what it does not say".
He considers it in a book on Humour, (1985) as a major stylistic resort in humour. He
draws a comparison between irony and sarcasm as two different terms. Although both
involve overstatement and understaement, sarcasm is "ostensibly sincere, whereas irony
states something insincerely. For instance, as to the statement: "Tommy is lazy" ‫(تػكمي‬
)‫كسػكؿ‬, if we want to be sarcastic, we say: "Tommy doesn't strain himself” ‫ال ييتعػب‬/‫(ال يجيػد‬
)‫تػكمي نفسػو‬. However, when we try to be ironic, we may say: “Tommy is renowned for his
labours” .)‫ (تػكمي مشػيكد لػو بجيػكده الجبػارة‬. The main difference between the two versions is that
the second is sharper than the first. The relationship between the two can be simply
understood as follows: sarcasm is a light irony (see ibid.).

In Arabic, irony is defined as follows (see Tahas/Al-Awsi, 2015)

(delusive magnification in disguise of despise) (‫( إٌهام التفخٌم فً معنى التحقٌر )الرجّاج‬1)
(an art of .‫ فظاهره ج ّد وباطنه هرل‬.‫ ٌُقصد به إخراج الكالم على ضد مقتضى الحال‬، ‫( فن من فنون البدٌع‬2)
rhetoric intended to say something and mean the opposite. On the surface of it,
it sounds serious, but implies mocking….)
(Irony is the .‫ وأشد أثرا‬، ‫ وهو أؼٌظ للمستهرأ به‬،‫( الته ّكم تهاون من القابل بالمقول له و استهراء به‬3)
addresser’s belittlement and derision of the addressee. It is more outrageous and
of greater effect on the latter).

Having established the basics of the concept of irony in language, we can discuss it now as
a major stylistic problem of translation through its main types in English and Arabic.

The very first step prior to translating an irony is to recognize it in the SL text. If the
translator fails to do so, he might distort the central point of the original. So, he is
supposed to be extremely attentive and cautious at handling ironic expressions and
passages. The procedures as how the translator can spot and, then, translate an irony, can
be traced through the next discussion of the translation of its types wth their illustrative
examples:

‫ "كـ ىذا الحيكاف محبكب‬:‫ فعمؽ بقكلو‬،‫) المغالطة (كقكؿ سائح زار سكريا ككجد اسـ األسد في كؿ مكاف تقريبان‬1
(deliberate paralogism: e.g. Once a tourist who visited Syria and came )!‫عندكـ‬
across the name of its president, Assad, almost everywhere, he commented “it
seems you love this animal too much! (Assad in Arabic means ‘lion’).
(balanced juxtaposition: ً‫ وببس الشٌخ أنت لدى المعال‬... ‫) المقابلة (فنعم الشٌخ أنت لدى المخاري‬2
e.g. you are the best sheikh at disgraceful act ….and the worst sheikh at noble
acts)
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(cut-off statement: e.g. was it you ))‫ حبيب‬... ‫؟ (حيكاف‬...‫الكالـ المبتكر (أنت فعمت ىذا يا ح‬ )3
‘b…’ who did that? (undestood as ‘beast’ but intended as beloved
(insinuation: angels and devils never )‫الغمز كالممز (إذا حضرت الشياطيف ىربت المالئكة‬ )4
meet/ talk of the devil)
(the optative mood: e.g. Would that you )!‫التمني (يا ليتؾ تمنحنا بركتؾ أييا الشيخ األككؿ‬ )5
endow us with your bessing, gluttonous sheikh!)
(praise in form of criticism: e.g. your only fault )‫المدح بصيغة الذـ (عيبؾ أنؾ شديد الحياء‬ )6
is your incredible shyness) (fault ≠ shyness)
(criticism in form of praise: e.g. confer honour upon )‫الذـ بصيغة المدح (أكرمنا بسككتؾ‬ )7
us with your silence
(double ))‫التعميؽ ذك الكجييف بالمبالغة ( ما أذكاؾ يا عبقرم زمانؾ! (لمف كاف غبيان جدان أك ذكيان جدان‬ )8
entendre hyperbolic comment: e.g. O, how clever? (for a very stupid and very
clever person))
(equivocation: e.g. you filled our life with )‫ أقصد باألفراح‬- ‫المكاربة (مألت حياتنا باألتراح‬ )9
sadness – I mean gladness)
(play on words: e.g. stone-blind )‫التالعب باأللفاظ (ثقة عميانة) (بدالن عف عمياء كعكسيا‬ )10
confidence)
(good justification: e.g. I know why you )!‫ خمص عمره‬:‫حسف التعميؿ (أعمـ لماذا كسرت الكأس‬ )11
broke the glass: because its supposed life came to an end!)
"‫ "عجراء مف ىسمىـ‬:‫ "يا راعي الغنـ ما عندؾ؟" قاؿ‬:‫ فقاؿ‬، ‫أسمكب الحكيـ (مر رجؿ بالحطيئة يرعى غنمان‬ )12
(Man-of-wisdom style: A ".‫ "لمضيفاف أعددتيا‬:‫ فقاؿ الحطيئة‬."‫ "إني ضيؼ‬:‫ قاؿ‬.)‫(يعني عصاه‬
man passed by the famous Arab classical poet, Al-Hutaiah, shepherding a herd of
sheep, and said: “shepherd, what do you have?” Al-Hutaiah said: “a knotted
wooden club”. The man said: “I am a guest”. Al-Hutaiah said: “I designed it
especially for guests!”)
‫ األستاذ الجامعً رجل ٌُعلم تالمٌذه كٌؾ ٌحلون مشكالتهم التً حاول هو أن ٌتجنبها‬:‫التعبٌرات الالذعة‬ (13
(sharp wit: a university teacher is defined once as: “the man who !!‫باشتؽاله بالعلم‬
teaches his students how to solve their own problems that he has always tried to
avoid by preoccupying himself with knowledge”)
(Socratic irony: Lucky you, )‫التَّباليو (ما شاء اهلل ع ميؾ يا كلدم! نقكؿ ناجح؟ كاألب يعمـ أنو راسب‬ )14
“my dear son! You passed, didn’t you?” (the father already knows that his son
failed))
(dramatic )‫التيكـ الدرامي (تفضمكا الطعاـ يا أصدقائي – ىنيئ نا مريئ نا (طعاـ مسمكـ لألعداء‬/‫التكرية‬ )15
irony: My friends, you are invited to enjoy a special meal! (poisoned food))
‫ سخرية القدر (انتظر السكريكف سالت المعكنات فجاءىـ قصؼ النظاـ الكحشي‬/ ‫شر البمية ما يضحؾ‬ )16
(irony of fate/cosmic irony: e.g. The Syrians waited for aid )‫بالبراميؿ كالطائرات‬
baskets, but they received the brutal regime’s bombing with explosive barrels
and fighters instead!
(situational irony/parody: (look at my )‫( المفارقة (شوفوا رقبتً الحمراء من كثرة ما ضربته‬17
red neck to realize how violently I beat him!)
(contrastive irony: you are wonderful! )!‫( تهكم متضارب (أنت رائع! مقرؼ مف الركعة‬18
Disgustingly wonderful!)

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(reactionary irony: (A) You are )! ‫( ما ألطف‬2) !‫) أنت خسٌس‬1(( ‫( تهكم ردة الفعل العكسٌة‬19
mean! (B) How polite!)
‫( تهكم مبطن ؼرٌب (من قال إنني ال أستطيع انقالع عف التدخيف؟ لقد أقمعت عنو مئة مرة) (أم لـ أقمع عنو‬20
(innuendo: the Strange irony: Who claims I can’t give up smoking? I have )‫أبدان‬
given it up one hundred times! (instead of: “I have never given up smoking”).

These are general types of irony in the two languages involved, Arabic (1-12 & 20-22) and
English (13-19). Some of them are common in both languages (8, 14-17 and 24 below).
Every type requires special attention by the students and translators to understand the
ironic sense appropriately before tanslating it into English, for, if they miss it, their
translation would miss the punch line of the irony and, hence, may not be quite sensible.
Take, for example, ‘8’, implies two senses, one serious (i.e. very clever) and another ironic
(i.e. very stupid), so it requires more concentration than usual to pick up the ironic sense.
By analogy, ‘17’ requires to be attended to extra carefully to spot the irony in the two
expressions, ‘my red neck’ and ‘I beat him’, which stand in sharp contrast by implication.
In other words, the speaker tries to avoid admitting that it was he who was beaten
violently, and not ‘him’. The exclamation mark is crucially important here and in most of
the examples in the list, whether used in the Arabic original or not, to indicate that irony is
intentional. Many examples are translated directly, which can be safer to secure the SL
ironic sense in the TL than translate them culturally, or indirectly. When a cultural hint is
made in the SL, a clarification is required (e.g. in ‘12’, Al-Hutaiah is clarified by adding ‘the
famous Arab classical poet’ for it is not known to TL readers).

(rhetorical question: )43-35 :‫) االستفهام اإلنكاري ( أم ُخلقوا من ؼٌر شًء أم هم الخالقون؟ (الطور‬21
perhaps they were created out of nothing!
(frustrating praise irony: e.g. )138 :‫) تهكم المدٌ المثبِّط (بشر المنافقٌن بأن لهم عذابا ألٌما (النساء‬22
Break the glad tidings to the hypocrites that, for them, is a painful chastisement!
(degrading irony of ‫ فمثله كمثل الكلب إن تحمل علٌه ٌلهث وإن تتركه ٌلهث‬:‫) التهكم التمثٌلً المهٌن‬23
similitude: e.g. So he is as senseless as the dog that if you drive it away, it lolls its
tongue out, and if you leave it alone, still it lolls its tongue out.

The last three examples of the list are from the Holy Koran. They are meant to be ironical
more implicitly than explicitly. So, if translated directly into English without any ironic
implications being brought to surface, their ironic sense might be wasted in the TL for, in
English, they do not have the same humorous effect. Further, and since they are either
cultural, or Islamic, the English people do not go ironic or crack jokes in the same way in
their culture (see especially the last two examples, 6-7). The more appropriate translation
method of these expressions is advisably based on the implications of the style of irony of
Islamic texts.

In example 20, the word ‫شر‬ّ ‫ ب‬is usually used in a context of breaking good news to people,
but it is used here to break bad news to the hypocrites and disbelievers of a painful
torment awaiting them, by way of mocking them. Further, those hypocrites and believers
concerned have presumably expected glad tidings broken to them when they read ‫ب ِّشر‬
(report to them the glad tidings), but they soon discovered that it was the worst piece of
bad news that was broken to them. Hence its translation into 'break the glad tidings',
rather than 'break the bad tidings', which was the case applicable here, to imply a paradox

380
between 'glad' and 'torment', which after all creates this sense of irony in the Koranic
Verse.

As to 21, it is another rhetorical question that is sharply sarcastic of the disbelievers. The
style of irony is changed in English from interrogation into exclamation, with 'perhaps', at
the beginning, with an exclamation mark forced at the end to make the sense of irony yet
sharper.
rd
The 22 example is a description of the disbelievers who are referred to as senseless and
mind-less by implication. They are ironically and disparagingly likened to a dog that always
lolls its tongue. In other words, they are as senseless as a dog for they are deaf to
guidance, and it makes no difference to them if they are invited to God or not.

:(disguised irony) ‫) التيكـ التنكرم‬24

‫كاف اصطداـ مئات الصكاريخ انسرائيمة بعمارات سكنية فػي غػزة مجػرد حػادث مػركرم كػاف يمكػف أال يحػدث‬
‫ لػذا نكصػي المقػاكليف العػرب ببنػاء عمػارات عمػى عربػات‬.‫لكال كجكد العمارات التي اعترضت طريؽ الصكاريخ‬
‫متحركة تسير عمى عجالت يمكف تحريكيا في الكقػت المناسػب بعػد سػابؽ إنػذار مػف الجيػات المعنيػة لتػأميف‬
)139 :2004 ،‫عبكر آمف لصكاريخيا!" (مقتبسة جزئيان مف غزالة‬

(The clash of hundreds of Israeli rockets with many buildings in Gaza was none but an
occasional air traffic accident which could have been avoided had these buildings been not
in the way of the rockets. Therefore, we recommend Arab contractors to construct on-
wheel buildings that can be moved on due time after prior notice by the bodies concerned
to secure a safe traffic for their rockets!)

This is perhaps the most intricate type of irony to spot and translate. It requires a
maximum degree of concentration to locate, understand and then translate. It is hidden
and hard to trace, for it is not restricted to one word or phrase, but scattered through the
whole text. What adds to the complexity of disguised irony is the possibility of politicizing
and taking it seriously (see also Nash, 1989: 118).

The English translation tries to reflect the style of the Arabic original by following it suit to
produce a similar effect on the English target readers. This type of style is made to sneak
fluently as much as possible to achieve its very essence of disguise exercised on the reader
who is trusted to unmask it in the end.

3.15.1 Translation Strategies of Irony

To conclude, the translation of irony is as difficult as catching it. It is hoped that the
foregoing discussion of irony and its main types will help easen the burden of spotting,
comprehending and translating it. To help students and translators tackle the problems of
translating irony more easily and systematically, here is a summary of the translation
procedures of irony, to be guidelines for finding out the best possible solutions to these
problems:

381
 1. Locating the irony in the SL text in the first place.
2. Understanding its cultural, social, political, religious, etc. implications.
3. Taking into account the semantic and stylistic interrelationships among words
(especially the relationship of paradox) for irony could lie there.
4. Checking the layout of the SL text, which could be ironical too.
5. Considering the use of exclamation marks in the TL, as one of their major stylistic
functions in both languages is to indicate irony. Question marks can also be used
to imply irony (see next section on punctuation).
6. Looking for an identical style of irony in the TL (English), which would be the best
solution.
7. Tracing a cultural, social, literary, political, etc.equivalent image of irony in Arabic,
which is equally an ideal solution.
8. Going for a direct, literal translation of the meaning of the ironical expression
and/or image, by investigating the contrastive, paradoxical words and
insinuations of the original..
9. Suggesting an equivalent style of irony in English that can reflect its Arabic
counterpart in a way or another.
10. Trying, as a last resort, the literal translation of words in a hit-or-miss attempt,
that might be right or wrong.

3.16 THE STYLISTIC IMPORTANCE OF PUNCTUATION MARKS

Punctuation Marks (i.e.commas, full stops, colons, semi-colons, etc.) are graphological,
grammatical and stylistic tools used to have meaning and perform particular functions in
writing. They are, then, indispensable to any written text, a part of a text, or even a
sentence. They are used to achieve organisation, clarity, easiness of reading and
comprehension, avoidance of possible ambiguity of struture and meaning. These are
stylistic functions, or implicit meanings for them. However, some punctuation marks have
explicit meanings that cannot be expressed if they are omitted. Illustrative examples are
given below.

Although punctuation marks are equally important in English and Arabic, usually with
similar functions and meanings. Yet, unfortunately, they have been and are still being
ignored by many Arab writers for no good reasons. This is quite embarrassing situation in
Arabic writing. Here lies the problem in translation. Nonetheless, this does not apply to
the Holy Koran where symbols are slotted in between verses to mark pauses,
continuation, non-continuation, a half way between that, etc. in recitation. In a similar
way, punctuation is expected to follow suit in other types of writing, but, unfortunately,
this has not been applied in Arabic yet.

Contrary to Arabic, English uses punctuation systmatically in writing as a part of the

structure and meaning of any piece of language, which facilitates reading and
comprehension. In fact, in Arabic, punctuation is considered as an ornamentation, neither
more nor less. So, sometimes, it is disregarded completely, save for a full stop and
haphazard use of commas. To confirm this, a quick look at any book, old or new. A case in
point is A Handbook of Rhetoric (‫(الػػدليؿ إلػػى البالغػػة‬, (1995:32) –which is about Arabic
traditional poetry, punctuation is overwhelmingly marginalized throughout. Not only this,
punctuation is used poorly and haphazardly as a decoration, or is misused. Full stops,
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commas, question marks and exclamation marks in particular are badly used as an
indication of their insignificance in Arabic, which is not acceptable by any means.
Punctuation is essential for better readability, follow-up, comprehension, organization
and hence, translatability of the ideas and sub-ideas represented by sentences and their
constituent clauses and phrases. Here are miscellaneous examples, starting with one
from classical Arabic book by the very famous linguist, Al-Jurjani, )‫( (أسػرار البالغػة‬Mysteries
rd
of Rhetoric), 3 ed., 1983: p.33):

‫) "كأما الحالة األخرل التي قمنػا إف االسػـ فييػا يكػكف اسػتعارة مػف غيػر خػالؼ فيػي حالػة إذا كقػع االسػـ فييػا لػـ‬1
‫يكف االسـ مجتمبان نثبات معناه لمشيء كال الكالـ مكضكعان لذلؾ ألف ىذا حكـ ال يكػكف إال إذا كػاف االسػـ فػي‬
‫ فأما إذا لـ يكف كػذلؾ ككػاف مبتػدأن بنفسػو أك فػاعالن أك مفعػكالن بػو أك مضػافان إليػو فأنػت‬.‫منزلة الخبر مف المبتدأ‬
:"‫كاضع كالمؾ نثبات أمر آخر غير ما ىك معنى االسـ‬

(“The other case in which the name can unarguably be a metaphor is when the case of the
name does not entail confirming its meaning to an object nor speech is meant to imply
that a case that only occurs when the noun is functioning as a comment for a topic. In case
it is not so and instead it is a topic by itslef a subject an object or a genitive your speech
means something else other than the meaning of the noun in question”.)

(Punctuation is dropped as in the original on purpose, to reflect the ambiguity of

language).

Apart from the use of one single full stop in the whole paragraph, punctuation marks are
completely ignored, even a full stop at the end is not used. The better, more proper use of
punctuation in this paragraph can be as follows:

‫ فيػي حالػة إذا كقػع االسػـ فييػا لػـ يكػف االسػـ‬،‫"كأما الحالة األخرل التي قمنا إف االسـ فييا يككف اسػتعارة مػف غيػر خػالؼ‬
‫ ألف ىػػذا حكػػـ ال يكػػكف إال إذا كػػاف االسػػـ فػػي منزلػػة الخبػػر مػػف‬،‫ كال الكػػالـ مكضػػكعان لػػذلؾ‬،‫مجتمبػان نثبػػات معنػػاه لمشػػيء‬
‫ فأنػت كاضػع كالمػؾ نثبػات‬،‫ أك مضػافان إليػو‬،‫ أك مفعػكالن بػو‬،‫ أك فػاعالن‬،‫ ككػاف مبتػدأ بنفسػو‬،‫ فأمػا إذا لػـ يكػف كػذلؾ‬.‫المبتدأ‬
".‫أمر آخر غير ما ىك معنى االسـ‬

Nine punctuation marks (8 commas and a full stop) are dropped from the original to no
good reason. A quick comparison of the two Arabic versions shows the great difference in
the degree of understandability of them. On the other hand, the absence of punctuation
in both versions of the TL (Arabic) and the SL (English) demonstrates the special
importance of punctuation marks in any piece of writing. Without them, language will be
ambiguous, confusing and confused. This is illustrated more by comparing the
unpunctuated English version above, to the following properly punctuated one:

(“The other case in which the name can unarguably be a metaphor, is when the case of
the name does not entail confirming its meaning to an object, nor speech is meant to
imply that a case that only occurs when the noun is functioning as a comment for a topic.
In case it is not so, and, instead, it is a topic, a subject, an object, or a genitive, your speech
means something else other than the meaning of the noun in question.”)

383
 ً َّ
‫ض ىمػف ىذا الػذم ىي ٍشػفىعي‬ً ‫ات ك ىمػا ًفػي األ ٍىر‬ً ‫ٍخػ يذه ًس ىػنةه كالى ىنػكـ لَّػو مػا ًفػي الس‬
‫َّػم ىاك ى‬ ‫ى‬ ‫ى ٍه ي ى‬ ‫ػكـ الى تىأ ي ي‬ ُّ ‫) "المٌوي الى إًلىػوى إًالَّ يى ىك اٍل ىح‬2
‫ػي اٍلقىُّي ي‬
ً ‫ًع ٍن ىده إًالَّ بًًإ ٍذنً ًو يعمىـ ما ب ٍيف أ ٍىي ًدي ًيـ كما ىخٍمفىيـ كالى ي ًحيطيكف بً ىشي وء ِّم ٍف ًعٍم ًم ًػو إًالَّ بًمػا ىشػاء ك ًسػع يكرًسػيُّو السَّػماك‬
‫ات‬ ‫ى ى ٍ ي ىى‬ ‫ى‬ ٍ ‫ى‬ ‫يٍ ى ي‬ ‫ٍ ىى‬ ‫ىٍ ي ى ى ى‬ ‫ي‬
"‫يـ‬ ‫ظ‬ً ‫كده ًح ٍفظييما ك يىك اٍلعمً ُّي اٍلع‬
‫ى ي‬ ‫يى ى ى ى‬ ‫ىكاأل ٍ ى ى ى ي ي ي‬
‫ؤ‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ال‬
‫ى‬ ‫ك‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ىر‬

Clause and sentence structures in the Holy Koran and the Prophet's Tradition in particular
are sometimes cluttered with complexity and complication. Many Koranic verses and
Prophetic sayings are too complex and complicated in structure that the translator has to
work very hard to sort clauses and sentences out. This is partly due to the absence of
punctuation marks in the Arabic text – although some compensation is made by some
verse-ending and by using special markers over some words to indicate a stop, or a no-
stop structure. Hence, the task of the translator is to work clauses and sentences out by
means of using punctuation marks properly and functionally in English to make
comprehension of meaning possible for English readership. Failing to do so appropriately,
he / she would render meaning non-construable and perhaps wrong. Translators of the
Holy Koran and the Prophet's Tradition have differences in dividing verses and Prophetic
Sayings into clauses and sentences properly in English. The translation and discussion of
this example (used earlier with reference to translating the style of short sentencing),
along with another example from the Koran below, may illustrate and sort out the
problems of translating such structures (see also Ghazala, 2014: ch. 4)

(God, there is no deity but He, The Ever-Living, the Eternal. (1) No slumber can seize Him,
nor sleep. (2) To Him belongs all that is in the heavens and on earth. (3) Who is there that
can intercede in His presence except by His permission? (4) He knows that which is to
come unto them and that which past them. (5) And they shall not attain any of His
Knowledge except as He wills. (6) His Knowledge extends over the heavens and the earth.
(7) And He feels no fatigue in preserving them. (8) And He is the Most High, the Most Great
(9))

Other translators take it into 6-8 interrelated sentences (i.e. Zidan 7, Al-Hilali et al 8, Ali 7,
Pickthall 6, Sale 7 and Arberry 8), but I suggest dividing this verse of the Throne )‫(آيػة الكرسػي‬,
the greatest in the Koran, into nine sentences ending up with a full stop each (indicated by
numbers) with a view not only to make readability, follow-up and comprehension easier,
but also to assign special emphasis to every single detail for its huge significance and
grandeur. Nevertheless, translators have differences as to the number of sentences and
punctuation marks used in between them. Most Muslim translators (Zidan, 1996, Al-Hilali
et al, 1996, Ali, 1976 and Pickthall, 1982) have used the full stop, the comma and the
question mark only, whereas Non-Muslim translators (like Sale, 1970, and Arberry, 1964)
have in addition made frequent use of the semicolon to indicate tighter interrelationship
between all parts of the meaning of the verse.

‫ تتراكح مدة إتماـ جفاؼ الطػكب دكف اسػتخداـ أجيػزة تجفيػؼ مػا بػيف عشػرة إلػى خمسػة عشػر يكمػان حسػب‬..." )3
‫ح ػ اررة الجػػك فمػػدة جفافػػو فػػي الصػػيؼ أقػػؿ منيػػا فػػي الشػػتاء كفػػي أيػػاـ نػػزكؿ المطػػر قبػػؿ الضػػرب كلقػػد كانػػت‬
‫ سػػاعة حيػث درجػػة‬72 ‫عمميػات الجفػاؼ تػػتـ تحػت تػػأثير أشػعة الشػمس المباشػرة كتسػتمر مػػدة الجفػاؼ لمطػكب‬
.)86 :2015 ،‫" (الحارثي‬... ،‫ درجة مئكية تقريبان‬50 ‫الح اررة العالية التي تصؿ إلى‬

384
This passage is quoted from a very recently published book in Arabic with the title ‫(اآلج ٌػر‬
)‫ د ارسػة تاريخيػة حضػارية‬:‫( بمكػة امكرمػة‬Baked Bricks in Makkah Al-Mukarramah: A Historical and
Cultural Study). Generally speaking, the book is punctuated satisfactorily, but sometimes
not as properly as required, especially quotations like this one under discussion.
Obviously, punctuation marks are absent from this text, which causes some problems to
the students and translators sorting out sentences and clauses, or, more accurately, ideas
and sub-ideas. However, one punctuation mark is used at the end of the passage, i.e. the
comma, which is used inappropriately instead of the full stop, which marks the end of
sentences. Before suggesting an English translation, a modified Arabic version can be put
forward to be compared with the original one above:

‫) حسػػب حػ اررة‬،( ‫ تتػراكح مػػدة إتمػػاـ جفػػاؼ الطػػكب دكف اسػػتخداـ أجيػزة تجفيػػؼ مػػا بػػيف عشػرة إلػػى خمسػػة عشػػر يكمػان‬..."
‫) كلقػد كانػت عمميػات‬.( ‫) كفػي أيػاـ نػزكؿ المطػر قبػؿ الضػرب‬،( ‫ فمػدة جفافػو فػي الصػيؼ أقػؿ منيػا فػي الشػتاء‬.).( ‫الجك‬
‫) حيػث درجػة الحػ اررة العاليػة‬،( ‫ سػاعة‬72 ‫) كتستمر مدة الجفاؼ لمطػكب‬.( ‫الجفاؼ تتـ تحت تأثير أشعة الشمس المباشرة‬
"... ).( ‫ درجة مئكية تقريبان‬50 ‫التي تصؿ إلى‬

Now the text may have become more readable and easier to follow and comprehend.
Indeed, the absence of punctuation is the first problem to be sorted out by the students
and translators before translating to avoid the risk of misunderstanding meaning. Hence,
the following TL version:

(The period of time needed for completing drying up brick without using machines ranges
between 10-15 days depending on temperature (.) That is, the time of drying it up in
summer is shorter than in winter and over rainy days (.) Drying processes were done under
the straight sun before moulding the brick (.) The period of drying used to last for 72 hours
at a high temperature of around 50 centigrades)

The English translation is punctuated properly, as usual, for English Language insists on
using punctuation marks as regularly and properly as possible in almost all types of texts
and contexts for the reason pointed out throughout the previous discussion.

English grammar and references books (e.g. big general dictionaries) assign special
sections or appendices for punctuation marks, whereas they are absent from Arabic
literature (grammar or semantics references). Therefore, following is an account of only
the most important and recurrent marks, discussed in relation to their functions in
English Language that are also applicable to Arabic.

3.16.1 Stylistic Functions of Punctuation Marks (quoted partly from Ghazala, 2008: ch. 3)

"the comma, the semi-colon, the colon, the period/the full stop, the dash, the brackets,
the quotation marks/the inverted commas, the question mark and the exclamation mark".

1. The Comma: A comma has the following functions. Therefore, disregarding or

misusing it would result in ambiguity of some degree, lack of organization and
inconvenient reading and understanding process:

385
 (a) To separate words, phrases and clauses in a series: e.g.

“You are most welcome any time, alone, with your family, or enjoying the company of
close friends.”:
.)‫ أك بصحبة أصدقاء حميميف‬،‫ أك مع أسرتؾ‬،‫ لكحدؾ‬،‫(أىالن كسيالن بؾ في أم كقت‬

The disregad of the three commas used here after a word, a phrase and a clause woul
d result in ambiguity and confusion. That is, ‘alone’ will be taken together with ‘with your
family’ which is contradictory, for one cannot be at the same time alone and with one’s
family. In a similar way, the omission of the third comma will confuse one’s family with
one’s friends. Such confusion will be reflected in the comprehension of the Arabic
translation unless these commas are retained.

Confusion can even take place at the level of consecutive individnal words if they are left
without cammas to set them off. e.g.

“He insists that he has four parents: his father, father-in-law, mother, and mother in law!”
)!‫ كحماتو‬،‫ ككالدتو‬،‫ كحماه‬،‫ كالده‬:‫(يصر عمى أف لو أربعة آباء‬.

Apparently, the dropping of commas will lead the reader of both the English origin and the
Arabic translation (i.e.‫ )كالػده حمػاه كالدتػو حماتػو‬to misread both ‘father’ and ‘father in law’, on
the one hand, and ‘mother’ and ‘mother in law’ on the other. He might reckon that two
unnecessary repetitions are used boringly in both languages, especially when a translator
opts for )‫ (كالػد‬for the first pair, and )‫ (كالػدة‬for the second, as the same term is used for both
the parents, and parents in law in some Arab countries and dialects.

(b) To set off clauses of different types in one sentence: e.g.

“Having said that, that work of art is not all that bad”: ‫ ذلؾ العمؿ انبداعي لػيس سػيئان‬،‫(برغـ قكلنا ذلؾ‬
)‫إلػى ىػػذه الدرجػػة‬. The comma between the two ‘thats’ ( ‫ ذلػػؾ‬،‫ )ذلػػؾ‬will obviously prevent
ambiguity of reference and clause structure.

(c) To set off interruptive words,a phrase, a clause or sentence: e.g.

“The old man, left on his own by his sons, felt so depressed”:
)‫ باالكتئاب‬،‫ كقد تركو أبناؤه يعيش لكحده‬،‫(شعر الرجؿ المسف‬

It is clearer and easier for the reader of both English and Arabic texts to have two commas
to separate the interruptive clause ‘left...sons’ which performs two functions: first, to
state the reason for the old man’s depressron, and, secondly, to underline its importance,
so that it has interrupted the main clause apruptly. Without commas, both ambiguity of
meaning and structure, and failure to recognize this stylistic importance would occur in
the Arabic version.

386
 (d) To set off names of addressed people (i.e. vocation ‫)النداء‬: e.g.

a. “Men, you are going to win, God willing” ) ‫ سكؼ تفكزكف بإذف اهلل‬،‫(أييا الرجاؿ‬
b. “Boys, Keep quiet for a while, will you?” )‫ مف بعد إذنكـ‬، ‫ اسكتكا قميالن‬،‫(يا أكالد‬

Without the two commas, the subject and main verb in both sentences will be unclear in
the English original. Consequently, their translation into Arabic will pose a problem to the
translator. But once commas are provided, both understanding and translation will run
smoothly. In Arabic however, commas are usually dropped in such structure, as the
vocation particle )‫أييا‬/‫ (يا‬is self-evident.

(e) To set off first names from surnames or nicknames in a bibliography, etc.: e.g.

a. Yusef Ali, Abdullah.

b. Nash, Walter.
c. Carter, Ronald.
etc.

With commas, we understand that the surname is first, while the first name is second.
That is, in Arabic the full name is )‫ (عبػػد اهلل يكسػػؼ عمػػي‬, )‫ (ككلتػػر نػػاش‬and )‫(ركنالػػد كػػارتر‬
consecutively. On the other hand, without commas, these names will be mistranslated as
)‫(يكسػؼ عمػي عبػد اهلل‬, )‫ (نػاش ككلتػر‬and )‫ (كػارتر ركنالػد‬, which are the upside down names, so to
speak, in most Arab countries, which is not acceptable.

(f) To set off a non-restrictive, non-essential phrase or clause:

“Mrs. Thatcher, nicknamed the iron lady, was the first lady prime minister in the UK.”:
.)‫ أكؿ امرأة رئيسة لمكزراء في المممكة المتحدة‬،‫ الممقبة بالمرأة الحديدية‬،‫(كانت السيدة مارجريت ثاتشر‬
The non-restrictive relative clause between the two commas is an additional, highlighted
information about the subject, Mrs. Thatcher. So, enclosing it between two commas helps
understand its grammatical structure and function.

(g) To set off apposition (‫)البدؿ‬: e.g.

a. “Islam, the religion of instinct, is spread all over the world”

‫ منتشر في شتى أنحاء العالـ‬،‫ ديف الفطرة‬،‫إف انسالـ‬
where the commas are used to enclose the appositive phrase, ‘ the religion of instinct’,
to separate it from the rest of the sentence. This makes it easier to understand and
translate. In effect, it is assigned more emphasis.

b. “Hilary Clinton, George Bush, the son, is after George Bush, the father

387
 .)‫ فػ ػػي إثػ ػػر جػ ػػكرج بػ ػػكش األب‬،‫ االبػ ػػف‬،‫(إف جػ ػػكرج بػ ػػكش‬
Both ‘the son’ and ‘the father’ are important to set off from the rest of the sentence to
make it clearer and smoother to comprehend.

Thus, the stylistic functions of the comma are equally important in both languages, English
and Arabic. Yet, the case is not always so in other examples where the commas are vital in
English only, but not necessarily in Arabic. Therefore, commas are optional in Arabic here.
Yet, despite the fact that they are usualy ignored, they are recommended to be reserved:

1.Setting off consecutive adjectives: e.g.

“The deer are harmless, pretty mild animals”: ( ‫) كلطيفة جدان‬،( ‫)الغزالف حيكانات غير مؤذية‬
2. Using it before coordinating conjunctions like ‘and, but, or’: e.g.
“She is a good girl, but she is unable to cope with the new situation”:
)‫) لكنيا غير قادرة عمى التأقمـ مع الكضع الجديد‬،(‫(إنيا فتاة طيبة‬
3. To indicate an omitted word or part of parallel constructions: e.g.
“Salma always cooks her lunch for herself Jane, hardly ever”:
)‫)أما جيف فيييات‬،( ‫(تطبخ سممى دائمان بنفسيا‬
4. to prevent misreading:e.g.
“When the meeting was over, the head left at once”:
).‫) غادر الرئيس فك انر‬،(‫(حينما انتيى االجتماع‬

5. Used after an initial word or phrase:e.g.,

a. “At last, the train has reached destination”: )‫)كصؿ القطار إلى المحطة‬،( ‫(أخي انر‬
b. “I am writing a letter. In the meantime, you make tea, please”:
)‫) حضر الشام مف فضمؾ‬،(‫ في ىذه األثناء‬.‫(إنني أكتب رسالة‬
6. To set off words like “yes”, “no”, mild interjection, etc.: e.g.
“Are those people demonstrating? No, they are waiting for the Stadium gates to
open”:. )‫) إنيـ(بؿ)ينتظركف أبكاب الممعب لتفتح‬،(‫(ىؿ ىؤالء الناس يتظاىركف؟ ال‬

7.To follow the salutation of a personal business letter:

a. “Dear uncle,” )... ‫(عمي العزيز‬
b. “Sincerely yours/yours faithfully (very truly yours),”: )‫المشتاؽ‬/‫أخككـ‬/ ‫(المخمص‬

To sum up, the comma is generally either obligatorily retained, optionally or advisably
kept, or replaced by dropped punctuation marks like the dash, or greater and lesser
symbol (< >). (See Table below). Still, the translator is recommended to take all English
commas into account in Arabic.

2. The Colon (:): It is an important punctuation mark, used in English mainly to

indicate the following stylistic functions that have to be retained in the TL as
properly as possible: (The colons are underlined in both languages):

388
 (a) Illustration and/or amplification of a word in the previous clause, or sentence:
e.g.

“You and I are in the same shoes: We are both waiting for the result of the exam.”
)‫ كالنا ينتظر نتيجة االمتحاف النيائي‬: ‫(أنت كأنا في الكضع نفسو‬

The sentence after the colon illstrates the preceding phrase ‘in the same shoes’. Another
clear example is the use of the colon hunderds of times in this book to introduce
illustrative examples or explanatory notes.

(b) A Long quotation, statement or speech: e.g.

“After the headlines, here is the news: demonstrators in Indonesia stormed into the
Parliament building …”
)... ‫ اقتحـ متظاىركف في إندكنيسيا مبنى البرلماف‬:‫ إليكـ األخبار‬،)‫(بعد المكجز(العناكيف‬
The whole news is coming after the colon, no matter how long it may be.

(c) Introduction of a list of a series of names: e.g.

“Three major events took place in the Country last week: The resignation of the prime
minister, the new elections, and the celebration of the Independence Day.”

‫ كاالحتفػاؿ بيػكـ‬،‫ كاالنتخابػات الجديػدة‬،‫ اسػتقالة رئػيس الػكزراء‬:‫(كقعت ثالثة أحػداث كبػرل فػي الػبالد فػي األسػبكع الماضػي‬
)‫االستقالؿ(باليكـ الكطني‬
The colon is used as a signal for introducing the three events in question.

(d) Introducing the cause of something aforementioned: e.g.

“There was no hope for him this time : it was the third stroke” (From Joyce’s The Sisters)
)‫ فقد كانت الضربة القاضية‬:‫(ما كاف عنده أمؿ ىذه المرة‬
This use of the colon here is peculiar, intended to head the reason for the first statement
about ‘him’, to mean exactly ‘because/for’. However, this is a rather uncommon use of it.
(e) Empasis of a word, etc.: e.g.

“She has only one thing on her mind: graduation from the University”
)‫ التخرج (مف الجامعة‬: )‫(شيء كاحد يشغؿ باليا(ىك شغميا الشاغؿ‬

The colon here is employed to accentuate the most important item in the statement:
GRADUATION. Although this function for the colon is ignored in favour of other emphatic
devices like capitalization, underlining, bold facing, italicizing, and fronting, it is still
useable and applicable.

(f) Separating between the year of publication and page number of a book, etc.(e.g.
Newmark, 1988: 63); two numbers of different reference (e.g. one to volume,
another to page); and the hour and minutes in American English (e.g. 10:30 (ten
thirty)). The first two uses are exemplified many times in this book.
389
It goes without saying that the colon has to be reserved in Arabic translations, except in
the last use which is conditioned by the established standards in Arabic language books
and references.

3. The period/full stop: The main use of the full stop is to mark the end of a
declarative sentence in both languages. Failing to use it leads to confusing
sentences-and hence, ideas, especially in Arabic which does not have the
capitalization system of English: e.g.

“Many people are crowding in the main street. This is quite unusual."
).‫ ىذا غير مألكؼ إطالقان‬.‫(يتجمع أناس كثيركف في الشارع الرئيسي‬

Dropping the full stop in Arabic will confuse the reference of )‫(ىػػذا‬, which could be
mistaken as a reference to ‘street’)‫(الشارع‬.

Another use for the period is after abbreviations like: ‘Dr., km, Mr., Dept., etc.’ In Arabic,
however, the case varies. The period is either retained(Dr.: .‫)د‬, replaced by a slash (Dr. Ali:
‫عمػي‬/‫)د‬, or dropped completely, especially when the full word is given(e.g. Dept.: ‫قسػـ‬, Mr.:
‫)سيد‬.

The unfortunate situation in most Arabic texts is the negligence of the intersentential use
of the full stop, creating for students and translators some difficulties of reading and
understanding.

4. The Semi-colon (;): The semicolon is used between two closely connected
sentences to indicate the strong relationship between them. In traditional Arabic,
however, it is almost absent, and in modern Arabic it is rarely used. Simply, it
interchanges with the full stop in Arabic. e.g.

“Millions of Muslims visit the two Holy Mosques in Makkah and Al-Madinah every
year; these millions come from all over the world”: ‫(يقصػد ماليػيف مػف المسػمميف الحػرميف الشػريفيف فػي‬
‫ يأتي ىؤالء المالييف مف شتى أصقاع العالـ‬. ‫مكة المكرمة كالمدينة المنكرة كؿ عاـ‬

5. The Dash (-): the dash has the primary function of marking an abrupt change or
break in the sequence of the sentence, with a good proportion of emphasis being
implied. Usually translators take care of this mark of punctuation in Arabic. But it
interchanges with the comma and greater or lesser marks (< >). e.g.

“The author of this book -whatsisname- is dead”:

).‫ ميت‬-‫) اآلف‬... ‫ال أستطيع تذكر اسمو الكامؿ (ال يحضرني اسمو‬-‫(إف مؤلؼ ىذا الكتاب‬

6. The Question Mark (?): used to mark a question, without which, sometimes it is
difficult to recognize whether a statement is a question or a declarative, especially
in informal conversation in both languages. e.g.
390
 a. “Are you listening to me?”: )‫(ىؿ تصغي إلي؟‬
b. You are listening to me(?)”: )‫(تصغي إلي؟‬

There is no problem with (a) in both languages; but (b) cannot be distinguished in writing
from a declarative statement unless a question mark is used. In this case, it will be an
informal form of question in both languages for subject-verb inversion is ignored in
English, and a question particle like )‫ىؿ‬/‫ (أى‬is not used in Arabic. It is a type of question of
everyday conversation that leans heavily on the tone of voice (i.e. low-rising tone).

The other type of question which has to be treated with care in translation is rhetorical
question )‫(السؤاؿ اننكارم‬. It is an open question, usually of a general nature, that demands
no immediate answer, or no answer at all. e.g.

a. “Who knows? An atheist might repent?”: ))‫(مف يدرم؟ لعؿ ممحدان يتكب (إلى اهلل‬
b. “The T.V. space channels have invaded homes. What’s next, minds?
.)‫ العقكؿ؟‬،‫ ماذا بعد‬.‫(لقد غزت القنكات التمفازية الفضائية البيكت‬

The first question, ‘who knows?’, does not beg an answer at all, while the second, ‘what’s
next, minds?’ requires no immediate answer now. The latter is posed to get the reader
involved in the argument about the invasion of homes by space channels, with all their
disadvantages more than advantages being insinuated. The next stage of this invasion
could be the people’s minds, who knows? And such a rhetorical question serves as a
warning against that invasion. The former question, on the other hand, paves the way for
a possibility that some would consider as impossible. Thus, the stylistic functions and
implications of these questions are vitally significant to the translated message.

Such questions are also the form of several verses of the Holy Koran: e.g.
‫(أليس اهلل بأعمـ بالشاكريف(؟)؛ أليس اهلل بكاؼ عبده(؟)؛ أال تحبكف أف يغفر اهلل لكـ(؟)؛ أليس ذلؾ بقادر عمى أف يحي‬
)‫المكتى (؟)؛ أليس اهلل بأحكـ الحاكميف(؟‬
(The question marks are mine). They are respectively:

- “Is not Allah the best Who knows the thanksgivers?”;

- “Is not Allah the Reserver of His slave?”;
- “Do not you want Allah to forgive you?”;
- “Is not He (Allah) able to resurrect the dead?”;
- “Is not Allah the best of judges?”).

All these questions demand no answers from us. Rather, they all imply ‘yes’ answers )‫(بمى‬,
which is a matter of course when put by God the Almighty.

7. The Exclamation mark(!): The exclamation mark has four important stylistic
functions:

(a) Exclamation: e.g.

391
 “what a wonderful weather!” )!‫(يا لو مف طقس رائع‬
(b) Exaggeration: e.g.

“This car is worth five hundred thousand dollars!” )!‫(ثمف ىذه السيارة خمسمائة ألؼ دكالر‬

(c) Indication of strong, bad language: e.g.

(1) Shut up! )!‫(أغمؽ فمؾ‬

(2) Get off! )!‫(أيخرج‬
(3) Hold it! )‫عمى ًر ٍسمؾ‬/‫ال‬
‫مي ن‬/‫(انتظر‬
(4) Don’t move it! )!‫إبؽ في مكانؾ‬/‫(ال تتحرؾ‬

(d) Irony: e.g.

“Shut up! Oh, thank you, that’s very kind of you!”
.)!‫ما ألطفؾ‬/‫ ىذا لطؼ منؾ‬،‫(أغمؽ فمؾ! أشكرؾ جدان‬
In Arabic, usually the exclamation mark is kept, but, sometimes, it is doubled or tripled
with double or triple question marks, especially for exaggeration and irony. These stylistic
functions should be reflected in the TL by retaining exclamation marks.

8. Brackets: They are three types (all used in pairs):

1. Square brackets: [ ]
2. Brace brackets { }
3. Parentheses/round bracket ( )

Normally, square brackets are used for corrections, comments or additions within a
quoted material. In other words, they are used to mark a new material that is not
originally mentioned. As to brace brackets, they are used to connect words or lines that
belong together. e.g.

Bread potatoes
Butter apple FOOD
Dates fish

On the other hand, parentheses are used to enclose explanation, exemplification,

supplementary material, figures and enumeration, and cross references: e.g.

a. “The admiral (i.e. a kind of butterflies) is common in Europe and North America”
(explanation): )‫ نكع مف الفراشات) شائعة في أكربا كأمريكا الشمالية‬:‫(األدميراؿ األحمر (أم‬
b. “Some Indo-European. Languages(e.g. Latin) are dead now” (exemplification):
)‫أكربية(مثؿ الالتينية)لغات منقرضة‬-‫(بعض المغات اليندك‬
c. “Many countries (including some Arab countries) produce and export crude oil”
exemplification) )‫(كثير مف البمداف (مف ضمنيا بعض البالد العربية) منتجة لمنفط الخاـ كمصدرة لو‬
392
 d.“The number of casualties of the train crash has risen to (230)”: (figures)
)‫) إصابة‬230( ‫(ارتفع عدد انصابات في حادث اصطداـ القطارات إلى‬
e.“The basic elements of nature are four:(1) earth, (2) air, (3) water, (4)fire”:
(enumeration) )‫) النار‬4( ،‫) الماء‬3( ،‫) اليكاء‬2( ،‫) التراب‬1( :‫(العناصر األساسية لمطبيعة أربعة ىي‬

Generally, square brackets and parentheses are sometimes used interchangeably in

Arabic. Moreover, parentheses can be replaced in Arabic by two dashes, two commas, or
small parentheses (« »). They all share the function of interruption, and suspension of
important material. On the other hand, brace brackets are usually used in the same way
for the same function in both languages.

9. The Quotation marks: They are two types:

(a) Double quotation marks (“ ”): used in pairs to enclose quotations, titles, books,
stories, poems, chapters, radio and television programs, and words emphasized;
or used in special senses.

(b) Single quotation marks (‘ ’): used in pairs to enclose a quotation within a
quotation, a word of special use or emphasis, or words in a series.

In Arabic, however, quotation marks of both types are either retained, or more commonly
changed into small parentheses (« »). In addition, and in place of some quotation marks,
and with the widespread computer facilities, both graphological devices and bold face
type of printing are widely employed to print quotations and words of special use and
emphasis in Arabic as much as in English (as this and other contemporary books
demonstrate).

To sum up, punctuation marks have important stylistic functions, implications and
meanings in both Arabic and English that should be taken into consideration by students
and translators. Although Arabic does not have a background literature about these
marks, they are used frequently, especially in today’s Arabic writing to achieve more or
less the same functions. Throughout the previous discussion, it has been affirmed that the
absence of punctuation marks in many Arabic texts causes several problems of
complicated and ambiguous clause and sentence structures, which in turn hinders fluent
readability and comprehension of meaning. Therefore, they need to be attended to with
care.

Finally, this section can be ended with a table which juxtaposes the use of punctuation
marks in both languages, English and Arabic:

English Arabic

1. Comma (,) ↔ -comma (,)/nothing

pair of commas (, ,) ↔ -pair of commas/dashes/brackets
2. Colon (:) ↔ -colon
3. Semi-colon (;) ↔ -semi-colon/period

393
 4. Period/full stop (.) ↔ -period/full stop
5. Dash ( - ) ↔ -(-)/commas (, ,)/brackets
6. Question mark ( ? ) ↔ -question mark (?)
7. Exclamation mark (!) ↔ -exclamation mark (!)
8. Brackets of all types: ↔ -the same types of English brackets
-square [ ], brace brackets { }/} {,
-parenthesis (…) and
-small parentheses « »:
9. Quotation marks ↔ -quotation marks/small parentheses.

3.17 SUMMARY

The foregoing discussion of the most prominent and recurrent stylistic problems of
translation with their possible solutions asserts that style is considerably important to the
message in both SL and TL texts. It is an implied part of meaning that has to be rendered
into the TL with care and full concentration. Contemporary studies of style have confirmed
that it is inseparable from meaning. Since our whole concern in translation is with
meaning, we are required, then, to keep an open eye on the transmission of the style of
the SL text into the TL as closely and carefully as possible. By so doing, all the functions,
implications and reflections of the style of the original are securely retained in the TL.
There are exceptions regarding some cultural and linguistic factors of the two languages
that may justify a change in the TL style of translation.

This special interest in style these days is a strong invitation to revolt against the
carelessness and negligence of many translators towards style in translation. The old-
fashioned view of style as irrelevant to the message no longer sustains as the great
number of stylistic studies published and done now may confirm. Further justifications
have been provided in this chapter for the importance of style in translation.

It is significant to point out that the focus of the chapter has mainly been on grammatical /
syntactic and lexical / semantic stylistic problems. That is, whereas fronting, parallelism,
complex & simple sentences, short sentences, long sentences, and passive & active styles
are syntactic stylistic problems; repetition and variation, redundancy, expressivity,
nominalization & verbalization and irony are lexical stylistic problems. Only formality vs.
informality, ambiguity and punctuation marks are both syntactic and lexical stylistic
problems at the same time.

Having discussed three major types of translation problems in detail, GRAMMATICAL,

LEXICAL and STYLISTIC, it is high time now to introduce the fourth major type of
translation problems: PHONOLOGICAL PROBLEMS.

394
EXERCISES

(1) The following passage is translated into normal and formal English. Re-translate
it into more natural and simpler English style:

‫ فػػأم‬...:‫قػػاؿ القممػػس‬... ‫القممػػس الكنػػاني‬

ِّ ‫("ذىبػػت جمعػػة كىنػػد بنتػػا الخػػس إلػػى سػػكؽ عكػػاظ فػػي الجاىميػػة فاجتمعتػػا عنػػد‬
ُّ ‫ أيحػ‬:‫النسػػاء أحػػب إليػػؾ يػػا جمعػػة؟ قالػػت‬
‫ػب الغري ػرة العػػذراء الرعبكبػػة العيطػػاء الممكػػكرة المفٌػػاء ذات الجمػػاؿ كالبيػػاء كالسػػتر‬
‫ كصػفت جاريػة ىػي حاجػة الفتػى كنييػػة‬:‫ كيػؼ تسػػمعيف يػا ىنػد؟ قالػت‬:‫ قػاؿ‬.‫ البضػة الرخصػة كأنيػا فضػة بيضػاء‬،‫كالحيػاء‬
‫ قػاؿ‬.‫ قالػت أحػب كػؿ مشػبعة الخمخػاؿ ذات شػكؿ كدالؿ كظػرؼ كبيػاء كجمػاؿ‬.‫ قػاؿ فقػكلي‬.‫ػي منيػا‬
ٌ ‫أحب إل‬
ٌ ‫الرضا كغيرىا‬
)201-200 :2009 ،‫ (الشكعة‬...‫القممس كمتاكما محسنة‬

(Jumu'ah and Hind, two daughters of Al-Khass, went to 'Okaz Market in the Pre-Islamic
Jahiliah and met at Al-Qalammas Al-Kinani… . He asked them: Which of the women is
more favourable to you?" She replied: "I like the one who is unblemished, inexperienced,
virgin, soft-skinned, white, pretty, crane-necked, round-legged, fleshy-thighed, gorgeous,
splendid, veiled, bashful, tender-skinned, plump, and as smooth as velvet". He asked her
sister: "How do you find that, Hind?" She said: …"She described a maid who satisfies and
gratifies lads, but my liking is for a different woman". He said: "Describe her, then". She
resumed:"I like the one who is fully ankletted, well-shaped, coddled, light-hearted, splendid
and gorgeous". Al-Qalammas said: "Both of you have done well. (Ghazala, 2010: 114-115)

(2) The next text is half translated into English. Translate the second part
(underlined and in bold) of it into a type of style that is similar to that of the
first translated part (i.e. formal English; prose rhyme and literal translation not
required):

‫ػاظر فيػػو أالن يعتمػػد‬

‫ فأسػػأ يؿ النػ ى‬،‫ػدت عػػف الغايػػة كتقصػػيرم عػػف االنتيػػاء إلػػى النيايػػة‬
‫ فيمػػا اعتمػ ي‬،‫("كأنػػا قػػد اعترفػػت بقصػػكرم‬
‫ فمػف طمػب عيبػان ىك ىج َّػد‬،‫ كليتأممو بعيف اننصاؼ ال االنحػراؼ‬،‫ كعيبان أظيره‬،‫ كال يقصد قصد مف إذا رأل حسنان ستىره‬،‫العنت‬
،‫منا‬
ٌ ‫ فرحـ اهلل ام أنر قير ىكاه كأطاع اننصاؼ كنكاه كع ىذرنا في خطأ إف كاف‬،‫الرضا فقد‬
ِّ ‫ كمف افتقد زلؿ أخيو بعيف‬،‫كجد‬
‫ وان‬.‫ كالنسػػياف فػػي اننسػػاف غيػػر معػػدكـ‬،‫ فػػالمرء غيػػر معصػػكـ‬،‫ فالكمػػا يؿ محػػاؿ لغيػػر ذم الجػػالؿ‬،‫عنػػا‬
ٌ ‫صػ ىػد ىر‬
‫كزلػػؿ إف ى‬
‫ فقـد أصـبنا فـي‬،‫ فإنا وا ْن أخطأنا فـي مواضـي يسـيرة‬،‫ فقد عمم أن كل مجتهد ُمصيب‬،‫عجز عن االعتذار ع ّنا والتصويب‬
‫أمنا من األئمـة القـدماء إالّ و ـد نظـم فـي سـمك أهـل الزلـل وأخـذ عميـه شـيء مـن‬ َّ ‫ فما عممنا فيمن تقدَّمنا و‬،‫مواطن كثيرة‬
ِ ِ
َ ‫ فكيــف بنــا مــي صــورنا وصــرف ُجـ ةل زماننــا فــي َن ْه َمــة الــدنيا وطمــب‬،‫الخطــل َو ُهـ ُـم ُهـ ُـم‬
‫ الــذي‬،‫ وتنميــق الريــاش‬،‫المعــاش‬
)468 :2009 ،‫") (الشكعة‬.‫ وبقاء ماء الوجه لدى العرض‬،‫العرض‬ ُ ‫مرادنا من صيانة‬

"I admit my imperfection in achieving my ultimate end. So I ask the reader to avoid
impotency, take up the practice of faultfinding, concealing the merit and disclosing the
demerit, and consider it in fairness, not in obliqueness. If man traces a flaw, he will find it
for sure; and if he overlooks his brother's lapse, he will miss it for certain. May God have
mercy for a man who beats his prejudice and commits himself to justice, to find an excuse
for our mistakes and lapses, for perfection is God's only. Man is not infallible, and
forgetfulness is an epithet of his.”……................................. (From Ghazala: 2010: 261)

395
 4) Translate the next long and complicated sentence into English twice: first as
one sentence; then as two or three sentences. Which style is more appropriate
and why?

،‫نظ انر لمحالة الصحية المتردية ألمو المريضة التي كانت بحاجة إلػى عمميػة فػي مستشػفى متخصػص فػي لنػدف‬
‫ فػػي‬،‫ عمػػؿ الصػػبي الػػذم كػػاف مػػا يػزاؿ صػػغي انر كعػػديـ الخبػرة‬،‫كالػػذم كػػاف باىظػان جػػدان كطمػػب دفػػع النقػػكد مقػػدمان‬
‫كرشة تصػميح سػيارات ليػؿ نيػار ليكسػب قػدر مػا يسػتطيع مػف النقػكد كبأسػرع مػا يمكػف لتغطيػة تكػاليؼ العمميػة‬
.)‫ألمو الغالية‬

5) What type of style is that of the next text? Why is it translated into the same
English style? Give three reasons (i.e. stylistic functions) for this style.

‫ أعطػت األكامػر‬."‫ ىددت بإعداـ "الخارجيف عمى القػانكف‬.‫ استدعت مخاتير األحياء‬.‫اضطربت سمطات المدينة‬
‫ ربػػط بػيف مػا يجػرم فػػي‬.‫ يجػػف جنػكف المستشػار الفرنسػي‬.‫بػإطالؽ الرصػاص فػك انر عمػى مػػف يحػكـ حػكؿ المينػاء‬
‫ قػػاـ البػػكليس بغػػارات عمػػى األحيػػاء‬.‫ ىسػػيَّر دكريػػات مسػػمحة‬.‫ أىنػػزؿ الجنػػكد‬.‫المدينػػة بالحركػػات الثكريػػة األخػػرل‬
-271 :1991 ،‫بحػػار‬ ِّ ‫كبخاصػة‬
ٌ ‫ حكايػة‬:‫" (حنػا مينػػا‬.‫ كاختفػى الكالػػد نيائيػان‬.‫ قىتػؿ آخػريف‬.‫ اعتىىقػػؿ بعضػيـ‬.‫حينػا‬
)272

(Th city authorities were in chaos. They called the neighbourhood chiefs. They threatened
to execute “the outlaws”. They gave orders to shoot on the spot every one who comes
near the port. The French counsellor went raving mad. He linked what was going on in the
city to the revolutionary movements in other cities. He deployed soldiers. He marched
armed patrols. The police raided the neighborhoods especially our neighbourhood. They
arrested some. They killed others. And my father vanished.”

6) The following text is a series of expressions of periphrasis, taken from a booklet

on Hajj, and translated into an equivalent TL style. Retranslate it into a simple,
direct and short type of style, disposing your translaton of redundancies, and
fronting the subject matter of the text:

‫ كشػذل‬،‫ كقطػرة مػف زالؿ المعرفػة‬،‫ كثمرة مف غراس العمـ‬،‫ كنفحة مف أزىار الكرد‬،‫"ىذه كردة مف بساتيف الحب‬
،‫ ىػػذه رحمػػة إيمانيػػة ربانيػػة ركحانيػػة‬... .‫ كباقػػة نخػػكة انيمػػاف‬،‫ ىديػػة إلػػى ضػػيكؼ الػػرحمف‬،‫مػػف كػػرـ الضػػيافة‬
)3 :1427/2006 ‫" (الزىراني‬...‫كزينت بالمسرات‬ ‫ ي‬،‫يفعمت بالمتع‬ ً ‫ كأ‬،‫حفَّت بالمباىج‬
‫ي‬

(This is a rose from the Gardens of Love, a breeze breathing affection, a ray of pure
knowledge milking every drop of experience. It is the fragrance of our traditional
hospitality, a lovely bouquet of lasting brotherhood of faith dedicatedto the guest of God
and the brothers of faith. … This is a trip that is divine and spiritual, surrounded by joys
and filled with cheers and decorated with delights (A group of Translators, 2006: 3).

7) Following is a general text, picked up from an introduction to “The Two Holy

Mosques Magazine” )‫(مجمـة الحرمـان الشـريفان‬, which is full of rhetorical bombastic
redundancies and jargon. An equivalent, artificial style of English translation is

396
 provided. Suggest another better translation of the text into an English laconic
style, applying the rule of “the shorter the better” )‫(خير الكالم ما ل ودل‬:

‫"ىػا ىػػك العػػدد السػػادس مػػف مجمتنػػا اليافعػػة الماتعػػة ال ارئػػدة الباسػػقة يشػػرؽ كمشػػاريع انعمػػار كالتكسػػعة العمالقػػة‬
‫ فػػي تصػػاميـ معماريػػة كانشػػاءات ىندسػػية يقػػؼ ليػػا‬،‫لمحػػرميف الش ػريفيف عمػػى قػػدـ كسػػاؽ كتسػػير إلػػى التكامػػؿ‬
،2 ،6 :‫ الحرمػػاف الشػريفاف‬:‫" (السػػديس‬...‫ فيمػػا البيتػػاف المقدسػػاف كالحرمػػاف الشػريفاف‬.‫التػػاريخ إجػػالالن كاعجابػان‬
.)2015 ،‫ نكفمبر‬/ 1437

(Here is the sixth issue of our young, pleasant, towering Magazine going on simultaneously
with the projects of construction and expansion of the Two Holy Mosques are about to be
completed. Their architectural designs and engineering constructions that history will
stand to them in owe and wonder. Indeed, they are the Two Venerable Houses and the
Two Holy Mosques (As-Sudais: The Two Holy Mosques: 6, November, 2015).

8) Translate the next metaphorical / literary text into a compatible English style.
Pinpoint the metaphorical/literary features of the style of the Arabic original
and your English translation:

‫ قضت السنكات تحمـ باألزاىير كالكركد تنكر ستقبميا‬.‫ حممت بمستقبؿ مشرؽ باىر‬،‫) "حيف كانت طفمة صغيرة‬1
،‫ كلكف‬.‫ نذرت نفسيا لكتابة القصص لتصبح ركائية عظيمة‬،‫ كلكي تي ىحكؿ ىذا الحمـ إلى حقيقة كاقعة‬.‫الزاىر‬
‫صعقت عند إدراكيا أف‬
‫ لقد ي‬.‫ أصيبت بفشؿ ذريع عند أكؿ محاكلة ليا لنشر قصصيا‬،‫كلدىشتيا الشديدة‬
."‫جيكدىا المضنية تبخرت في اليكاء‬

397
 CHAPTER 4

PHONOLOGICAL PROBLEMS
4.0 Introduction

Apart from their occasional investigation in the translation of poetry, sound/prosodic

features and effects have received a little attention in translation practice and studies.
This is perhaps due to their casual importance and recurrence in most types of text,
except for literary texts, poetry in particular and advertisements. This is not acceptable,
for it is unfair to ignore sounds since they can have an important - sometimes crucial - role
to play in meaning or reading the text in the first place. They have an effect of some kind,
more directly than indirectly on the message. Such effect is usually implied, and the
translator is responsible for tracing it in order to reflect it in one way or another in his
translation.

Although sounds are the constituents of words in language, they are not always
significant, nor can they be individually important. Only when they combine together
more homogeneously than heterogeneously in different forms of patterning, they can be
described as important sound / prosodic patterns, or features. Most of these features are
recurrent in poetry in particular. Here are the most prominent of them:

1. Rhyme (a kind of phonetic echo or matching found in verse in particular at the end of
the words and lines in both English and Arabic): )‫(القافية‬
2. Rhythm (regular stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry. In general terms, it is a
kind of melody in language that might include mainly meter and foot, and generally
all the phonological features which contribute to the musical arrangement of
language): )‫(انيقاع‬
3. Alliteration (a kind of initial rhyme that involves the repetition of the same consonant
sound at the beginning of two or more usually consecutive words in English. In
Arabic, however, it is at the end of words:(e.g. your footsteps feel from grass to
ً
granite: ‫العشب‬ ً
‫الصمب كالى‬ ‫)في كقع خطاؾ عمى‬ )‫(السجع‬
‫ى‬
4. Assonance: (a half alliteration that occurs when the same vowel sound is repeated in
the middle of two or more usually consecutive words. In Arabic it is not as clear as in
English: ( e.g. rose and sole/soul)): )‫(سجع الصكائت‬
5. Consonance (a half-rhyme realized by using the same consonant sound at the end of
two or more usually successive words, preceded by different vowels. It is similar to
alliteration in Arabic (e.g. tiger and tamer)): )‫(سجع الصكامت‬
6. Chiming (two or more words similar in spelling and close in sound/pronunciation,
with a kind of alliteration common between them, taken to be identical in meaning,
but in reality they are not (e.g. men and mice): )‫(تالؼ الصكت كالمعنى‬
7. Onomatopoeia (conformity of sound to meaning in both languages (e.g. bang, quack,
cuckoo, etc.; ‫ طقطؽ‬،‫ ربت‬،‫)فحيح‬: )‫(محاكاة الصكت لممعنى‬

398
8. Prosody (the study of the art of versification regarding sound features in poetry in
general) )‫(عركض‬‫ى‬
9. Meter (rhythmic arrangement of syllables in poetry according to the number and
kind of foot in the line of verse): )‫(البحر‬
10. Foot (a line unit of a line of verse that contains stressed and unstressed
syllables):)‫(التفعيمة‬
11. Beat (the basic rhythmic unit, or the stressed syllable in a foot): )‫(شطر التفعيمة المشدد‬
12. Off-beat (an unstressed syllable in a foot): )‫(شطر التفعيمة المخفؼ‬
13. Scansion/scanning )‫(تقطيع شعرم‬
14. Tone/stress/pitch (describe voice and its layers): َّ
)‫ كطبقة الصكت‬،)‫النبر(الشدة‬
‫ ك‬،‫(النغمة‬
15. Modulation (transition from one beat to another) )‫(الزحاف‬

In support for the importance of sounds, Lawson stresses the fact that “much more
meaning is conveyed by rhythm and stress than we recognize…” (1979, in Duff, 1981: 97).
More surprisingly, sound effects can be more important to readers than meaning, not
only in poetry, but also in ordinary language and realistic narrative.

The discussion of sound effects is a discussion of the aesthetic function of language,

which is mainly to please the senses. Yet, and as we have just suggested, it can be not
only as important as, but perhaps more important than meaning. This is quite clear in
literary language in general, and in poetry in particular, where the presence of sound
features is essential, or else the whole poem would be simply unattractive for readers. In
other words, jeopardizing these features would endanger not only meaning but also the
whole text.

These are the main sound/prosodic features which can be important in translation, when
clustered together in a relationship of some kind, to have an impact on the message.

In support of the importance of sounds, Lawson stresses the fact that “much more
meaning is conveyed by rhythm and stress than we recognize…” (1979, printed in Duff,
1981: 97). More surprisingly, sound effects can be more important to translators than
meaning, not only in poetry, but also in ordinary language and realistic narrative, as this
example (adopted from Newmark, 1988: 58) which is translated from German:

The discussion of sound effects is indeed a discussion of the aesthetic function of

language, which is mainly to please the senses. Yet, and as we have just suggested, at
times, it can be not only as important as, but also more important than meaning. This is
quite clear in literary language in general, and in poetry in particular, where the presence
of sound features is essential, or, else, the whole translation would be discarded by many
readers. In other words, jeopardizing these features would jeopardize not only meaning
but also the whole translated text.

399
4.1 Miscellaneous Examples

Following are examples displaying some phonological features of non-literary texts and
their problems of translation in relation to these features in particular, along with their
suggested solutions. We start with the least difficult holiest of books, the Holy Koran:

4.1.1 Rhymed Humour )‫(طي ىرؼ مقفاة‬: e.g.

".‫ كالعظاـ بالية‬،‫ منيا األعضاء كاىية‬،‫ نارىا حامية‬،‫ "حمى جاسية‬:‫ "ما الذم تشككه؟" قاؿ‬:‫"عاد أحدىـ نحكيان فقاؿ‬
)618 :2000 ،)‫(المستطرؼ‬
‫ى‬ ‫" (األبشييي‬.‫ ياليتيا كانت القاضية‬.‫ "ال شافاؾ اهلل بعافية‬:‫فقاؿ لو‬

(Once a man visited a sick grammarian and asked him: what has befallen of you? The
grammarian said: “I have caught stiff fever whose fire is blazing, that made my limbs frail
and my bones fragile!” The man retorted: “Do not get well soon, and would that it be the
fatal stroke!”)

The English translation has not taken the rhyme of the original much seriously for it is not
a part of English style as it is in Arabic. So, we perhaps get the humorous thread,
culminated by the punch line rhyme of the last word )‫ (القاضية‬which interestingly rhymes
with the sick man’s rhyme to make the irony sharper. However, in English, focus is
diverted onto the lexical choice of words, instead, to achieve the required effect of the
joke on the target readers. Occasional employment of rhyme (e.g. frail/fragile) and
alliteration (e.g. fever/ fire/ frail/ fragile; made my) is made to imply the humorous sense
of the original in some way. We may conclude that the SL rhyme is not required to be
reproduced in English for it is not vital to demonstrate the sense of humor in the joke.

4.1.2 Rhymed Proverbs and Idioms )‫(أمثاؿ كتعابير اصطالحية مقفاة‬

A friend in need is a friend indeed‫) الصديؽ كقت الضيؽ‬16

Better to be safe than sorry ‫) السالمة كال الندامة‬17
Man proposes, God disposes ‫) اننساف في التفكير كالرب في التدبير‬18
huffing and buffing. .‫) في ىحيص ىبيص‬19
hurly burly / hustle and bustle ‫المرج‬
ٍ ‫اليرج ك‬
ٍ )20

These are popular proverbs (1-3) and idioms (4-5) in both languages. They derive
popularity from the message as much as sound clustering, to create an aesthetic,
pleasant effect. More significantly, the alliterative and rhythmical language helps a
great deal in memorizing such expressions. Failing to produce the perfect versions, or
replacing them by non-rhythmical expressions, will disrupt the message and perhaps
destroy the powerful sound effects. Compare the following hypothetical versions of
the first example:

1. A real friend is a friend who helps you when in need.

2. A friend in need is the really good friend.
400
 3. No real friend but the one in need.

These are ordinary expressions that translate sense, but have nothing powerful or
aesthetic about them, and would not draw attention, except for relatively common
collocability (e.g. real friend; good friend).

Remarkably, these examples are fairly easy to translate for they have their ready-made
English equivalents provided by the translator readily, perhaps without sensing the value
of their sound effects.

4.1.3 Rhymed and Rhythmic Book Titles

Nihayatul-Arab fi Funoonil-Arab (The Ultimate End )‫نياية األرب في فنكف العرب (النكيرم‬ (1
of Arab Arts) (An-Nuwairi)
Masalek Al-Absar Fi Mamalek )‫مسػالؾ األبصػار فػي ممالػؾ األمصػار (يحيػى بػف فضػؿ اهلل العمػرم‬ (2
Al-Amsar (Pathways of Sights on the Kingdoms of States) (Ahmad Bin Yahya Bin
Fadlallah Al-Omari)
Al-Mughreb fi Hila Ahl Al-Maghreb (The )‫الحجػارم كابػف سػعيد‬
ٌ ‫المغػرب‬ ً
‫المغػرب فػي حػال أىػؿ ى‬
‫ي‬ (3
Exotic Tidings on the Treasures of Maghreb) (Al-Hajjaari and Ibn Said)
Miraatu z-Zamaan fi Tareekhi l-A'yaan (The )‫مرآة الزماف في تاريخ األعياف (ابف عساكر‬ (4
Mirror of Time on the History of Dignitaries) (Ibn Asaker)
Asadu l-Ghaabah fi Ma'rifati s-Sahaabah (The )‫أسػد الغابػة فػي معرفػػة الصػحابة (ابػف أثيػر‬ (5
Jungle Lion on the Knowledge of the Prophet's Companions) (Ibn Al-Atheer)

In principle, the translator has the absolute freedom to choose the title of the target
translation that he/she finds for good reasons more appropriate in the target language.
The titles of Arabic Classical books in particular received the best possible attention by
writers due to the fact that, in their age of rhetoric, allegory and eloquence, rhymed titles
were a must, or, else, the writer would be accused of incompetence in this respect.
However, the situation has changed radically in today’s Arabic titles, but we still have some
writers who have feel for rhyme and rhythm in titles. In English, however, there is no such
inclination in titles of books. Rather, the best titles are usually those that are short, sharp
and to the point, attractive, comprehensive, relevant, descriptive; allusive and figurative
(see also Newmark, 1988: ch. 6, and Ghazala, 2014: ch. 2). Hence, it is highly recommended
to dispose of the extra words in the English translation of titles as follows:

1. The Arab Arts → )‫(فنون العرب‬

2. The Kingdoms of States/The History of Kings )‫البلدان‬/ ‫(تارٌخ الملو‬
3. The Tiding of Maghreb )‫(أخبار المؽرب‬
4. The History of Dignitaries )‫(تارٌخ األعٌان‬
5. Biography of the Prophet’s Companions / The Companions’ Biography )‫(حٌاة الصحابة‬

4.1.4 Rhymed Advertisements )‫(إعالنات تجارية مقفاة‬: e.g.

crispy, crunchy chips ‫) تشيبس مقرمش قرمشة‬1

401
Atlas, my darling, all love me ‫ما إلك مثيؿ‬ ‫) أطمس يا عيكني كميـ حبكني أطمس بالغسيؿ‬2
dearly, Atlas for washing, nothing resembling
Do not phone to get safely home ‫) ال تتصؿ حتى تصؿ‬3

Commercials aim at convincing consumers to purchase merchandise. So, they try to please
them to get what they want from them. To achieve their aims, commercials resort to
entertaining, humorous, aesthetic, rhymed and rhythmical language. In other words,
advertisements are not poetic language, but use sound features as a means to an end. At
translating them, students and translators are commended to mimic the SL style of the
type of language based on sound features and effects with a view to achieve the ultimate
objective of selling goods.

The first advertisement is rhythmical (i.e. crispy … crunchy), rhymed (crispy … crunchy)
alliterative (i.e. crispy … crunchy) and consonantal (i.e. crunchy chips). The second ad is
also produced with rhyme (i.e. darling … washing … resembling), rhythm (i.e. parallel
phrases: Atlas, my darling = all love me dearly = Atlas for washing = nothing resembling)
and alliteration (e.g. darling, dearly). The third commercial is an official ad for the public to
avoid the hazards of using the mobile while driving the car. The Arabic original is crisp,
rhymed and rhythmical, but the English translation is longer and less rhymed and
rhythmical (e.g. half-rhyme: phone/home). Yet, the fact about translating commercials in
general is their amusing, aesthetic and rhythmic language, which is preferably
reconstructed in the TL, but not necessarily in the same way as in the SL. In the event that
the students and translators have failed to get rhyme and rhythm, they translate sense,
instead, as a last resort.

4.1.6 The Holy Koran )‫(القرآف الكريـ‬: e.g.

‫ كاذا‬.)4(‫ كاذا العشار يعطمت‬.)3(‫ كاذا الجباؿ يسيرت‬.)2(‫ كاذا النجكـ انكدرت‬.)1(‫"إذا الشمس يككرت‬ -
".)7(‫ كاذ االنفكس يزكجت‬.)6(‫كاذا البحار يسجرت‬.)5(‫الكحكش يحشرت‬

1. When the sun shall be folded up and overthrown;

2. And when the stars shall be made to fall;
3. And when the mountains shall be made to pass away;
4. And when the pregnant she-camels shall be neglected;
5. And when the wild beasts shall be gathered together;
6. And when the seas shall be blazed with Fire;
7. And when the souls shall be joined again to their bodies;

The translation of the Arabic Language of the Holy is uniquely difficult for it is inimitable in any
Language, being the Language of God, not humans. Among its inimitable features is rhyme and
rhythm which resist any reproduction or construction due to the accuracy of translation which
does not allow any synonym to be used instead of the most accurate word. More remarkably,
rhyme and rhythm after all occur naturally in the Holy Koran, and not aimed at on purpose for
the Holy Koran is neither poetry, nor prose, nor anything else similar to it. Now, the translator
has to attend primarily to translating meaning as accurately as possible, taking no notice of
402
producing parallel rhyme or rhythm, as clearly demonstrated in the suggested translation above.
In fact, no translator in the world has attempted that for everybody knows that it is in vain. So,
translators have to be brave enough to admit it.

4.1.7 Supplications )‫(أدعية‬: e.g.

God! I seek your refuge from : ‫ المهم إني أعوذ بك‬-

the knowledge that brings no good, ‫مف عمـ ال ينفع‬ -

and from the heart that has no fear (of Allah), ‫كقمب ال يخشع‬ -
and from the prayer that cannot be answered, ‫كدعاء ال ييسمع‬ -
and the self that cannot be satisfied, ‫و‬
‫كنفس ال تشبع‬ -
and a deed that cannot be lifted up to you. ‫كعمؿ ال ييرفع‬ -

Supplications (or prayers) are religious statements usually made rhymed on purpose to aid
memorization and rhythmical recitation, especially in congregational prayers in the month
of Ramadan, over individual late night and other prayers. However, normally, English
cannot reproduce or construct the elaborate SL rhyme and rhythm. However, artificially,
they can be produced only partly, I guess. After all, it is not a must to translate
supplications into rhythmical TL for it is not as habitual in English since it is in Arabic.
Instead, it is compensated for by the low singing tone of the recital of prayers in English.
Hence, the most significant point to achieve is to translate sense pragmatically with some
freedom, though (see ch. 5 forthcoming).

4.1.8 Non-fictional Prose: Prose Rhyme )‫(النثر المقفى‬: e.g.

،‫ كصػدره الػدىناء‬،‫ مكاىبػو األنػكاء‬،‫ كغػرة الػدىر كتحجيمػو‬،‫ كزميؿ الكرـ كنزيمػو‬،‫ فالف رفيؽ الجكد كدخيمو‬:‫) "يقاؿ‬1
‫ ينػػابيع‬،‫ كىمتػػو عمػػى قدرتػػو‬،‫ يطفػػك جػػكده عمػػى مكجػػكده‬،‫ كغكثػػو مبػػذكؿ لمضػػعيؼ‬،‫عكنػػو مكقػػكؼ عمػػى المَّييػػؼ‬
‫ أك‬،‫ػت قبػؿ كجػكده‬ ٍ ‫ م‬،‫يمػان فػي جػكده‬
َّ ‫ إف طمبػت كر‬،‫ كربيع السماح يضحؾ عف فكاضػمو‬،‫الجكد تتفجر مف أناممو‬
‫ كشػجاع يػرل انحجػاـ عػا انر ال تمحػكه‬،‫ حيػث تػزؿ األقػداـ‬،‫تعكد انقػداـ‬
َّ ‫ باسؿ‬،‫مت كلـ تالقو‬
ٍ ‫ماجدان في أخالقو‬
،‫ يخميػؽ كنسػػيـ األسػػحار عمػػى صػػفحات األنيػػار‬،‫ لػػو يخميػؽ لػػك مػػازج البحػػر لنفػػى ممكحتػػو كصػفٌى كدكرتػػو‬،‫األيػػاـ‬
)309 :2009 ،‫" (األبشيهي‬...‫ كأبيج مف نكر البدر في الظالـ‬،‫كأطيب مف زمف الكرد في األياـ‬

(A generous man is the associate, comrade and guest of generosity, the dawn and leap of
time. He is a downpour of open-handedness and large-heartedness. He is a relief to the
needy and the weak. His hospitability exceeds his means and his resolution exceeds his
potential. The springs of generosity are coming out of his fingers, and the spring of his
tolerance overwhelms his other virtues. He is as bounteous as nature and peerless in
generosity and morals. He is as brave as a lion when others dare not take the risk. Retreat
to him is a disgrace. His manners are graceful as lord, gentle as morn breeze, soothing as
the breath of spring and bright as the stars in a pitch black night…)

403
This is a piece of classical non-fictional text that can be described as literary in terms of
sound features among other things (e.g. syndeton, antonymy, synonymy, metaphors,
collocations, etc. (which are not the point of focus here). Chief among these features are
prose rhyme and rhythm going simultaneously hand in hand, and the whole text is based
on it, as illustrated in the next strategy of re-writing the text in a layout of free verse
poetry:

A generous man is the associate, comrade and guest of generosity ،‫كدخيمو‬

ٍ ‫رفيؽ الجكد‬
،‫يمو‬
ٍ ‫كزميؿ الكرـ كنز‬
the dawn and leap of time ،‫كتحجيمو‬
ٍ ‫كغرة الدىر‬

He is a downpour of open-handedness and large-heartedness ،‫اء‬

ٍ ‫مكاىبو األنك‬
،‫دىناء‬
ٍ ‫كصدره ال‬

ٍ َّ‫عكنو مكقكؼ عمى الم‬

He is a relief to the needy and the weak ،‫ييؼ‬
،‫لمضعيؼ‬
ٍ ‫كغكثو مبذكؿ‬

His hospitability exceeds his means ،‫مكجكده‬

ٍ ‫يطفك جكده عمى‬
and his resolution exceeds his potential ،‫تو‬
ٍ ‫كىمتو عمى قدر‬

The springs of generosity are coming out of his fingers, ،‫أناممو‬

ٍ ‫ينابيع الجكد تتفجر مف‬
and the spring of his tolerance overwhelms his other virtues ،‫اضمو‬
ٍ ‫كربيع السماح يضحؾ عف فك‬

،‫جكده‬
ٍ ‫إف طمبت كريمان في‬
،‫كجكده‬
ٍ ‫مت قبؿ‬
ٍ
He is as bounteous as nature and peerless in generosity and morals
،‫أخالقو‬
ٍ َّ
‫ماجدان في‬ ‫أك‬
،‫تالقو‬
ٍ ‫مت كلـ‬
ٍ

He is as brave as a lion ،‫انقداـ‬

ٍ ‫تعكد‬
َّ ‫باسؿ‬
when others dare not take the risk ،‫األقداـ‬
ٍ ‫حيث تزؿ‬
Retreat to him is a disgrace. ،‫األياـ‬
ٍ ‫كشجاع يرل انحجاـ عا انر ال تمحكه‬

His manners are graceful as lord ،‫ممكحتو‬

ٍ ‫لو يخميؽ لك مازج البحر لنفى‬
،‫تو‬
ٍ ‫كصفٌى كدكر‬

404
 His manners are gentle as morn breeze ،‫األسحار‬
ٍ ‫يخميؽ كنسيـ‬
،‫األنيار‬
ٍ ‫عمى صفحات‬

black midnight soothing as the breath of spring ،‫األياـ‬

ٍ ‫كأطيب مف زمف الكرد في‬
and as bright as the stars in a pitch black night ‫الظالـ‬
ٍ ‫كأبيج مف نكر البدر في‬

The text now reads like a modern poem of the type of free verse )‫شعر التفعيمة‬/‫(الشعر الحر‬
which is distinguished from the traditional poetry of Al-Qasida (see Fevere et al, 1991???).
However it remains a piece of classical non-fictional writing that was famous for its
rhetorical and sound features. However, this does not apply to the style of Arabic or
English modern non-fictional prose. That is why the English translation has not attended
to it in the SL text but occasionally and unintentionally (e.g. alliteration in the last line:
bright…pitch…black) as suggested above. In fact, these features are not a problem to
translators for they will ignore them, but the real problems of translation lie in
understanding the original properly (which take some time to solve by checking good
Arabic dictionaries and references, first). Then, the greater problem is how to translate
metahors especially those of cultural background (see next chapter for further details
about that). Hence, some pairs of the SL text have been translated collectively and
pragmatically in pursuit of the intended sense of the former (e.g. those marked by a
symbol above).

Other sound features of the source text include:

(a) Alliterative pairs of prose rhyme: (most of the text)

(b) Chiming (e.g. ‫ أقداـ‬/ ‫(إقداـ‬

To show the main point of departure of prose rhyme and rhythm between classical and
modern Arabic non-fictional prose, the following alternative version of the same text can
be suggested:

‫ عنػػده منػػابع الجػػكد‬.‫ كىمتػػو فاقػػت قدرتػػو‬،‫ جػػكده فػػاؽ طاقتػػو‬.‫ يغيػػث المميػػكؼ كيعػػيف الضػػعيؼ‬،‫ فػػالف ج ػكاد ك ػريـ‬:‫("يقػػاؿ‬
،‫ دماثػة خمقػو تػذىب ممكحػة البحػار‬.‫ كال يعػرؼ الت ارجػع أبػدان‬،‫ أسػد فػي انقػداـ‬.‫ ليس لو ند في جػكده كحسػف خمػؽ‬،‫كالتسامح‬
،‫ ىػػك ممػػح األرض‬.‫ خمػػؽ يسػػتكعب اخػػتالؼ األى ػكاء كاآلراء‬.‫ كالبػػدر فػػي ليمػػة ظممػػاء‬،‫ كالػػكرد الجميػػؿ‬،‫خمػػؽ كالنسػػيـ العميػػؿ‬
‫ كتتس ػػابؽ المعن ػػي عم ػػى‬،‫ تم ػػيف ل ػػو الكمم ػػات‬.‫ كالصػ ػكاب طبع ػػو‬،‫ كالبالغ ػػة منيج ػػو‬،‫ فص ػػيح المس ػػاف‬.‫كيح ػػؿ ك ػػؿ المعض ػػالت‬
.‫ إذا اشػتد فػي الكػالـ كػاف أيػبس مػف الصػخر‬.‫ كيطيؿ مف دكف ممػؿ‬،‫ يكجز في الكالـ مف دكف إنقاص في المعنى‬.‫خاطره‬
‫ كسػاؿ‬،‫ سػجؿ اسػمو التػاريخ‬.‫ كاذا أكجػز كػاف إعجازيػان‬.‫ إذا أنشػأ شػيئان أبػدع كفاضػت معانيػو‬.‫كاذا الف كاف أسمس مف الماء‬
)".‫حبر األدباء عنو‬

The prose rhyme has been brought down to a minimum in favour of the clarity of meaning
by replacing classical words and expressions with MSA equivalents that are recurrent in
use nowadays. In other words, there is not much sound features and effects in the latter
version, and, instead, today’s concern is with expressing meaning appropriately, using
modern Arabic language.
405
4.2 Translating Rhymed Literature

In literature in particular, the patterning of sounds plays a vital role in a written form. A
question about whether or not the style of a text 'reads well' does not imply that it is
agreeable to the eye, but it enables readers to imagine a fluent sequence of sounds. That
is, the speciality of literary language is unquestionable, yet, the linguistic features of the
form, or the outer shape of the text are sometimes insufficient and might be illusive. By
the same token, although features of literary language can recur in non-literary texts (like
commercials, or political rhetoric), they do not change these texts into literature; nor
these features are used for the same purpose, implication and function in literature. Here
are individual as well as juxtaposed pairs of illustrative examples in both languages,
English and Arabic:

(1)
‫فأمعف إليو كانظر الصكرة‬ ‫أخذت البك ىؿ في القاركرة‬
‫ى‬ ‫إذا‬
‫أك مف زجاج ذم صفار كنكر‬ ‫ؾ مف بمكر‬ ‫كينبغي أف ت ي‬
‫بحمرة مع غمظ دليؿ‬ ‫فإف يؾ البكؿ بيا يميؿ‬
‫عالمة اليبكسة المحمقة‬ ‫غمبة الدـ كأما الرقة‬
(In Shaheen, 1986. See also Ghazala 2012b: 87-88)

The formal features of poetry of meter, rhyme and rhythm as well as the layout are
features of a poem here. Yet, we may hardly call it a poem regarding the topic (i.e. urine
test), the context of situation (a lab / hospital daily practice), the medium dependence (a
bottle of urine), the lack of any semantic / lexical intricacies, the absence of any emotions
or feelings throughout and reading at more than one level other than the medical test
results (see below). Thus, the formal features and shape of a text are not good enough to
describe a text as literary, as also Schogt declares, "… rhyme and rhythm do not make a
literary work…" (1988: 82). Accordingly, the English translation does not take the sound
features of rhyme, meter, foot and rhythm seriously, as in the next version:

When you take urine in a bottle,

Look at it carefully and see the picture

It should be a crystal bottle

Or made of transparent glass.

If urine is rather reddish

And thick, this is evidence

Of blood in urine. But if thin, it is

A symptom of chickenpox stiffness.

We come up with the conclusion that sound features in translation cannot be always
significant and relevant to meaning, except in literary texts, especially prose to a lesser
extent, and poetry to a greater extent: Prose, first.
406
4.2.1 Translating Rhymed Prose

Prose (or narrative), short story in particular, and next to poetry, is the most popular
literary genre, popular in terms of readability and impact. It is the youngest genre in World
Literature. It is defined as a work of literature created deliberately for artistic and
entertaining values and cannot be replaced by a mere narration of events (Bates, 1954:
13). The modern short story is different from older literary forms and subgenres like
myths, legends, fables and anecdotes. Poe (1809-1849) is one of the creators of the short
story. He views it as a short prosaic narration characteristic if the specific effect intended
by the author and achieved by a proper combination of events, that is, a specific unity of
motives and actions. Newmark considers the short story as a compact narrative, and rates
it next to poetry. He regards it as "the most intimate and personal form of writing in
imaginative literature … Its essence is compactness, simplicity, concentration, cohesion.”
(1993: 48). On the other hand, Raffel asserts that the translation of prose, including the
short story, is sharply different from the translation of poetry. That is, while poetry's most
important features in translation are prosodic or sound features, prose is based on
syntactic and semantic features (1994).

A sharp distinction is recommended to be drawn between the translation of short stories

into expressive meaning (i.e. style-based creative literary meaning) and their translation
into non-expressive meaning (i.e. non-expressive, literal, ordinary or non-creative
meaning). This means that the major difference between the two methods of translation
lies in the use of expressive, effective, rhetorical, figurative, pragmatic, impressive,
rhythmical and emotional language vis-à-vis literal, nonfigurative, non-effective, non-
expressive, non-rhythmical and not necessarily emotional language.

Hence, a part of the expressivity of the message of narrative, especially the short story is
sound features like prose rhyme and rhythmical language in particular. Many parts of a
novel or a short story involve using these two prosodic features extensively in classical
literature, and to some extent in modern narrative. This is a piece of evidence that, at
translating them, students and translators are supposed to take them into account as
much as they can. The following examples are taken exclusively from modern narrative to
illustrate how that can be done in practice (classical examples are exclude for samples of
them have been translated and discussed earlier in this and other chapters of the book):

‫ كحدؽ غاضبان إلى رجاؿ يتحمقكف حكؿ‬،‫ كلكنو لـ يستطع نسيانو‬،‫"رحمت الغابات بعيدان عف النمر السجيف في قفص‬
‫ إذا أردتـ حق نا أف تتعممكا‬:‫قفصو كأعينيـ تتأممو بفضكؿ كدكنما خكؼ ككاف أحدىـ يتكمـ بصكت ىادئ ذم نبرة آمرة‬
‫ كستركف أنيا ميمة صعبة‬،‫ عميكـ أال تنسكا في أم لحظة أف معدة خصمكـ ىدفكـ األكؿ‬،‫ مينة التركيض‬،‫مينتي‬
.‫كسيمة في آف كاحد‬
‫ كلكنو سيتغير كيصبح كديعان‬،‫ شديد الفخر بحريتو كقكتو كبطشو‬،‫ إنو نمر شرس متعجرؼ‬:‫انظركا اآلف إلى ىذا النمر‬
.‫ كتعممكا‬،‫ فراقبكا ما سيجرم بيف مف يممؾ الطعاـ كبيف مف ال يممكو‬.‫كمطيعان كطفؿ صغير‬
.‫فبادر الرجاؿ إلى القكؿ إنيـ سيككنكف التالميذ المخمصيف لمينة التركيض‬

407
‫ أحضر لي ما‬:‫ كيؼ حاؿ ضيفنا العزيز؟ قاؿ النمر‬:‫ ثـ خاطب النمر متسائال بميجة ساخرة‬،‫فابتسـ المركض مبتيجا‬
.‫ فقد حاف كقت طعامي‬،‫آكمو‬
‫ أتأمرني كأنت سجيني؟ يا لؾ مف نمر مضحؾ!! عميؾ أف تدرؾ أني الكحيد الذم يحؽ‬:‫فقاؿ المركض بدىشة مصطنعة‬
.‫لو ىنا إصدار األكامر‬
.‫ ال أحد يأمر النمكر‬:‫قاؿ النمر‬
.‫ أنت في الغابات نمر‬.‫ كلكنؾ اآلف لست نم انر‬:‫قاؿ المركض‬
.‫ فأنت اآلف مجرد عبد تمتثؿ لألكامر كتفعؿ ما أشاء‬،‫كقد صرت في القفص‬
.‫ لف أككف عبدان ألحد‬:‫قاؿ النمر بنزؽ‬
.‫ أنت مرغـ عمى إطاعتي؛ ألني أنا الذم أممؾ الطعاـ‬:‫قاؿ المركض‬
".‫ ال أريد طعامؾ‬:‫قاؿ النمر‬
(1994 ‫ طبعة أولى‬،‫ رٌاض الرٌس للكتب والنشر‬،" ‫ من كتاب "نداء نو‬:‫ النمور فً الٌوم العاشر‬:‫)ركرٌا تامر‬

There are some features of alliteration (underlined) and rhythm (e.g. ‫شديد‬/‫نمر شرس متعجرؼ‬
‫ خاطب النمر متسائال‬/ ‫ فابتسـ المركض مبتيجا‬...‫ كقكتو كبطشو‬/‫)الفخر بحريتو‬. It is not easy for students
and many translators to appreciate the rhythmical tone of the latter expressions, so they
ignore it in translation. Instead, they concentrate on the lexical and grammatical
components of meaning. The following translation is suggested in the same book of the
original (see ibid.):

(The forests had forsaken the tiger, imprisoned in his cage, but he could not forget them.
He glared hatefully at the men beyond the bars; their eyes, curious and unafraid, studied
him. One of them spoke in a calm, authoritative tone: “If you truly want to do what I do, to
become a tamer, you must never for a moment forget that your adversary’s stomach is
your primary target. You will see that this profession is both easy and difficult at the same
time. Look at this tiger: he is fierce, arrogant, proud of his freedom, his power and his
strength. But he will change, become meek, gentle, and obedient – like a small child.
Watch what happens between he who holds the food and he who does not, and learn.”
The men rushed to profess their dedication as students to the profession of taming. The
tamer beamed, then addressed the tiger sarcastically: “And how is our honoured guest?”
“Prepare my food; it is time for my meal,” said the tiger
“You, my prisoner, giving me orders?” said the tamer with mock astonishment. “What a
funny tiger you are! You should realize that I am the only one who gives orders around
here.”
“No one gives orders to tigers,” said the tiger.
“But you are no longer a tiger,” said the tamer. “In the forest, you are a tiger, but here, you
are caged. Now, you are merely a slave who carries out orders and obeys my will.”
“I am no one’s slave,” the tiger replied testily.
“You must obey me because I am the one who holds the food,” said the tamer.
“I do not want your food,” said the tiger. …)

There are occasional and, probably, unintentional features of alliteration (underlined),

consonance (/er/ endings underlined) and rhythmical pairs (like: He glared hatefully / at
the men beyond the bars; their eyes / curious and unafraid / studied him; you, my prisoner
/ give me orders; it is time / for my food; but you are / no longer a tiger, etc.) for a foot of
408
some kind is felt in tone. Yet, the translator seems to have turn his attention to the
elaborate patterning of meaning more semantically and grammatically than
phonologically.

.‫ كعىَّزتو بكممات رقيقة‬،‫ عمى فراشيا‬،‫ كأجمستو إلى جانبيا‬،‫ كجففت دمكعو بشفتييا‬،‫) "كرفعتو أمو بيف يدييا‬1
".‫ كىكذا اختيتـ ذلؾ اليكـ الحزيف‬.‫كلكنو لـ يسمع إلييا كلـ تنفرج شفتاه تمؾ الميمة‬
)128 :‫ عبث األقدار‬،‫(نجيب محفكظ‬

The phonological features of rhyme (underlined), alliteration (in italics) and rhythm (the
first four phrases are closely parallel in foot and tone) are abundant in this short
paragraph. The translator would have more concern with them this time for they are
made prominent in the original to reflect a kind of sad tone echoes most by a pause at
elongated /a/ four vowel sounds as an indication of sighs of sadness. This goes in parallel
with the meaning of the passage enveloping the whole scene. Further, all rhyming words
refer back to the bereaved mother, who expresses her bereavement with astonishing
calm. In the light of these functions and implications of the original, the English translation
is expected to attend to these features as much as possible by students and translators:

(His mum lifted him between her hands, dried his tears with her lips, sat him by her side on
her bed and offered her condolences to him with soft words. But he did not hear her, and
his lips never opened that night. Such was the sad day concluded.)

The translator has achieved some phonological features, especially alliteration and
consonance (underlined) using consonants of several types as signs of stops at consecutive
points. This might be a match of some kind with the atmosphere of sadness and slowness
of motion and activity on the part of the child in particular. This has been achieved by
means of deliberate choice of words (e.g. ‘mum’ replacing ‘mother’; ‘hear’ in the place of
‘listen’, etc.). That said, the students and translators’ focus is likely to be on rendering
meaning in the first place.

‫ الميف‬،‫ الطيبة كالنقمة‬،‫ الحب كالعار‬،‫ حياة أناس يتامر عمييـ الفقر كالكبرياء‬،‫ كيؼ ستككف حياتيـ‬،‫كبعد‬ )1
‫ تتامر عمييـ كؿ األضداد في‬،‫ الكرامة كالمغامرة‬،‫ العصافير كالصقكر‬،‫ الجبؿ كالكادم‬،‫ الريح كالنسيـ‬،‫كالقسكة‬
)18 ‫ ص‬:20 ‫ انرىابي‬:‫(عبداهلل ثابت‬ ".‫اليكـ كالميمة مرات كمرات‬

The rhythm of this passage is overwhelming and unique. Pairs of contrastive binomials are
made rhythmic in an intricately consecutive sequence that combines parallelism and
expressivity with brilliant oxymoron. They are close to poetry if rewritten in modern poetic
form:

،‫الفقر كالكبرياء‬ -
،‫الحب كالعار‬ -
،‫الطيبة كالنقمة‬ -
،‫الميف كالقسكة‬ -
،‫الريح كالنسيـ‬ -
409
 ،‫الجبؿ كالكادم‬ -
،‫العصافير كالصقكر‬ -
،‫الكرامة كالمغامرة‬ -
‫اليكـ كالميمة‬ -

These rhythmic, parallel, juxtaposed and asyndetic pairs have a decisive function in the
text. They indicate the inevitable coexistence of contrasts in the human soul and life, but,
they have all turned to be on the side that is against the people of Asir, of Saudi Arabia.
Indeed, this is a hugely influential function with respect to the message intended to be
delivered by the SL text. Hence, the English translation is strongly recommended to
construct. Here is a version by the American translator of Thabet’s novel to consider:

(So how will their lives turn out? The lives of these people conspired against by poverty and
pride, love and shame, kindness and malice, tenderness and cruelty, wind and breeze, the
mountain and the valley, sparrows and hawks, prestige and foolhardiness - for all the
opposites conspire against them, day and night, with no letup.)

The translator has professionally attended to these parallel, antithetic and asyndetic pairs
in English appropriately by constructing an identical sequence of contrastive binomials as
follows:

- poverty and pride,

- love and shame,
- kindness and malice,
- tenderness and cruelty,
- wind and breeze,
- the mountain and the valley,
- sparrows and hawks,
- prestige and foolhardiness
- day and night

By so doing, the translator has succeeded in securing the tremendous effect of these pairs
of the SL text in the TL. So, the sound features in such narrative texts are too weighty to
ignore.

4.2.2 Translating Onomatopoeic Expressions

In its literal sense, onomatopoeia refers to a purely mimetic power of language and its
ability to imitate sounds. Simply, it is a sound enacting sense. It is mainly phono-lexical,
which is our concern here. The latter is based on the following principles (see Leech, 1969;
Carter and Nash, 1990; and Simpson, 2004 for further details):

(a) The process of onomatopoeia is arbitrary in its linguistic consequences. For

example, the onomatopoeic type expressed by the word ))‫' (مقررم‬crunch' involves
the abrupt impact of something compact and hard striking on something that
yields; a yielding surface that is hard, but brittle; and a harsh or strident sound of

410
 brief duration. 'Crunch' as a whole can be perceived as a kind of certain
consonantal and vocalic speech sounds.
(b) Onomatopoeic effects are based on the general 'color' of sounds on such
dimensions as 'hardness', 'softness', 'thinness' and 'sonority'.
(c) Onomatopoeia can also be demonstrated in poetry by a mimetic use of meter
which might suggest sluggish movement, rapidity; abruptness, galloping, etc. (See
below):

Hence, onomatopoeia is a major feature of sound patterning that forms a bridge between
sound and meaning. Words can be employed for their imitative potentials. Henceforth,
various stylistic functions and effects may be produced: consonant / vowel harmony /
disharmony, reflection of content / meaning (softness / lightness, hardness / harshness of
sound and meaning, etc.), disruption of consonant / vowel recurrence for specific
contextual reasons, and so on. But is there in phonetics a 'dry' consonant or a 'flying'
vowel? Further, can there be a direct connection between sound patterning and meaning
as an established, non-impressionistic interpretative practice, the so-called 'phonaesthetic
fallacy?'. It is shunned by most writers in the field as inappropriate (see Attridge, 1988;
Nash (1986); Simpson (2004) and others). Indeed, individual sounds of any type cannot tell
about the meaning of words, whether fricative (e.g. f, etc.), affricate (j, pf, etc.), non-
fricative/soft (e.g. m, n, etc.), nasal/soft (e.g. n), sibilant/hissing (s, z), glottal (e.g. a),
guttural (e.g. ‫ ح‬،‫ خ‬،‫)ق‬, velar (e.g. k), vibrant (v, z), dental (/th/ ‫ث‬/‫(ذ‬, etc. That is, a soft
sound like /n/, or /m/ cannot be always indicative of softness, nor a hard sound like the
guttural /‫ق‬/ is necessarily indicative of hardness. Two examples, one from the Holy Koran,
and another general can be good enough to illustrate the point: )‫( )دمردم‬destroy/obliterate)
and ‫( قلررب‬heart). The rules of the recital of the Holy Koran of elongating, enlarging,
shortening, softening, diphthongizing/fusing certain sounds are unique to it and cannot be
applied to language in general. However, the combination, or consequence of a series of
certain sounds may come up with onomatopoeic effects. Yet, this is a kind of intuitive
practice and surmise that cannot necessarily lead to an accurate translation of whole
expressions and statements. That is, we may have a feeling of a general meaning of
harshness, leniency, politeness, noise, smoothness, etc. but we cannot claim that such
feeling represents the translation of the whole expression concerned. One exception is
when the word describes the sound made by somebody, or something (see the third
example below). Here are illustrative examples:

The angry father roared, snarled, thundered and ‫) زمجر األب الغضكب كىدر كأرعد كأزبد‬1
rumbled
all kinds of ‫ القصؼ كالقتؿ كالخنؽ كالحرؽ كالشنؽ‬،‫) كؿ الفظاعات يقترفيا طاغية الشاـ كحمفاؤه‬2
atrocities are committed by the Syrian dictator: bombarding, murdering,
throttling, burning and strangling
stuttering, gurgling, ... ‫ كالم ػكاء‬،‫ كالبطبطػػة‬،‫ كاليدىػػدة‬،‫ كالتمتمػػة‬،‫ كالقرق ػرة‬،‫ كالمأمػػأة‬،‫ الفأفػػأة‬، ‫) التأتػػأة‬3
murmuring / muttering, lulling, quacking, mewing, etc.

The translation of these examples is a suggested attempt as to how to take onomatopoeic

effect into account in consideration, which is done by careful choice of words of words of
sounds reflecting those of the original. For example, ‘throttling of (3) has other probably
accurate synonyms including ‘choking/suffocating/smothering’, but the former is
411
preferred to them due to sound resonance with the other words in the statement that
have the same ‘-ing’ ending and the sound/r/. In the same way, ‘strangling’ has the well-
known synonym ‘hanging’, but the translator has gone for the first for the same reasons
related to the choice of ‘throttling’. The third example is based on the identification of the
sounds produced and the words describing them in the SL, which are translated into
English as closely as possible on the same basis.

Students and translators are recommended to take onomatopoeic implications of re-

echoing sense into account as much as they can for one of the ideal styles of language is
when sound reflects meaning. Yet, when they find that demanding, they may attend to
the intended sense in the best possible way.

4.2.3 TRANSLATING POETRY

Prosody (i.e. the aesthetic features of sounds) is the corner-stone of poetry. Chief among
prosodic features are rhyme, meter, foot, alliteration, rhythm and chiming. They are
employed extensively by poets for sounds have influential functions in poetry. Primary
among those functions is the musical/rhythmical value. Another function of sounds in
verse is they decorate the poem. More importantly, they help organize it, acting as
emphatic markers of phrases, lines and stanzas. Indeed, the idea of patterning of sounds is
of special significance in poetry, not only aesthetically, but also functionally in its relation
to message.

It has been said that, due these very prosodic patterns, poetry is untranslatable. It has
also been claimed that only a poet can translate poetry ((see Khulusi, 2000). This echoes
Dryden's view that a poet cannot be translated but by a poet (in Schulte, et al, 1992).
Further, in an answer to the question, "Can one translate a poem", Bonnefoy says "of
course not" (in ibid.). This view is also held by Jakobson who says: "Poetry by definition
[is] untranslatable" (1959). Likewise, Dante echoes the same stance for any translation of
it would destroy its consistency and charm (in Khulusi, 2000: 34). This is perhaps due to
the speciality of poetry in terms of:

1. Subtlety of language elaboration

2. Subtlety of the spirit of meaning;
3. Charm of style and topic;
4. Aestheticity;
5. Musicality;
6. Prosodic features (of rhyme, rhythm, meter, foot, etc. See above);
7. Syntactic complexity;
8. Semantic intricacies;
9. Special diction;
10. Stylistic patterning;
11. Symbolism;
12. Pragmatic implications;
13. Cultural-specificity;
14. Over-occurrence of figurative language;
15. Far-fetched imagery;

412
 16. Deviation from ordinary language (syntactic, semantic, stylistic and
phonological);
17. Special conventions of reading poetry;
18. Sublimity;
19. Special features of literariness; and
20. Hypersensitivity of romanticism, sentimentalism, emotionalism, passion and
touchiness.
(see also ibid., Denham, in Schulte et al (1992: 20) and Raffel, 1988 & 1994).

It is true that the best translator of poetry is a poet translator, but this attitude is
idealistic, and Platonic, but neither practical nor realistic. Poetry has been and is being
translated satisfactorily even by non-poets. The translator of poetry has to meet two
conditions:

(1) a long experience of translating literature in particular; and

(2) educate himself/herself well in the prosody of the two languages concerned.

These two preconditions are monolithic but possible to meet by good, devoted
translators. In the light of that, I suggest modifying these claims as follows:

"Poetry is probably the most difficult type of text to translate, yet it is translatable not
solely by a poet, but also by a good translator provided he/she has a good grip of both
languages, English and Arabic, and the essentials of prosody. A good translation of a poem
is not necessarily perfect translation, exactly like the translation of any other type of text."

As usual, at translating poetry, especially from Arabic into English, precedence is given
to rhyme and rhythm in particular, then to foot and meter over other prosodic features,
being the cornerstone of verse. Consequently, a poem with no rhyme and rhythm in
particular would be in effect described as poor because what distinguishes poetry from
ordinary language is chiefly its prosodic features on top of which are rhyme and rhythm.
This is the case for the norms of writing, reading, perceiving and, hence, translating poetry
are to be with rhyme and rhythm. Otherwise, it may not be worthy of interest in the eyes
of the public in general. This view is confirmed in Arabic by the criticism of ‘blank verse’ in
Arabic in the forties-sixties of the Twentieth Century, which is a kind of modern poetry
with no concern with rhyme and rhythm. It is closer to prose, rather. Hence its notorious
nickname, ‘prosaic poetry’)‫النثر المشررعور‬/‫(الشررعر المنثررور‬, which insinuates its semi-poetic
identity. Yet, some accept it as a good solution at times to the translation of some poems
(see Khulusi, 2000: 35-36).

This type of poetry should not be confused with the well-established and fully recognized
‘free verse’ )‫ شرعر التفعيلرة‬/ ‫(الشرعر الحرر‬, which is based on stanzaic rhyme, rhythm, foot and
meter, the basics of classical poetry (or Qasidah), with some differences between the two
types concerning the layout and number of rhymes in the same poem, though (see also
Bassnett-McGuire et al, 1995; Lefeveré, 1975 & 1992).

I distinguish between two types of translating poetry: (1) ‘poetic translation’ (committed
to prosodic features), and (2) ‘poetical translation’ (translating sense only. Hence, while
the latter is based on translating sense regardless of any concern with sound features, the
413
former is based on constructing the source texts in the Target Language in poetic terms of
sound / prosodic features, giving precedence to the major sound patterns of rhyme,
rhythm, foot and meter of some kind in particular (see also Anani, 1997, Khulusi, 2000 and
Ghazala, 2013 for further details). Before embarking on translated texts of poetry, here is
an introduction to the main PROSODIC FEATURES of poetry due to their indispensability in
it in particular for, after all, they mark its poeticity in both languages involved:

4.2.3.1 Prosodic Features: Rhyme, Rhythm, Meter, Foot and Beat

Rhyme, to start with, is the most prominent sound pattern of poetry in particular. A
rhyme occurs when two or more words have identical last vowel and consonant sounds. It
is of different types: end rhyme; perfect rhyme, imperfect rhyme, eye-rhyme, true rhyme,
half rhyme; internal rhyme; masculine rhyme; feminine rhyme; nursery/children rhyme;
slant rhyme/apophony; rhyme royal; reverse rhyme; double rhyme, and pararhyme. The
most recurrent type is naturally the first, 'end rhyme'. These types are not the point of
focus here in our stylistic investigation; suffice it to point out that rhyme is a basic
component of versification. It is taken as a correspondence between rhythmic measures
rather than syllables (see Leech, 1969: 91).

Meter, on the other hand, is a type of regularity both in the number of syllables and in the
number of stresses. It is a patterning of stressed and unstressed syllables in a poetic line.
It is a rhythmic parallelism, a patterning of a succession of stressed and unstressed
syllables. One type of metrical parallelism consists of a strict alternation of stressed
syllables (or beats) and unstressed syllables (or off-beats). Leech resembles English verse
to a hierarchical edifice of parallelism, of which parallel segments of rhythm are building
bricks (1969: 111). The patterns of rhythm are organized into lines, the lines into further
patterns of parallelism: couplets, quatrains, stanzas, etc.

Hence, sound patterns are representative of the aesthetic constituents, the music of these
texts through isochronic structural parallelisms, measures, feet and beats, without which
they perhaps cease to be poetic. Aesthetics has 'the domino effect' in poetry that, in
combination with other language components, it makes up what is commonly known as
poetry.

As to sound effects, they are the product of sound patterns that are employed by writers
in an intricate way. It has to be admitted that the question of what and how sound
patterns communicate meaning(s) is one of the mysterious aspects of literary appreciation
(see also Leech, 1969: 95 and Simpson, 2004). Leech points out two sound patterns that
can be related directly to meaning: 'Chiming' (e.g. 'mice' and 'men'; 'foul' and 'fair') which
is a kind of alliteration that connects two words by similarity of sound in such a way that
we are made to think of their similitude and interrelationship; and 'Onomatopoeia' which
suggests a resemblance between what a word sounds like, and what it means (see above)
(ibid.).

Being a decisive factor in describing a translation of poetry a poetic translation,

elaboration of Meter in both languages is due. A meter is a number of feet. A foot is a unit
of line of verse that contains at least one stressed syllable. More specifically, it is the unit

414
or span of stressed and unstressed syllables which is repeated to form a metrical pattern.
Here is an example of how a meter can be scanned (a=/: stressed syllable; b=x: unstressed
syllable; feet are the underlined syllables):

a a a b a a b (a b a b a a b)/ a a a b a a b/ a a a b a a b
/ / / X / / X (/ X / X / / X) / / / X / / X / / / X / / X

This should not be mistaken for an English meter, since five, six, seven or eight-feet meter
(pentameter (five feet), hexameter (six feet), heptameter (seven feet) and octameter
(eight feet) respectively) are odd and quite rare in English prosody in the first place (see
ibid.). The most popular English feet and, hence, meters are (from the most to the least
popular):

1. Iamb / iambic ( a foot of two syllables, unstressed and stressed);

2. Trochee (a two-syllable foot, stressed and unstressed);
3. Anapest (a three-syllable foot, two unstressed and one stressed);
4. Dactyl (a three-syllable foot, one stressed and two unstressed);
5. Spondee (a two-syllable foot, both stressed); and
6. Pyrrhic (a two-syllable foot, both unstressed).

To aid memory, the famous Romantic poet, S.T. Coleridge devised a verse of six lines
about these meters / feet (from 1-5), entitled ‘Metrical Feet’ (see also ibid., and
Thornborrow and Wareing, 1998):

Metrical Feet
Trochee trips from long to short.
From long to long in solemn sort
Slow spondee stalks; strong foot yet ill able
Ever to come up with the dactyl trisyllable.
Iambs march from short to long.
With a leap and a bound the swift anapests throng.

‫التٍرككي ينحدر مف الطكيؿ إلى القصير‬

‫كمف الطكيؿ إلى القصير بشكؿ كقكر‬
‫ لكنيا ال تستطيع‬،‫ كساقو قكية‬،‫كالسبكندم البطيء يتخطى‬
‫أف تضاىي الداكتيؿ ذا المقاطع الثالثة‬
،‫كاأليامبي يسير قيدمان مف القصير إلى الطكيؿ‬
‫كبالقفز كالنط يمضي األنابيست السريع‬
.‫بمقطعيو القصيريف كقد تكسطيما مقطع طكيؿ‬
(Khulusi, 2000: 211)

Following is a list in verse with the Arabic meters of poetry alongside their key feet ‫(مفاتيح‬
)‫( البحكر‬see Ateeq, 1987: 131-133):

415
 ‫‪-1‬الطكيؿ )‪(The Long‬‬
‫فعكلف مفاعيمف فعكلف مفاعمف‬ ‫طكيؿ لو دكف البحكر فضائ يؿ‬
‫‪-2‬المديد‪(The Extended) :‬‬
‫فاعالتف فاعمف فاعالتف‬ ‫صفات‬
‫ي‬ ‫لمديد الشعر عندم‬
‫‪-3‬البسيط‪(The Outspread) :‬‬
‫مستفعمف فاعمف مستفعمف ً‬
‫فعمف‬ ‫بسط األم يؿ‬
‫إف البسيط لديو يي ى‬
‫‪-4‬الكافر‪(The Exuberant) :‬‬
‫مفاعمتف مفاعمتف فعكلف‬ ‫بحكر الشعر كافرىا جمي هؿ‬
‫‪-5‬الكامؿ‪(The Perfect) :‬‬
‫متفاعمف متفاعمف متفاعمف‬ ‫كمؿ الجما يؿ مف البحكر الكام يؿ‬
‫ى‬
‫‪-6‬اليزج‪(The Trilling).:‬‬
‫مفاعميف‬ ‫مفاعميف‬ ‫عمى األىزاج تسييؿ‬
‫‪-7‬الرجز‪(The Trembling) :‬‬
‫مستفعمف مستفعمف مستفعمف‬ ‫في أبحر األرجاز بحر يسي يؿ‬
‫‪-8‬الرمؿ‪(The Running) :‬‬
‫فاعالتف فاعالتف فاعالتف‬ ‫قات‬ ‫ً‬ ‫ً‬
‫رمؿ األبحر يركيو الثِ ٌِ ي‬
‫ى‬
‫‪-9‬السريع‪(The Swift) :‬‬
‫مستفعمف مستفعمف فاعمف‬ ‫بحر سريعه ما لو ساح يؿ‬
‫ه‬
‫‪-10‬المنسرح‪(The Flowing( :‬‬
‫ممفعالت مفتعمف‬
‫ي‬ ‫مستفعمف‬ ‫منسرهح فيو ييضرب المث يؿ‬
‫‪-11‬الخفيؼ‪)The Light/Nimble( :‬‬
‫فاعالتف مستفع لف فاعالتف‬ ‫يا خفيفان خفَّت بو الحركات‬
‫‪-12‬المضارع‪(The Similar) :‬‬
‫التف‬ ‫فاع‬ ‫مفاعي يؿ‬ ‫تي ىع ُّد المضار ي‬
‫عات‬
‫ب‪(The Lopped/Curtailed) :‬‬
‫‪-13‬المقتض ٍ‬
‫مفتعمف‬ ‫مفعالت‬
‫ي‬ ‫كما سألكا‬‫اقتضب‬
‫ٍ‬
‫‪-14‬المجتث‪(The Docked/Amputated) :‬‬
‫مستفع لف فاعالتف‬ ‫الحركات‬
‫ي‬ ‫إف يجثَّ ًت‬
‫‪-15‬المتقارب‪(The Tripping (taking short steps)( :‬‬
‫فعكلف فعكلف فعكلف فعكلف‬ ‫عف المتقارب قاؿ الخمي يؿ‬
‫ث)‬
‫المتدارؾ‪( (The Continuous) :‬كيقاؿ لو أيضان الخبب كاٍل يم ٍح ىد ي‬‫ى‬ ‫‪-16‬‬
‫فعمف فعمف فعمف فعمف‬ ‫حركات المحدث تنتق يؿ‬

‫‪Wright goes further and suggests parallel meters in Arabic prosody for each of the English‬‬
‫‪meters as follows (in Khulusi, 2000: 223-224):‬‬

‫‪416‬‬
 1. Trochee: equivalent to the Trembling, the Swift, the Perfect and the Exuberant
(‫الر ىجز‬,
‫السريع ى‬, ‫الكامؿ‬, and ‫ الكافر‬respectively).
2. Antispastic: equivalent to the Trilling (‫)اليزج‬.
3. Amphibrachic: equivalent to the Tripping (taking short steps), the Long, the
Similar (to the Docked) (‫المتقارب‬,
‫ى‬ ‫الطكيؿ‬, and ‫ المضارع‬in a row).
4. Anapestic: equivalent to the Continuous, the Outspread, the Flowing and the
Lopped/Curtailed (‫المتدارؾ‬, ‫البسيط‬, ‫المنسرح‬, and ‫ المقتضب‬consecutively).
5. Ionic: equivalent to the Running, the Extended, the Light/Nimble and the
Docked/Amputated (‫الرمؿ‬,
‫المديد ى‬,‫ الخفيؼ‬and ‫ المجتث‬successively).

This is a brave attempt but hardly applicable. Anani rightly says that it is impossible and
futile to claim that there can be correspondence between English and Arabic meters, due
to modulation (transition from one beat to another abruptly) caused by a change of
emotion, attitude, tone, and psychological state of the character(s) involved (1997:98-99).
Both views imply that paramount significance is assigned to the milestone of any poetic
translation, meter, rhyme and rhythm.

Rhythm is “the notion of a regular periodic beat” (Leech, 1969: 104). It is a product of
meter, but a text does not have to be metrical in order to be rhythmic. Free verse, blank
verse and prose are a case in point (see below). Nevertheless, rhythm is usually
interconnected with, and concomitant to meter and rhyme. It is a kind of regular periodic
beat that is related to the term 'isochronism' (or equal duration). In phonetics and
prosody, rhythm is a pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in language. It is a
regularity of sounds that is not unique to poetry, but can be found in speech, advertising
and other literary genres, especially prose. Yet, it is the densest in poetry.

Indeed, the most important and recurrent phonological features are used in poetry. It can
be described as the variety of language which is based on sound, prosodic features and
effects. An aesthetic type of language like poetry demands a special attention by
translators to sounds, or else the beauty as well as the message will be distorted.

On the other hand, such density and richness of sound features and effects poses an
extremely difficult problem of translation to translators, and could rightly be considered as
the most difficult problem to students of translation in particular, and to all translators in
general.

The case is really so, as the transmission of such features and effects is disrupted by many
frustrations and disappointments. Yet, it is possible, not to perfection, but to satisfaction,
though. It is hoped that the following examples would prove that. At the same time, and
in the course of discussion, several problems of translating poetry are pointed out,
followed by suggested solutions to them:

(Poetical Translation)

I yearn for my mother’s bread ‫) أحن إلى خبز أمي‬1

417
 and my mother’s coffee ‫كقيكة أمي‬
and my mother’s touch ‫كلمسة أمي‬
and childhood grows inside me ‫في الطفكلة‬
َّ ‫كتكبر‬
day upon breast of day ‫يكمان عمى صدر يكـ‬
and I love my life because ‫كأعشؽ عمرم ألني‬
if I die ،‫إذا مت‬
I will feel ashamed because of my mother’s tears ‫أخجؿ مف دمع أمي‬
take me (mother) if one day I return, ‫خذيني إذا عدت يكمان‬
as a veil for your lashes ‫كشاحان ليدبؾ‬
and cover my bones with grass ‫كغطي عظامي بعشب‬
baptised by the purity of your heel ‫تعمد مف طير كعبؾ‬
and fasten my bonds ‫كشدم كثاقي‬
with a lock of your hair ‫بخصمة شعر‬
with a piece of thread that trails in the train of your dress ‫بخيط يمكح في ذيؿ ثكبؾ‬

This English translation of the poem by the renowned Arab poet, Mahmoud Darwish, is
too literal, dispirited and copies the original almost word for word. Although target
readers would understand the sense but not as a poetic text of poetic implications and
symbolisms. The obvious reason is the lack of the translation of any prosodic features, not
even the minimum. It seems that the translator has no idea about them. Further, the
translator has failed to attend to the cultural linguistic way of expressing meaning in
English (i.e. word combination, or collocation) (c.f. ‘day upon breast of day’ which is not a
part of word combination of English Language). Clearly, the translator has not exerted
enough efforts to produce a sensible poetic translation. Here is another version that can
be close to a good translation of the poem:

(Poetic Translation)

I am nostalgic to the bread of my mother ‫"أحف إلى خبز أمي‬

And to the coffee of my mother ‫كقيكة أمي‬
And to the touch of my mother ‫كلمسة أمي‬
Childhood grows in my way ‫في الطفكلة‬
َّ ‫كتكبر‬
Day dragging upon day ‫يكمان عمى صدر يكـ‬
I love my life you know why? ‫كأعشؽ عمرم ألني‬
For, if I die, ،‫إذا مت‬
I will be ashamed of my mother’s tears and cry ‫أخجؿ مف دمع أمي‬
Take me (mother) if one day I return, ‫خذيني إذا عدت يكمان‬

418
 As a shawl for your lashes again ‫كشاحان ليدبؾ‬
And cover my bones with grass ‫كغطي عظامي بعشب‬
By the purity of your heel like in a mass ‫تعمد مف طير كعبؾ‬
And fasten my bonds ‫كشدم كثاقي‬
With a lock of hair that is yours ‫بخصمة شعر‬
With a piece of thread that, in the train of your dress, trails ‫بخيط يمكح في ذيؿ ثكبؾ‬

Now, this version has a sense to poetry by means of applying rhyme, rhythm, syntactic
changes of word order, semantic variations of synonymy and additions. Here are the
details:

(1) Rhyme a full rhyme (except for the last three lines which have a semi-rhyme
between ‘bonds/yours/trails’) is created between every two or three lines, as
sometimes the case in English poetry.
(2) Rhythm is achieved by parallel beats of expressions like ‘you know why/if I die (~
~ ~/ ~ ~ ~), repetition (‘of my mother’ repeated three times), etc.
(3) Syntactic changes of word order to get rhyme (e.g. if one day I return → if I return
one day; that, in the train of your dress, trails → that trails in the train of your
dress, etc.).
(4) Synonymous variations: applied at different levels of semantic choice:
(a) To meet the condition of rhyme (e.g. ‘baptize’ is changed into a synonymous
phrase (like in a mass) to achieve rhyme.
(b) To be more expressive (e.g. ‘nostalgic’ is more expressive and rhythmical
than ‘yearn’ or ‘long’).
(c) To achieve better collocability (e.g. ‘day dragging upon day’ collocates better
than ‘day on the breast of day’ which is a literal translation of Arabic culture).
(5) Minor additions for the sake of rhyme or rhythm (e.g. the addition of ‘again’ and
‘that is yours’).

These points are indications that the translator is trying to bring his/her translation very
close to the language of poetry. It is true that the SL poem is rhyme-less because it is a
prosaic verse that is all in all symbolic, and not committed to rhyme. Yet, trying to get
some lines rhymed and rhythmic would endow the translation with a touch of vividness of
poetic language.

Here is another stanza from a poem for the same poet, Mahmoud Darwish, but, this time,
it is of the genre of ‘free verse’ that is with rhyme, feet and beats:

(Poetical Translation)
(I am an Arab: Identity Card) )‫ بطا ة هوية‬:‫) (أنا عربي‬2

Write down! ‫ىسجِّؿ‬

I am an Arab ‫أنا عربي‬

419
 You have stolen the orchards of my ancestors ‫سمبت كركـ أجدادم‬
And the land which I cultivated ‫أرضا كنت أفمحيا‬
‫ك ن‬
Along with my children ‫أنا كجميع أكالدم‬
And you left nothing for us ‫ كلكؿ أحفادم‬..‫كلـ تترؾ لنا‬
.. Except for these rocks‫سكل ىذم الصخكر‬
So will the State take them ‫فيؿ ستأخذىا‬
As it has been said?! ‫ كما قيال !؟‬..‫حككمتكـ‬
Therefore! !‫إذف‬
Write down on the top of the first page ‫ برأس الصفحة األكلى‬..‫سجؿ‬
I do not hate people ‫أنا ال أكره الناس‬
Nor do I encroach ‫كال أسطك عمى أحد‬
But if I become hungry ‫جعت‬‫ي‬ ‫ إذا ما‬..‫كلكني‬
The usurper's flesh will be my food ‫آك يؿ لحـ مغتصبي‬
Beware ... ‫حذار‬
Beware ... ‫حذار‬
Of my hunger ‫مف جكعي‬
!! And my anger!‫كمف غضبي‬

The translator has made some efforts to translate the stanza as accurately as possible,
making no elaborate attempt to produce sound features like rhyme, rhythm, meter or
foot. He did well at the level of meaning and use of English Language properly and
appropriately. Further one exception of achieving rhyme is the last pair of lines which
have a perfect closing rhyme between ‘hunger’ and ‘anger’. Yet, a more poetic translation
can be suggested below:

(Poetic Translation)
Write down! ‫ىسجِّؿ‬
I am an Arab ‫أنا عربي‬
The grapevines of my ancestors you usurped ‫سمبت كركـ أجدادم‬
And a land I once cultivated ‫أرضا كنت أفمحيا‬
‫ك ن‬
Along with my children ‫أنا كجميع أكالدم‬
And you left nothing for us since then ‫ كلكؿ أحفادم‬..‫كلـ تترؾ لنا‬
.. Save these rocky stones‫سكل ىذم الصخكر‬
So will your government take them over ‫فيؿ ستأخذىا‬
As it has been said ever?! ‫ كما قيال !؟‬..‫حككمتكـ‬
Therefore! !‫إذان‬
Write down on the top of your first sheet ‫ برأس الصفحة األكلى‬..‫سجؿ‬
People I do not hate ‫أنا ال أكره الناس‬
420
 Nor do I encroach on anybody’s right ‫كال أسطك عمى أحد‬
But if one day I catch hunger ‫جعت‬
‫ي‬ ‫ إذا ما‬...‫كلكني‬
My food will be the flesh of my usurper ‫آك يؿ لحـ مغتصبي‬
Beware, usurper, ..‫حذار‬
Beware of my hunger! ‫ مف جكعي!!؟‬..‫حذار‬
And of my anger! ‫كمف غضبي !!؟‬

Rhyme is sensed comfortably in this translation. Every two or three lines rhyme, or half-
rhyme with one another to meet a crucial prerequisite for a translation to sound poetic.
The same criteria used in the previous example, especially the exploitation of synonymy
and disruption of normal word order, are applied here. That is, ‘sheet’ replaces ‘page’,
‘catch’ is preferred to ‘get/become’ to collocate with the noun ‘hunger’ which achieves
rhyme (whereas the latter collocates with the adjective ‘hungry’ which does not match the
required rhyme). On the other hand, word order is disrupted to get the intended rhyme in
‘People I do not hate’ (which is normally ‘I do not hate people’, but it does not rhyme with
the previous or following lines), and in ‘But if one day I catch hunger’ which is normally
‘But if I catch hunger one day’ which does not rhyme with ‘usurper. Further, the word
‘usurper’ after ‘beware’ to achieve rhyme as much as more emphasis and expressivity.

‫ماذا فعمت بناسؾ متعبد‬ ‫) قؿ لممميحة في الخمار األسكد‬3

‫حتى كقفت لو بباب المسجد‬ ‫قد كاف شمر لمصالة ثيابو‬
‫متكسال متضرعا لممنجد‬ ‫يا داعيا هلل مرفكع اليد‬
‫قؿ لممميحة في الخمار األسكد‬ ‫يا طالبا منو الشفاعة في غد‬
‫كتركتو في حيرة ال ييتدم‬ ‫فسمبت منو دينو كيقينو‬
‫ال تقتميو بحؽ ديف محمد‬ ‫ردم عميو صالتو كصيامو‬
)‫؟؟‬2000 :‫ األبشييي‬:‫(الدارمي‬

(Tell the beauty in the black veil

What have you done to the pious worshipper?
He was rolling up his sleeves, getting ready for his prayers
When you stopped him at the door of the mosque
O you who call God with upraised hands
Beseeching and begging for aid
If you seek his intercession tomorrow (on the Day of Judgement)
Tell the beauty in the black veil
For she has stolen from him his religion and certainty
and left him bewildered, without guidance
His prayers and fasts will return to you
Don’t kill him for the sake of the religion of Muhammad

The translator of this poem is faithful to the SL text and accuracy of rendering literal sense
in a satisfactory way (with one exception of three mistakes in translating ‫حتػى كقفػت لػو ببػاب‬
ً ‫ فسػ‬and ‫( ردم عميػػو صػػالتو كصػػيامو‬see below for
‫المسػػجد‬, the pronoun reference of ‫ػمبت منػػو‬
421
corrections)). His focus is entirely on meaning using even a paraphrase (e.g. the Day of
Judgment), which is a translation procedure used in non-poetic texts. This means the
paramountcy of full sense on the part of the translator, to the negligence of prosodic
features of poetry. We read a good English translation of the classical Arabic poem, but a
poor translation in aesthetic, prosodic and poetic terms. Here is an attempt to produce
poetic a version:

(Poetic Translation)

Tell the belle in the black cover

What have you done to the pious worshipper?

He was rolling up his sleeves for prayer

When you turned up to him at the mosque’s door

Ye, who call upon God with raised hands

Beseeching and pleading for His aids

If you seek His intercession in the Hereafter,

Tell the belle in the black cover.

You stole from him his faith and confidence,

And left him dumbfounded with no guidance.

Give him back his prayers and fast

By Mohammad’s religion kill him not.

The English translation is now injected with poetic spirit by means of rhyme between
every two lines and occasional alliteration and rhythm (e.g. ‘tell the belle’, etc.). Againt
the game of synonyms is put to use here to achieve rhyme (e.g. ‘confidence’ is less
accurate that ‘certainty/certitude’, but rhymes perfectly with ‘guidance’, etc.). Also, the
device of backgrounding is invested to the full in the last line to get rhyme (c.f. kill him not
by Mohammad’s religion). Further, the mistakes of the first translation are corrected
here.

‫من مذابح طروادتهم إلى مذابح شآمنا‬ )4

‫كمذابح انغريؽ في طركادة عندنا‬
ً ‫ىا قد مضى ألؼ كألفاف عمى‬
‫ألفيتنا‬
‫عمى يد الكحش الجباف المستبد بشامنا‬
‫كجنكده األنذاؿ مف فئراننا‬
‫الجثث في حمصنا‬
ٍ ‫سحمكا‬
‫و‬
‫عمرك دشنكا ذباحنا‬ ‫في باب‬
‫كتناثرت في الحكلة أشالؤنا‬
‫بدـ أطفالنا‬
ٍ ‫كتضرجت درعا‬

422
 ‫يمسو الغضب بحماتنا‬ٍ ‫كمجازر تٍر‬
‫كجرت أزقتنا كسالت كاديان بدمائنا‬
‫كجنكد إبميس امتطكا دبابة داسكا بيا أجسادنا‬
‫حفركا الحفر ردمكا بيا أحياءنا‬
‫الكلد كأكغمكا في ذبحنا‬ٍ ‫ذلكا الشيكخ كالنساء ك‬
‫حمب في ريفنا في ىك ٍف ًرنا في ديرنا‬
‫إدلب في ى‬‫في ى‬
‫الغكطة كدارىيا في كؿ كؿ شامنا‬ ً ‫في دكم ىة ك‬
‫إنيادة العصر تحؿ بدارنا‬
‫ أنجاسنا‬،‫ ذباحنا‬،‫الكحش‬
ٍ ‫بيت‬
‫كعمى يديو تمطخكا بدمائنا‬
‫مثمكا برفاتنا‬...‫فعمكا المجازر‬
‫نحركا الحرائر كالرضيع بحينا‬
‫تاريخ إجراـ فريد و‬
‫أسكد متخضب بدمائنا‬
.‫يا خزم آؿ الكحش يا مف سطركا بدمائنا أمجادنا‬
‫عيدان عمينا قد قطعنا لربنا‬
‫عشت بعد اليكـ يا ىذٌباحنا‬
‫ى‬ ‫ما‬

Amidst the manslaughters, atrocities and massacres of the brutal and despotic Syrian
Assad regime and forces over the past five years 211-2016) of the New Millennium, this
epic poem, The Aeneid, which marks the fall of Troy a long time ago in Ancient Rome, has
inspired me with similar scenes of slaughters recalled by this stanza. So, I suggest the
following version of translation. The meter is also The Perfect )‫ (الكامػؿ‬to symbolize the
Perfect Crime committed unprecedentedly by the harrowing Assad and his howling beasts
who uprooted the well-established fact that 'perfect crime does not exist'. They prove to
exist in the terrible sense of the term:

(Poetical Translation)

(From the Trojan massacres to ours in Syria) ‫من مذابح طروادتهم إلى مذابح شآمنا‬

The Greek massacres are back in our country ‫كمذابح انغريؽ في طركادة عندنا‬
ً ‫ىا قد مضى ألؼ كألفاف عمى‬
Long, long time of over three thousand years passed away ‫ألفيتنا‬
At the hands of the coward beast, Assad ‫عمى يد الكحش الجباف المستبد بشامنا‬
And his despicable soldiers of our meanest ‫كجنكده األنذاؿ مف فئراننا‬
they dragged the corpses in our Homs ‫الجثث في حمصنا‬ ٍ ‫سحمكا‬
‫و‬
At Bab Amr quarter they inaugurated our butcher ‫عمرك دشنكا ذباحنا‬ ‫في باب‬
423
 And in Al-Houla Town our corpses scattered here and there ‫كتناثرت في الحكلة أشالؤنا‬
And Dar’aa is stained with the blood of our children ‫بدـ أطفالنا‬
ٍ ‫كتضرجت درعا‬
And the massacres of angry Tremsah town of our city of Hamah ‫يمسو الغضب بحماتنا‬ ٍ ‫كمجازر تٍر‬
and our alleys turned out to valleys of our blood ‫كجرت أزقتنا كسالت كاديان بدمائنا‬
and the Satan’s soldiers smashed down us with tanks ‫كجنكد إبميس امتطكا دبابة داسكا بيا أجسادنا‬
They dug ditches and buried our quarters ‫حفركا الحفر ردمكا بيا أحياءنا‬
they humiliated the old, women and children and went ‫الكلد كأكغمكا في ذبحنا‬ ٍ ‫ذلكا الشيكخ كالنساء ك‬
deep in slaughtering us
In Idleb, in Aleppo, in the countryside, in Kafr Zeitah, ‫حمب في ريفنا في ىك ٍف ًرنا في ديرنا‬
‫إدلب في ى‬
‫في ى‬
in Deir Ezzour
In Dumah, in Al-Ghoutah, in Darayyah, everywhere in our ‫الغكطة كدارىيا في كؿ كؿ شامنا‬ ً ‫في دكمةى ك‬
Syria
The Trojan Aeneid of our age is befalling in our homeland ‫إنيادة العصر تحؿ بدارنا‬
The Beast’s family members, our butcher, are the meanest ‫ أنجاسنا‬،‫ ذباحنا‬،‫الكحش‬
ٍ ‫بيت‬
On his hands, they were stained with our bloods ‫كعمى يديو تمطخكا بدمائنا‬
They committed the massacres against us and maimed our corpses ‫مثمكا برفاتنا‬...‫فعمكا المجازر‬
They slew our ladies and babies in our neighbourhood ‫نحركا الحرائر كالرضيع بحينا‬
‫تاريخ إجراـ فريد و‬
A history of black, unprecedented killing tinted by our blood ‫أسكد متخضب بدمائنا‬
Shame on you, Beast’s family, who drew a marked .‫يا خزم آؿ الكحش يا مف سطركا بدمائنا أمجادنا‬
line of glory by our blood
Here is our pledge before our Lord: ‫عيدان عمينا قد قطعنا لربنا‬
Our slaughterer, you will never survive any longer ‫عشت بعد اليكـ يا ىذٌباحنا‬
‫ى‬ ‫ما‬

This is an association of ideas on the writer’s part triggered by the slaughter of thousands
of people at ancient Greek City of Troy over the Trojan War in 13the Century B.C.,
represented dramatically in The Aeneid. Over Three thousand four hundred years later, in
2011-2012, similar slaughters took place in Syria, perhaps the oldest Country in the world,
at the hands of a ruthless dictator, Bashar Assad, his bloody militias, the Iranian, Iraqi,
Lebanese, Afghan and other Shiite Militias, and last but not least, the bloody Russians: the
very idea of slaughtering people and their bodies in the streets has been a common scene
all over the five years of Syrian People’s revolution against the brutal regime of Assad.

This English version of translation is almost a replica of the literal meaning of the original
Arabic in the most accurate way possible. Prosodic considerations are sacrificed on the
way to achieving full sense. There might be a point here as the whole poem is about
massacres and brutal killings and atrocities that may need no rhyme, rhythm or any
aesthetic feature for it would mar the atmosphere of horror and miseries bewildering
everybody there in Syria in particular, and shocking hundreds of millions worldwide.
Absolutely, but, for readers to be whetted to read the poem and know its horrible
contents and implications, rhyme and a minimum use of rhythm at least might be
necessary to make the translation read somewhat poetic, as suggested below:

424
(Poetic Translation)

(From the Trojan massacres to ours in Syria) ‫من مذابح طروادتهم إلى مذابح شآمنا‬

The Greek massacres are back in our homeland ‫كمذابح انغريؽ في طركادة عندنا‬
ً ‫ىا قد مضى ألؼ كألفاف عمى‬
A long, long time of four thousand elapsed ‫ألفيتنا‬
At the hands of the coward beast, Assad ‫عمى يد الكحش الجباف المستبد بشامنا‬
His despicable soldiers the worst of the bad ‫كجنكده األنذاؿ مف فئراننا‬

They dragged the corpses in the city of Homs of ours ‫الجثث في حمصنا‬
ٍ ‫سحمكا‬
‫و‬
At Bab Amr quarter they inaugurated our butcher ‫عمرك دشنكا ذباحنا‬ ‫في باب‬
In Al-Houla town, our corpses here and there scatter ‫كتناثرت في الحكلة أشالؤنا‬
Dar’aa with the blood of our lovely kids assumed her colour ‫بدـ أطفالنا‬
ٍ ‫كتضرجت درعا‬

The massacres of angry Tremsah of Hamah city of tragedies ‫يمسو الغضب بحماتنا‬ ٍ ‫كمجازر تٍر‬
Our alleys turned out to blood valleys ‫كجرت أزقتنا كسالت كادي نا بدمائنا‬
Satan’s soldiers ran with tanks over our bodies ‫كجنكد إبميس امتطكا دبابة داسكا بيا أجسادنا‬
and to bury our quarters, they dug ditches ‫حفركا الحفر ردمكا بيا أحياءنا‬
They humiliated the old, women and children and ‫الكلد كأكغمكا في ذبحنا‬ٍ ‫ذلكا الشيكخ كالنساء ك‬
went deep in slaughtering us
In Idleb, in Aleppo, in our countryside, in Kaf ‫حمب في ريفنا في ىك ٍف ًرنا في ديرنا‬
‫إدلب في ى‬‫في ى‬
Zeitah, in Deir Ezzour, alas!
In Dumah, in Ghoutah, in Darayyah, all Syria, our ‫الغكطة كدارىيا في كؿ كؿ شامنا‬ ً ‫في دكم ىة ك‬
House.
The Trojan Aeneid of our age in our homeland takes place ‫إنيادة العصر تحؿ بدارنا‬

The beast’s family members, our butcher, are the most base ‫ أنجاسنا‬،‫ ذباحنا‬،‫الكحش‬
ٍ ‫بيت‬
On his hands, they were stained with our bloods ‫كعمى يديو تمطخكا بدمائنا‬
They committed massacres against us and maimed our corpses ‫مثمكا برفاتنا‬...‫فعمكا المجازر‬
They slew our ladies and babies in our neighbourhoods ‫نحركا الحرائر كالرضيع بحينا‬

‫تاريخ إجراـ فريد و‬

A history of black, unmatched killing tinted by our blood ‫أسكد متخضب بدمائنا‬
Shame on you, Beast’s family, who drew a .‫يا خزم آؿ الكحش يا مف سطركا بدمائنا أمجادنا‬
marked line of our glory by our blood
Here is our pledge before our Lord: ‫عيدان عمينا قد قطعنا لربنا‬
Our slaughterer, you will never survive any longer, fiend! ‫عشت بعد اليكـ يا ىذٌباحنا‬
‫ى‬ ‫ما‬

425
In this rather poetic version, a four-line stanzaic rhyme is tried, however, arduously to
achieve some scent of poetic language. This is done on the basis of three main strategies
of exploiting synonymy (e.g. ‘elapsed’ instead of ‘passed away’, etc.), disruption of word
order (‘and to bury our quarters, they dug ditches’ rather than the normal: ‘and they dug
ditches to bury our corpses’, etc.) and addition of an extra word by implication
exceptionally when necessary (e.g. /s/ in ‘bloods’; ‘alas’, ‘fiend’) to achieve rhyme. It has
to be admitted that, while the second translation is close to a poem, the first is better at
the level of expressivity of Assad’s massacres and genocides.

‫) أال ليت ريعان الشباب جديد‬5

‫كدى انر تكلى يا بثيف يعكد‬ ‫أال ليت ريعاف الشباب جديد‬

‫قريب كاذ ما تبذليف زىيد‬ ‫فنبقى كما كنا نككف كأنتـ‬

‫بكادم القرل إني إذان لسعيد‬ ‫أال ليت شعرم ىؿ أبيتف ليمة‬

‫تجكد لنا مف كردنا كنجكد‬ ‫كىؿ ألقيف فردان بثينة مرة‬

‫إلى اليكـ ينمى حبيا كيزيد‬ ‫عمقت اليكل فييا كليدان فمـ يزؿ‬

‫كأبميت فييا الدىر كىك جديد‬ ‫كأفنيت عمرم بانتظارم كعدىا‬

‫كال حبيا فيما يبيد يبيد‬ ‫فال أنا مردكد بما جئت طالبا‬

)‫(جميؿ بثينة‬

These lines are love poetry )‫ (شعر الغزؿ‬for a well-known classic poet, Jamil Buthaynah ‫(جميؿ‬
)‫ بثينة‬courting his sweetheart, Buthaynah. They are unique lines of verse about unique love
described as ‫( الحب العذرم‬chaste love), which is only spiritual. The poem is one of the
classics of Arabic classical poetry. Here is a non-poetic translation of the lines first:

(Poetical Translation)
Would that the prime of youth come back
And restore to us, Buthaynah, the past!
And we remain as we were and you are
Near us and what you give is so little!
Would it be that I stay for a whole night
At Al-Qira Valley and I will be so happy.
Shall I ever meet Buthayna alone again,
Each of us is full of love of one another
I loved her and I was so young and still.
Until today my love is growing yet greater
I have spent my life waiting for her to meet her promise
And I wasted all my life and I am still young;
426
 I am neither denied of my proposal
Nor my love to her is dying with dying things!

This is a full literal translation of the direct meaning of these lines. However, it is spiritless,
unliterary and, hence, non-poetic. Poetic language cannot be ordinary, non-prosodic, non-
rhetorical, blind to cultural and connotative implications and inconsiderate of stylistic-
semantic and stylistic-syntactic intricacies and elaborations. At least, partial rhyme and
rhythm are recommended to be achieved to describe a translation as poetic, or semi-
poetic. I would argue that this is fairly good as a precondition for the translation of Arabic
poetry into English. Perhaps a fully poetic translation is an ideal poetic translation that is
aimed at as an ultimate objective for good translators, as the following poetic version may
demonstrate:

(Poetic Translation)
"Oh, might it flower anew, that youthful prime
And restore to us, Buthayna, the bygone time!
And might we again be blest as wont to be
When the folk were nigh and grudged what thou gavest me!
Shall I ever meet Buthayna alone again,
Each of us full of love as a cloud of rain?
Fast in her net was I when a lad, and till
This day my love is growing and waxing still.
I have spent my lifetime, waiting for her to speak
But the bloom of youth is faded from off my cheek;
But I will not suffer that she my suit deny
My love remains undying though all things die!"
(Translated by Nicholson, in Khulusi, 2000: 26)

Nicholson's translation meets the conditions of poeticity in English poetry. Rhyme is

perfectly regular, rhythmical feet, and several other prosodic, literary and figurative
features, as illustrated below:

(1) Perfect rhyme of the following pattern: a-a / b-b / c-c / d-d / e-e / f-f.
(2) Foot rhythm and rhythmical language, employed on a large scale in the
translation.
(3) Alliterative patterning: consonance (e.g. be blest; faded from, etc.).
(4) Alliterative patterning: assonance (e.g. alone again, etc.)
(5) Figurative / cultural expressions (e.g. full of love as a cloud of rain; fast in her net;
flower anew; the bloom of youth is faded from off my cheek, etc.)
(6) Rhetorical combinations (e.g. youthful prime; the bygone time; the bloom of
youth, etc.).
(7) Rhetorical paradox (e.g. bloom … faded; undying … die, etc.).
(8) Syntactic elaboration: disruption of word order for prosodic reasons (e.g. Fast in
her net was I (c.f. I was fast in her net); she my suit deny (c.f. she deny my suit),
etc.
(9) Syntactic elaboration: grammatical deviation (e.g. when a lad (c.f. when I was a
lad); she my suit deny (c.f. she may deny my suit); as wont to be (c.f. as we want
to be), etc.
427
There are one or two shortcomings to be pointed out in Nicholson's translation. One is his
use of obsolete words like ('blest' (blessed), 'gavest' (gave) and 'wont' (want), but they are
not difficult to understand, though. Another disadvantage is the absence of the third line
of the stanza from the translation, perhaps due to its absence from the Arabic original
translated by Nicholson. However, it has been translated in the first non-poetic version
above.

(Description of Scenery and Spring) ‫) في وصف الطبيعة والربيع‬6

‫كمعنب ًر‬
‫ى‬ ‫كالماء بيف مصندؿ‬ ‫معصفىر كمجسد‬
ٍ ‫الغيـ بيف‬
ً ‫مدرىىـ كمدن‬
‫َّر‬ ‫كالكرد بيف ى‬ ‫كالركض بيف مدممج كمتكج‬
ً
‫أحمر‬ ‫و‬
‫أبيض في‬ ‫و‬
‫أصفر في‬ ‫في‬ ‫و‬
‫أخضر‬ ‫كاألرض قد برزت لنا في‬
‫خب ًر‬ ‫لتركقنا ببدائ وع كطر و‬
‫الم ى‬
‫في حسف منظرىا كطيب ى‬ ‫ائؼ‬
‫الخمؽ بيف المحشر‬
‫ككذاؾ يحيي ى‬ ‫سبحاف محيي األرض بعد مماتيا‬
)228 :2009 :‫ الشكعة‬:‫(الثعالبي‬

Obviously, the layout of Arabic traditional poetry (i.e. Al-Qasidah) is different from that of
English poetry, old and modern. Therefore, the English translation has to conform to the
conventions of the latter. A poetic version is suggested first with perfect English rhyme
(i.e. a-a, b-b, c-c, etc.) (in Ghazala, 2010):

(Poetic Translation)
Clouds range between safflower and red in color;
Water ranges between sandalwood odor and amber;

Gardens are either bracelet-like or crowned;

Flowers are as bright as pennies or gold;

Land looked to us in green,

In yellow, white and red again;

To please us with splendors and wonders

Of its fascinating views and lovely odors;

Glorified is God Who revives earth after being dry,

And brings dead people back to life on Doomsday.
Ath-Tha'alibi, in Ghazala, 2010: 130)

Certainly, a good translation of poetry is required to meet the prerequisites of rhyme,

rhythm and meter in the first place, as perhaps is the case with this first version of poetic
translation into English. Yet, and due to difficulties of meeting these prerequisites by some
translators, a normal version that renders sense can be a second-best alternative to some
people:

428
(Poetical Translation)
Clouds range between safflower and red color;
Water ranges between sandalwood and amber scent;
Gardens are either bracelet-like or crowned;
Flowers are as brilliant as dinars or gold;
Land looked to us green,
Yellow, white and red;
To please us with splendors and wonders
Of its fascinating views and lovely smell;
God is Glorified Who revives earth after being dry,
And brings dead people back to life on the hereafter.

The key difference between this and the previous translation is in rhyme. That is, while
rhyme is regular in the first, it is not discernable in the second. Even the layout is one
stanza here, but it is in couplets in the first, conforming to good English poetry. More
attention has been given to literal sense, including cultural expressions like 'as brilliant as
dinars', which is SL-oriented, whereas in the poetic version it is TL-oriented (i.e. 'as bright
as a penny'). Hence, the first version is rather more fitting than the second here.

(Self-Eulogy) ‫) رثاء النفس‬7

‫كت‬
ٍ ‫ص يم‬
‫كجئنا بكعظ كنحف ي‬ ‫البيكت‬
ٍ ‫ىب يعدنا كاف جاكرتٍنا‬
‫القنكت‬
ٍ ‫كجير الصالة تالهي‬ ‫ك ٍأنفاسنا سكنت دفعةن‬
‫قكت‬
ٍ ‫قكت فيا نحف‬‫ككنا ىن ي‬ ‫ك يكنا عظامان فصرنا عظامان‬
‫السمكت‬
ٍ ‫فناحت عمينا‬
ٍ ‫ىغ يرٍبنا‬ ً
‫سماء العال‬ ‫شمكس‬ ‫ككنا‬
‫ى‬
‫خكت‬ ‫كذك البخت كـ ىج َّدلىتو ي‬
ٍ ‫الب‬ ‫فكـ ىج ٌدىلت ذا الحساـ الظٌبا‬
‫التخكت‬ ‫ككـ ًسيؽ لمقبر في خر و‬
ٍ ‫مئت مف يكساهي‬ٍ ‫فتى يم‬ ‫قة‬
‫يفكت‬
ٍ ‫ كمف ذا الذم ال‬،‫كفات‬ ‫ ذىب ابف الخطيب‬:‫فقؿ لمعدا‬
ٍ
‫يمكت‬
ٍ ‫اليكـ ىمف ال‬
‫يفرح ى‬ :‫فقؿ‬
ٍ ‫كمف كاف يفرح منيـ لو‬
)556 :2009 ،‫ الشكعة‬:‫(لسان الدين بن الخطيب‬

These lines are in self-lamentation by the Andalusite famous man of letters, Lisanud-Deen
Bin Al-Khateeb. He bewails himself before he dies, just as several Arab classic poets used
to do. Obviously, and like any other piece of classic poetry, the lexicon is really hard to
understand without consulting a good Arabic Language Dictionary to sort out the
meanings of words, especially those of Classical Arabic. Following is a poetical translation
aimed at rendering sense in the first place, irrespective of prosodic features, particularly
regular rhyme:

(Poetical Translation)

We went far away from home though living amidst houses

We came with preaching while we were silent and dumb.
Our breaths were hushed and suppressed all at once,
Like loud recitation prayer followed by silent supplication.
429
 We were great and now we have become bones,
We were food suppliers and now we are the food.
We were the suns of the highest heavens
When we set, all ways lamented us.
How often deer have brailed around sword holders!
And how often lucky men have been beaten by bad lucks!
How often youths have been driven to graves in a cloth
While their clothes bowls were full of garments to brim
So tell enemies: Ibn Al-Khateeb has gone away
And elapsed, and who of us will not pass away?
And who of them rejoice for his death, tell them:
"Those who today rejoice are those who never die!".
(Ibn Al-Khateeb, in Ghazala, 2010: 311)

No doubt, this version has retained all nuances of the literal sense of the original as
closely as possible. This means that sound, prosodic and aesthetic features are sacrificed.
A better, more poetic translation that attends more carefully to major sound features,
especially rhyme, can be suggested now:

(Poetic Translation)

We went far away from home though living amidst them

And came up with preaching while we were silent and calm.

Our breaths were all at once suppressed and hushed,

Like loud recitation prayer by innermost supplication followed.

We were celebrities and now we are bone,

We were feeders, but, alas! We are now fed on.

We were the suns of the highest sky

Only roofs do lament us when we die.

How often gazelles have brailed around sword holders!

And how often men of luck were beaten by bad luck strikers!

How often a youth has been in a rag to graves driven

While clothes bowls were full of his garments and linen!

So tell enemies: Ibnu l-Khatib has gone away

And departed, and who of us will not pass away?

And those of them who hail his death, tell them, "Nay!
The only one to rejoice today is the one who'll never die!".

Thus, the distinguishing factor of this version is its English regular rhyme of the familiar
form: a-a, b-b, c-c, etc. One or two syntactic elaborations and deviations have occurred
here. For example, the normal word order is disrupted now and then to achieve rhyme
430
(e.g. "has been in a rag to graves driven" (normally: "has been driven to graves in a rag),
etc.). Unlike the poetical version, which is laid out in one stanza, the layout of this version
is in couplets to be English poetry proper. On the other hand, the latter version has not
followed a specific English meter, but has great concern with achieving as regular rhyme
and rhythm as possible.

4.3 Conclusions: Translation Procedures, Strategies and Guidelines:

In fine, phonological features and effects are sometimes crucial to meaning and text as a
whole in translation, especially poetry and commercials, where sounds can be more
significant than sense, as a means of learning, persuasion, attraction and enjoyment. As
we have seen, they create a very difficult problem of translation. Nevertheless, they are
translatable, mostly partly than perfectly, in different ways and versions, as illustrated and
confirmed above. The students of translation are advised to take care of them at
translating certain types of text exemplified for earlier, trying hard to reflect at least some
of them in the English translation. When they fail to do so, they render meaning carefully
and accurately as the last resort. Nevertheless, the reflection of phonological features is
possible and achievable in the students and translators’ translations. To make this task
easier to handle, and to find good solutions to the reflection of Arabic sounds into English,
the following procedures are put forward as guidelines for the students and translators, by
way of concluding this chapter:

(1) Careful and close reading of the SL poem for several times to absorb meaning
properly by reading through the lines, and between the lines, before starting
translation. If lexical, stylistic or grammatical problems of translation arise, they
have to be resolved first, before going to the next step.
(2) Translating the Arabic poetic text into sense in English, first, ignoring sound
features completely.
(3) Assigning a good time for considering the main phonological features of the
original, especially rhyme and rhythm, as a general umbrella for common
prosodic features of alliteration, consonance, assonance, foot and meter in
particular.
(4) Concentrating on achieving a kind of rhyme, semi-rhyme or half rhyme, first, and
then rhythm of some kind by any, some or all means that follow hereafter.
Illustrative examples are sought for in the foregoing discussion.
(5) Investing any possible flexibility of English word order to a maximum in particular
to make any changes necessary for accomplishing a regular rhyme or a near
rhyme, and, then, rhythm of a sort, if possible, especially at translating into
English.
(6) Looking for the widest possible range of synonyms for key words, rhyme words
and rhythmical, isochronic feet of meter in particular, be near or close synonyms,
individual words, or long expressions equivalent to the original lexical items that
may achieve the intended sound patterns. Synonyms close to Standard English,
as much as very formal ones can be a potential stylistic choice, on the condition
that they derive from the type of text and context of the original.
(7) Employing the translation procedure of transposition, i.e. the changes of the
grammatical classes of words freely, using an adjective for a noun, an adverb for

431
 an adjective, a verb for a noun in English, etc. By doing this, considerable space is
made available to help realize some key sound features.
(8) Making use of 'poetic license' in full in regard to stylistic, lexical and grammatical
deviations, abbreviations and short forms of words.
(9) Adding extra words, or gap-fillers to fill in 'translation gaps', which are not readily
used in the original, but are derived from the context of the source text,
including implied words, syntactic structures sentence connectors and initial
words, whether obligatory, necessary or optional.
(10) Dropping unnecessary words, words implied in others, or understood directly
from context.
(11) Doing one's best to adopt a specific traditional meter in the translation of a
poem, especially in Arabic, and advisably in English, at least partly throughout.
(12) Finally, and most importantly, cognitive translators of poetry should be attentive
to the mental, ideological, attitudinal, cultural, social, religious and political
implications of stylistic choices at semantic / lexical, grammatical / syntactic and
sound / phonological levels of language, with special attendance to the first level,
i.e. words and expressions of all types and their implicated connotations and
associations. In principle, any stylistic choice represents a concept, or a mental
conceptualization of language of some kind, therefore, the process of selection
should be governed by this principle, with some sacrifices and concessions for
achieving key prosodic patterns of rhyme, rhythm, meter and foot in particular.
These patterns might take precedence over conceptualization and message,
however not essentially. Any sacrifice for sound features can be done when the
poem's readability is in jeopardy, due to lack of interest in an unrhymed, un-
rhythmical and, hence, unaesthetic, uninteresting and boring poem.

In fine, at handling poetic translation later on their professional career, students and
translators are recommended to keep an eye on the following crucial guidelines:

1. Translating poetry is a daunting task, but not impossible for good translators.
2. Achieving rhyme as perfectly as possible.
3. Creating as much rhythm as possible and by any possible means in the context of
the poem.
4. Playing as much as struggling with synonyms, near or close, to realize ‘2’ and ‘3’
above to a maximum degree possible.
5. Feeling free at changing the grammatical/stylistic structure, in regard to word
order (i.e. foregrounding, backgrounding and deviation from language norms)
and word classes (i.e. using nouns instead of adjectives, verbs instead of nouns,
plural for singular, etc.) in particular. This is done primarily to achieve rhyme and
rhythm, and better collocability among words (i.e. which word goes with which
word), mainly for aesthetic reasons, alongside precision of meaning whenever
possible.
6. Employing lexical and grammatical gaps (i.e. syntactic structures and words left
out of the poem but implied within).

432
4.4 SUMMARY

This Chapter has started with providing background knowledge about a number of key
sound patterns. They have included four major patterns; 'Onomatopoeia'; 'Rhyme'
(including alliteration, assonance, consonance and chiming); 'Meter'; and 'Rhythm' in both
Languages, English and Arabic. Then, the paramountcy of sound patterns and their effects
in contemporary translation of poetry is developed.

It has been argued throughout that translating poetry is an extremely difficult task,
especially from Arabic into English. Therefore, translators are advised to try it late in their
career after having built up wide experience in translation, especially literary translation. It
has also been argued that a good poetic translation is entirely based on prosodic and
sound features to be constructed with as much rhyme and rhythm as possible. The
general argument goes for a distinction between two major types of translating poetry: (a)
poetical translation that renders the SLT sense (i.e. literal and direct meaning) with no
concern with prosody or sounds; (b) poetic translation, based entirely on prosodic and
sound features, especially regular rhyme, rhythm and preferably meter and foot. It has
been suggested that the latter is claimed to have several sub-types, given in an ascending
order of excellence:

(1) Mainly rhythmical and partly rhymed;

(2) Perfect rhythmical feet and meter and occasional rhyme;
(3) Semi-poetic, involving perfect meter and rhythm with semi-rhyme;
(4) regular meter, rhyme and rhythm; and
(5) Perfect meter, rhyme and rhythm.

It has also been claimed that all these are acceptable poetic versions of translation of
poetry with variations, though. They are meant to demonstrate to translators of poetry
that they have a good range of variations to achieve a poetic translation of some kind.

Throughout, a comparison is drawn between poetical and poetic versions of translation of

the same verses in terms of poetic / non-poetic and literary / unliterary features, prosodic
or otherwise. The goal of such comparison is to make the points of departure between the
two versions sharper, and, hence, the argument for poetic translation more persuasive.

There has also been an exemplification in simple terms of how the process of constructing
poetic translation goes on in practice, giving a practical exercise for trainee translators and
students of translation in particular, and translators in general as how to proceed in steps
in the translation of poetry, and how to solve problems of prosodic features of rhyme,
rhythm, meter and foot in particular. The process is claimed to be applicable to translation
of poetry both ways, English-Arabic, and Arabic-English.

The Chapter has ended up with some procedures, strategies and guidelines for translating
poetry. They aim to help translators develop their skills of achieving a satisfactory version
of poetic translation gradually and systematically, and practice how to solve problems of
translating poetry.

433
EXERCISES

(1) Below are Arabic verses by a classical poet, translated by the English Orientalist,
Reynold Nicholson into English. Point out the poetic, prosodic and aesthetic
features of the translation. Does it meet the conditions of poetic translation?
How?

‫بصير بأدكاء النساء طبيب‬ ‫فإف تسألكني عف النساء فإنني‬

‫فميس لو مف كدىف نصيب‬ ‫إذا شاب رأس المرء أك قؿ مالو‬
‫كشرخ الشباب عندىف عجيب‬ ‫يردف ثراء الماؿ حيث عممنو‬
)26 :2000 ،‫ خمكصي‬:‫(عمقمة الفحؿ‬

Of women do you ask me? I can spy

Their ailments with a shrew physician's eye

The man whose head is grey or small his herds

No favor wins of them but mocking words

Are riches known, to riches they aspire

And youthful bloom is still their hearts' desire.

(2) The following verses are by the classical Arab poetess, Taibah Al-Bahiliah ‫(طيبةة‬
)‫الباهليةة‬, lamenting her dead husband. Check the difficult classical words and
figurative expressions and their translations into English. Do your best to
improve on the rhyme and rhythm of the following translation of the verses
into English, using the technique of synonymy:

‫حنيان عمى ىخ ٍي ًر ىما تىٍنمي لوي ال ٌش ىج ير‬ ‫صىني ىب ىان وة ىس ىمتا‬ ٍ ‫كغ‬‫ًعشنا جميعان ي‬
ً ‫اىما كاستيٍن‬
‫ض ىر الثٌ ىم ير‬ ً ٍ ‫ىحتٌى إذا ًقي ىؿ قى ٍد ىع ٌم‬
ٍ ‫ىكطىا ىؿ ق ٍنك ي ى‬ ‫كعييما‬ ‫ت في ير ي‬
‫ماف ىعمى شيء كال ىي ىذ ير‬ َّ ‫يي ٍب ًقي‬
‫الز ي‬ ‫الزماف كال‬ َّ ‫ب‬ ً
‫أخىنى عمى ىكاحدم ىرٍي ي‬ ٍ
‫ص ير‬ ‫ب حميدان عمى ما كاف مف ح و‬
‫الب ى‬ ‫الس ٍمعي ك ى‬
ٌ ‫ت‬ ‫ت فأ ٍىن ى‬
‫فىقى ٍد ىذ ٌى ٍب ى‬ ‫دث‬ ‫ى‬ ‫فا ٍ ى ٍ ى‬‫ى‬ ‫ذ‬
‫إالٌ كأنت الذم في القكـ تي ٍشتىيى ير‬ ‫يس ُّر بً ًي ٍـ‬
‫ؾ في قى ٍكوـ أ ى‬ ‫ىك ىما ىأرٍىيتي ى‬
‫القمر‬ ً ُّ ‫يجمك‬ ً
‫الدجى فيكل مف بيننا ي‬ ٍ ‫قمر‬
‫كأنجـ ليؿ بيننا ه‬ ‫كنا ي‬
،‫(الشكعة‬
)413 :2009

We've all lived as two Ben tree boughs that grew

Face to face in cordiality in the best way trees grow.

So it was said that their twigs spread over

And their bunches stretched out and fruits ripened.

Time hit my sole man hard, and alas!

434
 Time spares not, neither leaves alone!

Farewell, you go thankful for everything passed

You have gone and you are my eyes and heart.

I have never seen you amongst people I like

But you were singled out among the tribe.

We were like night stars amidst us was a moon

Lighting darkness, alas! Our moon fell down.
(Translated by Ghazala, 2010: 227)

(3) Translate the next poem into English twice: first, poetical translation; then
poetic translation:
‫إلى الجيؿ في بعض األحاييف أحك يج‬
‫يخرج‬
‫كلكنني أرضى بو حيف أ ى‬
‫كمف شاء تعكيجي فإني يم ىع َّكج‬
‫كلكنني أرضى بو حيف أيخرج‬
‫فقد صدقكا كالذؿ بالحر أسمج‬
:‫قاؿ عمي بف طالب رضي اهلل عنو‬
ً ‫لئف كنت محتاجان إلى‬
‫الحمـ إنني‬
‫كما كنت أرضى الجيؿ ًخدنان كصاحبان‬
‫فمف شاء تقكيمي فإني مقى َّكـ‬
‫كبالجيؿ ال أرضى كال ىك شيمتي‬
‫فإف قاؿ بعض الناس فيو سماجة‬
)1(

)37 :2009 ،‫(بديكم كآخركف‬ )‫ القبح‬:‫)(السماجة‬1(

(4) Translate the following stanza of modern poetry into English focusing on
rendering sense with as many sound features as you can (i.e. poetical
translation):
‫ إني حزيف‬،‫يا صاحبي‬
‫ كلـ ينر كجيي ا لصباح‬،‫ فما ابتسمت‬،‫طمع الصباح‬
‫كخرجت مف جكؼ المدينة أطمب الرزؽ المتاح‬
‫كغمست في ماء القناعة خبز ايامي الكفاؼ‬
‫قركش‬
ٍ ‫كرجعت بعد الظير في جيبي‬
‫فشربت شايان في الطريؽ‬
‫كرتقت نعمي‬
‫كلعبت بالنرد المكزع بيف كفي كالصديؽ‬
‫قؿ ساعة اك ساعتيف‬
‫قؿ عشرة اكعشرتيف‬
‫كضحكت مف اسطكرة حمقاء رددىا الصديؽ‬
)‫(صالح عبد لصبكر‬ ‫كدمكع شحاذ صفيؽ‬

(5) The next stanzas (from a prosaic poem by Mahmoud Darwish entitled: ‫محمـد الـدرة‬
(Mohammed Al Durrah)) are translated into English by Hunter.com. The

435
 translator’s concern is with rendering sense without attending to sound
features of any kind, as the Arabic original does. Reconsider the translation and
produce some kind of rhyme. Employ the guidelines given earlier to help you do
that. The first stanza is done for you:

Mohammad, ،‫محمد‬
Nestles in the bosom of his father, a bird afraid ‫ٌعشعش فً حضن والده طابرا خابفا‬
Of the infernal sky: father protect me ً‫ احمنً ٌا أب‬:‫من جحٌم السماء‬
From the upward flight! My wing is ً‫من الطٌران إلى فو ! إن جناح‬
Slight for the wind … and the light is black ‫ والضوء أسود‬... ٌ‫صؽٌر على الر‬
Mohammad, ،‫محمد‬
Wants to return home, with no ‫ من‬،‫ٌرٌد الرجوع إلى البٌت‬
Bicycle ... or new shirt ‫ أو قمٌا جدٌد‬... ‫دون دراجة‬
Yearns for the school bench … … ً‫ٌرٌد الذهاب إلى المقعد المدرس‬
The notebook of grammar and conjugation, take me ً‫ خذن‬:‫إلى دفتر الصرؾ والنحو‬
To our home, father, to prepare for my lessons ً‫ كً أع ّد دروس‬،ً‫ ٌا أب‬،‫إلى بٌتنا‬
To continue being, little by little … … ‫وأكمل عمري روٌدا روٌردا‬
On the seashore, under the palms …‫ تحت النخٌل‬،‫على شاطا البحر‬
And nothing further, nothing further ‫ ال شًء أبعد‬،‫وال شًء أبعد‬
Mohammad, ،‫محمد‬
Faces an army, with no stone or shrapnel ‫ بال حجر أو شظاٌا‬،‫ٌواجه جٌشا‬
Of stars, does not notice the wall to write: :‫ لم ٌنتبه للجدار لٌكتب‬،‫كواكب‬
“My freedom will not die”, "‫"حرٌتً لن تموت‬
For he has no freedom yet ‫فلٌست له حرٌة بعد‬
To defend. … .... .‫لٌدافع عنها‬
(From PoemHunter.com)

Mohammad,
Nestles in the bosom of his father, a bird afraid
Of the infernal sky: father, protect me I need your aid
From the upward flight! My wing is laid
Slight for the wind … and the light is black indeed
،‫محمد‬
‫ٌعشعش فً حضن والده طابرا خابفا‬
ً‫ احمنً ٌا أب‬:‫من جحٌم السماء‬
ً‫من الطٌران إلى فو ! إن جناح‬

(6) Translate the following lines into English, bearing in mind reproducing rhyme
and rhythm features as much as you can:

ً‫فانساب دمعً واستكان لسان‬ ً‫ندم وحرن هر كل كٌان‬

ً‫والعمر ٌمضً والحٌاة ثوان‬ ‫النفس حٌرى والذنوب كثٌرة‬

ً‫كادت تمٌت الحس فً وجدان‬ ً‫ٌا نفس كفً عن معاصٌ الت‬

)‫(اإلمام الشافعً رحمه هللا‬

436
 CHAPTER 5

PRAGMATIC PROBLEMS
5.0 Introduction

This final Chapter of this Textbook is concerned with the type of translation that goes
beyond the direct meaning of words on the line to the meaning beyond the lines.
According to it, we do not translate the words on the line; we translate between the lines;
not the overt meaning, but the covert, hidden meaning beyond the words (the so-called
‘sub-text’ ‫( النص الباطني‬see also Newmark, 1988: 77)). More specifically, according to this
method of translation, we translate the INTENTION behind saying or writing something.
This is based on the idea of text not “… as a static specimen of language …, but essentially
as the verbalized expression of the author’s intention as understood by the translator as
reader, who then recreates this whole for another readership in another culture (in Baker,
1992: 217). Accordingly, "‫( ”شكرا‬thank you) can mean by implication ‫ أمسؾ‬/ ‫ مع السالمة‬/ ‫(ىدكء‬
)‫‘(لسانؾ‬quiet, please’ / ‘leave / get out’ / ‘hold your tongue’. In the same way, ‫"الساعة اآلف ىي‬
"‫( التاسعة‬it’s nine O’clock) might mean by intention / ‫انتيى الكقت‬/‫ انتيت الحصة‬/ ‫(حاف كقت المغادرة‬
)‫ بدأ االجتماع لمتك‬/ ‫( ‘نشرة األخبار الرئيسية‬it is time to leave’, ‘time is up’, ‘the main news bulletin’,
‘the meeting has just kicked off’). This method of translation is called pragmatic
translation.

5.1 Pragmatics: Pragmatic Translation

Broadly, PRAGMATICS is the study of language in use. Its concern is not the linguistic
meaning as generated by the linguistic system of a language, but the meaning
manipulated by participants (speaker / hearer; addresser / addressee) in communicative
situations (see Baker, 1992 & 2011; Munday, 2016; Wales, 1989; Leech, 1982, and others).
They add that the use of language is governed by a wide range of contextual factors,
including social and physical circumstances, identities, attitudes, abilities and beliefs of
participants; and relations holding between participants" (ibid.). In the same way, Crystal
says that, in the field of linguistics, pragmatics "has come to be applied to the study of
language from the point of view of the user … and the effect his use of language has on
the other participants in an act of communication" (1980: 278).

More recently, and with the involvement and development of pragmatic studies and
stylistics, Jeffries and McIntyre narrow down the scope of pragmatics and define it more
specifically as "the study of how context affects meaning" (2010: 101). Accordingly,
pragmatics is concerned with contextual – not textual – meaning and the importance of
taking into account contextual factors and implicatures (presupposed implications and
meanings of words rather than their literal, direct meanings (Grice 1975)) that may be
generated. As also Baker (2011: 223), defines it as “what the speaker means or implies
rather than what s/he says’ (in Munday, 2016: 154). This definition brings us closer to the
type of pragmatic meaning we look for in translation.

437
Pragmatics can be better understood in practice as the study of the INTENTIONS / ‫(مقاصد‬
)‫ نكايا‬of the speaker behind his / her words. Hence, in translation, pragmatic meaning is in
other words the translation of these intentions which are only contextual and lie beyond
the literal meaning of the words of the speaker. So, pragmatic translation is the
translation of intentions in the first place. For example, in a bed-and-breakfast Guesthouse
in England, a Muslim would say to the patron who brought him a traditional English
breakfast which mainly consists of fried eggs, peas, chips and fried bacon:

Sorry, I don’t have bacon with my breakfast!

Which can pragmatically mean: "I am a Muslim, and Muslims do not eat pork meat" ‫(أنا‬
)‫ كالمسممكف ال يأكمكف لحـ الخنزير‬،‫مسمـ‬. He could have said this explicitly, but he opted for
expressing it pragmatically perhaps to avoid some kind of embarrassment on his part and
for the patron. On the other hand, 'pragmatic implicature' involves aspects of meaning
that go beyond the literal meaning of an utterance and whose interpretations are based
on the speaker's assumption of the Co-operative Principles and its five maxims: QUANTITY
(the utterance should provide just the information required); (2) QUALITY (that the
utterance should be what one believes is true); (3) RELEVANCE (what one says what
should be relevant to the current discourse); and (4) MANNER (speakers should be clear;
and (5) POLITENESS (one should always be polite and considerate) (see Grice, 1975, Rojo,
2009: 203-4; Baker, 1992, and others).

Hence, implicature is the kind of contextual, implied, conventional and presupposed

meaning of words in combination, that enables language users to understand statements
/ utterances )‫ (أقكاؿ‬like the following:

"‫ ستنطمؽ الحافمة غدان صباحان إلى المدينة المنكرة‬.‫"عمينا أف نطكؼ طكاؼ الكداع‬

(We must do the Farewell Circumambulation tonight. The bus is leaving for Al-Madinah Al-
Munawwarah tomorrow morning)

At first sight, the relationship between the two statements is not clear. However, on the
basis of the notion of implicature, we, Muslims and Arabs, can relate them strongly and
comfortably to one another by implication as follows: The speaker is performing the
worship of Hajj, or Omrah at Makkah Al-Mukarramah, of Saudi Arabia. He will leave
Makkah for Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah the following day to pray in the Prophet's
Mosque and salute the Prophet there; therefore, he has to go around the House of God,
Ka'ba, seven times for the last time at night just before his departure of Makkah, as all
pilgrims do (what is termed as 'the Farewell Tawaf' ‫(طكاؼ الكداع‬. Hence, relying on our
presupposed cognitive background religious knowledge, we can relate the seemingly
incoherent breakdown between the two propositions on the basis of implicature, which
takes us back to coherence that is achieved only contextually through pragmatic
implicature (see also Rojo: 2009: 303-4).

Now to the discussion of examples of pragmatic translation of different types of texts:

438
5.2 Types of Pragmatic Translation

5.2.1 Optional Pragmatic Translation

There are many statements and expressions that potentially have two possible versions of
translation, one is direct, another pragmatic. The choice of either by the translator
depends heavily on the occasion and purpose of his/her translation. Hence, the
translator’s discretion can be the decisive factor on judging the occasion and purpose of
the target translation. Here are miscellaneous examples to translate and discuss:

))‫) ال أريد الذىاب‬2( ‫) أنا تعباف؛‬1(( :‫) أنا تعباف كال أستطيع مرافقتكـ‬1
(1) I am tired and I can’t accompany you; (2) I don’t want to go with you

))‫) تستاىؿ ىذا العقاب‬2( ‫) الذنب ذنبؾ؛‬1( (:‫) يداؾ أككتا كفكؾ نفخ‬2
(1) It is your fault; (2) you deserve punishment!

))‫) طمبكـ يد البنت مرفكض‬2( ‫) البنت ليست جاىزة لمزكاج؛‬1( ( :‫) البنت سكؼ تكمؿ دراستيا‬3

(1) Our daughter is not ready to get married yet; (2) We reject to marry you our
daughter

))‫ منافؽ‬/‫) عديـ النفع‬2( ‫) ال إلى ىؤالء كال إلى ىؤالء؛‬1( ( :‫) إنو ال في العير كال في النفير‬4

(1) He is not with either party; (2) he is a coward and a hypocrite.

))‫التممص مف إعالف مكقؼ كاضح‬/‫النفاؽ‬/‫) المصمحة الشخصية‬2( ‫) الحياد؛‬1( ( :‫) سياسة النأم بالنفس‬5
(1) Self-detachment policy / impartiality; (2) self-interest / hypocrisy / dodging from
being transparent

(1) There is no deity but God! (2) O, ‫) التعبير عف السخط‬2( ‫) التكحيد؛‬1( ( !‫) ال إلو إال اهلل‬6
dear! / Dear me! / O, my God! / For God sake!

(1) God is the Greatest; (2) Here we are ))‫) االستغراب كالدىشة‬2( ‫) التكبير؛‬1( ( !‫اهلل أكبر‬ )7
coming! Wonderful ! / (how) great! / I don't believe it! / Unbelievable! It is God's
Grace.
(1) God, forgive me! (2) God, ))‫) الغضب كنفاد الصبر كانلحاح‬2( ‫) االستغفار؛‬1( ( !‫أستغفر اهلل‬ )8
help me suppress my anger! / Haven’t you finished? / I'll keep it cool!
(1) I believe in God! (2) Don't you ))‫) التكبيخ كضيؽ الصدر‬2( ‫) انيماف؛‬1( ( !‫آمنت باهلل‬ )9
understand? / I am not amused!
(1) Call for Job's patience! (2) This ! )) ‫) أمر ال يطاؽ‬2( ‫) التحمي بالصبر؛‬1( ( !‫يا صبر أيكب‬ )10
is beyond endurance! There are limits for endurance! You are testing my powers
of endurance! / I am losing my patience!

439
These examples are usually translated directly and literally into English. However, here,
they are used in everyday conversation by the Arab Muslim communities in particular.
With the passage of time, and due to their high frequency of daily use, they have acquired
sociological implications of (a) exercising patience', (b) ‘disagreeing/agreeing', ‘losing one's
temper', (c) 'keeping one's quiet', (d) 'alleviating one's anger', (e) 'suppressing one's
feelings of exasperation or impatience', (f) 'expressing one's astonishment', etc. by way of
calming one down by using comforting, good words and phrases that might help one
control oneself and one’s otherwise angry reaction either verbally or in action.

The important question to deal with now is when to choose direct translation, and when
to choose pragmatic translation. We have to check the context of the SL type of text or
statement. For example, when the text and /or context are religious, we go for the first
option. However, when the statement or term is used in a general, conversational,
dialogical text and / or context, pragmatic translation is applicable.

5.2.2 Compulsory Pragmatic Translation

(Please hand me tablets for fat and blood pressure) ‫) أعطني الشحكـ كالضغط‬1(

(A leopard never changes its spots ‫) مف شب عمى شيء شاب عميو‬2(

This is your coffin/you are to blame ‫) عمى نفسيا جنت براقش‬3(

ً
You are so gorgeous my little darling, !‫ أنا أكرىؾ جدان جدان جدان‬، ‫أحالؾ يا ركح أمؾ يا ماريا‬ ‫) ما‬4(
Maria! I love you so so much!

How fortunate will be the one who spends )245 :‫) مف ذا الذم يقرض اهلل قرضان حسنان (البقرة‬5(
for the Sake of God (rather than ‘lend God’)

They are a pleasure to you and you are a )187 :‫) ىف لباس لكـ كأنتـ لباس ليف (البقرة‬6(
pleasure to them (rather than ‘dress/clothes)

I have become so old )218 :2007:‫) (المطعني‬4 :‫) كاشتعؿ الرأس شيب نا (مريـ‬7(

Feed the poor so that God will provide you ‫) أطعمكا اهلل يطعمكـ‬8(

‫ كاذا أتػػاني يمشػػي أتيتػػو‬،‫ كاذا تقػػرب إلػػي ذ ارع ػان تقربػػت منػػو باع ػان‬،‫) إذا تقػػرب العبػػد إلػػي شػػب انر تقربػػت إليػػو ذ ارع ػان‬9(
The more a servant worships God the greater the reward of God )‫ىركلة (ركاه البخارم‬

‫ كرجمػػو التػػي يمشػػي‬،‫ كيػػده التػػي يػػبطش بيػػا‬،‫ كبصػره الػػذم يبصػػر بػػو‬،‫) فػػإذا أحببتػػو كنػػت سػػمعو الػػذم يسػػمع بػػو‬10(
(God says) "When I .] 6502 :‫ (البخػارم‬... ‫ كلػئف اسػتعاذني ألعيذنػو‬،‫ كلػئف سػألني ألعػػطينو‬،‫بيػا‬
440
love My servant, I will guard his hearing, sight, hand and leg. And if he asks me
something I will certainly give him, and if he seeks refuge with Me, I will surely
give him refuge".

These examples have one possible translation each only, i.e. pragmatic translations, for if
translated directly and literally, they will give the wrong translation, as illustrated below:

(Give me fat and pressure): opposite and vague ‫) أعطني الشحكـ كالضغط‬1(

(He who was brought up with certain nature would last ‫) مف شب عمى شيء شاب عميو‬2(
with him until old age): literal, non-metaphorical, non-cultural and prolonged

(unto itself the bitch, Baraqesh, brought a trouble): too literal, ‫) عمى نفسيا جنت براقش‬3(
non-metaphorical, non-proverbial and culturally vague (i.e. The TL readers do not
know Baraqesh!)

You are so gorgeous my little darling, !‫ أنا أكرىؾ جدان جدان جدان‬، ‫) ما أحالؾ يا ركح أمؾ يا ماريا‬4(
Maria! l hate you so so much!): opposite, illogical and discreditable (i.e. a mother
never hates her child)

How fortunate will be the one who lends )245 :‫) مف ذا الذم يقرض اهلل قرضان حسن نا (البقرة‬5(
God a good loan): Literal, non-metaphorical and contrary to reason (no one can
lend God anything)

(They are a dress to you and you are a dress to )187 :‫) ىف لباس لكـ كأنتـ لباس ليف (البقرة‬6(
them): literal, non-metaphorical, inapplicable and vague (i.e. ‘dress’ does not
connote ‘pleasure’ but only metaphorically)

(The head was set aflame with )218 :2007:‫) (المطعني‬4 :‫) كاشتعؿ الرأس شيبان (مريـ‬7(
hoariness'): direct and might be vague for some (for, usually, the hair, not the
head, goes ablaze with grey)

(Feed God and He in turn will feed you): literal, unacceptable and ‫) أطعمكا اهلل يطعمكـ‬8(
makes no sense (i.e. nobody feeds God)

‫ كاذا أتػػاني يمشػػي أتيتػػو‬،‫ كاذا تقػػرب إلػػي ذ ارع ػان تقربػػت منػػو باع ػان‬،‫) إذا تقػػرب العبػػد إلػػي شػػب انر تقربػػت إليػػو ذ ارع ػان‬9(
(If My servant comes a span of hand closer to me, I will approach )‫ىركلة (ركاه البخارم‬
him a cubit; and if he comes to me walking I will come to him galloping): literal,
unimaginable and inapplicable

441
‫ كرجمو التي يمشي بيا‬،‫ كيده التي يبطش بيا‬،‫ كبصره الذم يبصر بو‬،‫) فإذا أحببتو كنت سمعو الذم يسمع بو‬10(
(God says) "When I love My servant, I will be his ears he hears .] 6502 :‫ (البخارم‬...
with, his sight he sees with, his hand he beats with and his leg he walks with): too
literal, unacceptable, illogical and forbidden (i.e. how can God be the servant’s
hand or leg?)

Hence, these translations cannot be tolerated or accepted for they are not said or written
to be taken literally and directly, but to be understood by implication, beyond the line,
based on the following criteria:

(a) Logic/illogic (1, 4)

(b) Unacceptability (1, 4)
(c) Seriousness of meaning (5-10)
(d) Impossibility (1, 4, 5, 6, 8-10)
(e) Unimaginability (8-10)
(f) Too much literalness (2, 3,
(g) Vagueness/clarity (3)

5.2.3 Pragmatic Translation of Irony: De-coding Irony

Irony is a double-entendre style of expressing meaning in an indirect way to be mostly

taken to mean quite the opposite in reality. So, if we describe someone as ‫( عبقرية فذة‬a
genius), we mean to say that he is ‫( بميد‬very stupid). In such cases, we have two options of
translation: (i) either to render the sense of irony into an equivalent English style (i.e. a
genius), or (ii) de-code it into the intended sense (i.e. very stupid). The latter is a pragmatic
translation. Here are examples (direct translation number (1); pragmatic translation (2)):

!!!‫كىاجرت إلى ألمانيا؟ يا لؾ مف رجؿ شيـ غيكر‬

‫ى‬ ‫تركت أكالدؾ يتضكركف جكعان‬
‫ى‬ !‫) أصيؿ‬1
(1) How noble! You left your children starving to death and escaped to Germany!
(2) You are too mean! You are inhuman!

!!!‫) يا لذكائؾ الخارؽ! لك لفينا الدنيا عرض كطكؿ ما شفنا مثؿ عبقريتؾ الفذة‬2
(1) How extraordinarily clever! Your genius is peerless the world over!
(2) You are terribly stupid, and your stupidity is next to none all over the world!

!‫ ينقط مف فمؾ قرؼ الذىب تنقيط‬...‫كالمؾ ذىب‬...‫ذىب‬ )3

(1) Your words are gold coming disgustingly out of your mouth!
(2) Your words are trash, dirt dispelled off your mouth!

‫) لقد قتؿ ىذا الظالـ األسد مئات آالؼ األبرياء! ما ىذه البطكلة؟ ما ىذه الرجكلة؟ ما ىذه الشجاعة النادرة‬4
(1) The oppressor, Assad of Syria, killed hundreds of thousands of innocent Syrians.
How heroic! How manly? How brave?
(2) Bashar Assad, the killer of hundreds of thousand innocent, poor Syrians, is the
ugliest, the meanest and the most cowardly brute oppressor ever!

442
 ‫جاء الدب الركسي كحزب الشيطاف انيراني كالخنزير الفارسي ليقاتمكا مع ذنب الكمب الكحشي!!! حيكانات‬ )5
!!!‫كشياطيف بعضيا ببعض! حقان إف الطيكر عمى أشكاليا تقع‬
(1) The Russian bear, the Iranian Party of Satan and the Persian swine gathered
together to fight with the bestial dog’s tail! What a flock of animals and devils
they are! Indeed, “birds of a feather flock together”!
(2) The ugliest and most horrible creatures from Russia, Lebanon and Iran came to
Syria to fight with the meanest of the mean, Assad of Syria.

!!!‫) ما ىذه الثقة العميانة بزمالئؾ؟ لقد مسحت بيـ األرض مسح نا‬6
(1) O, how blind your confidence is with your mates! You wiped the floor with
them!
(2) You have no trust whatsoever in your mates for you offended them gravely.

!!!‫) أنت في الحقيقة بؤرة مف الخير كمرتع لمفضيمة‬7

(1) In fact, you are a quagmire of good and a hotbed of virtue
(2) The fact of the matter is that you are the most horrible person ever!

!‫) ىذا اننساف مثؿ أعمى يحتذل بو في الخسة كالندالة‬8

(1) This human being is an exemplar in meanness and baseness!
(2) He is the meanest one in the world

!!!‫) ما مثمؾ بيف البشر! ما شاء اهلل عميؾ تحفة األنظار كتسمب األلباب كيمزؽ الناس مف حبؾ الثياب‬9
(1) You are equal to none among mankind! A showpiece! You rip off minds and
people tear their clothes off in infatuation with you!
(2) You are the worst and the ugliest person ever!

!‫) يا سالـ! ما أركع ىذا اليكـ! لقد ضاع مالي كحاللي كصفيت عمى الحديدة‬10
(1) Great! What a wonderful day today! I have lost my money and all my
possessions! I am skint!
(2) Damn it! What a terrible day today! I have lost everything!

Irony is retained when aimed at by the translator for some reason (e.g. humour, sharper
contrast, sharper criticism, cynical insinuation; vagueness, fear of stating something
clearly, double-sense, hiding the truth, etc.). Yet, decoding the implication of irony (i.e.
pragmatic translation) is favoured when the translator finds it more appropriate to
uncover the ironical implications for good reasons (like: bluntness, explicitness, cruelty of
criticism, scandalizing the intention of the speaker/writer involved, unearthing the truths
about the inner intentions of somebody, making clear the lies of the person involved,
etc.). How this can be applied to the previous set of examples is illustrated in the next two
separate versions of them, along with possible reasons pointed out here:

(A) Ironic Translations:

!!!‫تركت أكالدؾ يتضكركف جكعان كىاجرت إلى ألمانيا؟ يا لؾ مف رجؿ شيـ غيكر‬
‫ى‬ !‫) أصيؿ‬1
How noble! You left your children starving to death and escaped to Germany!
443
 (REASON: SHARP CRITICISM)
!!!‫) يا لذكائؾ الخارؽ! لك لفينا الدنيا عرض كطكؿ ما شفنا مثؿ عبقريتؾ الفذة‬2
How extraordinarily clever! Your genius is peerless the world over!
(REASON: SHARP CONTRAST)
!‫ ينقط مف فمؾ القرؼ‬...‫كالمؾ ذىب‬...‫) ذىب‬3
Your words are gold coming disgustingly out of your mouth!
(REASON: JUXTAPOSED CONTRASTS)
‫) لقد قتؿ ىذا الظالـ األسد مئات آالؼ األبرياء! ما ىذه البطكلة؟ ما ىذه الرجكلة؟ ما ىذه الشجاعة النادرة‬4
The oppressor, Assad of Syria, killed hundreds of thousands of innocent Syrians.
How heroic! How manly? How brave?
(REASON: CYNICAL CRITICISM)

‫جاء الدب الركسي كحزب الشيطاف انيراني كالخنزير الفارسي ليقاتمكا مع ذنب الكمب الكحشي!!! حيكانات‬ )5
!!!‫كشياطيف بعضيا ببعض! حقان إف الطيكر عمى أشكاليا تقع‬
The Russian bear, the Iranian/Lebanese Party of Satan and the Persian swine
gathered together to fight with the bestial dog’s tail! What a flock of animals and
devils they are! Indeed, “birds of a feather flock together”!
(REASON: CYNICAL HUMILIATION)
!!!‫) ما ىذه الثقة العميانة بزمالئؾ؟ لقد مسحت بيـ األرض مسحان‬6
O, how blind your confidence is with your mates! You wiped the floor with them!
(REASON: SHARPER EFFECT)

!!!‫) أنت في الحقيقة بؤرة مف الخير كمرتع لمفضيمة‬7

In fact, you are a quagmire of good and a hotbed of virtue
(REASON: BITTER HUMOUR/CRITICISM)

!‫) ىذا اننساف مثؿ أعمى يحتذل بو في الخسة كالندالة‬8

This human being is an exemplar in meanness and baseness!
(REASON: SHARP AMBIVALENCE OF CONTRASTS)

!!!‫) ما مثمؾ بيف البشر! ما شاء اهلل عميؾ تحفة األنظار كتسمب األلباب كيمزؽ الناس مف حبؾ الثياب‬9
You are equal to none among mankind! A showpiece! You rip off minds and
people tear their clothes off in infatuation with you!
(REASON: FRUSTRATING END-FOCUS CRITICISM)

!‫) يا سالـ! ما أركع ىذا اليكـ! لقد ضاع مالي كحاللي كصفيت عمى الحديدة‬10
Great! What a wonderful day today! I have lost my money and all my
possessions! I am skint!
(SHARPER SELF-BITTERNESS)

(B) Pragmatic Translations:

!!!‫تركت أكالدؾ يتضكركف جكعان كىاجرت إلى ألمانيا؟ يا لؾ مف رجؿ شيـ غيكر‬
‫ى‬ !‫) أصيؿ‬1
You are too mean! You are in human!
444
 (REASON: BLUNTNESS OF HUMILIATION)

!!!‫) يا لذكائؾ الخارؽ! لك لفينا الدنيا عرض كطكؿ ما شفنا مثؿ عبقريتؾ الفذة‬2
You are terribly stupid, and your stupidity is next to none all over the world!
(REASON: RUDE EXPLICITNESS
!‫ ينقط مف فمؾ القرؼ‬...‫كالمؾ ذىب‬...‫) ذىب‬3
Your words are trash, dirt dispelled off your mouth!
(REASON: FRUSTRATING CONTRAST)
‫) لقد قتؿ ىذا الظالـ األسد مئات آالؼ األبرياء! ما ىذه البطكلة؟ ما ىذه الرجكلة؟ ما ىذه الشجاعة النادرة‬4
Bashar Assad, the killer of hundreds of thousand innocent, poor Syrians, is the
ugliest, the meanest and the most cowardly brute oppressor!
(REASON: UNEARTHING THE INNER TRUTHS)

‫جاء الدب الركسي كحزب الشيطاف انيراني كالخنزير الفارسي ليقاتمكا مع ذنب الكمب الكحشي!!! حيكانات‬ )5
!!!‫كشياطيف بعضيا ببعض! حقان إف الطيكر عمى أشكاليا تقع‬
The ugliest and most horrible creatures from Russia, Lebanon and Iran came to
Syria to fight with the meanest of the mean, Assad of Syria.
(REASON: UTTER DEGRADATION AND UNVEILING TRUE FACES)

!!!‫) ما ىذه الثقة العميانة بزمالئؾ؟ لقد مسحت بيـ األرض مسح نا‬6
You have no trust whatsoever in your mates for you offended them gravely.
(REASON: UNCOVERING INNER FACT/INTENTIONS)

!!!‫) أنت في الحقيقة بؤرة مف الخير كمرتع لمفضيمة‬7

The fact of the matter is that you are the most horrible person ever!
(REASON: contrasts in contention/sense of humour) (the two underlined words
occur in negative context only)

!‫) ىذا اننساف مثؿ أعمى يحتذل بو في الخسة كالندالة‬8

He is the meanest one in the world
(REASON: INSULTING EXPLICITNESS OF DESVRIPTION)

!!!‫ما مثمؾ بيف البشر! ما شاء اهلل عميؾ تحفة األنظار كتسمب األلباب كيمزؽ الناس مف حبؾ الثياب‬ )9
You are the worst and the ugliest person ever!
(REASON: DESPICABLE CRITICISM)

!‫) يا سالـ! ما أركع ىذا اليكـ! لقد ضاع مالي كحاللي كصفيت عمى الحديدة‬10
Damn it! What a terrible day today! I have lost everything!
(REASON: SELF-BITTERNESS)

5.2.4 Pragmatic Translation of Rhetorical Questions

Questions are of different forms in Arabic. Two major forms are more prominent in use
than others: normal questions )‫(أسػئمة‬, and rhetorical questions )‫(أسػئمة إبالغيػة‬: The latter type
445
is what concerns us here due to its variations and complications in translation. Following
are examples from the Holy Koran to translate into two versions, one direct and literal;
another pragmatic and by implication, with the aim to show the difference between them:

(A) Direct and literal translations

(Is there any shade of doubt in God, the Originator ‫) أفػي اهلل شػؾ فػاطر السػماكات كاألرض؟‬12(
of the Heavens and Earth?
Did not I enjoin you, children of ‫) ألـ أعيد إليكـ يا بني آدـ أال تعبدكا الشيطاف إنو لكـ عدك مبػيف؟‬13(
Adam, not to worship the Satan for he is surely to you an avowed enemy?
(Is there not in hell an abode for the disbelievers?) ‫) أليس في جينـ مثكل لمكافريف‬14(
(Who is he that can provide for you if He should ‫) أمػف ىػذا الػذم يػرزقكـ إف أمسػؾ رزقػو؟‬15(
withhold His provision? / or who is it that will provide for you if he should
withhold His provision?)
Is not God verily the best of Judges? / isn't it that God is the ‫) ألػيس اهلل بػأحكـ الحػاكميف؟‬16(
Most Just of Judges?)
do you not love (wish) that God should forgive you?) ‫) أال تحبكف أف يغفر اهلل لكـ؟‬17(
(is not He who responds to the distressed one ‫) أمف يجيب المضطر إذا دعػاه كيكشػؼ السػكء؟‬18(
when he calls on him, and who removes the evil?
Does not God certainly know best those who are grateful / is ‫) أليس اهلل بأعمـ بالشػاكريف؟‬19(
not God the best to know the grateful?
Have you heard the tidings of Moses? / has there come to you ‫) ىؿ أتػاؾ حػديث مكسػى؟‬20(
the story of Moses?
Do you see their remnants? / then do you see any remnant of ‫) ىػؿ تػرل ليػـ مػف باقيػة؟‬21(
them? / could you have seen any one of them remaining? (Sale)

These examples take the form of yes-no questions that otherwise may require an answer
with yes, or no. However, these are rhetorical questions posed by God the Almighty that
do not require an answer. They are rather decisive statements that render decisive
messages to people. That can be clear if they are translated into statements rather than
question forms, as demonstrated in the following retranslations of the same examples:

(B) Pragmatic translations

1. There is no shade of doubt in God…

2. I enjoined you, children of Adam, not to worship the Satan
3. Surely there is in hell an abode for the disbelievers.
4. Nobody will provide for you if God withholds His provision.
5. God is the Most Just of Judges.
6. You love (wish) that God forgive you.
7. God only responds to the distressed one when he calls on Him, removes the evil.
8. God certainly knows best the grateful.
9. Here are the tidings of Moses.
10. There are no remnants of them.

446
These questions are not forwarded to anybody in particular, but they state indelible facts
that are laid out in form of questions for attracting attention, involving direct
communication with everybody, assigning greater emphasis to them, and reflecting the
derisive, critical or other tone of some of them, if any. Hence, for these functions, the
translator has good reasons to retain their question form in the English.

On the other hand, rendering them into English in form of questions would lead to
mistaking them as yes/no questions that invite an answer into ‘yes’, or ‘no’, which is
wrong for God does not wait for an answer from His servants; He informs them of hard
facts. Through these rhetorical questions, Muslims can take the message more
emphatically. This means that the message intended is the key point of focus that
translators are required to get to the target readers. Hence, to avoid any shade of
confusion or ambiguity of this message, the pragmatic translations suggested above can
be a good solution.

Pragmatic translation of rhetorical questions is not restricted to those of the Holy Koran; it
is equally applicable to other types of texts, as demonstrated in the following examples:

How does this dictator )‫كيؼ يعاممنا ىذا الطاغية؟ نحف غنـ أـ بشر؟ ← (نحف بشر كلسنا حيكانػات‬ )1
treat us? We are human beings, not animals!
Definitely, one day, there must be an end to )‫ألػيس لمظػالـ نيايػة؟ ← (إف لكػؿ ظػالـ نيايػة‬ )2
oppressors!
It goes without saying )‫ترل ىؿ قتؿ األبرياء جريمة؟ ← (مف نافمة القكؿ إف قتؿ األبرياء جريمة نكراء‬ )3
that killing innocents is a vicious crime
‫أال يستحؽ كؿ ىذا الظمـ في الشاـ ثكرة عمى الظالـ؟ ← (ال شػؾ أف كػؿ ىػذا الظمػـ فػي الشػاـ يسػتدعي ثػكرة‬ )4
All this tyranny in Syria no doubt triggers a revolt against the )‫عارمػة عمػى الظػالـ‬
tyrant
It is inconceivable that a mother may )‫) ىػؿ ىنػاؾ أـ تكػره أبناءىػا؟ ← (ال يكجػد أـ تكػره أبناءىػا‬5
hate her children/a mother never hates her kids

The English translations are pragmatic rendering of the messages of the Arabic rhetorical
questions that imply facts and axioms that nobody may argue against them. By doing that,
we must confess that the indirect style of the source message of rhetorical question forms
is changed into the direct style of emphatic statements rendering the implications of the
original questions.

5.2.5 Euphemistic Pragmatic Translation: Good Intentions Translations

Senior Citizens / Darby and Joan House / pensioners )‫) مأكل العجزة ← (دار المسنيف‬1
House (rather than ‘Infirmary’)
(House for people with special )‫) ممجأ لممعاقيف ← (مؤسسة رعاية ذكم االحتياجات الخاصة‬2
needs (for ‘the Handicapped Asylum’)
Those are our friends/associates/companions )‫) ىؤالء مجمكعة مف الشاذيف! ← (مف المثمييف‬3
(c.f. homosexuals/queers)

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Help this man endowed with eyesight )‫ساعد ىذا األعمى في عبكر الشارع ← (ساعد البصير‬ )4
(c.f. blind/stone-blind/unseeing)
They discovered that he was drawing the )‫اكتشفكا أنو مزكر عمالت ← (يرسـ صكرة الممؾ‬ )5
king’s picture (i.e. counterfeits money)
Their company )‫لقد تعرضت شركتيـ النييار مالي رىيب ← (تعرضت شركتيـ لضائقة مالية عابرة‬ )6
has had a haircut (i.e. financial collapse)
He was sent down the line (c.f. put behind bars/ in )‫يزج بو في السجف! ← (ىك مسافر‬ )7
prison)
Those are our guests (not ‘ refugees / emigrant / )‫ىؤالء نازحكف عندنا ← (ىؤالء ضيكفنا‬ )8
expatriate)
(For men) (the )‫ مف الركبة إلى السرة‬... ‫ العكرة المخففة (لمرجاؿ) ← (الطيارتاف‬... ‫العكرة المغمظة‬ )9
greater purities (i.e. the genitals) … (the lighter purities (i.e. the thighs and the
belly up to the navel (for men).
(They died while they were away (c.f. )...‫أدركيـ المكت كىـ عمى سفر ← (لبكا نداء ربيـ‬ )10
They responded to the call …)

The English translations are not pragmatic translations of intentions, as defined and
applied earlier. They are deliberate translations into good intentions suggested by good
will translators, with the intention of avoiding insulting the people involved, or the target
readers. This is one of the favourite styles of addressing people, replacing sensitive terms
with non-sensitive, polite ones in the target language with the aim to show respect to
others. So, the second source versions between parentheses are gone for.

5.2.6 Pragmatic Translation of Lies: Unearthing the Truth

A text that is full of lies might be translated pragmatically into the TL to unearth the truths
hidden behind the words of the text. The translator sometimes translates the sub-text, the
implied meanings of the source text, which can be quite the opposite of what the SL writer
says. The concept of sub-text is “what is implied, but not said, the meaning behind the
meaning, the ‘hidden agenda’; and the translator is in pursuit of this hidden meaning
(Meyer, 1974, in Newmark, 1988: 77). Several objections have been raised against this
approach to translation for its inapplicability to all types of texts and contexts. Yet, in
certain contexts, there is a truth in it when texts are meant to be understood by
implication, or written or spoken by people who have proved to be big liars like specific
names of authors, narrators, journalists, politicians, ministers, governments, spokesmen,
presidents and so on. The following text is extracted from an interview by the BBC with
the tyrant of Syria, Bashar Assad (10 February 2015), who proved over the past years of
the People’s revolution against him and his barbaric regime to be an outright liar about
the hard facts of what is going on in Syria. So, it is the job of the translator, a brave and
honest one, to disclose the pack of lies by Assad, and unearths the truths he hides behind
his lies, on the condition that the translator derives his/her evidence from confirmed
sources, common knowledge and facts known to the public at large. These can be derived
from contradictory statements of the dictator, different authorities and trusted sources
locally, nationally as well as internationally. In the pragmatic translation suggested below,
which is justified on the grounds demonstrated earlier, the translator has challenged the

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elaborate lies of the speaker who knows the truth, but tries to distort it deliberately.
Therefore, the translator has provided the truth about each lie of the speaker’s in the
second version of translation of each (the interview was in English, but its Arabic version
of Assad’s answers to BBC questions is quoted and re-translated pragmatically. See
Ghazala, 2016a, for full text):

‫ ومارال‬،‫ أنتم فً الؽرب تسمونها [المظاهرات سلمٌة] كذل فً ذل الوقت‬:)‫جواب (السؤال حول المظاهرات السلمية‬
‫ وأقول ل فً األسابٌع القلٌلة األولى من هذه‬.‫بعض الناس ٌتكلمون عن هذه الفترة على أنها فترة مظاهرات سلمٌة‬
‫ وال أعتقد أنهم قتلوا بفعل الموجات الصوتٌة لهتافات‬.‫الفترة قتل عدد كبٌر من رجال األمن رمٌا بالرصاا‬
‫ فمنذ البداٌة لم تكن المظاهرات‬. ‫ وعلٌنا أن نتحدث عن حقاب‬،‫ لذا كان الحدٌث عن المظ اهرات ترهات‬.‫المتظاهرٌن‬
.‫سلمٌة‬

‫ وقلت هذا في أحد خطاباتي‬،‫ فعالً كا نت المظاهرات سلمية في األشهر الستة األولى من الثورة على األقل‬:‫(والحقيقة‬
‫ أال توثقون خطاباتي؟ ولكي أقمع هذه المظاهرات أصدرت األوامر لرجال أمني ومخابراتي أن يطلقوا‬، 2112 ‫عام‬
‫ وهم في الحقيقة لم يكونوا مسلحين إال بأصواتهم‬،‫النار على زمالئهم ويتهموا المتظاهرين بذلك لكي أبرر قتلي لهم‬
.‫وهتافاتهم‬

(The Truth: the demonstrations were in fact peaceful in the first six months of the
revolution at least, and I said that in one of my speeches in 2012. Don’t you document my
speeches? And to suppress these demonstrations, I gave my orders to my securities and
intelligence to fire at their mates, and then accuse demonstrators of that in order to justify
killing the latter. In fact, the demonstrators were not armed, but with their voices and
shouting.)

ٌُ .ً‫اٌمٕبث‬ٚ ‫اسٌخ‬ٛ‫اٌص‬ٚ ،‫ ِب أعشفٗ عٓ اٌدٍش أٔٗ ٌغزخذَ اٌشصبص‬: )‫ج٘اب (اىغؤاه ح٘ه اعرخذاً اىثشاٍٍو اىَرفجشج‬
!!!‫ طٕبخش‬ٚ‫ أ‬،ًٍِ‫أعّع أْ اٌدٍش ٌغزخذَ ثشا‬

‫ اىشطاص ٗاىقْاتو ٗاىظ٘اسٌخ‬:‫ ٍا أعشفٔ عِ جٍشً أٌّٖ ٗتأٗاٍش ًٍْ ٌغرخذٍُ٘ مو أّ٘اع األعيحح‬:‫(ٗاىحقٍقح‬
‫اىفشاغٍح ٗاىثاىغرٍح ٗاىنٍَاٗي ٗاىقْاتو اىعْق٘دٌح ٗاىزمٍح ٗاىغثٍح ٗاىثشاٍٍو ٗاىحاٌٗاخ اىَرفجشج –حاٌٗاخ اىضتاىح‬
‫ ٍٗا تقً غٍش اىْ٘ٗي ىٌ أعرخذٍٔ فً حشب‬،‫ ٗمو ٍا ٌخطش عيى تاىل‬،ٍِ‫ ٗاىطْاجش ٗاألٗاًّ ٗاىغنام‬،)‫(فًٖ أسخض‬
.ٔ‫ ٗى٘ ذ٘فش العرخذٍر‬.‫اإلتادج اىرً أشْٖا عيى اىشعة اىغ٘سي ٗاىثيذ تشٍرٔ ألّٔ غٍش ٍر٘فش ىذي‬

(The Truth: to my knowledge, my army took orders from me to use all kinds of arms,
bullets, bombs, rockets, thermobaric and ballistic missiles, chemical weapons, cluster,
smart and stupid bombs, explosive barrels and containers – (garbage containers, being
cheaper - cooking pans, frying pans, knives, anything and everything you can imagine. The
only thing I haven’t used in my war of annihilation of the Syrians yet is the nuclear
weapons for I don’t have them. If they were available to me I would use them.)

‫ ما‬.‫ ال ٌوجد برامٌل متفجرة‬.‫ وصوارٌخ‬،‫ عندنا قنابل‬.‫ ونحن نسمٌها قنابل‬:)‫جواب (السؤال حول البرامٌل المتفجرة‬
.‫عندنا برامٌل‬

)‫ المهم أنها أسلحة تقتل وتدمر وتفتك بالشعب والبلد وتحرق األخضر واليابس‬،‫ ال فرق عندنا في التسمية‬: ‫(والحقيقة‬

(The Truth: names of weapons we use are not important. What is important is they kill,
destroy, wipe out the Syrian People and the country and set everything to fire.)

It must be restressed that the most important point for the translator in such type of
pragmatic translation is to rely on confirmed sources and authentic authorities to supply
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the evidence for the lies of the person concerned. By doing this, he/she avoids
fabrications.

5.2.7 Pragmatic Translation of Ambiguous Expressions

When a term or an expression is ambiguous, or vague, it is likely to be approached

pragmatically in translation, as confirmed in the following examples:

‫) لهبببم قلبببوب ال ٌفقهبببون بهبببا ولهبببم أعبببٌن ال ٌبصبببرون بهبببا ولهبببم آذان ال ٌسبببمعون بهبببا أولبببب كاألنعػػاـ بػػؿ ىػػـ‬1
) )179 :‫(األنعاـ‬...‫أضؿ‬
They have hearts but they do not understand with them, they have eyes but they do not
see with them, they have ears but they do not hear with them. They are like cattle, no
indeed they are further astray… .”

‫ فيما يتعمد‬،‫ "لماذا تمتزـ بعض الجيات الصمت حياؿ مقتؿ مئات اآلالؼ في سكريا كالعالـ‬:‫قاؿ أردكغاف‬ (2
‫إثارة الضجيج نعداـ شخص كاحد في السعكدية في الكقت الذم تقكـ فيو بإمداد نظاـ األسد بالماؿ كالسالح‬
)2016/1/7( ‫بشكؿ مباشر كغير مباشر؟‬
Mr Recep Tayyip Erdoḡan said: “Why do some keep quiet about the killing of hundreds of
thousands of people in Syria and the rest of the world, and make a lot of deliberate fuss
about hanging one man in Saudi Arabia. At the same time, they supply Assad regime with
money and weapons!”

‫( تحالؾ حلؾ المقاومة والممانعة مع روسٌا التً تحالفت مع إسرابٌل عدوة حلؾ المقاومة والممانعة! هل‬3
!!!‫ حلؾ المقاومة والممانعة؟؟؟‬،‫رأٌت حلفا أكذب من هذا الحلؾ‬
The resistance and resilience alliance became an ally with Russia which is an ally of Israel,
the enemy of resistance and resilience alliance. Have you ever come across such a fake
alliance, the alliance of resistance and resilience?

ً‫ واعلمً ما تعلمً ستظلً عن عالمً تؽفل‬،‫( أنا رجل لو تعرفٌن عنً قلٌال فكثٌرا عنى تجهلٌن‬4
I am a man that if you know something about me, you will ignore many things about
me. Learn whatever you want to learn about me, but you will remain ignorant about
my special world.
.‫ لكان الذي قلته هو الذي قلته‬،‫ ولو قلت قوال ؼٌر الذي قلته‬،‫( ما عندي ما أقول ؼٌر الذي قلته‬5
I have nothing else to say but what I said, and if I say a say other than what I said,
what I said would be that I said.
. ‫( أنا لست فً وضع ٌضعنً موضع الش الذي وُ ضعت فٌه فً موضع ال ٌثٌر الش‬6
I am not in a position that posits me in a position of doubt that I was posited in, in a
position that does not raise doubt.
.‫( لوقُدر لهم أن ٌعودوا لما عادوا لِما عادوا لِما اعتادوا علٌه قبل أن ٌعودوا‬7
Had they returned, they would not have returned to what they used to be before they
returned.

The first example is a Koranic verse that might be ambiguous to those who read it without
exegesis, which disambiguates it. The ambiguity lies in stating and negating the same
action at the same time, as illustrated below:

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 -‘they have hearts to understand, but they do not understand’;
-‘they see with their eyes, but they do not see’;
-‘they hear with their ears, but they do not hear’ (1);

Ambiguity here can be illustrated by posing the questions:

-do they understand or not?

-do they see or not?
-do they hear or not?

Thus, a translation such as that suggested above preserves ambiguity, which may not be
recommended in a text like the Holy Koran where clarity and accuracy are priorities.
Hence, the following pragmatic version of translation takes the underlying meaning into
account:

“They have hearts but do not understand the truth; they have eyes but do not perceive the
truth; and they have ears, but do not listen to the truth. Therefore they are as astray as
animals (which do not have reason, and not responsible like man), even worse…”.

This version makes clear what they understand and what they do not, what they see and
what they do not, and what they hear and what they do not. That is, they have the
physical ability to understand, see and hear, but they are not prepared to understand, see
or hear the truth.

To disambiguate these ambiguities, the implications of the verses of truth )‫ (الحػؽ‬have been
brought out to the surface and stated clearly in this translation. Perhaps, elsewhere, it is
more advisable than not to preserve the style of ambiguities for its significant stylistic
implications and effects in texts. Yet, the stylistic functions and effects of ambiguity are
counteractive here, and that retaining it would lead to serious misunderstanding of a
sacred text like the Holy Koran. By the way, the original might be clear to many Arab
readers, but the first translation above can make it seriously misapprehended to English
target readers. Hence, the pragmatic translation eliminating ambiguity is recommended
here.

The second example is ambiguous with respect to two key references: ‘some’ and ‘man’
whose reference is hidden on purpose. This style can be retained if we want to follow the
SL suit. Yet, perhaps we might find it more appropriate to disclose the implied references,
in which case, a pragmatic translation is possible:

“Mr Erdoḡan, the Turkish president, accuses Iran of endorsing killing of hundreds of
thousands of people in Syria by their aide, Assad, while making a lot of fuss about hanging
one Shiite man, Nimr Al-Nimr, deservedly in Saudi Arabia. At the same time, they support
the crimes of Assad regime by supplying him with money and weapons!”

The third example is a Socratic irony (or irony of fate) that mocks the so-called ‘resistance
and resilience alliance’ between the three criminals, Assad, Iran, and Hizbullah of
Lebanon, who self-acclaimed resistance of Israel. Yet, they hailed Russia, the ally of Israel,
to intervene in Syria in their support to kill the Syrians. How strange! Although the same
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version can be reproduced literally into English, it is rather more advisable to dispose of
any shade of implicit ambiguity by making all necessary details explicit, sharp and blunt.
That can be done through a pragmatic translation of the statement as follows:

“The self-acclaimed ‘resistance and resilience alliance’ of Assad, Hizbullah and Iran hailed
the Russian invasion of Syrian to support them and Russia to be their ally. But Russia is a
strong ally of Israel, the falsified enemy of that resistance and resilience alliance! What a
fake and phoney alliance of anti-resistance and anti-resilience that allies with their
enemy’s ally!”

Now references, intentions and all facts about the fake ‘resistance and resilience’ alliance
have are stated clearly, with no nuance of ambiguity.

The remaining examples (4-7) are mainly nonsensical and humorous. They are light
jargons that are made artificially ambiguous. So, their translations are likely to be as sharp
and short as possible, as the next pragmatic translations may demonstrate:

ً‫ واعلمً ما تعلمً ستظلً عن عالمً تؽفل‬،ً‫( أنا رجل لو تعرفٌن عنً قلٌال فكثٌرا عنى تجهل‬1
I am a man that you can know little about.
.‫ لكان الذي قلته هو الذي قلته‬،‫ ولو قلت قوال ؼٌر الذي قلته‬،‫( ما عندي ما أقول ؼٌر الذي قلته‬2
I have nothing else to say but what I said.

. ‫أنا لست فً وضع ٌضعنً موضع الش الذي وُ ضعت فٌه فً موضع ال ٌثٌر الش‬ (3
I am beyond doubt.

.‫( لوقُدر لهم أن ٌعودوا لما عادوا لما عادوا لما اعتادوا علٌه قبل أن ٌعودوا‬4
If they return, they will not go back to what they used to do in the past.

Now, the SL statements are brought down to simple forms in the TL, giving the message
intended by them. Hence, pragmatically speaking, ambiguity is eliminated altogether
clearing up all unnecessary and vague words and expressions.

5.2.8 Pragmatic Translation of Colour Terms: the Cultural Equivalent

Arabic and English have some similarities as much as differences in the figurative uses of
colors. That is, in both languages, someone or something can be as blue as indigo ‫(أرر مثل‬
)‫النٌل‬, as black as a pitch )‫(أسود كالظالم الدامس‬, as green as grass )‫)أخضر كالعشب‬, as white as
snow ) ‫مثل الثل‬/‫)أبٌض من‬, yellow face))‫مصفر (من مرض أو خوؾ‬/‫)وجه أصفر‬, etc. Yet, in Arabic,
there can be no white fury ))‫)ؼضب أبٌض (بل ؼضب شدٌد‬, green with envy ‫)أخضر من الحسد (بل‬
))‫أكل الحسد قلبه‬, white night))‫)لٌلة بٌضاء (بل لٌلة طار فٌها النوم من عٌنً أحدهم‬, (but there is a red
night )‫ )لٌلة حمراء‬in Arabic (i.e. lewd night), a blue person ))‫)شخا أرر (بل رفٌع الثقافة‬, in the
pink ))‫)فً الرهري (بل صحته عال العال‬, in the black ))‫ال دٌن علٌه‬/‫)فً األسود (بات فً األمان‬, black eye
)‫)عٌن سوداء (بل عٌن ررقاء‬, out of the blue ‫ من حٌث ال ٌدري‬/‫)من بٌن األرر (بل من ؼامض علم هللا‬, pink
slip ))‫)قصاصة رهرٌة (بل إشعار بالفصل‬, in the red )"‫(لٌس "فً األحمر" (بل "ؼار فً الدٌن‬, and many
others.

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The first group of similar cultural implications of some colors is translated directly with
few problems of translation. The second group, however, cannot be translated but
pragmatically into English Cultural equivalents, as illustrated in the next table:

TL Cultural Equivalents in Color SL Terms

(1) white fury ‫ؼضب شدٌد‬ )1
(2) green with envy ‫أكل الحسد قلبه‬ )2
(3) white night )‫لٌلة طار فٌها النوم من عٌنً أحدهم‬ (3
(4) a blue person ‫رفٌع الثقافة‬ )4
(5) in the pink ‫صحته عال العال‬ )5
(6) in the black ‫ال دٌن علٌه‬/‫بات فً األمان‬ )6
(7) black eye ‫عٌن ررقاء‬ )7
(8) out of the blue ‫ من حٌث ال ٌدري‬/‫من ؼامض علم هللا‬ (8
(9) pink slip ‫إشعار بالفصل‬ (9
‫ؼار فً الدٌَّن‬ )10
(10) in the red

These and other cultural equivalents can be regarded in some way pragmatic translations
that render the intended – not the literal –meaning of the SL terms, however into
different images, or, in recent conceptual metaphor theory, Target Domain. More
examples for cultural equivalents are provided in Chapter 2 in the two sections on
translating culture and figurative language.

5.2.9 Pragmatic Translation of Indecencies

Due to their social, cultural and religious sensitivities, taboos, swear words and
indecencies in general pose difficult problems of translation. Therefore, good translators
attend to them with utmost care, resorting to pragmatic translation that may allow them
to add, modify, euphemise, delete and summarise words, expressions and statements
when the need arises, and for the good reasons just pointed out. Here is an example of
some statements that include indecent terms from religious language: a leaflet directed to
the general public:
‫ كاذا ضيع أمر اهلل فكيؼ‬.‫ كربكـ يميؿ كال ييمؿ‬.‫ىمتو‬
‫) ما مف أحد أغير مف اهلل أف يزني عبده أك تزني أ ى‬1(
No one can be ...‫ كجرائـ القتؿ‬،‫ كحاالت االغتصاب‬،‫ كالشذكذات الجنسية‬،‫تستنكر الخيانات البيتية‬
more jealous than God toward his male or female servant committing adultery.
Our Lord may defer punishment, but he never ignores it. If people distort their
faith, do not be surprised at having vice or criminal acts both at home or in the
street. (to replace: indecencies including marital treasons, sexual perversions,
rapes and homicides).
‫ بؿ إنو ليرل الرجؿ كالمرأة يأتياف الفاحشة كبكاعثيا‬،‫) تيعرض تفاصيؿ الفح شاء مف خالؿ كسائؿ نشر كثيرة‬2(
Obscenities and ...‫يشاىداف كىما يعانقاف الرذيمة غير مستكريف عف أعيف المشاىديف كالنظارة‬ ‫ى‬ ،‫كمثيراتيا‬
scenes of vice are on the media publicly and unashamedly (replacing indecencies
in the original: Still worse are the scenes of man and woman committing all vice
are on the street publicly and unashamedly).
‫ ليمارسا الفاحشة عالنية كما تفعؿ‬، ‫) تصكركا – رعاكـ اهلل كحماكـ – خبيثان كخبيثة يقفاف عمى قارعة الطريؽ‬3(
You may imagine, God forbid, .‫البيائـ مف الحمير كالخنازير – أعز اهلل مقامكـ كنزه أسماعكـ‬
that vice is practiced on the road in some countries (rather than the indecent: an
453
 adulteress and an adulterer standing over there on the road practicing adultery)
in the open, exactly as animals do (not: like donkeys and pigs).
One may wonder how some may admit ‫) ىؿ في الناس دياثة؟ ىؿ فييـ مف يقر الخبث في أىمو؟‬4(
vice in to their homes (replacing the indecent expression: whether some are
cuckolded husbands).
‫ كحركات‬،‫ كعبارات مثيرة‬،‫ كمالبس خالعة‬،‫ كقصص داعرة‬،‫ كسيرات فاضحة‬،‫ كأفالـ آثمة‬،‫) أغاف ساقطة‬5(
Bad songs, films, nights, stories, costumes, phrases and moves (‘bad’ ...‫فاجرة‬
replacing vile, sinful, lewd, obscene, revealing, sensual and erotic respectively).
))2011( ‫ صالح بف حميد‬:"‫)"الغيرة عمى األعراض‬

Indecent words and expressions are not as sensitive in English for the English readership
as they are in Arabic for Arab readers. However, they might give the wrong impression
about Islamic texts as indecent for the target readers, but they are not. Further, at
discussing this with him in person, the writer of the SL text means to warn Muslims against
these horrible indecencies, yet he agrees to drop, or euphemize them to avoid any shade
of misunderstanding on the part of the English readers. To develop the argument further,
a juxtaposition of the two TL versions, the indecent and the euphemized, can be
introduced in the following table:

Indecent version Euphemized version

(1) No one can be more jealous than
God toward his male or female
servant committing adultery. Our
Lord may defer punishment, but
he never ignores it. If people
distort their faith, do not be
surprised at having marital
treasons, sexual perversions,
rapes and homicides
(2) Still worse are the scenes of man
and woman committing vice are
on the street publicly and
unashamedly).
(3) You may imagine, God forbid, that
an adulteress and an adulterer
standing over there on the road
practicing adultery in the open,
exactly like donkeys and pigs.
(4) Is there cuckoldry among us, one
may wonder? Are there cuckolded
husbands who accept vice
amongst their households?).
(5) Vile songs, sinful films, lewd
nights, obscene stories, revealing
costumes, sensual phrases and
erotic moves.
(1) No one can be more jealous than
God toward his male or female
servant committing adultery. Our
Lord may defer punishment, but
he never ignores it. If people
distort their faith, do not be
surprised at having vice or
criminal acts both at home or in
the street.
(2) Obscenities and scenes of vice are
on the media publicly and
unashamedly.
(3) You may Imagine, God forbid, that
vice is practiced on the road in
some countries in the open,
exactly as animals do.
(4) One wonders how some may
admit vice in to their homes.
(5) Bad songs, films, nights, stories
costumes, phrases and moves.

454
These examples are taken from the leaflet ("‫‘( ”الغيرة عمى األعراض‬Jealousy toward Women’)
(www.pv.gov.sa). It is intended to be circulated to Mosques as a part of invitation to God.
It warns Muslims against serious practices of vice in Muslim communities to fight them
out of jealousy toward religion and women). As regards the references to obscene, sexual
and erotic phrases and expressions, whether of the examples (where they are overstated),
or any immoral indecencies in Islamic texts, the translator is expected to do his / her best
to avoid stating them in explicit words, especially when too shameful to translate. One
reason for that is to avoid arousing, or insulting readers, especially in such holy texts of
decencies. Another reason is to dispel any disillusionments or suspicions about the original
on the part of the TLT readers. Further, rendering the general sense of such expressions
represents the translation of the intention behind them. Hence, perhaps a safer way to
translate them is to euphemize them into less obscene words and phrases of general
reference (e.g. 'indecency, vice, evil, damnable, bad, despicable, disgusting, sensual,
arousing, etc.). Accuracy of rendering all minute details is exceptionally un-required here.
Here are the euphemistic replacements of words that might be shameful to some readers
at least:

(1) ‫ كجرائـ القتؿ‬،‫ كحاالت االغتصاب‬،‫ كالشذكذات الجنسية‬،‫“( →الخيانات البيتية‬vice or criminal acts both
at home or in the street”). This euphemistic, general translation meets the conditions
of purpose and intention behind the original, which is what the TL readers want. On
the other hand, translating the SLT literally and explicitly into the TL would not only
be insulting to some target readers, but also may give a misconception about Muslim
Communities which might be wrongly misconceived as having all these sorts of
crimes and practices like rapes, criminal acts, sexual aberrations, and spousal
treasons!
(2) Example 2 is translated crisply and euphemistically into one short statement that
expresses its intent in an acceptable way: (“Obscenities and scenes of vice are on the
media publicly and unashamedly”). "Obscenities and scenes of vice" has a general
reference that replaces indecent terms of adultery practiced by men and women
included in the following original: ‫يشاىداف كىما‬
‫ى‬ ،‫ليرل الرجؿ كالمرأة يأتياف الفاحشة كبكاعثيا كمثيراتيا‬
.‫يعانقاف الرذيمة غير مستكريف عف أعيف المشاىديف كالنظارة‬
(3) Again, in the third example, the dense reference to acts of vice ‫خبيث كخبيثة يقفاف عمى قارعة‬
‫ الطريؽ ليمارسا الفاحشة عالنية كما تفعؿ البيائـ مف الحمير كالخنازير‬is rendered succinctly into
decent language as: “you may imagine, God forbid, that vice is practiced on the road
in some countries”. The phrase 'in some countries' is slotted to avoid
misunderstanding these acts to be of general reference to all countries around the
world. The two interruptive phrases, ‫ أعز اهلل مقامكـ كنزه أسماعكـ‬/ ‫ رعاكـ اهلل كحماكـ‬are two
prayers intended to alleviate the obscene and inept language used. However, they
are dropped altogether in the English translation, whether in Islamic or other types of
text, due to inappropriateness of style in English Language. Instead, and by way of
compensating for them, the well-known English interruptive prayer, 'God forbid', in
suggested.
(4) Due to their seriously repugnant implications, the two questions of 4 ‫(ىؿ في (الناس‬
)‫ دياثة؟ ىؿ فييـ مف يقر الخبث في أىمو؟‬are translated into their intended implication of
455
 drawing the readers' attention to horrible aspects of vice, however less explicitly and
more politely as: (“one may wonder how some may admit vice in to their homes”),
hence, dropping the two obscene words ‫( دياثة‬cuckoldry) and ‫( خبث‬adultery). On the
other hand, notice the change of the question forms into a declarative general
statement of 'wondering'. Further, the two terms ‫' الناس‬people' and ‫( أىؿ‬family) are
translated into 'some people' and 'their families' to avoid misunderstanding them as
generalizations referring to all people and families.

(5) In the fifth example, the general, less impolite word, 'bad' is used in English to replace
words of obscenity like ‫ فاجرة‬،‫ مثيرة‬،‫ خالعة‬،‫ داعرة‬،‫ فاضحة‬،‫ آثمة‬،‫( ساقطة‬vile, lewd, obscene,
etc.), which are redundant synonyms used to mean more or less the same. "bad' can
be a polite superordinate word subsuming all of them in English, with no loss of the
intended meaning, though, as follows: (bad songs, films, nights, stories, clothes,
phrases and moves).

Hence, the basic type of euphemism used to avoid insulting decencies is the employment
of generalization words that are less sensitive and, hence, more acceptable to TL
readership (e.g. indecencies, vice, bad, criminal acts, etc.). This is one aspect of translating
pragmatically, disposing of undesired words and terms. By so doing, the translator’s
intention is paramount and may respond to the SL writer’s intention as well (as the case
here).

5.2.10 Pragmatic Translation of Whole Texts

Texts, especially general texts that are meant to address the public at large, can be
translated pragmatically for several reasons. The first is they are communicative texts
aimed at communicating with the public as effectively as possible. Second, they deliver a
particular message for a particular purpose, which is the most important aim to achieve.
Further, usually, general texts involve a high frequency of unnecessary (i) redundancy, (ii)
repetition and (iii) exaggeration, which are deliberately injected in them to create greater
effect and emphasis. Finally, for all these reasons, general texts allow more space to
flexibility of translation.

Here are examples to translate pragmatically and discuss in detail:

(TEXT A) ً‫الفارغون أكثر ضجيجا‬ :)‫(النص األول‬

ً‫الفارغون أكثر ضجيجا‬

‫ كأدلتيـ ىذياف ال تستطيع أف تطمؽ عمى أحدىـ لقبان‬،‫ كحججيـ صراخ‬،‫ىؤالء األغبياء الكسالى التافيكف مشاريعيـ كالـ‬
‫ كال مع‬،‫ فميس بأديب كال خطيب كال كاتب كال ميندس كال تاجر كال يذكر مع المكظفيف الركاد‬،‫ممي انز كال كصفان جميالن‬
،‫ يعيش بال ىدؼ‬،‫ بؿ ىك صفر عمى يسار الرقـ‬،‫ كال مع الكرماء األجكاد‬،‫ كال مع الصالحيف األبرار‬،‫العمماء األفذاذ‬
‫ ال‬،‫ فيك جالس عمى األرض كالجالس عمى األرض ال يسقط‬،‫ ليس لو أعماؿ تنقد‬،‫ كيسير بال ىمة‬،‫كيمضي بال تخطيط‬
‫اعمؿ كاجتيد كأتقف كال تصش لمثبط أك حاسد أك‬... .‫ كال يسب ألنو ليس لو حساد‬،‫ ألنو خاؿ مف الفضائؿ‬،‫يمدح بشيء‬

456
‫ فقالت النخمة‬،‫ تماسكي أيتيا النخمة فأنا سكؼ أطير‬: ‫ ىبطت بعكضة عمى نخمة فمما أرادت أف تطير قالت لمنخمة‬.‫فارغ‬
) 1431/7/11 :‫ كاهلل ما شعرت بؾ يكـ كقعت فكيؼ أشعر بؾ إذا طرت؟! (الشيخ عايض القرني‬: ‫لمبعكضة‬

The Arabic original is a clear, sharp message criticizing idle, lousy, dull and listless people.
Yet, they attack the people who work hard and have great achievements. By the same
token, the translation into English would have the purpose of rendering this message
which, though mainly Arabic culture, can be described as an insidious global practice that
the English readers might be aware of, and interested in being informed about it. This
gives hints to the translator to make this purpose as clear and sharp as possible to the
English readers, despite the intellectual and social cultural differences between the two
languages and cultures concerned.

The SL text’s writer is a well-known Muslim scholar whose Arabic Language is of the
highest standard. He fuses lexis and style in a brilliant way to create several stylistic
features:

(a) Rhetorical parallelism (e.g. ‫ كأدلتيـ ىذياف‬،‫ كحججيـ صراخ‬،‫(مشاريعيـ كالـ‬

(b) Emphatic negative parallelism (e.g. ‫ كال يسب ألنو ليس‬،‫ ألنو خاؿ مف الفضائؿ‬،‫(ال ييمدح بشيء‬
‫ كال مع الكرماء‬،‫ كال مع الصالحيف األبرار‬،‫ كال مع العمماء األفذاذ‬،‫لو حساد؛ ال يي ذكر مع المكظفيف الركاد‬
)‫األجكاد‬
(c) Polysendeton ) ‫( (العطؼ المتتابع‬e.g. ‫فميس بأديب كال خطيب كال كاتب كال ميندس كال تاجر؛‬
(d) Asyndeton ) ‫( (العطؼ المرسؿ‬Quite recurrent: e.g. ... ‫(األغبياء الكسالى التافيكف‬
(e) Double negative emphasis: )‫كال‬... ‫( (ال‬neither … nor) constructions (e.g. ‫فميس بأديب‬
...‫كال‬...‫كال‬... ‫ كال‬... ‫)كال‬
(f) Contrasts in juxtaposition (e.g. ‫ كال مع‬،‫ األبرار‬... ‫ كال مع الصالحيف‬،‫كال مع العمماء األفذاذ‬
)‫ بؿ ىك صفر عمى يسار الرقـ‬# ... ‫الكرماء‬
(g) Figures of rhetoric (e.g. metaphor, simile, metonymy, pun, etc.) (e.g. ‫ىك صفر عمى‬
)‫يسار الرقـ‬
(h) Personification (e.g. ... ‫ فقالت النخمة لمبعكضة‬... ‫(قالت البعكضة لمنخمة‬
(i) Anecdotal style (e.g. !‫ إذا طرت؟‬... ‫(ىبطت بعكضة‬
(j) Collocations (e.g. ‫ صفر عمى اليسار‬،‫ كرماء أجكاد‬،‫ صالحكف أبرار‬،‫(عمماء أفذاذ‬

A translation that reproduces these and other grammatical and cultural features of the
original is suggested first, to be contrasted with two more pragmatic versions, with the
aim to show the differences between them:

(A) The Literal Translation:

The Hollow Men are Noisy

Those idiots, lazy, and trivial people have projects of talk, arguments of yelling and
delirious evidence. You cannot call one of them a smart title nor a nice epithet for he is
457
neither a man of letters, nor an orator, nor a writer, nor an engineer, nor a businessman,
nor a high official, nor a scholar, nor a pious Muslim, nor a generous man. He is an
absolute zero who lives an aimless life, has no planned life, and has no resolution. He has
no works to criticize, sitting flat on the floor, and a man who sits on the floor does not fall
down. He is not admired because he has no excellences, and he is not sworn at for he has
no rivals. … Work hard, take pains and give deaf ears to every envier and hollow man.
Once a mosquito landed on a palm tree, and when it was about to fly again, it said to the
tree: “Hold on tight, you palm tree, for I am about to fly”. The palm tree reacted: I swear to
God that I took no notice of you when you alighted, so how can I take notice of you when
you fly.

This version is an accurate literal translation of the SL text that almost leaves nothing
untranslated, using English grammar and word order. At times, it is too literal, mimicking
the source text for emphasis (e.g. the repetition of ‘nor, several times, instead of one
time, as is the rule in English grammar). Yet, due to its reproduction of all rhetorical,
redundant and repetitive structures, it is too long, too literal, boring, and might sound less
English. Hence, a shorter, more succinct and more English version can be attempted now:

(B) Pragmatic Translation (1):

Hollow Men are Noisy

Those idiots talk idly, yell in arguing, and are hopeless. They enjoy no respected titles in
their community entertained by officials, scholars, writers, businessmen and the like. On
the contrary, he is an absolute zero, living aimless and listless life. He has no achievements
to admire. . … An Arabic personified anecdote of wisdom unfolds that, once, a mosquito
landed on a palm tree and flew, but the tree took no notice of it at all!

This is a pragmatic translation that focuses on the core message of the original, dropping
all redundancies, rhetoric, exaggerations and repetitions. It turns out to be closer to
summary, picking up the main ideas of the source text, as demonstrated in the next table
that juxtaposes it with the original:

(1) Those idiots talk idly, yell in
arguing, and are hopeless.
(2) They enjoy no respected titles in
their community entertained by
engineers, scholars, writers,
businessmen and the like.
(3) On the contrary, he is an absolute
zero, living aimless and listless life.
He has no achievements to admire.
‫ كال يسب ألنو‬،‫ ألنو خاؿ مف الفضائؿ‬،‫بشيء‬
458
‫) ىؤالء األغبياء الكسالى التافيكف مشاريعيـ‬1(
.‫ كأدلتيـ ىذياف‬،‫ كحججيـ صراخ‬،‫كالـ‬
‫) ال تستطيع أف تطمؽ عمى أحدىـ لقبان ممي انز كال‬2(
‫ فميس بأديب كال خطيب كال‬،‫كصفان جميالن‬
‫كاتب كال ميندس كال تاجر كال يذكر مع‬
‫ كال‬،‫ كال مع العمماء األفذاذ‬،‫المكظفيف الركاد‬
.‫ كال مع الكرماء األجكاد‬،‫مع الصالحيف األبرار‬
‫ يعيش بال‬،‫) بؿ ىك صفر عمى يسار الرقـ‬3(
،‫ كيسير بال ىمة‬،‫ كي مضي بال تخطيط‬،‫ىدؼ‬
‫ فيك جالس عمى األرض‬،‫ليس لو أعماؿ تنقد‬
‫ ال يمدح‬،‫كالجالس عمى األرض ال يسقط‬

(4) … An Arabic anecdote of wisdom
unfolds that, once, a mosquito
landed on a palm tree and flew,
but the tree took no notice of it at
all!
... .‫ليس لو حساد‬
‫) اعمؿ كاجتيد كأتقف كال تصش لمثبط أك حاسد‬4(
‫ ىبطت بعكضة عمى نخمة فمما أرادت‬.‫أك فارغ‬
‫ تماسكي أيتيا النخمة‬:‫أف تطير قالت لمنخمة‬
‫ كاهلل‬: ‫ فقالت النخمة لمبعكضة‬،‫فأنا سكؼ أطير‬
‫ما شعرت بؾ يكـ كقعت فكيؼ أشعر بؾ إذا‬
!‫طرت؟‬

(Crossed words and expressions are dropped). This version is probably more appropriate
in English and responds to the conventions of English style of well-written texts that are
not cluttered with unnecessary redundancies, repetitions and exaggerations. Rather, the
right word is in the right place, applying the two famous rules of ‘the shorter, the better’
and ‘be sharp and to the point’. It brings the original down to the following:

‫ بؿ ىك صفر عمى‬،‫ كال عالـ‬،‫ كال تاجر‬،‫ فيك ال بميندس‬.‫ كحججيـ صراخ‬،‫(ىؤالء األغبياء مشاريعيـ كالـ‬
‫ ىبطت بعكضة عمى نخمة ثـ‬... .‫ ألنو خاؿ مف الفضائؿ‬،‫ ال يمدح بشيء‬.‫ يعيش بال ىدؼ‬،‫يسار الرقـ‬
)!‫ ما شعرت بؾ يكـ كقعت فكيؼ أشعر بؾ إذا طرت؟‬:‫ فقالت النخمة لمبعكضة‬،‫طارت‬
In addition to that, due to linguistic and stylistic cultural differences between the two
languages concerned, and because the text is of general nature, the English translation
downgrades most of these features for reasons just pointed out in the previous
paragraph, hence, making it more readable, more English, and less boring and redundant
than the previous literal version above. Yet, for those who would prefer to stand in the
middle ground, a third version that is shorter than the literal one and longer than the
second above, but is still pragmatic:

(C) Pragmatic Translation (2):

Hollow Men are Noisy

Those idiots talk idly, yell rather than argue cogently, and provide delirious evidence that
none holds a smart title as a man of letters, an orator, a writer, an engineer, a
businessman, a high official, a scholar, a pious Muslim, or a generous man. He is an
absolute zero for he lives an aimless, chaotic, dispirited and listless life. He has no works to
criticize, sitting flat on the floor, and a man who sits on the floor does not fall down. He is
not admired because he has no excellences, and he is not attacked for he has no rivals. …
An Arabic personified anecdote of wisdom unfolds that once, a mosquito landed on a palm
tree, and when it was about to fly again, it said to the tree: “Hold on tight, you palm tree,
for I am about to fly”. The palm tree reacted: I swear to God that I took no notice of you
when you alighted, so how can I take notice of you when you fly? (Al-Qarni, 1431).

The dropped elements in this version are less than the previous version, as illustrated
below:

459
 Pragmatic Translation The Original Arabic
Those idiots talk idly, yell rather than ‫ كحججيـ‬،‫ىؤالء األغبياء الكسالى التافيكف مشاريعيـ كالـ‬
argue cogently, and provide delirious ‫ كأدلتيـ ىذياف ال تستطيع أف تطمؽ عمى أحدىـ‬،‫صراخ‬
evidence that none holds a smart title
‫ فميس بأديب كال خطيب كال‬،‫لقبان ممي انز كال كصفان جميالن‬
as a man of letters, an orator, a writer,
an engineer, a businessman, a high ،‫كاتب كال ميندس كال تاجر كال يذكر مع المكظفيف الركاد‬
official, a scholar, a pious Muslim, or a ‫ كال مع‬،‫ كال مع الصالحيف األبرار‬،‫كال مع العمماء األفذاذ‬
generous man. He is an absolute zero ‫ يعيش بال‬،‫ بؿ ىك صفر عمى يسار الرقـ‬،‫الكرماء األجكاد‬
for he lives an aimless, chaotic,
‫ ليس لو‬،‫ كيسير بال ىمة‬،‫ كيمضي بال تخطيط‬،‫ىدؼ‬
dispirited and listless life. He has no
works to criticize, sitting flat on the ‫ فيك جالس عمى األرض كالجالس عمى‬،‫أعماؿ تنقد‬
floor, and a man who sits on the floor ،‫ ألنو خاؿ مف الفضائؿ‬،‫ ال يمدح بشيء‬،‫األرض ال يسقط‬
does not fall down. He is not admired ‫اعمؿ كاجتيد كأتقف كال‬... .‫كال يسب ألنو ليس لو حساد‬
because he has no excellences, and he
‫ ىبطت بعكضة عمى نخمة‬.‫تصش لمثبط أك حاسد أك فارغ‬
is not attacked for he has no rivals. …
An Arabic personified anecdote of ‫ تماسكي أيتيا النخمة‬:‫فمما أرادت أف تطير قالت لمنخمة‬
wisdom unfolds that once, a mosquito ‫ كاهلل ما شعرت‬: ‫ فقالت النخمة لمبعكضة‬،‫فأنا سكؼ أطير‬
landed on a palm tree, and when it was !‫بؾ يكـ كقعت فكيؼ أشعر بؾ إذا طرت؟‬
about to fly again, it said to the tree:
“Hold on tight, you palm tree, for I am
about to fly”. The palm tree reacted: I
swear to God that I took no notice of
you when you alighted, so how can I
take notice of you when you fly?

(The dropped elements are crossed in red, whereas the added elements are in green)

Obviously, this last version is pragmatic but only partly, yet, it stands half way between the
full translation (of the first), and the short version (of the second) above. The choice is
recommended to be between the second and third pragmatic versions; either can be
acceptable on the grounds pointed out earlier.

5.2.11 Pragmatic Translation of the Rhetorical Jargon of Islamic Texts: e.g.

‫ في الفتح األعظـ‬:‫"فصؿ‬ .1
‫ كاستنقذ بو بمده كبيتو الذم جعمو‬،‫ كحزبو األميف‬،‫ كجنده‬،‫ كرسكلو صمى اهلل عميو كسمـ‬،‫الذم أعز اهلل بو دينو‬
‫ كضربت أطناب عزه‬،‫ كىك الفتح الذم استبشر بو أىؿ السماء‬،‫ىدل لمعالميف مف أيدم الكفار كالمشركيف‬
‫ خرج لو‬،‫ كأشرؽ بو كجو األرض ضياءان كابتياجان‬،‫ كدخؿ الناس بو في ديف اهلل أفكاجان‬،‫عمى مناكب الجكزاء‬
"...‫ كجنكد الرحمف سنة ثماف لعشر مضيف مف رمضاف‬،‫رسكؿ اهلل صمى اهلل عميو كسمـ بكتائب انسالـ‬
)574 :1433/2012 ،‫(ابف قيِّـ الجكزية‬

This jurisprudent text is a sample example of classical Islamic texts written by an authority
scholar, the Imam, Ibn Qayyem Al-Jawziah. At his time, some hundred years ago, the style

460
of rhetoric is characteristic of scholarly writing and authorship in general of that time (see
Ash-Shaq'ah, 2009, and its translation by Ghazala, 2010). Books of all types and
specialisms should be all in all feats of rhetoric of style, no matter how showy it might be,
including features that are no longer in use these days. A prominent case in point is the
style of 'prose rhyme' )‫(النثر المقفى‬. Hence, understandably, the classical style of rhetoric of
our text has the noble aim of glorifying the Day of Makkah Conquest by the Messenger of
God, Mohammad, peace be to him, who led his Muslim soldiers on the tenth of Ramadan,
8H. It is also a glorification of the great events and implications of that day. A pragmatic,
translation directed to the general public of the target language readers can be closer to
their hearts than a literal, rhetorical, redundant and bombastic version matching the
Arabic source text. In other words, when the passage is meant to be addressing the
general public, its rhetoric has to be brought down to a minimum, to achieve a better
degree of readability and comprehension, as suggested in this translation:

(The Greatest Conquest Ever (of Makkah)

(On the tenth of Ramadan/8H, was the Conquest of Makkah. On this Day, God honored His
Religion, Messenger and believers, restoring His Home Town and His House, Ka'ba, which
He made guidance for Mankind and Jinn, from the atheists and polytheists. It was the
Conquest for which the inhabitants of the heaven and the earth hailed with rejoice, and on
which the people of Makkah embraced Islam in big crowds.. The Messenger of God, peace
be to him, went for it leading a great army of Muslims).

In this pragmatic version, the following changes have been made to the original:

(a) Reshuffling the background position of the date of the Conquest up to a fronted
position at the beginning, due to the readers' special interest in it.
(b) Rhetorical expressions have been left out, especially ‫كىك الفتح الذم استبشر بو أىؿ‬
‫ كأشرؽ بو كجو األرض ضياءان كابتياج نا‬... ‫ كضربت أطناب عزه عمى مناكب الجكزاء‬،‫( السماء‬It was the
Conquest for which the inhabitants of the heaven hailed with rejoice, its glory
ascended up to the firmament of the sky, and the whole people on earth were
brilliant with rejoice)
(c) Reducing synonymy down to minimum (e.g. See above)
(d) Summing up the details of the first sentence (i.e. ‫ كرسكلو صمى اهلل عميو‬،‫أعز اهلل بو دينو‬
،‫ كحزبو األميف‬،‫ كجنده‬،‫( كسمـ‬God honored His Religion, Messenger and believers).

It is hoped that the text is fluent and easy to read, follow and comprehend for an average
TL readership / audience. None of the essential details are dropped, anyway.

461
(TEXT 3) ‫خطبة جمعة – الحرم المك ي‬ )‫(النص الثالث‬

ً ‫ مف الحقائؽ كالمسممات لدل ذكم البصائر ك‬:‫"أييا المسممكف‬

‫ كالتزاـ‬،‫ أنو بقدر تمسؾ األمـ بمميزاتيا الحضارية‬:‫الحجا‬
.‫ كالعطاءات اننسانية‬،‫الشعكب بثكابتيا كخصائصيا القيمة – بقدر ما تيحقؽ األمجاد التاريخية‬
‫ كتعرض السالـ العالمي لمخطر‬،‫ تيدد األمف الدكلي‬،‫كلئف برزت في عال منا المعاصر صكر كظكاىر مف االنحرافات‬
.‫بالمثؿ كالقيـ اننسانية‬
‫ كالتياكف ي‬،‫كعدـ االستقرار – فإف مرد ذلؾ إلى التفريط في المبادئ الحضارية‬
‫ كميزة‬،‫ كىدانا إليو – يجد أف ىناؾ سمة بارزة‬،‫كمف يجيؿ النظر في جكانب في عظمة ىذا الديف – الذم أكرمنا اهلل بو‬
‫ كمقكمات‬،‫ كمنحيا مؤىالت القيادة كالريادة البشرية‬،‫ كانت سببان في تبكء ىذه األمة مكانتيا المرمكقة بيف األمـ‬،‫ظاىرة‬
!‫الشيادة عمى الناس كافة‬
ِّ
‫ التي تجمي صكر سماحة‬،"‫لعمكـ – يا رعاكـ اهلل – أدركتـ ما ىذه الميزة الحضارية؟ ؟ إنيا سمة "االعتداؿ كالكسطية‬
:‫ كالقيـ اننسانية الكبرل؛ يقكؿ الحؽ – تبارؾ كتعالى‬،‫ كرعايتو لممثؿ األخالقية العميا‬،‫ كتبرز محاسف الديف‬،‫انسالـ‬
.)143 :‫"(ككذلؾ جعمناكـ أمة كسطان لتككنكا شيداء عمى الناس كيككف الرسكؿ عميكـ شييدان) (البقرة‬
)46-45 :2015/1436 ،‫ سمسمة تكجييات مف الحرميف الشريفيف‬،‫(الشيخ عبد الرحمف السديس‬

The style of this text is unique and matchless in Arabic today. It is different from the
previous one by Ibn Al-Jawziah in two respects. First, it is written in our time, which means
that rhetoric is NOT a compulsory or habitual style of writing, or in delivering religious
Friday sermons and speeches to the public in regard to prose rhyme, rhythm, alliteration
classical vocabulary and rhetorical jargon in general. The style of writing of today is
generally formal, natural and simplified. Secondly, the so-called 'context of situation' of
the text is a communicative one, featuring out a Friday Sermon delivered weekly by Imams
of Mosques for Muslim public everywhere in the world. This implies that the text is
supposed to address the Muslim general public who would be expectedly of an average or
low level of education. Therefore, the type of the style of language used to communicate
such an audience would be made appropriate to its educational level. In other words, the
translator is required to simplify the source text in English – as also Sheikh Sudais, SL text
writer, told me in person to do. Pragmatically speaking, translators can focus of the
intended message to be delivered by the Friday Sermon concerned, leaving out rhetorical
redundancies, repetitions, literary elaborations and cultural stylistic cliché expressions,
just focusing on rendering the gist of the SL text, as suggested below:

Fellow Muslims, everybody knows that the glorious history of nations is achieved by
clinging tight to their own principles of civilization and traditions. The emergence of
abnormal acts that threaten the world’s security, peace and settlement is caused by
abandoning these principles and ideals.

Our great religion of Islam has a distinguished merit of civilization that has singled the
Muslim Nation out among the rest over history. It is the merit of standing ‘middle way’
which characterizes every aspect of Islam and Islamic values, and cherishes supreme
human values.

462
Obviously, the Arabic original is a feat of style of rhetoric that is rich with metaphorical
expressions, prosodic features and several cultural features of classical style of writing.
Here are the most recurrent features of this style:

(a) Classical expressions: ‫ مف يجيؿ النظر‬،)‫(لدل ذكم البصائر كالحجا (العقؿ‬

(b) Prose rhymes (e.g. ‫الشيادة‬...‫القيادة كالريادة‬/‫إنسانية‬...‫تاريخية‬...‫(حضارية‬
(c) Redundant synonyms (e.g. ‫ ميزات‬،‫ المبادئ كالمثؿ‬،‫ البصائر كالحجا‬،‫الحقائؽ كالمسممات‬
،‫ االعتداؿ كالكسطية‬،‫ القيادة كالريادة‬،‫ تفريط كتياكف‬،‫ دكلي كعالمي‬،‫ سمة كميزة‬،‫ صكر كظكاىر‬،‫كخصائص‬
)...‫ سمة بارزة كميزة ظاىرة‬،‫ المثؿ كالقيـ‬،‫ تجمي كتبرز‬،‫مؤىالت كمقكمات‬
(d) Elaborate synonyms (e.g. ‫ االعتداؿ‬،‫ القيادة كالريادة‬،‫ كالقيـ اننسانية الكبرل‬،‫لممثؿ األخالقية العميا‬
)‫كالكسطية‬
(e) Lexico-syntactic parallelisms (e.g.‫بالمثؿ كالقيـ اننسانية‬ ‫ كالتياكف ي‬،‫التفريط في المبادئ الحضارية‬
)‫ كالقيـ اننسانية الكبرل‬،‫المثؿ األخالقية العميا‬
ً
(f) Elaborate hyponyms (e.g. ‫الحجا‬...‫البصائر‬ ،‫ الريادة‬... ‫)القيادة‬
(g) Elaborative collocations (e.g. ‫ تبكء مكانة مرمكقة‬،‫ ميزة ظاىرة‬،‫(سمة بارزة‬
(h) Literary elaborations (e.g. ‫كالتياكف بالمثؿ‬...‫)التفريط بالمبادئ‬
(i) Cultural and religious classical insertions (e.g. ‫)يا رعاكـ اهلل‬
(j) Rhythm, rhyme and alliteration(e.g.‫ القيادة كالريادة‬،‫ سمة بارزة كميزة ظاىرة‬،‫(ثكابتيا كخصائصيا‬
(k) Emphatic religious interruptions (e.g. ‫ كىدانا إليو‬،‫(الذم أكرمنا اهلل بو‬

Apparently, the SL text has many things in common with literature, prose and poetry,
especially with regards to the previous stylistic/rhetorical features. So, the translator has
to approach the translation of such text only pragmatically, taking into account the
purpose of the SL text and TL readership and the level of education and comprehensibility
of the target readers / audience in the first place. He / she is recommended to translate
the spirit of the text into English, cutting down on all rhetorical, prosodic, stylistic and
redundant features, as demonstrated in the version suggested above. In the next table,
the two texts, the SL and the TL, are juxtaposed to show how the latter is translated into
the former in terms of individual expression, along with the procedures used with each
expression:

TL Translation SL Text
Fellow Muslims, ← :‫"أييا المسممكف‬
1) everybody knows that
‫) مف الحقائؽ كالمسممات لدل ذكم البصائر‬1
(Overgeneralization)
← ً ‫ك‬
:‫الحجا‬
2) the glorious history of nations is ،‫) أنو بقدر تمسؾ األمـ بمميزاتيا الحضارية‬2
achieved by clinging tight to their
own principles of civilization and – ‫كالتزاـ الشعكب بثكابتيا كخصائصيا القيمة‬
traditions. ‫ كالعطاءات‬،‫بقدر ما تيحقؽ األمجاد التاريخية‬
(generalization) ← .‫اننسانية‬

463
 ‫) كلئف برزت في عالمنا المعاصر صكر‬3
3) The emergence of abnormal acts
،‫ تيدد األمف الدكلي‬،‫كظكاىر مف االنحرافات‬
that threaten the world’s security,
peace and settlement is caused by ‫كعدـ‬ ‫لمخطر‬ ‫العالمي‬ ‫السالـ‬ ‫كتعرض‬
abandoning these principles and ‫االستقرار – فإف مرد ذلؾ إلى التفريط في‬
ideals.
(undertranslation) ‫بالمثؿ كالقيـ‬
‫ي‬ ‫ كالتياكف‬،‫المبادئ الحضارية‬
← .‫اننسانية‬

‫) كمف يجيؿ النظر في جكانب في عظمة ىذا‬4

4) Our great religion of Islam has a
distinguished merit of civilization
that has singled the Muslim Nation
out among the rest over history.
(reduction)
‫ كىدانا إليو– يجد‬،‫الديف– الذم أكرمنا اهلل بو‬
‫ كانت سببان‬،‫ كميزة ظاىرة‬،‫أف ىناؾ سمة بارزة‬
‫في تبكء ىذه األمة مكانتيا المرمكقة بيف األمـ‬
،‫كمنحيا مؤىالت القيادة كالريادة البشرية‬
← !‫كمقكمات الشيادة عمى الناس كافة‬

‫) لعمكـ – يا رعاكـ اهلل – أدركتـ ما ىذه الميزة‬5

5) It is the merit of standing ‘middle
way’ which characterizes every
aspect of Islam and Islamic values,
and cherishes supreme human
values.
(summarization)
،"‫الحضارية؟ ؟ إنيا سمة "االعتداؿ كالكسطية‬
‫ كتبرز‬،‫التي تجمِّي صكر سماحة انسالـ‬
،‫ كرعايتو لممثؿ األخالقية العميا‬،‫محاسف الديف‬
‫كالقيـ اننسانية الكبرل؛ يقكؿ الحؽ – تبارؾ‬
‫ "(ككذلؾ جعمناكـ أمة كسط نا لتككنكا‬:‫كتعالى‬
‫شيداء عمى الناس كيككف الرسكؿ عميكـ‬
← .)‫شييدان‬

The table confirms how pragmatic translation works in application. It has used the
procedures of (1) overgeneralization, (2) generalization, (3) undertranslation, (4) reduction
and (5) summarization. By applying these procedures, the TL translation is disposed of all
redundancies, pomposities, intricacies and rhetorical figures. the translation is made
simple, fluent, sharp and to the point, and, hence, easy for target readers to follow, accept
and comprehend.

5.3 SUMMARY

In fine, pragmatic translation translates the intentions behind texts, but not all types of
texts; only those exemplified earlier in this Chapter, at the level of words, expressions,
statements as well as texts. We can conclude from the translations and their discussions
above that pragmatic translation does not abandon the source text, but interprets its
intentions and implications, based on, and .0derived from it. The main operations on the
text in a pragmatic translation are done via employing several translation procedures,
processes and strategies: (a) unearthing the truth beyond the words; (b) making the

464
implicit intentions explicit; (c) approaching the text socially, culturally, logically, politically
and/or ideologically; (d) disposing of unnecessary redundancies, repetitions and
unimportant details; (e) deleting taboo words and expressions; (f) euphemizing insulting
and sensitive words and phrases; (g) decoding irony; (h) disambiguating ambiguities; (i)
translating the lies of speakers behind their false statements; (j) summarizing; (k)
overgeneralizing; (l) generalizing; (m) undertranslating; (n) reducing; etc.

It is hoped that students of translation, trainee translators and translators can now put the
arguments about pragmatic translation pointed out and confirmed in this Chapter to use
in practice. These arguments can be useful to them in their attempt to sort out some
translation problems created by texts that may hide the real meaning behind words.

465
EXERCISES

(1) Translate the following statements pragmatically into the speakers’ intentions:

‫) مسبع الكارات قميؿ البارات‬1

‫) يكاد المريب يقكؿ خذكني‬2
‫) ال ناقة لو كال جمؿ في االستقالة‬3
‫) العيف بصيرة كاليد قصيرة‬4
‫) ىذا البني آدـ يأكؿ في بطنو نا انر‬5

(2) Translate the next religious expressions pragmatically into English:

!!!‫) أستغفر اهلل العظيـ مف كؿ ذنب عظيـ‬1(

!‫) حسبي اهلل عمى الظالـ‬2(
‫ ما حصؿ شيء‬،‫) قؿ ال إلو إال اهلل‬3(
!‫) إنا هلل إنا إليو راجعكف‬4(
‫) سممت أمرم إلى اهلل كىك صاحب األمر‬5(
‫) قدر اهلل كما شاء فعؿ كال نقكؿ إال ما يرضي ربنا‬6(

(3) The following ironic statements mean quite the opposite of what they say.
Translate them twice: one ironically (or directly); another pragmatically (into
intentions):

!‫ اقتؿ نفسؾ‬،‫بمت أحدنا أفيـ منؾ في العالـ‬

‫) لك قا ى‬1
‫نظر‬
ٍ ‫كقتؿ شعب آمف مسألة فييا‬ ‫تغتفر‬
ٍ ‫) قتؿ امرئ في غابة جريمة ال‬2
!‫) كمف الذكاء ما قتؿ‬3
‫) يالو مف رجؿ عنده قدرات خارقة! إنو يكسر بيضتيف في آف كاحد‬4
‫كلكنني في اليزيمة كالغزاؿ‬ ‫) أنا ما جربت نفسي‬5
!‫) ما رأيت في حياتي أكرـ مف ىذا الرجؿ كال حتى في كتاب البخالء‬6

5) The next extract is from a Friday Sermon on Religious Moderation vs.

Extremism and Oppression )‫(الوسطية واالعتدال مقابل الغمو والظمم‬, at Al-Haram
Mosque, Makkah Al-Mukarramah, by Sheikh Saleh Bin Humeid. Translate it
pragmatically by means of simplification and summarization of the main points,
avoiding rhetorical terms and, repetitions and redundancies in particular, in
form of four short sentences about: (1) religious extremism and oppression; (2)
extremists’ fanaticism; (3) accusing Muslims and their leaders of infidelity; and
(4) dissociating themselves from Muslim Communities:

‫ الغمك ظمـ‬.‫ كاعراض عف منيجو في الكسطية كاالعتداؿ كالرحمة كاليسر كالرفؽ‬،‫(الغمك مشاقة حقيقية ليدم انسالـ‬
‫ كيجعمكنيا‬،‫ الغالة يتعصبكف لجماعتيـ‬.‫ بؿ ىك صد عف سبيؿ اهلل ل ما يكرثو مف تشكيو كفتنة كتنفير‬،‫لمنفس كظمـ لمناس‬
466
‫مصدر الحؽ‪ ،‬كييغمكف في قادتيـ كرؤسائيـ‪ ،‬كيتبرؤكف مف مجتمعات المسمميف‪ ،‬كيي ىكفِّركف بالمعاصي‪ ،‬كييكفركف أىؿ‬
‫انسالـ كحكاـ المسمميف‪ ،‬كيقكلكف بالخركج عمى أئمة المسمميف‪ ،‬كيعتزلكف مجتمعات المسمميف‪ ،‬كيتبرؤكف منيـ‪ .‬ال‬
‫يصمكف خمؼ أئمة المسمميف في مساجد المسمميف‪(.)...‬قضايا األمف الفكرم‪.)29-28 :1436 ،‬‬

‫‪6) Translate the following anecdote pragmatically about a stingy miser in classical‬‬
‫‪Arabic literature, cutting on exaggerations and redundancies. Use simple‬‬
‫‪structures and words:‬‬

‫(مف رؤساء أىؿ البخؿ محمد بف الجيـ‪ ،‬كىك الذم قاؿ‪ :‬كددت لك أف عشرة مف الفقياء‪ ،‬كعشرة مف الخطباء‪ ،‬كعشرة‬
‫مف الشعراء‪ ،‬كعشرة مف األدباء‪ ،‬تكاطؤك عمى ذمي‪ ،‬كاستسيمكا شتمي‪ ،‬حتي ينتشر ذلؾ في اآلفاؽ‪ ،‬فال يمتد إلى أمؿ‬
‫آمؿ‪ ،‬كال يبسط نحكم رجاء راج‪ .‬كقاؿ لو أصحابو يكمان‪ :‬إنا نخشى أف نقعد عندؾ فكؽ مقدار شيكتؾ‪ ،‬فمك جعمت لنا‬
‫عالمة نعرؼ بيا كقت استثقالؾ لمجالستنا‪ .‬فقاؿ‪ :‬عالمة ذلؾ أنأقكؿ‪ :‬يا غالـ ىات الغداء‪( ).‬األبشييي‪)240 :2000 ،‬‬

‫‪7) Translate the next two answers given to the same question below (quoated‬‬
‫‪from the same interview of the BBC with the Tyrant of Syria, Assad, referred to‬‬
‫‪above in this Chapter): The first is a direct answer to the interviewer’s question,‬‬
‫‪which is a pack of lies; whereas the second is the pragmatic, implied truth‬‬
‫‪which discloses the speaker’s lies:‬‬

‫‪Q: Mr President, you've lost control over large areas of Syria, the Islamic State has‬‬
‫‪emerged, there are perhaps 200,000 Syrians dead, millions have lost their homes. Has‬‬
‫?‪Syria become a failed state‬‬
‫سؤال‪ :‬لقد فقدتم السٌطرة على أجراء كبٌرة من سورٌا‪ ،‬وظهرت داعش‪ ،‬ومات أكثر من ‪ 200,000‬سوري‪ ،‬وفقد‬
‫المالٌٌن منارلهم‪ .‬هل أصبحت سورٌا دولة منهارة؟‬
‫ج٘اب ‪ :‬ال‪ ،‬طبٌّب أْ اٌسى‪ِٛ‬خ ‪ِٚ‬ؤعغبد اٌذ‪ٌٚ‬خ رم‪ َٛ‬ثأعّبٌ‪ٙ‬ب فً خذِخ اٌشعت اٌغ‪ٛ‬سي‪ ،‬ال ٔغزطٍع اٌسذٌث عٓ د‪ٌٚ‬خ‬
‫ِٕ‪ٙ‬بسح‪ .‬أِب اٌسذٌث عٓ فمذ اٌغٍطشح فبألِش ِخزٍف رّبِبً‪ٕ٘ .‬بن غض‪ ِٓ ٚ‬اإلس٘بثٍٍٓ ٌأر‪ ِٓ ْٛ‬اٌخبسج‪ٚ ،‬رم‪ َٛ‬اٌسى‪ِٛ‬خ‬
‫ث‪ٛ‬اخج‪ٙ‬ب ثمزبٌ‪ٚ ُٙ‬اٌذفبع عٓ اٌجٍذ‪.‬‬

‫(ٗاىحقٍقح‪ :‬فقذّا اىغٍطشج عيى مو شًء ذقشٌثا ً فً اىثيذ ٗال ظو تيذ ٗال شًء‪ٗ ،‬اىحنٍ٘ح اعٌ حنٍ٘ح‪ ،‬ط٘سٌح الح٘ه‬
‫ىٖا ٗال ق٘ج‪ٗ ،‬ال ذخذً اىشعة‪ ،‬أطالً ال ٌ٘جذ شعة ّحنَٔ‪ٍٗ .‬ؤ عغاخ اىذٗىح دٍشّإا ٍعظَٖا‪ٍٗ ،‬ا ذثقى ٍْٖا عْذٍشٓ‬
‫قشٌثاً‪ٗ .‬ذظحٍحا ً ىنالٍل‪ ،‬قريْا حرى اَُ أمثش ٍِ ‪ 511,111‬ع٘سي ٗششدّا ‪ٍ 11‬يٍّ٘ا ً حرى ذاسٌخٔ ٗاىحثو عيى‬
‫اىجشاس‪ .‬فً اىحقٍقح ىٍظ ْٕاك ال إسٕاتٍُ٘ ٍِ اىخاسج ٗداعش طٍْعرْا ٗحيٍفرْا‪ٗ ،‬أرمشك تَا قيرٔ فً خطاتً فً‬
‫ٍّغاُ عاً ‪ 2114‬أٍاً صتاٍّرً ٍَِ ٌفرشُٗ عيى اىْاط ٌٗغَُ٘ أّفغٌٖ سجاه دٌِ‪ .‬قيد تاىحشف اى٘احذ‪ٌ٘ :‬جذ‬
‫"عششاخ اَالف ٍِ اإلسٕاتٍٍِ اىغ٘سٌٍِ" اىزٌِ خيفٌٖ "حاضْح اجرَاعٍح" ٌٗقذس عذد أفشاد ذيل اىحاضْح تَا‬
‫ٌظو إىى "اىَالٌٍِ ٍِ اىغ٘سٌٍِ"‪ٌ .‬عًْ ال ٌ٘جذ إسٕاتٍُ٘ ٍِ اىخاسج ‪ ،‬تو ادعٍد رىل ىنً ذنُ٘ حجح ىً أٍاً‬
‫اىعاىٌ ألقرو اىشعة اىغ٘سي ٗأششدٓ ٗأدٍش اىثيذ تأمَئ ألٌّٖ ذظإشٗا ضذي ٗأطثح اىنشعً ٍٖذداً‪ٗ .‬أّا عيى اعرعذاد‬
‫ىقريٌٖ جٍَعا ً ٍِ أجو اىنشعً‪.‬‬

‫‪467‬‬
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS
To conclude, this textbook on Translation as Problems and Solutions (Arabic-English): a
Contrastive Linguistic Approach, which is a twin to the English-Arabic Volume, Translation
as Problems and Solutions (English-Arabic) (2008), can be claimed to have been
comprehensive. The major types of translation problems (grammatical, lexical, stylistic,
phonological and pragmatic) have been discussed and exemplified exhaustively, followed
by their possible solutions.

The Introductory Chapter has introduced to the whole book. Basic points about
translation, translation theory and application have been investigated in some details. The
second main point discussed earlier has been the contrastive linguistic approach of the
book as one of the basics of teaching, learning and practicing translation. A further major
point has been the investigation of the main translation methods in circulation, literal,
free, semantic, communicative and pragmatic, and how useful these methods are at
translating different types of Arabic texts into English. The next crucial point surveyed has
the interference in Arabic-English translation which takes place due to several reasons,
linguistic, cultural, personal, etc. and might spoil the whole translation unless attended to
with care. Then the problem of equivalence/non-equivalence has been investigated with
respect to the three types of equivalence, one-to-one, approximate and none equivalence.
All of these types are facts in translating texts of different types in general and pose some
demanding problems of translation to be fixed appropriately by the translator. The
penultimate essential point treated in some detail has been the process of translating
from beginning to end, starting with a pre-translation stage, followed by how to start
translating unit by unit, the unit of translation, what to translate, when to stop translating
and why, how to spot problems of translation of different types and how to solve them,
how to manage to get the best references and how to revise and improve translation. This
has represented an outline of the process of translating in a simplified but professional
way. The final point has provided a brief account of translation problems discussed in each
of the chapters of the book that follow, and suggested criteria for appropriate solutions to
these problems.

In Chapter One on Grammatical Problems of Translation, a good coverage and survey of

the problems of a vast number of Arabic grammatical features and structures into English
has been provided. These include the translation of tenses, objects of different types,
coordination, sentence types, sentence and clause structures, word order, plurals of many
types, conditional sentences, the genitive, types of verbs, adjectives, proverbs,
prepositions, particles of all types, and so on. Several possible solutions have been put
forward in a contrastive way between the two languages with respect to equivalent and
non-equivalent features and structures in the grammar of Arabic and English in a
simplified way as much as possible. The two main conclusions that can be drawn from this
Chapter are, first, the translation of Arabic grammar into English is not a straightforward
process due to the fact that the two languages have numerous differences of grammatical
forms and structures, and the total absence of other features. The second conclusion is
that these differences or the absence of equivalent forms do not hinder translating them
468
for the translator will eventually resort to rendering meaning through any feature and
structure that may be appropriate in the TL. The utmost objective of the Chapter is the
author’s hope to have made the translation of Arabic grammar into English much easier
than it was.

The Second Chapter has dealt with major lexical problems of translation and how to sort
them out in practical, simplified, concretized and lucid terms. It has tackled the following
topics: literary translation, translating synonymy, polysemy, collocations, figurative
language (including idioms, proverbs and metaphors), concept words, proper names,
titles, geographical and institutional (including political) terms and culture. The problems
of translating these topics from Arabic into English have been investigated extensively and
in minute details, with a huge number of illustrative practical examples. Along with these
problems are suggested solutions to them via employing many translation procedures,
strategies and steps. Probably, the translation of Arabic lexis, though sometimes very
difficult, has become clearer, more convenient and much easier for students and
translators to tackle and overcome.

As to Chapter Three, it has discussed the most prominent and recurrent stylistic problems
of translation with their possible solutions. It has asserted that style is considerably
important to the message in both SL and TL texts. Contemporary studies of style have
confirmed that it is inseparable from meaning. So, since our concern in translation is with
meaning, we are required, to keep an open eye on the transmission of the style of the SL
text into the TL as closely and carefully as possible, with exceptions, though. The focus of
the Chapter has been on grammatical / syntactic and lexical / semantic stylistic problems.
That is, whereas fronting, parallelism, complex & simple sentences, short sentences, long
sentences, and passive & active styles are syntactic-stylistic problems; repetition and
variation, redundancy, expressivity, nominalization & verbalization and irony are lexical-
stylistic problems. Only formality vs. informality, ambiguity and punctuation marks are
both syntactic and lexical stylistic problems at the same time. These types of style have
been surveyed and exemplified for hugely regarding their problems of translation and
their solutions to demonstrate their relevance and significance to meaning in translation,
which is why they are discussed.

Chapter Four has dealt with phonological problems of translation. Unlike the previous
three types of translation problems, these limited to few texts only (e.g. literary literature
and ads in particular), they have not been marginalized due to their critical importance to
meaning when they occur. The Chapter has started with providing background knowledge
about a number of key sound patterns like 'Onomatopoeia'; 'Rhyme' (including
alliteration, assonance, consonance and chiming); 'Meter'; and 'Rhythm' in both
Languages concerned. Then, the paramountcy of sound patterns and their effects in
contemporary translation of poetry is developed. It has been argued throughout that
translating poetry is a demanding task, especially from Arabic into English. It has also
been declared that a good poetic translation is entirely based on prosodic and sound
features to be constructed with as much rhyme and rhythm as possible. The general
argument goes for a distinction between two major types of translating poetry: (a)
poetical translation that renders the SLT sense (i.e. literal and direct meaning) with no
concern with prosody or sounds; (b) poetic translation, based on prosodic and sound
features, especially regular rhyme, rhythm and preferably meter and foot. Throughout, a
469
comparison is drawn between pairs of poetical and poetic versions of translation of the
same verses in terms of poetic / non-poetic and literary / un-literary features, prosodic or
otherwise. The goal of such comparison is to make the points of departure between the
two versions sharper, and, hence, the argument for poetic translation more persuasive.

There has also been an exemplification in simple terms of how the process of constructing
poetic translation goes on in practice, giving a practical exercise for trainee translators and
students of translation in particular, and translators in general as how to proceed in steps
in the translation of poetry, and how to solve problems of prosodic features of rhyme,
rhythm, meter and foot in particular. The process is claimed to be applicable to translation
of poetry both ways, English-Arabic, and Arabic-English. The Chapter has ended up with
some procedures, strategies and guidelines for translating poetry. They aim to help
students and translators develop their skills of achieving a satisfactory version of poetic
translation gradually and systematically, and how to solve problems of translating poetry
satisfyingly in practical terms.

The final Chapter on pragmatic problems of translation has made it clear that pragmatic
translation translates the intentions behind texts, but not all types of texts; only those
exemplified for in the Chapter. It can be at the levels of words, expressions, statements as
well as texts. We can conclude from the translations and their discussions above that
pragmatic translation does not abandon the source text, but interprets its intentions and
implications, based on, and derived from it. The main operations on the text in a
pragmatic translation are done via employing several translation procedures, processes
and strategies: (a) unearthing the truth beyond the words; (b) making the implicit
intentions explicit; (c) approaching the text socially, culturally, logically, politically and/or
ideologically; (d) disposing of unnecessary redundancies, repetitions and unimportant
details; (e) deleting taboo words and expressions; (f) euphemizing insulting and sensitive
words and phrases; (g) decoding irony; (h) disambiguating ambiguities; (i) translating the
lies of speakers behind their false statements; (j) summarizing; (k) overgeneralizing; (l)
generalizing; (m) undertranslating; (n) reducing; etc. Finally, it is hoped that students of
translation, trainee translators and translators can now put in use the arguments about
pragmatic translation and its problems pointed out and confirmed throughout the
Chapter. These arguments can be useful to them in their attempt to sort out some
translation problems created by texts that may hide the real meaning behind the words.

A final word is due here. The two twin Volumes on Translation Problems (the First
(English-Arabic) and this one (Arabic-English), the tenth and last in the series of
Translation Textbooks) are complementary, but depart at the point of difficulty / easiness
and the students’ and translators’ level of translation course and experience, which
explains the span of time between publishing them. That is, the former is for those at first
stages of translation on, whereas the latter is for those at later stages on, being much
more difficult than the first. Yet, both can be taken as a basis for translation problems and
their solutions either way: English-Arabic, and Arabic- English, to serve as sources for
students, teachers of translation and translators in the field of translation in practice.

470
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478
 GLOSSARY
absolute metaphor ‫استعارة مطلقة‬
absolute synonym ‫مرادؾ مطل‬/ ‫مطل‬/‫ردٌؾ‬
abstract metaphor ‫استعارة مجردة‬
abstract words ‫كلمات مجردة‬
academic translation )‫ترجمة أكادٌمٌة اصطالحٌة مؤنقة (فً الجامعات البرٌطانٌة‬
acculturation ‫ثقفنة؛ تقمص ثقافي؛ تبني ثقافة اآلخر‬
accusative case ‫حالة النصب‬
accusative ‫النصب؛ المنصوب‬
acronym )‫مختصر(للمصطلحات بحروفها األولى‬
active style ‫أسلوب المبنً للمعلوم‬
activization ‫تفعٌل؛ استعمال المبنً للمعلوم‬
adages ‫أقوال مأثورة‬
adaptation )‫اقتباس (فً الترجمة‬
adapted metaphors ‫استعارات مقتبسة‬
additive connectors/conjunctions ‫حروؾ العطؾ‬
adjectival noun ‫اسم مستعمل كنعت‬/ً‫اسم نعت‬
adjectives ‫صفات؛ نعوت‬
adoption of SL culture ‫تبني ثقافة اآلخر‬
adverbs ‫ظروؾ‬
adverbs of contrast ‫ظروؾ مؽاٌرة‬
adverbs of frequency ‫ظروؾ التكرار؛ ظروؾ الورود المتكرر‬
adverbs of place ‫ظروؾ المكان‬
adverbs of time ‫ظروؾ الرمان‬
adversative connectors/conjunctions ‫روابط المؽاٌرة‬
aesthetic force of language ‫الرخم الجمالً للؽة‬
aggressive ً‫عدوانً؛ تهجم‬
alliteration ‫سجع‬
alternative ‫بدٌل‬
ambiguity ‫ؼموض‬
ambiguous style ‫أسلوب ؼامض‬
anatomy ٌ‫تشر‬
Anglicization ‫أنجلة؛ النقل إاى اإلنجلٌرٌة‬
animistic metaphor ‫استعارة (نسب) العاقل لؽٌر العاقل؛ تشخٌا‬
anthropomorphic metaphor ‫(استعارة تشخٌصٌة؛ تشخٌا‬
anti-acculturation/anti-culturalization ‫ثقفنة مضادة؛ مضاد لمثقفنة مع اآلخر‬
antonymic synonyms ‫مترادفات متضادة‬
antonymy ‫طبا ؛ تضاد‬
applicability ‫إمكانٌة التطبٌ ؛ تطبٌقٌة‬
apposition ‫البدل‬
appositive collocations ‫متالرمات بدلٌة‬
approximate equivalence ً‫ترادؾ تقرٌب‬
approximate translation ‫قرٌبة؛ ترجمة ؼٌر تامة للمعنى‬/‫ترجمة تقرٌبٌة‬
Arabic calques ً‫المستقرضات العربٌة؛ الكلمات اإلنجلٌرٌة من أصل عرب‬
articles ‫أدوات‬

479
‫‪assonance‬‬ ‫سجع األصوات)الصوابت(‬
‫‪at sentence level‬‬ ‫على مستوى)صعٌد(الجملة‬
‫‪at text level‬‬ ‫على مستوى)صعٌد(النا‬
‫‪attached pronoun‬‬ ‫ضمٌر متصل‬
‫‪attitudinal synonyms‬‬ ‫مترادفات موجهة‪/‬منحارة‬
‫‪auxiliaries‬‬ ‫فعال مساعدة )فً اإلنجلٌرٌة(‬
‫‪auxiliary verb‬‬ ‫فعل مساعد )فً اإلنجلٌرٌة(‬
‫‪back naturalization‬‬ ‫تطبٌع عكسً‬
‫‪back translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة عكسٌة‪/‬ترجمة رجعٌة‬
‫‪backgrounding‬‬ ‫تأخٌر؛ توكٌد بالتأخٌر‬
‫‪back-translation test‬‬ ‫اختبار الترجمة العكسٌة‬
‫‪balance‬‬ ‫توارن‬
‫‪bear responsibility‬‬ ‫ٌتحمل مسؤولٌة‬
‫‪beat‬‬ ‫شطر التفعٌلة المشدد‬
‫‪bilingual dictionary‬‬ ‫قاموس ثنابً اللؽة‬
‫‪borderline‬‬ ‫حد فاصل‬
‫‪borrowings‬‬ ‫مستعارات؛ مستقرضات؛ كلمات دخٌلة‬
‫‪bound free translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة حرة مقٌدة (بالسٌا )‬
‫‪brace brackets‬‬ ‫أقواس متعرجة‬
‫‪brackets‬‬ ‫أقواس‬
‫‪capitalism‬‬ ‫الرأسمالٌة‬
‫‪causal connectors/conjunctions‬‬ ‫روابط السببٌة‬
‫‪causative adjectives‬‬ ‫النعت السببً‬
‫‪causative object‬‬ ‫المفعول ألجله‪/‬له‬
‫‪cause and effect‬‬ ‫السبب والنتٌجة‬
‫‪central meaning‬‬ ‫معنى ربٌسً‬
‫‪change of word class‬‬ ‫تؽٌٌر صنؾ الكلمة)من اسم إلى صفة‪ ،‬إلخ‪(.‬‬
‫‪chemical terms‬‬ ‫مصطلحات كٌمٌاء‪/‬كٌمٌابٌة‬
‫‪chiming‬‬ ‫تولؾ‪/‬تقارب الصوت والمعنى‬
‫‪circumstantial accusative‬‬ ‫الحال‬
‫‪circumstantial word‬‬ ‫حال (را المادة السابقة)‬
‫‪civilization‬‬ ‫حضارة‬
‫‪classical Arabic‬‬ ‫اللؽة العربٌة التقلٌدٌة‪/‬التراثٌة‬
‫‪classical style of language‬‬ ‫األسلوب التقلٌدي‪ /‬التراثً للؽة‬
‫‪classifier‬‬ ‫مص ِّنؾ؛ كلمة شارحة (لكلمة مبهمة)‬
‫‪clause‬‬ ‫عبارة فعلٌة‬
‫‪clause by clause‬‬ ‫عبارة فعلٌة عبارة فعلٌة‪/‬عبارة بعد أخرى‬
‫‪clause order‬‬ ‫ترتٌب العبارات الفعلٌة‬
‫‪cliché metaphors‬‬ ‫استعارات مبتذلة‬
‫‪close synonym‬‬ ‫ردٌؾ‪/‬مرادؾ لصٌ‬
‫‪close translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة لصٌقة‬
‫‪closed system irony‬‬ ‫سخرٌة الحٌا بٌا‬
‫‪coalition forces‬‬ ‫قوات التحالؾ )العربً‪/‬الدولً‬
‫‪cod-switching‬‬ ‫تحوٌل بٌلؽوي؛ تبدٌل الشٌفرة؛ تناوب لؽتٌن فً اللؽة‬
‫‪cognate collocations‬‬ ‫متالرمات متجانسة‬
‫‪cognates‬‬ ‫متجانسات‬
‫‪cognitive scopes of conceptual metaphors‬‬ ‫النطاقات المعرفٌة لالستعارات المفهومٌة‬
‫‪cognitive translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة بتصرؾ‬
‫‪480‬‬
cohesive devices ‫أدوات رابطة‬
collocability ً‫ عالقة تالرم لفظ‬،‫تالرمٌة‬
collocate ‫ٌالرم؛ ٌتالرم‬
collocational context ‫سٌا تالرمً؛ التالرم اللفظً باعتباره سٌاقا‬
collocational sets ‫مجموعات تالرمٌة‬
collocations ‫متالرمات لفظٌة‬
colloquial language ‫دارجة‬/‫لؽة عامٌة‬
comitative object ‫المفعول معه‬
comment )‫خبر (الجملة االسمٌة‬
comment-less nominal sentence ‫جملة اسمٌة خبرها محذوؾ‬
common ground )‫ أساس عام (واحد‬،‫أرضٌة عامة‬
common meaning ‫معنى شابع‬/‫معنى عام‬
common phrasal verbs ‫أفعال مركبة شابعة‬
communicative translation )‫ترجمة تخاطبٌة )تخاطب قارئ اللؽة الهدؾ‬
communism ‫الشٌوعٌة‬
compact ‫محكم؛ متضا ّم‬
compactness ‫تضا ّم‬/‫إحكام‬
complex (vs. simple) metaphor )‫استعارة مركبة (مقابل استعارة بسٌطة‬
complex irony ‫سخرٌة مبطنة‬/‫أسلوب تهكم معقد‬
complex style ‫أسلوب معقد‬
complexity ‫تعقٌد‬
complicated network ‫شبكة معقدة‬
complicated grammar ‫قواعد معقدة‬
componential analysis )‫تحلٌل المكونات (مكونات الكلمة‬
components of metaphor ‫مكونات االستعارة‬/‫عناصر‬
compound metaphor ‫تمثٌلٌة‬/‫استعارة مركبة‬
comprehensiveness ‫شمولٌة‬
compulsory pragmatic translation ‫ترجمة مقصدٌة موجبة‬
computer terms ‫مصطلحات الحاسوب‬
concept words ‫كلمات المفاهٌم‬
conceptual mapping of metaphor ... ٌ‫رسم تخطٌطً لالستعارة المفهومٌة؛ خارطة طر‬
conceptual metaphor theory ( CMT) )ً‫ت‬-‫إم‬-ً‫نظرٌة االستعارة المفهومٌة (س‬
conceptual metaphor ‫استعارة مفهومٌة‬
conceptualization ‫االستعارة إلى مفاهٌم‬/‫االستعارة)؛ تحوٌل اللؽة‬/‫مفهمة (اللؽة‬
conclusive expressions ‫تعابٌر قطعٌة‬
conclusive mentality ‫تقرٌرٌة‬/‫عقلٌة قطعٌة‬
conclusiveness ‫قطعٌة؛ جرمٌة؛ تقرٌرٌة‬
concrete evidence ‫دلٌل ملموس‬
concrete metaphor ‫استعارة حسٌة‬
concretive metaphor ‫استعارة الملموس للمجرد‬
conflicting cultures ‫ثقافات متصارعة‬
conjunction ‫أداة ربط‬/‫رابطة‬
connector )‫رابطة)را المادة السابقة‬
connotations )‫مضامٌن (ثقافٌة‬
conservative rendering ‫تقلٌدي‬/‫نقل متحفظ‬
consecutive adjectives qualifying the same noun ‫النعت المسترسل‬
consonance ‫سجع الصوامت‬
construction ‫تركٌب‬
481
contamination ‫تلوث (لؽوي)؛ تبادل بٌلؽوي‬
contempt ‫احتقار‬
context of words ‫سٌا الكلمات‬
contextual metaphor ‫استعارة سٌاقٌة مربٌة‬
contractions ‫اختصارات)قواعدٌة للحروؾ(؛ إدؼامات‬
contrastive apposition ‫المباٌن‬
ِ ‫البدل‬
contrastive connectors ‫روابط المؽاٌرة‬
contrastive heteronyms ‫متجانسات متضادة‬
contrastive irony ً‫مسرح‬/ً‫تهكم درام‬
contrastive linguistics ‫علم اللؽة المقارن‬
contrastive styles ‫أسالٌب مؽاٌرة‬
controlled rendering of SL text ‫نقل منضبط لنا اللؽة المصدر‬
conversion (‫قلب قواعدي)بتقدٌم الفعل على الفاعل فً اإلنجلٌرٌة مثال‬
co-operative principles and its five maxims ‫مبادئ التعاون (فً المحادثة) ومسلماتها الخمس‬
coordination ‫العطؾ‬
coordinators ‫حروؾ العطؾ‬
core combination ‫تركٌب جوهري‬/‫ابتالؾ‬
core meaning ً‫معنى أساس‬/‫معنى جوهري‬
corrective apposition ‫بدل الؽلط‬
countable nouns ‫أسماء معدودة‬
counter-balance (‫مضاد‬/‫توارن مقابل)موار‬
coupling (coordination ‫العطؾ (را‬
covert metaphor ‫استعارة مكنٌة‬
creative translation ‫ترجمة إبداعٌة‬
credibility ‫مصداقٌة‬
criteria ‫فٌاصل؛ معاٌٌر؛ أسس‬
criticism in form of praise ٌ‫الذم بصٌؽة المد‬
cross-culturalization )‫تثاقؾ (بٌنً)؛ تقاطع ثقافً (مع اآلخر‬
crystallized meaning ‫معنى مُبلور‬
cultural ً‫ثقاف‬
cultural ambiguity ً‫ؼموض ثقاف‬
cultural clash ً‫تصادم ثقاف‬
cultural correspondence ً‫تطاب ثقاف‬
cultural differences ‫فرو ثقافٌة‬/‫اختالفات‬
cultural equivalent ً‫مكافا ثقاف‬/‫مرادؾ‬
cultural meaning ً‫مؽرى ثقاف‬/‫معنى‬
cultural metaphors ‫استعارات ثقافٌة‬
cultural neutralization ً‫تحٌٌد ثقاف‬
cultural problem ‫مشكلة ثقافٌة‬
cultural terms ‫مصطلحات ثقافٌة‬
cultural titles ‫عناوٌن ثقافٌة‬/‫ألقاب‬
culturalization )‫ تثقيؼ (المغة أك النص‬،‫ثقفنة؛ تثاقؼ؛ مثاقفة‬
culture ‫ثقافة‬
culture-specific ‫خاا بثقافة ما‬
currency of use ‫رواج فً االستعمال‬
cut-off statement ‫)أسلوب( الكالم المبتور‬
dangerous translation ‫ترجمة خطرة‬
dash (‫شرطة)اعتراضٌة‬/‫قاطعة‬
482
dead metaphors ‫استعارات الشعورٌة؛ استعارات مٌتة‬
deceitful synonyms ‫خداعة‬/‫مترادفات مخادعة‬
de-coding irony ‫حل لؽر االستعارة‬
deculturalization ‫إزاحة الثقافة األـ؛ اعتناؽ ثقافة اآلخر؛ خيانة ثقافية‬
definite article ‫الـ التعرٌؾ‬/‫أداة تعرٌؾ‬
de-fusing the cultural element ‫إراحة العنصر الثقافً؛ تحٌٌد المصطل ثقافٌا‬
degrading irony of similitude ‫التهكم التمثٌلً المهٌن‬
degrees of expressivity ‫درجات التعبٌرٌة‬
degrees of popularity ‫درجات الشعبٌة‬
deixis ‫أدوات اإلشارة‬/‫أسماء‬
delayed subject / object )ً‫مفعول به مؤخر (فً النحو العرب‬/‫فاعل‬
deliberate metaphors ‫استعارات محْ كمة‬
deliberate paralogism ‫)أسلوب( المؽالطة‬
demagogy/demagoguism ‫الدٌماؼوجٌة؛ الدهماوٌة؛ الفوضوٌة‬
demonstrative and relative pronouns ‫أسماء اإلشارة واألسماء الموصولة‬
derivation ‫اشتقا‬
derivative / supplementary metaphor ‫استعارة تبعٌة‬
dispirited text ‫نا جامد؛ نا ال رو فٌه‬
deviation )‫انرٌا ؛ انحراؾ (عن قواعد اللؽة‬
dictionary meaning ‫معنى معجمً؛ معنى حبٌس المعجم ؼٌر شابع فً االستعمال‬
differences ‫فرو ؛ اختالفات‬
different styles ‫أسالٌب متباٌنة‬
dimensions of meaning ‫أبعاد المعنى‬
diminutive names ‫ مصؽرة‬/ ‫أسماء تصؽٌر‬
direct idioms (‫تعابٌر اصطالحٌة مباشرة)فً الترجمة‬
direct language ‫لؽة عادٌة‬/‫لؽة مباشرة‬
direct meaning ‫معنى مباشر‬
direct translation ‫ترجمة مباشرة‬
direct vs. indirect translation )‫ترجمة مباشرة (لما وراء النا) مقابل ترجمة ؼٌر مباشرة (للمعنى الظاهري‬
disguised irony (‫سخرٌة خفٌة)الذعة‬/‫تهكم مق ّنع‬
disguised irony ‫التهكم التنكري‬
dogmatism ‫التعس؛ التعسفٌة‬
double entendre hyperbolic comment ‫التعلٌ ذو الوجهٌن بالمبالؽة‬
double topics and one comment ‫مبتدآن بخبر واحد‬
double-decker compromising metaphor ‫استعارة وفاقٌة‬
dramatic irony ً‫تهكم درام‬
duality ‫اردواجٌة‬
dynamic translation ‫متؽٌرة‬/‫ترجمة متحركة‬
effect(s) ‫أثر؛ تأثٌر‬
elaborate redundancy ‫متعمد‬/‫حشو مُحْ كم‬
elaborate variation ‫تنوع ترادفً محكم‬
embarrassment ‫إربا‬/‫إحراج‬
embedded metaphors ‫استعارات مبطنة‬
emotion metaphor ‫استعارة عواطؾ‬
emphasis ‫تأكٌد؛ توكٌد‬
emphatic redundancy ‫حشو توكٌدي‬
engendering ‫تولٌد‬
English culture ‫ثقافة إنجلٌرٌة‬
483
equative verb )‫فعل مكافا؛ فعل معادل بٌن كلمتٌن (مثل فعل ’ٌكون‘ باإلنجلٌرٌة‬
equivalent ‫مكافا؛ مرادؾ‬
equivalent style ‫أسلوب مرادؾ‬
equivocation ‫المواربة‬
established naturalization ‫تطبٌع معتمد‬
established transcription ‫رسم لفظً معتمد‬
established translation ‫ترجمة معتمدة‬
euphemistic pragmatic translation: ‫ترجمة مقصدٌة ملطفة‬
exception ‫االستثناء‬
exclamation mark ‫إشارة التعجب‬
exclamation verbs ‫أفعال التعجب‬
exemplary metaphor َّ
)‫(ممثل لها بمثال‬ ‫استعارة تمثٌلٌة‬
explicative apposition ‫عطؾ البٌان‬
explicit metaphors ‫تصرٌحٌة‬/‫استعارات بٌنة‬
expressive ‫تعبٌري؛ معبر‬
expressive texts ‫نصوا معبرة‬/‫نصوا تعبٌرٌة‬
expressive word ‫ملٌبة بالمعانً المعبرة‬/‫معبرة‬/‫كلمة تعبٌرٌة‬
expressivity ‫تعبٌرٌة‬
expressivity, context and readership ‫التعبٌرٌة والسٌا والقراء‬
extended metaphor ‫استعارة مرشحة‬
extended metaphors )‫استعارات تمددٌة (على مستوى مقطع أونا‬
facts and fallacies ‫حقاب ومؽالطات‬
faithful and false friends ‫كلمات وفٌة وآخرى خداعة‬
faithfulness ‫صد ؛ أمانة‬
fallacy ‫مؽالطة‬
familiar alternatives ‫بدابل مألوفة‬
familiarity ‫ألفة‬
figurative language ‫لؽة مجارٌة‬
fixed collocations (‫اصطالحٌة‬/‫متالرمات لفظٌة ثابتة)ؼٌر قابلة للتؽٌٌر‬
fixed expression ً‫اصطالح‬/‫تعبٌر ثابت‬
fixed metaphor ‫اصطالحٌة‬/‫استعارة ثابتة‬
fixed phrase ‫اصطالحٌة‬/‫عبارة ثابتة‬
fixed saying ً‫اصطالح‬/‫قول ثابت‬
fixed structure ‫اصطالحٌة‬/‫بنٌة ثابتة‬
fixedness ‫ثبات؛ اصطالحٌة‬
flexibility ‫مرونة‬
foot ‫تفعٌلة‬
foregrounding )‫تصدٌر؛ تقدٌم (كلمة إلى صدر الجملة‬
foreign culture ‫ثقافة أجنبٌة‬
foreign nature ‫طبٌعة أجنبٌة‬
foreign technical term ً‫مصطل فنً أجنب‬
foreign term(s) ‫مصطلحات أجنبٌة‬
foreignization )‫أجنبة (الكلمات أو الثقافة‬
forgetfulness apposition ‫بدل النسٌان‬
formal ٌ‫فص‬
formal Arabic ‫عربٌة فصحى‬
formal language ‫لؽة فصحى‬
formal metaphor ‫استعارة فصحى‬
484
formal titles ‫ألقاب رسمٌة‬
formal vs. dynamic translation ‫الترجمة الثابتة مقابل الترجمة المتحركة‬
formal vs. informal language ‫لؽة فصحى مقابل لؽة ؼٌر فصحى‬
formality ‫فصاحة‬
formality scale ‫سلم الفصاحة‬
forms of address ‫صٌػ األلقاب‬
free translation ‫ترجمة حرة‬
frequency ‫تكرارٌة‬/‫ورود متكرر‬
front position (‫موقع متصدر)فً أول الجملة‬
fronted clause ‫عبارة فعلٌة متصدرة‬
fronted comment by implication ‫مبتدأ مقدم ضمنٌا‬
fronted words (‫كلمات متصدرة)للجملة‬
fronting ‫تصدٌر‬/‫تقدٌم‬
frozen formal ‫القحة‬/‫)اللؽة(الفصحى جدا‬
frustrating praise irony ‫تهكم مدٌ محبط‬
full meaning ‫معنى كامل‬
full stop ‫نقطة‬
full translation of meaning ‫الترجمة الكاملة للمعنى‬
fully identical apposition (‫المطاب )أو بدل الكل من الكل‬
ِ ‫البدل‬
function ‫وظٌفة‬
functional redundancy ‫مقصود‬/ً‫حشو وظٌف‬
functional view of style ‫رؤٌة وظٌفٌة لؤلسلوب‬
generalization ‫عمومٌة؛ تعمٌم‬
genitive(case) ‫حالة اإلضافة؛ المضاؾ والمضاؾ إلٌه‬
genuine adjectives ً‫النعت الحقٌق‬
geographical terms ‫مصطلحات جؽرافٌة‬
give" set of verbs ‫)أفعال أعطى وأخواتها‬
god's glorious names ‫أسماء هللا الحسنى‬
good intentions translations ‫ترجمات النواٌا الطٌبة‬
good justification ‫حسن التعلٌل‬
good reason ‫سبب وجٌه‬
grading scale ً‫سلم تدرج‬
grammatical complexity(complication) ‫تعقٌد قواعدي‬
grammatical construction ‫تركٌب قواعدي‬
grammatical function ‫وظٌفة قواعدٌة‬
grammatical problems ‫مشاكل قواعدٌة‬
grammatical structure ‫بنٌة قواعدٌة‬
grammatical stylistic problems ‫مشاكل أسلوبٌة قواعدٌة‬
grammatical words ‫كلمات قواعدٌة‬
greater context ‫السٌا األكبر؛ سٌا النا‬
grouping ‫تجمٌع؛ تركٌب؛ ضم‬
heterolingualism ‫تبدٌل بٌلؽوي‬
heteronyms )‫المتجانسات حروفا (المختلفة معنى ونطقا‬
hidden agenda ‫المبطن‬/ً‫جدول األعمال الخفً؛ المعنً الضمن‬
historic figures ‫أعالم؛ مشاهٌر؛ عظماء‬
Hitlerism ‫الهتلرٌة‬
homonyms )‫المتجانسات لفظا (المختلفة معنى‬
honest willingness to arabize ‫إرادة صادقة للتعرٌب‬
485
honesty ‫صد ؛ أمانة‬
humanizing metaphor ‫استعارة تشخٌصٌة؛ تشخٌا‬
hybrid metaphor ‫استعارة مهجنة‬
hybridity ‫تبدٌل لؽوي‬/‫هجٌن‬
ideational/conceptual metaphor ‫ ؼٌر حسٌة‬/ ‫استعارة فكرٌة‬
identical grammatical structure ‫بنٌة قواعدٌة مطابقة‬
identical style ‫أسلوب مطاب‬
ideology ‫ إٌدٌولوجٌة‬/ ‫ أدلجة‬/ ‫توجه فكري‬
ideology-loaded conceptual metaphors ‫استعارات مفهومٌة مؤدلجة‬
ideology-neutral conceptual metaphors ‫استعارات مفهومٌة محٌدة إٌدٌولوجٌا‬
idiom ً‫تعبٌر اصطالح‬
idiomatic meaning ‫معنى مجاري‬/ً‫معنى اصطالح‬
idiomatic translation ‫ترجمة اصطالحٌة‬
idiomaticity ‫اصطالحٌة؛ مجار‬
image(of a metaphor) (‫المشبه)فً االستعارة‬
imminence verbs ‫أفعال الش‬
impact ‫تأثٌر‬
imperfective verbs (‫األفعال الناقصة )كان وأخواتها‬
implication ‫مضمون؛ مدلول؛ تضمٌن‬
implicature )...‫ أو نا‬،‫مضمون المضمون؛ مدلول المدلول؛ مصمون؛ مدلول (كلمة‬
implied meaning ً‫معنى ضمن‬
impolite style ‫أسلوب فظ‬
importance of style ‫أهمٌة األسلوب‬
inaccurate translation ‫خاطبة‬/‫ترجمة ؼٌر دقٌقة‬
inception verbs ‫أفعال الشروع‬
inclusive apposition ‫بدل االشتمال‬
indecencies ‫ؼٌر محتشمة‬/‫كلمات خادشة للحٌاء‬
indefinite article (‫نكرة )فً اإلنجلٌرٌة‬/‫أداة تنكٌر‬
indirect idioms (‫تعابٌر اصطالحٌة ؼٌر مباشرة)فً الترجمة‬
indirect meaning ‫معنى ؼٌر مباشر؛ معنى مجاري‬
indirect translation ‫ترجمة مجارٌة‬/‫ترجمة ؼٌر مباشرة‬
individual metaphor ‫استعارة فردٌة‬
inescapable ‫ال مفر منه؛ ال منجى منه‬
infiltration interference ً‫ارتشاح‬/ً‫تداخل لؽوي تخلخل‬
inflectional verbs (‫)األفعال المتصرفة‬
inflexible ‫ثابت؛ ؼٌر قابل للمرونة‬
informal ً‫ؼٌر فصٌ ؛ شبه فصٌ ؛ عام‬
informal Arabic ‫عربٌة ؼٌر فصحى؛ عربٌة عامٌة‬
informal expressions ‫تعابٌر ؼٌر فصحى‬
informal language ‫لؽة ؼٌر فصحى‬
informal sayings ‫أقوال ؼٌر فصحى‬
informality ‫ال فصاحة؛ شبه فصاحة؛ عامٌة‬
information translation ‫ترجمة معلومٌة‬
innermost verbs: verbs of certainty ‫ أفعال الٌقٌن‬:‫أفعال القلوب‬
innermost verbs: verbs of uncertainty/reckoning/likelihood ‫ أفعال الظن‬:‫أفعال القلوب‬
innuendo irony ‫ تهكم المد المذموم‬/‫سخرٌة لمّاحة‬
innuendo: the strange irony ‫تهكم مبطن ؼرٌب‬
insertions (‫اعتراضات)للجملة‬/‫إدخاالت‬/‫إقحامات‬
486
insinuation ‫الؽمر واللمر‬
intentions ‫نواٌا‬
interchangeable ‫متداخل؛ قابل للتبادل؛ متقاطع‬
interchangeable synonymous translation ‫ترجمة ترادفٌة متداخلة‬
interlanguage ‫تداخل لؽوي‬/‫تبادل‬
interpenetration ‫تخلخل؛ تداخل لؽوي‬
interpretation ‫تأوٌل؛ تفسٌر‬
interrogative ً‫االستفهام؛ استفهام‬
intimate style ‫أسلوب حمٌم‬
intransitivity ‫الفعلٌة؛ ؼٌاب الفعل‬
invariable noun plurals ‫صٌػ جمع ثابتة‬
invasion of foreign technology ‫ؼرو التقنٌة)التقانة(األجنبٌة‬
irony ‫تهكم؛ سخرٌة‬
irony of fate/cosmic irony ‫شر البلٌة ما ٌضح ؛ سخرٌة القدر‬
irony ‫تهكم‬
irregular plural ‫جمع التكسٌر‬
jargon ‫رطانة؛ لؽة مقعرة‬
jingoism ‫ ؼلو فً الوطنٌة‬/ ‫التعصب للوطنٌة‬
language academies ‫مجامع اللؽة العربٌة‬/‫المجامع اللؽوٌة‬
language components ‫عناصر اللؽة‬/‫مكونات‬
language stock ‫المخرون اللؽوي‬/‫مخرون اللؽة‬
langue ‫لؽة‬
legal language ‫لؽة قانونٌة‬
levels of language ‫مستوٌات اللؽة‬
levels of meaning ‫طبقات المعنى‬/‫مستوٌات المعنى‬
lexical ambiguity ً‫ؼموض لفظ‬
lexical analysis ً‫تحلٌل لفظ‬
lexical family ‫عابلة لفظٌة‬
lexical items ‫ألفاظ‬
lexical problems ‫مشاكل لفظٌة‬/‫مشاكل معجمٌة‬
lexical set ‫مجموعة مترادفات‬/‫مجموعة لفظٌة‬
lexical words ‫كلمات معجمٌة‬
lexicology )‫دراسة األلفاظ (الكلمات المعجمٌة‬
liberalism ‫ التفلت‬/ ‫اللٌبرالٌة‬
line of camels ‫رتل من الجمال‬/‫صؾ‬
linguistic context ‫سٌا لؽوي‬
linguistic culture ‫ثقافة لؽوٌة‬
linguistic interference )‫تشوٌش لؽوي (من اللؽة األم‬/‫تداخل‬
“literal” as opposed to non-literal/metaphorical meaning ‫المعنى الحرفً بخالؾ المعنى المجاري‬
“literal” as the accurate meaning of words verbatim ‫المعنً الحرفً باعتباره المعنى الدقٌ للكلمات‬
“literal” as the common meaning of words ‫األساسً للكلمة‬/‫المعنى الحرفً باعتباره المعنى الشابع‬
“literal” as the real meaning in context ‫المعنى الحرفً باعتباره المعنى الحقٌقً للكلمة‬
literal meaning ‫ؼٌر مجاري‬/ً‫سٌاق‬/‫شابع‬/ ٌ‫دق‬/ً‫معنى حرف‬
literal translation ‫الترجمة الحرفٌة‬
literal translation of meaning ‫الترجمة الحرفٌة )الدقٌقة( للمعنى‬
literal understanding ً‫فهم حرف‬
literal vs. free translation ‫الترجمة الحرفٌة مقابل الترجمة الحرة‬
literary collocation ً‫متالرم لقظً أدب‬
487
literary culture ‫ثقافة أدبٌة‬
logical acceptability ً‫تقبل منطق‬
long sentencing ‫أسلوب )استعمال( الجمل الطوٌلة‬
loose free translation ( ‫ترجمة حرة طلٌقة )من قٌود السٌا‬
machine terms ‫مصطلحات)أسماء(اآللة‬
main verb ً‫فعل ربٌس‬
major linguistic context (‫شامل‬/‫سٌا لؽوي كبٌر)عام‬
making logic ‫ذو منط‬
making sense ‫مؽرى‬/‫ذو معنى‬
man-of-wisdom style ‫أسلوب الحكٌم‬
meaningful ‫ذو معنى‬/‫ذو مؽرى‬
measurement ‫قٌاس‬
measures (‫مقاٌٌس)لؽوٌة‬
medical terms ‫مصطلحات طبٌة‬
message ‫رسالة‬/‫فحوى‬
meta-metaphor / key metaphor ‫جامعة‬/‫استعارة أساسٌة‬
metaphor ‫استعارة‬
metaphorical ‫مجاري‬/‫استعاري‬
metaphorical collocations ‫مجارٌة‬/‫متالرمات استعارٌة‬
metaphorical meaning ‫مجاري‬/‫معنى استعاري‬
metaphorical use ‫استعمال مجاري‬
metaphor-word (‫الكلمة االستعارة)كأحد مكونات االستعارة‬
methods of translation ‫طر الترجمة‬
metonymy ‫كناٌة‬
metre(meter) (‫بحر )فً الشعر‬
ministry terms ‫مصطلحات الورارات‬
minor linguistic context (‫سٌا لؽوي صؽٌر)محدود‬
miscellaneous ‫متفرقات‬
misinterpretation ‫سوء تأوٌل؛ تفسٌر خاطا‬
mistranslation ‫سوء ترجمة؛ ترجمة خاطبة‬
mixed conceptual-concrete metaphor ‫حسٌة‬-‫استعارة فكرٌة‬
mixed concrete-conceptual metaphor ‫فكرٌة‬-‫استعارة حسٌة‬
mixed metaphors )‫استعارات مرٌ (بٌن المٌتة والحدٌثة‬
modal verbs (‫أفعال مساعدة )فً اإلنجلٌرٌة‬
modals (‫)را المادة السابقة‬
modern standard Arabic(msa) (‫اللؽة العربٌة الفصحى الحدٌثة )المعاصرة‬
modern style of language ‫أسلوب اللؽة الحدٌث‬
modification (‫وصؾ )قواعدي‬
monolingual dictionary ‫قاموس أحادي اللؽة‬
monomodal metaphor ‫استعارة أحادٌة‬
monosemic word ‫كلمة وحٌدة المعنى‬
monosemy ‫أحادٌة المعنى‬
MSA (modern standard Arabic ‫)را‬
multimodal/complex concept metaphor ‫استعارة مفهومٌة مركبة‬
Islamic culture ‫الثقافة اإلسالمٌة‬
naturalization )‫تطبٌع )كلمات أجنبٌة بتؽٌٌر فً النط أوالقواعد أو التهجبة‬
naturalize ‫ٌُطبِّع‬
naturalized word ‫كلمة مطبَّعة‬
488
near synonymy ً‫تقرٌب‬/‫ترادؾ قرٌب‬
negative synonyms ً‫ذات مضمون سلب‬/‫مترادفات سلبٌة‬
negotiating cultural differences in translation ‫التوفٌ بٌن االختالفات الثقافٌة‬
neologism ‫مستجدة؛ كلمة جدٌدة‬
nominal vs. verbal sentences ‫جمل اسمٌة مقابل جمل فعلٌة‬
nominalization ‫اسمٌة؛ استعمال األسماء من دون األفعال‬
nominal sentence adjectives ‫نعت الجملة االسمٌة‬
non-augmented/root vs. augmented/derivative verbs ‫األفعال المجردة‬
non-creative vs. creative translation (‫ترجمة خالقة )إبداعٌة(مقابل ترجمة ؼٌر خالقة)ؼٌر إبداعٌة‬
non-culturalization ‫ال تثاقؾ؛ رفض ثقافة اآلخر‬
non-equivalence )‫ال ترادؾ (لكلمة فً اللؽة األخرى‬
non-fictional prose ً‫ؼٌر الرواب‬/ً‫النثر ؼٌر القصص‬
non-frequency ‫عدم توارد؛ ال توارد؛ عدم ورود متكرر‬
non-inflectional verbs ‫األفعال الجامدة‬
non-literal translation ‫ترجمة ؼٌر حرفٌة‬
non-metaphorical use ‫استعمال ؼٌر مجاري‬
non-Muslim culture ‫ثقافة ؼٌر إسالمٌة‬
non-pragmatic vs. pragmatic translation ‫ترجمة ؼٌر مقصدٌة مقابل ترجمة مقصدٌة‬
non-standard measures ‫مقاٌٌس ؼٌر معٌارٌة‬
non-technical terms ‫شعبٌة‬/‫ؼٌر تخصصٌة‬/‫مصطلحات ؼٌر فنٌة‬
normal word order (‫ترتٌب كالم اعتٌادي)مألوؾ‬
normality ‫اعتٌادٌة؛ ألفة‬
noun substitution ‫استبدال االسم‬
object foregrounding ‫تقدٌم المفعول به‬
objectivity ‫حٌادٌة‬/‫موضوعٌة‬
obligation ‫فرٌضة‬/‫فرض‬/‫قسر‬/‫إلرام‬
off-beat ‫شطر التفعٌلة المخفؾ‬
official style ( ‫أسلوب رسمً)منم‬
one-to-one equivalent )‫بواحد (فً اللؽة األخرى‬-‫مرادؾ واحد‬
one-to-one literal translation ‫ترجمة حرفٌة واحد بواحد‬
onomatopoeia ‫محاكاة الصوت للمعنى‬
onomatopoeic expressions ‫تعابٌر محاكاة الصوت والمعنى‬
openness / open-mindedness )‫االنفتا (على اآلخر‬
optional pragmatic translation ‫ترجمة مقصدٌة خٌارٌة‬
original metaphor ‫استعارة أصلٌة‬
over-exaggeration ‫إفراط فً المبالؽة‬/‫مؽاالة‬/ ‫إؼرا‬
overstatement )‫مبالؽة (شدٌدة‬
overt metaphor ‫استعارة تصرٌحٌة‬
paradox ‫مفارقة‬
paragraph by paragraph ‫فقرة بعد أخرى‬/‫فقرةّ فقرة‬
parallel ‫موار‬
ٍ
parallel collocational sequence ‫نس تالرمً متوار‬
parallelism ‫توار‬
paraphrase (‫شر )مقتضب‬
parentheses (‫أقواس هاللٌة)اعتراضٌة‬
parliamental terms ‫مصطلحات برلمانٌة‬
parole ‫أداء؛ محادثة‬
particle (article ‫أداة (را‬
489
‫‪particles‬‬ ‫الحروؾ‬
‫‪passive‬‬ ‫المجهول؛ المبنً للمجهول‬
‫‪passive vs. active style‬‬ ‫أسلوب المبنً للمجهول مقابل أسلوب المبنً للمعلوم‬
‫‪passivity‬‬ ‫مجهولٌة؛ استخدام المبنً للمجهول؛ سلبٌة‬
‫‪passivization‬‬ ‫مجهولٌة‬
‫‪pathetic fallacy‬‬ ‫المؽالطة المثٌرة للشفقة‬
‫‪pedantic skill‬‬ ‫مهارة متحذلقة؛ مهارة مفتعلة‬
‫‪pedants‬‬ ‫المتشدقون؛ المتحذلقون‬
‫‪periphrasis‬‬ ‫تنوع ترادفً بالؼً‬
‫‪phonological problems‬‬ ‫مشاكل صوتٌة‬
‫‪phonology‬‬ ‫دراسة األصوات‬
‫‪phrasal verbs‬‬ ‫أفعال مركبة‬
‫‪phrase‬‬ ‫عبارة (اسمٌة)‬
‫‪phrase by phrase‬‬ ‫عبارة عبارة‪/‬عبارة بعد أخرى‬
‫‪pictorial / visual / non-verbal metaphor‬‬ ‫صورٌة‪/‬مربٌة‪/‬ؼٌر كالمٌة‬ ‫استعارة ُ‬
‫‪pidginization‬‬ ‫هجٌن؛ تبدٌل بٌلؽوي‬
‫‪pitch‬‬ ‫طبقة الصوت‬
‫‪poetic translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة شعرٌة‪/‬شاعرٌة‬
‫‪poetical translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة ؼٌر شعرٌة؛ ترجمة عادٌة‬
‫‪plain prose translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة مبسطة‪/‬تبسٌطٌة‬
‫‪poetry‬‬ ‫شعر‬
‫‪politeness‬‬ ‫(مبدأ) اللطافة؛ الكٌاسة (فً المحادثة)‬
‫‪political culture‬‬ ‫ثقافة سٌاسٌة‬
‫‪political establishments‬‬ ‫مؤسسات سٌاسٌة‬
‫‪polysemic word‬‬ ‫كلمة متعددة المعانً‬
‫‪polysemous‬‬ ‫تعددي‪/‬متعدد)المعنى(‬
‫‪polysemy‬‬ ‫المشتر اللفظً‪/‬تعدد المعنى‬
‫‪pompous translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة طنانة رنانة‬
‫‪poor text‬‬ ‫نا فقٌر‪/‬نا رديء)األسلوب(‬
‫‪poor translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة فقٌرة‪/‬ترجمة ردٌبة‬
‫‪popular synonyms‬‬ ‫مترادفات شعبٌة‬
‫‪pose serious problems‬‬ ‫ٌشكل‪ٌ/‬طر مشاكل خطٌرة‬
‫‪positive synonyms‬‬ ‫مترادفات إٌجابٌة‪/‬ذات مضمون إٌجابً‬
‫‪postmodification‬‬ ‫وصؾ بعدي (للكلمة)‬
‫‪practical approach‬‬ ‫منه عملً‬
‫‪pragmatic functions‬‬ ‫وظابؾ‪/‬مضامٌن مقصدٌة‬
‫‪pragmatic implicature‬‬ ‫مدلول مقصدي؛ معنى ما وراء السٌا‬
‫‪pragmatic problems‬‬ ‫مشاكل مقصدٌة‬
‫‪pragmatic translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة مقصدٌة؛ ترجمة النواٌا‪/‬المقاصد‬
‫‪pragmatics‬‬ ‫علم المقاصد‪/‬النواٌا؛ مقصدٌة‬
‫‪praise and dispraise verbs‬‬ ‫أفعال المدٌ والذم‬
‫‪praise in form of criticism‬‬ ‫المدٌ بصٌؽة الذم‬
‫‪precede and proceed‬‬ ‫ٌسب وٌلح‬
‫‪precision of translation‬‬ ‫دقة الترجمة‬
‫‪premodification‬‬ ‫وصؾ قبلً (للكلمة)‬
‫‪prepositional phrase‬‬ ‫الجا ّر والمجرور‬
‫‪prepositional verbs‬‬ ‫أفعال جرٌة‪/‬أفعال متبوعة بحرؾ جر‬
‫‪presupposed theory‬‬ ‫نظرٌة مسلم بها‬
‫‪490‬‬
primary conceptual metaphors ‫استعارات مفهومٌة أساسٌة‬
problem by problem ‫مشكلة مشكلة؛ مشكلة بعد أخرى‬
process of translating ‫عملٌة القٌام بالترجمة؛ عملٌة سٌر الترجمة‬
prophetic traditions ‫أحادٌث نبوٌة‬
prose rhyme style ‫أسلوب النثر المقفى‬
prose rhyme ‫نثر مقفى‬
prosody ‫عروض‬
proverbs ‫أمثال؛ حكم‬
provocative tone ‫نؽمة تحرٌضٌة؛ أسلوب استفراري‬
proximity principle ‫مبدأ التقرٌبٌة؛ مبدأ الترجمة التقرٌبٌة‬
pun ‫تورٌة‬
punctuation(marks) ‫الترقٌن‬/‫عالمات الترقٌم‬
purism ‫ترمت؛ صفوٌة‬
purist )‫صفوي؛ مترمت (فً اللؽة‬
quotation marks ‫عالمات اقتباس؛ مردوجان‬
radicalism ‫الٌسارٌة المتطرفة؛ الرادٌكالٌة‬
reactionary irony ‫تهكم انفعالً؛ سخرٌة ردة الفعل‬
readership ‫جمهور القراء؛ قُ ّراء‬
real meaning ً‫معنى حقٌقً؛ معنى فعل‬
recent metaphor ‫استعارة حدٌثة‬
recognized translation ‫ مقرَّ ة‬/‫ترجمة معتمدة‬
reconciliation metaphors ‫استعارات توفٌقٌة‬
reconciliation ٌ‫تصال ؛ توف‬
recurrence ‫توارد‬/‫ورود متكرر‬/‫رواج‬
recurrency )‫(را المادة السابقة‬
redundancy ‫حشو؛ إطناب‬
redundant ً‫إطناب‬
referential synonyms )‫الشخا نفسه‬/‫مترادفات إشارٌة (تشٌر للشًء‬
refraining / alternative apposition ‫بدل اإلضراب‬
regular plurals ‫جمع سالم‬
relative adjectives ً‫النعت النسب‬
relative pronouns ‫األسماء الموصولة‬
relevance(to meaning) (‫صلة وثٌقة)بالمعنى‬
religious culture ‫ثقافة دٌنٌة‬
religious metaphors ‫استعارات دٌنٌة‬
religious phrase ‫عبارة دٌنٌة‬
religious titles ‫ألقاب دٌنٌة‬
render (‫ٌنقل)معنى فً الترجمة‬
rendering meaning ‫نقل المعنى‬
rendition (‫نقل)نا فً الترجمة‬
repetition ‫تكرار‬
repetition and variation ‫التكرار والتنوٌع‬
replacement of meaning ‫تبدٌل المعنى‬/‫إبدال‬
reproducing meaning ‫إعادة إنتاج المعنى‬
retention of redundancy ‫اإلبقاء على الحشو‬
retranslate ‫ٌعٌد الترجمة؛ ٌترجم من جدٌد؛ ٌترجم ثانٌة‬
reversive collocations ‫متالرمات متعاكسة‬
rhetorical question ً‫البالؼ‬/‫االستفهام اإلنكاري‬
491
rhyme ‫قافٌة‬
rhymed humour ‫طرؾ مقفاة‬ ُ
rhythm ‫إٌقاع‬
right translation ‫ترجمة صحٌحة‬
Romance Languages )‫اللؽات الرومانسٌة (متفرعة من الالتٌتٌة‬
root verb )‫الفعل الجذر؛ الجذر (الثالثً فً العربٌة‬
satisfactory translation ‫ترجمة ُمرضٌة‬
scansion/scanning ‫تقطٌع شعري‬
scientific terms ‫مصطلحات علمٌة‬
self-correction ً‫تصحٌ ذات‬
semantic ً‫معنوي؛ دالل‬
semantic vs. communicative translation ‫الترجمة المعنوٌة مقابل الترجمة التخاطبٌة‬
semi-collocation ً‫شبه متالرم لفظ‬
semi-colon ‫فاصلة منقوطة‬
Semitic Languages ‫لؽات سامٌة‬
semi-verbal structures ‫بنى شبه فعلٌة؛ أشباه جمل‬
sensible translation ‫مقبولة‬/‫ترجمة معقولة‬
sensitive ‫حساس‬
sensitivity ‫حساسٌة‬
sentence by sentence ‫جملة جملة؛ جملة بعد أخرى‬
sentence connectors ‫روابط الجمل؛ أدوات ربط الجمل‬
sentence types ‫أنماط الجمل‬
serious mistake ‫خطأ جسٌم‬
service translation ‫ترجمة خدماتٌة بلؽة مألوفة‬
shade of ambiguity ‫ؼموض طفٌؾ؛ أثر ؼموض‬
sharp tone ‫نؽمة حادة‬
sharp wit ‫تعبٌرات الذعة‬
short sentencing ‫أسلوب)استعمال( الجمل القصٌرة‬
show of muscles ‫استعراض العضالت؛ إبرار العضالت‬
silly mistake ‫سخٌؾ‬/‫خطأ أبله‬
similarities ‫متشابهات‬
simile ‫تشبٌه‬
simple style ‫أسلوب بسٌط‬
simplicity ‫بساطة‬
simplification ‫تبسٌط‬
Singular/plural adjectives ‫نعت المفرد والجمع لؽٌر العاقل‬
SL (source language ‫)را‬
SLT ‫نا اللؽة المصدرة‬
slang ً‫سوق‬
social acceptability ً‫تقبل اجتماع‬/‫قبول‬
socialism ‫اإلشتراكٌة‬
Socratic irony ‫شر البلٌة ما ٌُضح ؛ سخرٌة القدر‬
solution to a translation problem ‫حل لمشكلة ترجمة‬
source domain )‫األصل (لالستعارة المفهومٌة‬/‫المجال المصدر‬
source language(sl) ‫األصل‬/‫اللؽة المصدر‬
special expression ‫تعبٌر خاا‬
specialist institutions ‫مؤسسات متخصصة‬
specific culture ‫ثقافة خاصة‬
492
‫‪(the) specificative‬‬ ‫التمٌٌر‬
‫‪square brackets‬‬ ‫أقواس مربعة‬
‫‪Stalinism‬‬ ‫الستالٌنٌة‬
‫‪standard meaning‬‬ ‫معنى معٌاري؛ معنى معتمد‬
‫‪step by step‬‬ ‫خطوة خطوة‬
‫‪strange irony‬‬ ‫سخرٌة ؼرٌبة)عجٌبة(‪/‬تهكم المتناقضات‬
‫‪strangeness‬‬ ‫ؼرابة‬
‫‪stress‬‬ ‫شدة؛ نبر‬
‫‪strong language‬‬ ‫لؽة قوٌة‬
‫‪style‬‬ ‫أسلوب‬
‫‪style of indirectness‬‬ ‫أسلوب ؼٌر مباشر؛ أسلوب المراوؼة‬
‫‪stylistic device‬‬ ‫أداة أسلوبٌة؛ سمة أسلوبٌة‬
‫‪stylistic effect‬‬ ‫تأثٌر أسلوبً‬
‫‪stylistic equivalence‬‬ ‫ترادؾ أسلوبً؛ مرادفة أسلوبٌة‬
‫‪stylistic feature‬‬ ‫سمة أسلوبٌة‬
‫‪stylistic function‬‬ ‫وظٌفة أسلوبٌة؛ معنى أسلوبً ضمنً‬
‫‪stylistic impact‬‬ ‫تأثٌر‪/‬أثر أسلوبً‬
‫‪stylistic problems‬‬ ‫مشاكل أسلوبٌة‬
‫‪stylistic reason‬‬ ‫سبب ‪/‬مبرر أسلوبً‬
‫‪stylistic tone‬‬ ‫نؽمة أسلوبٌة‬
‫‪stylistics‬‬ ‫أسلوبٌة؛ علم األسلوب‪/‬األسالٌب؛ دراسة األسلوب‬
‫‪subject‬‬ ‫المُسند؛ فاعل (فً اإلنجلٌرٌة والعربٌة)؛ المبتدأ (فً العربٌة)‬
‫‪subject / object reversal‬‬ ‫قلب الفاعل والمفعول به‬
‫‪subjectivity‬‬ ‫ذاتٌة؛ شخصانٌة‬
‫‪sublime‬‬ ‫سام؛ رفٌع‬
‫ٍ‬
‫‪sublime vs. mean metaphors‬‬ ‫استعارات سامٌة مقابل استعارات دنٌبة‬
‫‪substitute verb‬‬ ‫فعل بدٌل‬
‫‪sub-text‬‬ ‫نا مبطن؛ معنى باطنً‬
‫‪subtitled t.v. series/programs‬‬ ‫برام ‪/‬مسلسالت تلفرٌونٌة مترجمة؛ مسلسالت مدبلجة‬
‫‪sunnah‬‬ ‫السنة)الشرٌفة(‬
‫‪superficial translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة سطحٌة؛ ترجمة خاطبة‬
‫‪supplications‬‬ ‫أدعٌة‬
‫‪surprising metaphor‬‬ ‫استعارة مدهشة)مثٌرة(‬
‫‪synesthetic metaphor‬‬ ‫(استعارة تركٌبٌة‬
‫‪synonymous‬‬ ‫ترادفً‪/‬مرادؾ‪/‬مترادؾ‬
‫‪synonyms‬‬ ‫مرادفات‪/‬مترادفات‬
‫‪synonymy‬‬ ‫ترادؾ)معجمً‪/‬لفظً(‬
‫‪syntactic ambiguity‬‬ ‫ؼموض نحوي‬
‫‪syntactic complexity‬‬ ‫تعقٌد نحوي‬
‫‪target domain‬‬ ‫المجال الهدؾ (لالستعارة المفهومٌة)‬
‫)‪target language(TL‬‬ ‫اللؽة الهدؾ؛ الترجمة‬
‫‪technical terms‬‬ ‫مصطلحات فنٌة‬
‫‪temporal connectors/conjunctions‬‬ ‫روابط توقٌتٌة ‪/‬آنٌة‪/‬شرطٌة‬
‫‪term‬‬ ‫مصطل‬
‫‪tertium comparationis‬‬ ‫أرضٌة عامة؛ أساس عام (فً علم اللؽة التطبٌقى)‬
‫‪tester translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة اختبارٌة‪/‬تجرٌبٌة‬
‫‪the absolute object‬‬ ‫المفعول المطل‬
‫‪the last resort‬‬ ‫المالذ األخٌر؛ أضعؾ اإلٌمان‬
‫‪493‬‬
‫‪the lion’s share‬‬ ‫حصة األسد‬
‫‪the optative mood‬‬ ‫التمنً‬
‫‪theories of translation‬‬ ‫نظرٌات الترجمة‬
‫‪theorization‬‬ ‫تنظٌر‬
‫‪title‬‬ ‫لقب‬
‫‪TL‬‬ ‫)را‪(target language‬‬
‫‪TLT‬‬ ‫نا اللؽة الهدؾ؛ الترجمة‬
‫)‪tone (of voice‬‬ ‫نؽمة)الصوت(‬
‫‪topic‬‬ ‫مبتدأ (فً الجملة االسمٌة)‬
‫‪topic and comment‬‬ ‫المبتدأ والخبر‬
‫‪topic-less nominal sentences‬‬ ‫جمل اسمٌة بمبتدأ محذوؾ‬
‫‪tradition‬‬ ‫تقلٌد؛ تراث‬
‫‪traditional approach‬‬ ‫منه تقلٌدي‬
‫‪trainee translators‬‬ ‫مترجمون متدربون‬
‫‪transcription‬‬ ‫رسم لفظً؛ نسخ (را المادة التالٌة)‬
‫‪transference‬‬ ‫تحوٌل (الكلمة األجنبٌة بالحروؾ)‬
‫‪transformation verbs‬‬ ‫أفعال التحوٌل‬
‫‪transitivity‬‬ ‫فعلٌة‬
‫‪translatability of culture‬‬ ‫إمكانٌة ترجمة الثقافة؛ قابلٌة الثقافة للترجمة‬
‫‪translation as problems and solutions‬‬ ‫مشاكل الترجمة وحلولها‬
‫‪translation couplet‬‬ ‫ثنابً ترجمة؛ استخدام إجراءي ترجمة معا‬
‫‪translation label‬‬ ‫ترجمة مؤقتة‪/‬مشروطة‬
‫‪translation procedures‬‬ ‫إجراءات الترجمة‬
‫‪translation strategies‬‬ ‫استراتٌجٌات ترجمة ( را أٌضا المادة السابقة)‬
‫‪translationese‬‬ ‫أسلوب ترجمة رديء؛ ترجمات ردٌبة‪/‬تجارٌة‬
‫‪transliteration‬‬ ‫تعرٌب لفظً؛ رسم لفظً للكلمات األجنبٌة‬
‫‪transmission‬‬ ‫نقل‬
‫‪transmit‬‬ ‫ٌنقل‬
‫‪transparency‬‬ ‫الشفافٌة )السٌاسٌة(؛ وضو المواقؾ‬
‫‪triplet‬‬ ‫ثالثً)ترجمة(؛ استخدام ثالثة إجراءات ترجمة سوٌة‬
‫‪trope‬‬ ‫المجار بشكل عام‬
‫‪type of readership‬‬ ‫نوع)نوعٌة(القراء‬
‫‪type of text‬‬ ‫نمط النا‬
‫‪UN acronyms‬‬ ‫مختصرات األمم المتحدة‬
‫‪uncompromising single-sense metaphor‬‬ ‫استعارة عنادٌة‬
‫‪unearthing the truth‬‬ ‫نبش الحقٌقة‬
‫‪unified theory‬‬ ‫نظرٌة موحدة‬
‫‪unit by unit‬‬ ‫وحدة وحدة؛ وحدة بعد أخرى‬
‫‪unit of translation‬‬ ‫وحدة ترجمة‪/‬جرء من المعنى‬
‫‪unnecessary redundancy‬‬ ‫حشو رابد‬
‫‪unseen meaning‬‬ ‫معنى ؼٌر مربً‪/‬معنى خفً‬
‫‪unsuitable context‬‬ ‫سٌا ؼٌر مناسب‬
‫‪unsuitable readers‬‬ ‫قراء ؼٌر مناسبٌن‬
‫‪vandalism‬‬ ‫تخرٌب‪/‬العٌث فسادا‬
‫‪variation‬‬ ‫تنوع؛ تنوٌع‬
‫‪verbal sentences‬‬ ‫جمل فعلٌة‬
‫‪verbal sentence adjectives‬‬ ‫نعت الجملة الفعلٌة‬
‫‪verbal word order‬‬ ‫ترتٌب كالم فعلً‪/‬ترتٌب الجملة الفعلٌة‬
‫‪494‬‬
‫‪verbalization‬‬ ‫فعلٌة‪/‬تفعٌل‪/‬استعمال األفعال دون األسماء‬
‫‪verbalized metaphor‬‬ ‫استعارة فعلٌة (ال اسمٌة)‬
‫)‪version (of translation‬‬ ‫رواٌة)ترجمة(‬
‫‪vocabulary‬‬ ‫مفردات اللؽة‪/‬رصٌد الكلمات‬
‫‪vocal cords‬‬ ‫الحبال الصوتٌة‬
‫‪vocalization‬‬ ‫تشكٌل )را ‪(vowelization‬‬
‫‪vocative‬‬ ‫النداء (فً القواعد)‬
‫‪voice‬‬ ‫صٌؽة‪/‬صوت‬
‫‪vowelization‬‬ ‫تشكٌل‪/‬شكل)بالحركات األربع( )را ‪(vocalization‬‬
‫‪vulgar‬‬ ‫سوقً‬
‫‪vulgar Arabic‬‬ ‫اللؽة العربٌة السوقٌة‬
‫‪well-established translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة معتمدة‬
‫‪West Germanic Language‬‬ ‫لؽة جرمانٌة ؼربٌة‬
‫‪western culture‬‬ ‫ثقافة ؼربٌة‬
‫‪westernization‬‬ ‫تؽرٌب؛ انحٌار إلى الثقافة الؽربٌة‬
‫‪wishfulness verbs‬‬ ‫أفعال الرجاء‬
‫‪word by word‬‬ ‫كلمة كلمة؛ كلمة بعد أخرى‬
‫‪word in combination‬‬ ‫كلمة متركبة )مع ؼٌرها( فً السٌا‬
‫‪word order‬‬ ‫ترتٌب كالم؛ ترتٌب كالمً؛ نس كالمً؛ ترتٌب كلمً‬
‫‪word play‬‬ ‫تالعب باأللفاظ‬
‫‪word-for-word translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة كلمة بكلمة‬
‫‪words in isolation‬‬ ‫كلمات منفردة )بمعرل عن ؼٌرها(؛ ألفاظ خارج السٌا‬
‫‪words of contrast‬‬ ‫كلمات متضادة‪/‬مؽاٌرة‬
‫‪words of obligation‬‬ ‫كلمات اإللرام؛ كلمات الوجوب‬
‫‪wrong translation‬‬ ‫ترجمة خاطبة‬
‫‪zero plural‬‬ ‫ؼٌاب الجمع؛ صٌؽة جمع ؼاببة (لكلمة)‬
‫‪zero-gender adjectives‬‬ ‫النعت المشتر (فً التأنٌث والتذكٌر)‬
‫‪zero-qualifier adjectives‬‬ ‫النعت المقطوع‬

‫‪Subject and Author Index‬‬

‫‪495‬‬
 Baker 16, 182-83, 208, 437
absolute object 90 bases of translating synonyms 159
absolute synonymy 155 Bassnett-McGuire 22, 413, 260
acculturation 287, 289 beat 414
accurate meaning of words 149 Boase-Beier 271, 308
accurate translation of meaning 13 bombastic colloquial language 369
Aeneid 424 borrowings 18
Aesthetics 414 bottom-top scale of synonyms 157
Aisenstadt 182 bound free translation 14
Al-Absheehi 403, 421 Bradford 307
Al-Ghalayeeni 42, 116, 357 branches of language study 3
Al-Harthi 384 Brown 18
Al-Hilali and Khan 334, 348 Carter 182, 83, 209
Ali 384 Carter and Nash 10, 307-8
Alixelá 18 categories of culture 266
Al-Jurjani 226, 383 causative object 92
Al-Maidani 226 chaste love 426
Al-Qarni 459 Christian Religious forms of address 255
Al-Qasidah 428 Classical Arabic 313
Al-Sudais 397, 462 Classical Arabic texts 322
Anglicization 18 code-switching 18
anti-acculturation 292 cognates 178
antonymic synonyms 174 cognitive scopes of conceptual
apposition 119 metaphors 240
approximate equivalence 23 Coleridge 415
Arabic meters and feet 415-16 collocational clusters of religious texts
Arabic particles of vocative 42 197
Arabic plural forms 112 comitative object 93
Arabic prepositions 128 comment-less / topic-less nominal
Arabic types of verb 63 sentences 103
Arberry 384 comments on translating collocations
aspect and tense 82 203
Ateeq 415-16 comments on translating proper names
Ath-Tha'alibi 428 262
attitudinal synonyms 173 common meaning of words 147
augmented/derivative verbs 75 complexity vs. simplicity of style 334
Baalbaki 182 components of meaning 3
components of metaphor 225
conclusive expressions 285
conditional particles 105
496
conditional sentences 105 139
conservative rendering 19 English forms of plural 114
contamination 18 English main /lexical/full verbs 76
contrastive linguistic theory of equivalence in Arabic-English translation
translation 6 22
controlled rendering of SL text 19 euphemistic pragmatic translation 447
co-operative principles 17 euphemistic vs. non-euphemistic
coordinators 123-4 synonyms 171
count nouns’ collocations 194 euphemization 293
cross-culturalization 291 exceptive words and phrases 110
Crystal 16, 18, 182, 270, 313 exclamation verbs 67
cultural adoption 265 explicative apposition 119
cultural adoption 289 faithful and false friends 169
cultural clash 292 familiar alternatives 162 168
cultural clashing 265 familiar alternatives 262
cultural equivalent 284, 452 feet 415
cultural neutralization 294 figurativeness 208
cultural reconciliation 265, 291 Firth 182
culturalization 287 foot 414
deceitful synonyms 169 Foreignization 287, 289
de-coding irony 442 formality vs. informality 310
defining culture 266 forms of adjectives inArabic 49
definition of irony inArabic 378 forms of exclamation inArabic 67
definition of style 310 fronted comment by implication 104
definition of translation 1-2 functional redundancy 362
de-fusing the cultural element 294 geographical names 256
delayed subject / object & subject 101 Gibbs 226
Denham 413 “give" set of verbs 73
deviant nominal word order 103 good intentions translations 447
deviant verbal word order 101 grammatical changes of tense 97-99
different equivalence (of proverbs) 218 grammatical class of words 97
direct vs. indirect translation 15 Grice 438
double topics and one comment 103 Gutt 15, 16
Dryden 412 Halliday 7
dual form 113 Hamburger 271
Duff 271, 399 Handbook of Rhetoric 382
elaborate redundancy 364 Hatim & Mason 23
elaborate variation 361 heterolingualism 18
Eliot 227 heteronyms 178
El-Yaziji 182 homonyms 178
Emery 7, 182-83 homophones 170
emotional exaggerative expressions 285 hybridity 18
emphatic, expressive and exaggerative Hyde 271
styles 352 Ibn Al-Khateeb 430
English and Arabic types of adverbs 56 Ibn Qayyem Al-Jawziah 460
English auxiliary verbs 66 identical equivalence (of proverbs) 217
English common prepositions 127-8 idiomaticity 208
English equivalents of Arabic particles idioms of different equivalence 211
497
idioms of identical equivalence 210 methods ofArabic-English translation 9
idioms of similar equivalence 213 metrical pattern 415
imminence verbs 70 Meyer 448
imperative verbs 73 modal auxiliaries 66
imperfective verbs 63 modals 66
implicature 17&ch. 5 Moon 209
importance of style to meaning 306 MSA 313
inception verbs 70 Munday 437
indecencies 453 names of God's Prophets 247
infiltration interference 18 Nash 226, 357
inflectional verbs 75 near synonymy 156
‘inn’ nominal sentence structure 105 negative articles 44
innermost verbs 71 negative interference 19
intention(s) 17,437 negative particles 46
interchangeable synonyms 160 negotiating cultural differences in
interlanguage 18 translation 287
interpenetration 18, negotiating the appropriate word among
ironic translations 443 synonyms 159
irony 377 neutralization 293
Islamic forms of address 255 new developments in metaphor studies
Jakobson 270 238
Jamil Buthaynah 426 Newmark 7, 9,10, 11, 25, 26, 183, 226,
jargon 328 243, 266, 313, 399, 437, 448
Jeffries and McIntyre 16, 308, 437 Newmark’s types of metaphor 228
Joos 311 Nicholson 427
Khulusi 412, 415, 427 nominal sentences’ word order 102
Lawson 399 nominalization 19
Leech 16, 227, 410, 414, 417, 437 non-augmented/root verbs 75
Lefeveré 413 noncount nouns’ collocations 196
levels of language 3 non-culturalization 293
lexical complexity vs. simplicity of style non-equivalence in Arabic English
337 translation 24
lexical problems 146, 208 non-fictional prose 403
linguistic culture 283 non-inflectional verbs 75
linguistic interference 18 non-literal/metaphorical meaning 150
literal translation 146: object foregrounding 102
literal translation of meaning 13 object reversal 101
literal vs. free translation 13 Odlin 18
loose free translation 14 one-to-one equivalence 155
love poetry 426 one-to-one equivalence 23
Mahmoud Darwish 418-19, 435 one-to-one translation 13
Main / Ordinary Verbs 63 onomatopoeia 410
Malmkjær 271 onomatopoeia 414
Mason 7 Paepcke 269
Matloob 357 Pannwitz 19, 289
mental, emotional and literary cultures parallel collocational sequences 200
283 passive and active verbs 74
meter 414 periphrasis 361, 364
498
phonological features 400 punctuation marks 382
phonological problems of translation qasidah 413
398 Quirk and Greenbaum 42, 127
Pickthall 384 Raffel 13, 413
pidginization 18, real meaning 151
Platinum Author Online 271 referential synonyms 162
poetry 412 regular periodic beat 417
political culture 279 Religious culture 272
political trap-terms 172 remembrance of God's collocational
political) institutional terms 260 sequences 201
polysemy mistaken for monosemy 175 rhetorical questions 41
positive and negative synonyms 173 rhyme 414, 417
pragmatic problems 437 rhyme and rhythm 417
pragmatic translation 16, 437 rhymed advertisements 401
pragmatic translation of ambiguous rhymed and rhythmic book titles 401
expressions 45 rhymed humour 400
pragmatic translation of colour terms rhymed proverbs and idioms 400
452 Richie 226
pragmatic translation of indecencies 453 Robinson 22, 269
pragmatic translation of irony 442 Rojo 7, 22, 23, 182, 209, 438
pragmatic translation of lies 448 Sale 384
pragmatic translation of rhetorical Sapir-Whorf 269-70
questions 445 sarcastic questions 354
pragmatic translation of texts 456 Schulte et al 413
pragmatics 17, 437 semantic and communicative translation
praise and dispraise verbs 68 11,12
present participial intensive adjectives semantic variations of synonymy 418
50 semi-verbal structures 108
primary auxiliaries 66 senses of “literal” 146
problems of translating the specificative sentence and clause structure 95
62 sentence types 96
problems of translating theArabic Object series of Koranic synonymous
88 collocations 197
problems of translatingArabic adjectives Shak’ah 316, 336, 364
50 show of muscles vs. ordinary
procedures of translating familiar translations 371
alternatives 168 show of muscles’ style 368
process of translation fromArabic into similar equivalence (of proverbs) 218
English 25 Simpson 3, 308, 410, 414
Prophet Mohammad’s Names 246 Slobin 271
Prophetic Traditions' collocational sets Snell-Hornby 22, 266, 269
202 social culture 278
Prophet's Attributes’ collocations 199 solutions to translation problems of
prose rhyme 403, 461 collocations 206
prosodic features 398, 414 solving a problem of polysemy 179
prosody 412 sound effects 399
proverbial collocations 193 sound patterns 398
proximity principle 23, 156 sounds collocations 192
499
specificative 61 translating polysemy and monosemy
Stolze 269 174
style 310 translating proper names 243
style of ambiguity 328 translating proverbs 216
style of irony 377 translating rhymed literature 405
style of long sentences 343 translating rhymed prose 407
style of nominalization vs. verbalization translating style as tone 310
373 translating synonymy 153
style of parallelism 322 translating the metaphor 223
style of redundancy 361 translating the past tense 78
style of short sentences 341 translating the present tense 80
style of short sentences vs. long translating the word of the Almighty ‫هللا‬
sentences 340 243
styles of foregrounding and translating titles 253
backgrounding 318 translating Arabic plurals into English
styles of repetition and variation 356 114
stylistic features 308 translation as problems and solutions
stylistic functions 309 (Arabic-English) 29-30
stylistic functions of punctuation marks translation as problems and solutions 4
385 translation methods 9
stylistic problems of translation 306 translation of adjectives 47
supplications 200, 403 translation of adverbs 53
Tayyip Erdoḡan 450-51 translation of circumstantial accusative
theories of translation 6 58
Thornborrow and Wareing 227, 307, 415 translation of collocations 181
Toolan 308 translation of coordination/coupling 123
topic & comment 102 translation of demonstrative and
topic + verbal comment 104 relative pronouns 36
transformation verbs 72 translation of exception 109
translatability of culture: facts and translation of explicative apposition 122
fallacies 269 translation of genitive 115
translating adages 220 translation of negation 44
translating complex vs. simple style 333 translation of objects 85
translating concept words 262 translation of prepositions 127
translating culture 265 translation of pronouns 34
translating culture in terms of categories translation of questions 39
272 translation of tense 77
translating figurative language 223 translation of the plural
translating forms of address 253 translation of the vocative 42
translating God's Glorious Names 244 translation of verbs 63
translating idioms 210 translation of word order 99
translating names of historic figures 248 translation procedures of culture 293
translating object: direct and indirect 85 translation procedures of metaphors
translating onomatopoeic expressions 241
410-11 translation procedures of poetry 431
translating ordinary proper names 249 translation procedures/strategies 300
translating phrasal verbs 214 translation strategies of irony 381
translating poetry 412 translationese 18,
500
Traugott and Pratt 16, 308 types of synonymy 153
Trivedi 271 unearthing the truth 448
tropes 223 unit of translation 26, 27
types and sub-types of apposition 120 unnecessary redundancy 366
types and subtypes of fixed usefulness of contrastive linguistics to
phrases/idioms 209 translation 7-8
types of adjectives in Arabic and English Venuti 271
49 verbal sentences 101
types of Arabic adjectives 47 verbal word order 101
types of Arabic genitive 116-17 verbs of certainty 71
types of Arabic metaphor 226-7 Vinay and Darbelnet 308
types of Arabic pronouns 34 vocative 42
types of collocations 184 Wales 16, 226, 307, 437
types of conceptual metaphor 238 wishfulness verbs 69
types of coordination 123 word-for word translation 13
types of English adverbs 54-55 word-for-word translation 147
types of English genitive 116 Yusef Ali 334
types of English metaphor 227 Zidan 384
types of irony 380

types of metaphor 226

types of particles 133
501