108 Operation and Control in Power Systems

E 3.1 -Consider a power system with two generating stations. The incremental production
cost characteristics for the two stations are
of
_I = (27.5 + 0.15P I )Rs / MwHr
oPI
of
_2 = (19.5 + 0.26P 2 )Rs / MwHr
OP2
Given that the minimum and maximum powers are 10 MW and 100 MW -at each plant
schedule the generation at each plant to supply a system load given by the load curve
shown in figure.

200 -------------,.---,

150

1 125

100
- - - - - - - - - -

----...---~
-r----l

I
I
I I
I I

50 t----+----r------
L -+---,
I I

o~-----~----~--~----~~--~
C Time (t) ----+ 12
6
12 a.rn 12 3 6 10 Mid
Mid night noon p.rn p.rn p.rn night

Fig. E 3.1 Load curve

Solution:
Case (i) : PR = PI + P2; PR = 50 MW; PI == PR - P2 == 50 - P2

oFI = oF2 =A
OPI OP 2
27.5 + 0.15 PI == 19.5 + 0.26 P2
27.5 + 0.15 (50 - P2)== 19.5 + 0.26 P2
27.5 - 19.5 + 7.50 == 0.26 P2 + 0.15P 2
15.5 == 0.41P2; P2 == 37.8
PI = 50 - 37.8 = 12.2 MW
Economic Operation of Power Systems 109

Case (ii) : PI + P2 = 100MW

PI = 100 - P2
27.5 + 0.15 (100 - P2) = 19.5 + 0.26 P2
27.5 + 15 - 19.5 = 0.26 P2 + 0.15 P2
23 = 0.41 P~
P2 = 23/0.41 = 56.01 MW
PI = 100 - 56.1 = 43.90 MW
Case (iii) : PI + P2 = 125MW
27.5 + (0.15) (125 - P2) = 19.5 + 0.26 P2
27.5 + 18.75 - 19.5 = 0.15 P2 + 0.26 P2 = 0.41 P2
26.75 = 0.4IP 2
therefore and
P2 = 65.24MW
PI = 59.76MW
Case (iv) : P I +P 2 =150MW
27.5 + 0.15 (150 - PI) = 19.5 + 0.26 P2
27.5 + 22.5 - 19.5 = 0.26 P2 + 0.15 P2
30.5 = 0.41 P2; P2 = 74.39
PI = 75.61
Case (v) : PI + P2 = 200 MW
27.5 + (0.15) (200 - P2) = 19.5 + 0.26 P2
27.5 + 30 - 19.5 = 0.41 P2
38 = 0.41 P2 ; P2 = 92.68 ; PI = 107.32
The value of A can be computed now. The results are tabulated.

Case PI P2 PD A.
Case (i) 12.2 37.8 50 29.33

Case (ii) 43.9 56.1 \00 34.08

Case (iii) 59.76 65.24 125 36.55

Case (iv) 75.61 74.39 150 38.84

Case (v) 107.32 92.68 200 43.598

110 Operation and Control in Power Systems

EJ.2 The fuel input characteristics for two thermal plants are given by

F2 = (6P 2 + 0.004 pi + 120) 106 K-cal/hr

Where P I and P2 are in megawatts
(i) plot the input-output characteristic for each plant
(ii) plot the heat rate characteristic for each plant
(iii) assuming the cost of fuel as Rs. 100lton
calculate the incremental production cost characteristic in Rs/MWhr at each plant. Plot
the same against power produced in MW.
Solution:
(i) Input-output characteristic
Consider the power in steps of 10MW
Given that
F I=(8P,+0.024+80)10 6 K-cal/hr
and F2=(6P I+0.004+120)106 K-cal/hr
Substituting PI and P2 in steps of 10 MW the values of F, and F2 are obtained and
tabulated.

Table E 3.2.1 Input Output Calculations

P1(MW) Fl x 106 K-cal/hr P1(MW) Fl x 106K-callhr

10 162.4 10 184
20 250 20 256
30 342 30 336
40 438 40 424
50 540 50 520
60 646 60 624
70 758 70 736
80 874 80 856
90 994 90 984
100 1.220 100 II 20
Economic Operation of PoWh Systems 111

the input output characteristics are plotted as shown in figure.

1(0)

Fig . E 3.2.1 Input - Out put curves

(ii) Heat rate characteristic

Let P I = 10 MW at plant I
· p. 162.4 6 K - cal / hr
Heat rate at t h IS I IS - - x 10
10 MW
At plant 2 for P2 = 10 MW

Heat rate = -184 x 106 =.

18 4 105
x
K - cal / hr
10 MW
In a similar manner the heat rate is computed for powers in steps of 10 MW till
100 MW at both the plants. The results are tabulated and curves are plotted.
Table E 3.2.2 Heat Rate Calculations

OutputMW Heat rate x 106 at plant 1 K-caVMW-h Heat rate x 106 at plant 2 K-caVMW-hr
10 1625 18.4
~ 12.48 12.8
30 11.39 11.2
40 10.96 10.6
50 10.80 10.4
ro 10.77 10.4 '
'Xl 10.82 10.,5
ro 10.92 10.7
~ II.OS" 10.93
100 112 11.2
112 Operation and Control in Power Systems

Fig. E 3.2.2 Heat rate curves

(iii) Calorific values of fuel at plant t = 4000 K-cal/hr

'--.
Cost of fuel = Rs.t 00 per ton = Rs I 001 I 000 per kg
tOORs I kg 100 Rs
= x-----::: --
6
1000 kg 4000 k - cal 4 x t 0 k - cal

dFI ::: (8 + 0.048P )1 0 6 K - cal

1
dPI MwHr
Incremental fuel cost

6 100 Rs
= (8 + 0.048 PI) 10 x -- 6 - -
4x 10 MwHr
= (2 + 0.012 PI) x 100 = (200 + 1.2 PI) Rs/MWHr
At 100 MW generation, the cost is
(200 + 12) = 212 Rs/MWHr
The incremental production cost is obtained by adding the maintanance costs
of 10%
Hence, the incremental production cost at plant 1
::: (200 + 1.2 PI) 1.I = (220 + 1.32 PI)
Economic Operation of Power Systems 113

At PI = 10MW ;IPC 1 = 220 + 13.2 = 233.2 RslMWHr

Similarly at Plant 2

dF2 = (6 + 0.08P ) x 106 K - cal

2
dP2 Mwhr
o
incremental fuel cost
100
= (6 + 0.08 P2) x 10 6 x - - = (120 + 1.6 P2) RslMWHr
5 x 10 6
Considering maintenance costs at 10%
The incremental production cost is
(120 + 1.6 P2) x l.l (132.0 + 1.76 P2) RslMWHr
=

At P2 = 10MW, the incremental production cost

= (120 + 1.6 x 10) x 1.1 = (136 x 1.1) Rs/MWHr = 149.6 Rs/
MWHr
Like wise, the incremental production costs are calculated at all power levels and
tabulated. Finally the value are plotted as shown in table (E3.2).

Table E 3.2.3 Incremental prodOlction costs

Power(P) fPC at plant 1 fPC at plant 2

Rs/MWHr. RsIMWHr.
10 233.2 149.6
20 246.4 167.2
30 259.6 184.8
40 272.8 202.4
50 286.0 220.0
60 299.2 237.2
70 312.4 255.2
80 325.6 272.4
90 338.8 290.4
100 352.0 . 308
114 Operation and Control in Power Systems

Fig . E 3.2.3 Incremental production cost curves

E 3.3 For the plants in example E3.2 obtain the economic generation schedule. The load
curve is given in Fig. (E3 .3)

200

i ISO

100

SO -------

I I 1
12 6 12 6 12
a.m noon p.m
Time (t) - - - .

Fig. E 3.3 Load curve

Economic Operation of Power Systems 115

Solution:
For economic schedule

dCI(PI) = dC 2 (P2 ) =A.

dPI dP2

(220 + 1.32P I) = (132 + 1.762P2)

Case (i) PI + P2 = 50MW
PI = 50 - P2
220 + 1.32 (50 - P2) = 132 + 1.76 P2
220 + 66 - 132 = 1.76 P2 + 1.32 P2 = 3.082 P2
154 = 3.082 P2
P2 = 49.967554 ~ 50MW
:. PI=O
If a minimum generation limit is imposed then P I= IOMW and P2 = 40MW
Case (ii) P = 200MW
200 + 1.32 (200 - P2) = 1.32 + 1.76P2
220 - 132 + 264 = 176 P2 + 1.32 P2 = 3.08 P2
352 = 3.08 P2
P2 = 114.2857 ~ 114.3MW
PI = 200 - 114.3 = 85.7MW
If a maximum generation limit of 100MW is imposed then
P2 = 100MW and hence PI = 100MW
E 3.4 Given a two bus system as shown in Fig. (E 3.4)

2
200MW 75 MW
Line
N~~----------------------~~N

Fig. E 3.4
 o

116 Operation and Control in Power Systems

It is observed that when a power of 75MW is imported to bus I, the loss amounted to
5MW. Find the generation needed from each plant and also the power received by the
oload, if the system A. is given by Rs.20/MWHr. The incremental fuel cost at the two
plants are given by 0

o
dC I (PI) = 0.03PI + 15Rs I Mwh
odPI

Solution:
The load is at bus I. Hence, P, will not have any effect on the line losses
Therefore B I , = B'2 =; B 2 , =0

PL = B22 pi
5 = B22 75 2

B22 =-~- =8.9 X 10-4

5~250
At station I

(i)

At station 2

dC 2 (P 2 ) +A. aPL =A.

dP2 ap2
0.05 P2 + 18 + A. (2(8.9) x 10-4) P2 = A. (ii)
At A. = 20 from eqn. (i)
0.03 P, + 15 = 20
0.03P,=20-15=5
P, = 510.03 = 166.67MW
Economic Operation of Power Systems 117

Again, from eqn. (ii)

0.05 P 2 + 18 + 20 (2 x 8.9 x 10-4) P2 = 20
0.05 P 2 + 0.0356 P2 = 20 - 18 = 2
0.0856 P2 = 2; P2 = 23.3644MW
Total transmission loss = B22 P 22
= 8.9 x 10-4 x 23.36442 = 0.4858MW
The load demand at bus I is
166.67 + 23.3644 x 0.4858 = 178.Q2MW
E 3.5 A power system with two generating stations supplied a total load of300MW. Neglecting
transmission losses the economic schedule for the plant generation is 175MW and
125MW. Find the saving in the production cost in Rs/hr. due to this economic schedule
as compared to equal distribution of the same load between the two units.
The incremental cost characteristics are

dCI (PI) = 30 + 0.3P and

t
dP I

dC 2(P 2) = 32.5 + 0.4P

2
dP2

Solution:
The cost of generation at Plant 1

Ct = I dCIdP(PI) .dPI = I(O.3PI + 30)dPI

I

= (0.3 P~ + 30PI + x) Rs/Hr

dC,(P,) I
C2 = I dP - .dP2 = (32.5 + 0.4P 2 )dP 2
2
= (0.4 Pi + 32.5P2 + y) Rs/Hr.
x and yare constants of integration which need not be evaluated.
For equal distribution of generation
P t = 150MW and P2 = 150MW
The increase in cost at plant 1 by generating 175MW instead of 150MW is

(0.3xI752 +30xI75+x)-(0.3xI502 +30 x I50+x)

= 0.3(175 2-150 2)+30(175-150)
= (30625 - 22500)0.3
= 0.3 x 8125 + 750 = 3187.5 Rs/hr
118 Operation and Control in Power Systems

The reduction in cost at plant 2 by generating 125MW only instead of 150MW is

[0.4 (150)2 + 32.5 x (150 + y)] - [0.4 (125)2 + 32.5 (125) + y]
= 0.4 (- 15625 + 22500) + 32.5 (-125 + 150)
= 0.4 x 6875 + 812.5 = 2750 + 812.5 = 3562.5
Savings = 3562.5 - 3187.5 = 372Rs/hr
Annaul Savings = 375 x 24 x 365 = Rs.32,85.000
E 3.6 Consider two steam power plants operating with incremental production costs

dCI(P I ) =(0.08PI +16)Rs/Mwhr and

dPI

dC z(P 2 ) = (0.08P 2 + 12)Rs I Mwhr

dP z
Given the loss coefficients
BII = 0.001 per MW
BI2 = B21 = - 0.0005 per MW
B22 = 0.0024 per MW
Find the economic schedule of generation for", = 20Rs/MWhr
Solution:
16
1- 20 -2(-0.0005)P2 0.2 + 0.001P
= -~:-:------
2
= ----..::..
0.08 + 2(0.001) 0.006
20

1 __
2
b -2B I2 PI 1-~~-2(-0.0005)PI 0.4+0.00IP
P2 = _--'' '-0..-___ == == 2

_a~ + 2B22 0~~8 + 2(0.0024) 0.0088

starting with P2 = O. PI = 33.3

then the value of P2 is computed as 49.2
continuing the iterations the values obtained are tabulated
Iteration PI P2
I 33.3 49.2
2 41.5 50.2
-
3 41.7 50.2
4 41.7 50.2
Economic Operation of Power Systems 119

The converged values are PI = 41.7MW; and P2 = 50.2MW

With these generations, the total transmission losses are
2 2
PL =L L Pi Bij Pj
i=1 j=1

B l1 P12 + 2B 12 P1 P2 + B22 Pi
= (0.001) x (41.7)2 + 2 (-0.0005) (41.7) (50.2)
+ (0.0024).(50.2)2 = 5.7MW
2
Total generation = PT = LP =41.7 + 50.2 =919Mw
2
i=l
Total power received
PR = PT - PL = 91.9 - 5.7 = 86.2MW.

3.20 Hydro Electric Plant Models

Conventional hydroelectric plants are classified as run - of - river plants, run - of - river
plants with pondage and storage type phmts. In the former type water is utilized as is available
in the stream, as there is no provision for storage. Where there is pondage provision, hourly
fluctuations in load can be met. In the later type, where storage is provided the water stored
during the excess water period can be utilized during the lean season or when power demand
is high. The plant may be a single development on a river or there may be several plants
constructed and cascaded on the same river (Fig. 3.13). In some cases inter connection of
plants on different streams is also possible.

Power
Tail
_-.::- ...race
'-- ............
Fig. 3.13 Cascaded hydro electric plants
120 Operation and Control in Power Systems

3.21 Pumped Storage Plant

The pumped storage hydroelectric plants generally store water to supply peak load oemands,
so that fuel is saved at thermal plants. For this purpose, at light load periods water is pumped
to the reservoir back from the tail water pond using power from the grid. The power house
may either have both turbines and pumps separately or reversible pump turbines. The operating
characteristics of a pumped storage plant are shown in Fig. 3.14.

r-----~~-r----------70--------~ P
12 I------rl;=rl
Power

am

12

Load Curve
Power
p.rn supplied

·12

Fig. 3.14 Dumped storage plant characteristics

Let ee be the energy spent to pump water to the reservoir. By releasing this water at
peak load times the energy supplied to the load is es' The ratio (eglee) is usually of the order
60-70%. Pumped storage plants are to be operated in such a manner that due to the p~ load
chipping on the load curve, the saving in fuel cost thus achieved should exceed the pumping of
water charges.

3.22 Hydro Thermal Scheduling

Most of the power systems are a mixof different modes of generating stations of which the
thermal and hydro generating units are predominant. While in some systems hydro generation
Economic Operation of Power Systems 121

may be more than thermal generation in some other cases it may be the other way. The
operating cost of thermal plants is high even though their capital cost is low. In case of hydro
electric plants, the running costs are very low, but the capital cost is high as construction of
dams, canals, penstocks, surge tanks and other elements of development are involved in addition
to the power house. The hydro plants can be started easily and can be assigned load in very
short time. This is not so in case of thermal plants, as it requires several hours to bring the
boiler, super heater, and turbine system ready to take the load allotment. For the reason
mentioned, the hydro plants can handle fast changing loads effectively. The thermal plants in
contrast are slow in response. For this reason, the thermal plants are more suitable to operate
as base load plants, leaving hydro plants to operate as peak load plants.
However, the exact mode of operation depends upon the type of the development, and
factors such as storage and pondage, and the amount of water that is available is the most
important consideration. A plant may be run - off river, run - off river with pondage, storage
or pumped storage type.
Whatever, may be the type of plant, it is necessary to utilize the total quantity of water
available in hydro development so that maximum economy is achieved. The economic scheduling
in the integrated operation is however, made difficult as water release policy for power is
subject to a variety of constraints. There are multiple water usages which are to be satisfied.
Determination of the so called pseudo - fuel cost or cost for water usage for use in conjunction
with incremental water rate characteristic is a formidable exercise. Nevertheless, hydro thermal
economic scheduling is possible with assumptions made wherever necessary.
In systems where there is close balance between hydro and thermal generation and in
systems where the hydro capacity is only a fraction of the total capacity, it is generally desired
to schedule generation such that thermal generating costs are minimized.

3.23 Energy Scheduling Method

Consider two plants, one of hydroelectric and the other thermal. Let these both supply a
common load.
Let for any time period K the maximum hydro power available.

P~ ~ Pload,k k = 1, 2, .............. K ..... (3.74)

where Pload, k is the load power during the time period k. It is presumed that the energy
available from the hydro plant is not sufficient to meet the load demand.
K K
LPHKn K ::;; LPload,knK ..... (3.75)
k=! k=!

wHere nk is the number of hours in period k

.122 Operation and Control in Power Systems

Let ..... (3.76)

= total period of time over which energy schedule is required

It is proposed to utilize the hydro energy completely in such a way that the operating
cost of the thermal plant is minimized.
K
Load energy to be supplied = LP1oad,k n K ..... (3.77)
k=!

K
Hydro energy to be utilized = LPHk n K ..... (3.78)
k=l

Thermal energy required

..... (3.79)

Let the thermal plant be operated for time period less than Tmax and for number of
intervals Ks

Hence, ..... (3.80)

where Ps denotes steam power

The problem can then, be stated as

MinFT = ~F(PSK)nk ..... (3.81)

k=!

subject to ..... (3.82)

The Lagrange function is given by

L = %F(Psk)n k +{ Es - %Pskn k ) ..... (3.83)

aL = dF(PSk) _ A = 0 for k = 1, 2, ...... , Ks ..... {3.84)

ap Sk dPSk
~

dF(PSk )
(i.e.) -.:-=:.;.. =A for k = 1,2, ...... , Ks ..... (3.85)
dP Sk
Economic Operation of Power Systems 123

Eqn. (3.85) indicates that the steam plant must be run at constant incremental production
cost for the entire time period of its operation. Denoting this value as P~k' the schedule is
depicted in Fig. (3.15) graphically.

o
k >1
Fig. 3.15 Hydro thermal co-ordination

Let the steam plant cost characteristic be expressed by

F(Ps ) = aP~ + bPs + C ..... (3.86)
The total cost of running the steam plant over the interval Ts

FT = (apt +bP~ +C)Ts ..... (3.87)

Infact FT is also given by

FT = !F(p~)nk
k=l

..... (3.88)
Further

..... (3.89)

E
T =_s
Hence, ..... (3.90)
s P~
124 Operation and Control in Power Systems

So, ..... (3.91)

...... (3.92)

..... (3.93)

The steam unit is operated at its maximum efficiency through out the time period Ts'
This can be proved as follows:
Let fc be the fuel cost.

F(P s) = a pi + bPs + c
=fcH(Ps) ..... (3.94)
where function H denotes the heat value
The heat rate is then given by

H(Ps )
Ps
= ~[aPi + bPs +
fc Ps
c] ..... (3.95)

~[H(PS)] - ~[_1 (aPs + b + ~)]

dP s Ps dP s fc Ps

..... (3.96)

P =
s k-=Pso
a ..... (3.97)
Economic Operation 0/ Power Systems 125

3.24 Short Term Hydro Thermal Scheduling

3.24.1 Method of Lagrange Multipliers (losses neglected)
Consider a power system which contains both hydro and steam power generating stations.
Consider that the entire hydro generati~s equal to PH and the total steam power is Ps. With
such equivalent power generating station let a lo-ad- PL be supplied as shown in Fig. (3.16).

Hydro
POWER
SYSTEM Power demand
Steam

Fig. 3.16 Hydro Thermal scheduling

Let the combined operation be over a period of time T. Let this time period be divided
into intervals 1, 2, ..... J to suit the load curve so that
J
Ln J =T ..... (3.98)
J=1

The total volume of water available for discharge over this time period.

. .... (3.99)

Where Wj is the water rate for interval j. The fuel cost required to be minimized over
the time period T is given as
J
FT =Lnl(Ps) ..... (3.100)
j=l

For load balance, the equality constraint is

P10adj - PSJ - PHj = 0 j = 1, 2, ........ , J ..... (3.101)

The loads are assumed to remain constant during time intervals considered. The total
value of water at the beginning and at the vend of the interval T, in the reservoir are Wi and Wf
respectively.
During this period of scheduling the head of water is assumed to remain constant.
The input - output characteristic for the equivalent hydro plant is given by
w = w(PH) •...• (3.102)
126 Operation and Control in Power Systems

The Lagrange function for minimization of eqn. (3.100) subject to the constraints (3.99)
and (3.101) is \

L= tnJ F(ps;l+AJP\.... - PSj - PHJ+ {t njW 1

j(plij)- W ... (3.103)

For any specific value of j = k, the necessary conditions are

8L 8L ..... (3.104)
--=0 and - - = 0
8PSk OPHk
giving

and ..... (3.105)

solution to above two equations gives the economic generations at steam and hydro plants over
any time interval. The incremental production cost at the steam plants must be the same as
incremental production cost at the hydro plants. For simplicity nk may be taken one unit.
So that

dFs =A
dPs

dw
and y.-=A ... :.(3.106)
dPH

3.24.2 Lagrange Multipliers Method Transmission Losses Considered

If the transmission losses are considered then the equality constraint includes PL' the loss
terms.
[P IOadJ + PLJ - PSj - PHj] = 0 .. ... (3.107)
The Lagrange function changes now into

..... (3.108)
Economic Operation 0/ Power Systems 127

dF(PSk ) '\ aPLk '\

i.e. nk +lI.k--=lI.k
dPHk aPSk

dWk aPLk
and ynk --(PHk)+Yk - - = A.k
dPHk aPHk
since k is chosen arbitrarily, and by considering the time period nk = 1
The equations reduce to

dF(PS) + A. aPL = A. ..... (3.109)

dPs aPs

and Y dw(Pk ) + A. aPL = A. ..... (3.110)

dP H aPH
It can be shown that the above equations are valid for any number of steam plants ns
and for any number of hydro plants nH.
Hence
dF(PSi ) aPL .
--'---"''"'-+A.--=A. for 1-1, 2, ......... , ns ..... (3.111)
dPsl aPSi

dw(PHk ) aPL
and Y dP +A. aP = A. for k = 1,2, ........ , nH ••••• (3.112)
Hk Hk
the above equations are called coordination equations, the solution to which will give tlle
economic schedule for Psi and PHk.

3.24.3 Short Term Hydro Thermal Scheduling using B-Coemcients for

Transmission losses
Let the total number of generating stations be 'n'. Out of these n stations, S stations are steam
power stations and the remaining H stations are hydro electric generating stations so that
S+H = n ..... (3.113)
Let the water input rate at the jth hydro plant be assumed as Wj m3/sec
The total transmission losses in the lines of the system are given by
s s n n
PL =:£ :£ P B, PsJ· +:£ :£ PH' B .. I1IJ.
i=l j=l 51 1J i=s+l j=s+l 1 1J

s n
+2:£ :£ P, B ..
i=l j=s+1 51 1J
l1Ii~ ..... (3.114)

Where the subscripts S and H refer to steam and hydro plants.

128 Operation and Control in Power Systems

The total input hourly rate to all the thermal plants is

F = iF RSI ..... (3.115)

T i=l I Ihr
The incremental cost of production at ith steam plant

_ dFI Rsl
- dP. IMwhr ..... (3.116)
51

The incremental transmission losses at steam and hydro plants are given respectively by

8PL and 8PL

8Ps! 8PHJ
The incremental rate of water flow at jth hydro plant

__ J m
_
Ow·
- OP
% sec ..... (3.117)
Hj
The total power received by the loads,
s n
P=LP+ LP.-I\. ..... (3.118)
R i=l 51 j=s+l HJ
It is desired to make the total input to the system over a period T a minimum.
From Calculus of variations for FT to be a minimum over the time period T, the first
variation of eq. (3.118) must be set equal to zero.

s n s· 8PL n oPL
L op·+ L OP.- L -- 0 p. - ~ --8PHJ = 0 ..... (3.119)
i=l SI j=s+l HJ i=l apsi SI j=s+lOPHj

The quantity of water available over the period T is assumed constant.

T

i.e., Jw jdt = W for j = s + 1, ... , n ..... (3.120)

o

Then, it is further required to make

T
f
[ FTdt + J=~+l Y
n
J f 1
T
wjdt ..... (3.121)

a minimum; where y} are constant multipliers.

The first variation of the quantity in equation must vanish. Hence

..... (3.122)
Economic Operation 0/ Power Systems 129

s 17FT n Owj
i.e., L - ap L r·--aPH· - 0 ..... (3.123)
i=1 aPsi si + j=s+1 J aPHj J - ......

Where OPsi and aPHj are the variations in steam power generation and hydro power
generation respectively.
From equation (3.119)

~i=1(1- aPsi - -1
aPL 1Opsi + Ln [ 1 -171\ a~j=o ... (3.124)
j=s+l a~j

For a small variation of oPHm at the mth hydro plant eqn. (3.124) can be split into the
following form.

~l
[ 1 - ~ ap11m = - ±[1 - oPoP.
1=1
L
] ap -.
51
~
J=s+l
(1 - 0It. )aPHi"
OllIJ
..... (3.125)
j*m
Again, eqn. (3.123) can be rewritten as

..... (3.126)

Hence
Ow C1 aF n Ow
Ym-_m apHm =- L _T ap -Y L _J aPH
ap'Hm 1=1 ap.. 51 J J=5+1 8P, ~ ..... (3.127)
p'm HJ

Multiplying Eq. 3.127 on both sides by (1- 8~~ J

-y. ~
l ~=s+1
Ow; aP (ll- 8PL ")
8P,Hl. Hi~ 8P ...... (3.128)
l"m m

In the above eqn. (3.128) if

(1- a~ J8PHm is replaced by the quantity on the right hand side of eqn. (3.124) we
~
obtam.

.. .... (3.129)
130 Operation and Control in Power Systems

soFT
=-I:-oP
I=IOP
( OPL 1
51 ll--)-Y
oRlim JJ"m
J=s+1
Ow J
I:n -oR [OPL
ORHJ. H C 1:iD.._.
-- 1 ....... (3.130)
Sl V~ l1J

Rearranging the tenn

soFT ( OPL 1 n Ow ( OPL 1

I:-ll--)OP
1=1 OP51 oRlim -I:y _ m ll--)OP
'I 1=1 m oP.lim oRlim ..

+ I:n
~=s+ 1
Owj
r· -
J OPHj
OItl
- [ 1 - - - oPJij-
Ol\Ij
J~m

~ Ow m ( OPL 1
~=s+l Ym ~ll- oP. ) oPHj = 0 ..... (3.131)
J~m lim Hj
Eqn. (3.131) can be put as

.~ aFT (1- OPL J _Y Ow (1- oP 1 oP,;

m L

l=lOPsi OPHm oHm l ap

m
si )

+ f
1=5+1
Ow j l(l- oPL 1)
YJ Ym OR OR
-A. m OP.
Ow m l(l- ap.
OPL 1)op'Hj =0 ..•••(3.132)
J"m Hj lim lim lim

Note that Opsi and OpHj are the variations in powers at steam and hydro plants respectively
and hence are finite. Then, to make the equation (3.128) satisfied, each of the coefficients of
the variations must be zero. .

:. OFT l(l- OPL )1_ y Ow m (1- oPL 1=0

oP.. aPHj m aplim l a p.. )
..... (3.133)

and Yj
Ow, ( _ aPL
oP II 1 Ow m (
OR ) - Ym - - 1 - - - =0
0It) ..... (3.134)
Hi lim OPHm 0I\un
In other words,
OF
_T
oW m
Owi
ap OP aPHj
(1- ~PJ) = Ym (ll _ ;PL 1) = Yj (ll _ OPL 1)
l op.. OPHj oPHj
= constant ..... (3.135)
Economic Operation of Power Systems 131

The partial derivatives in the above equation are also the total derivatives. It may also be
recognized that each of the term in the eq. 3.13 5 is also the incremental cost of the received

power in Rs/ MW. If A. denotes their incremental cost, then :T =!i

51 51
is the cost of generation

at each plant i and it depends on the generation at that plant only

( ')
~l_l_j=A.
d
dP 1- OP
51 cp..
L

. .... (3.136)
Ow ( 1 ')
r -)
) apH,j
l-j
1-~
=A.

Also

..... (3.137)

'Y) dw, +A. oPL =A-

and
dPHi OPH)
The above equations are called coordination equations for hydro thermal combined operation.
Solution to these equations results in minimizing the input costs to supply the given load.
dF·
Let _1 = a. P . + b. . .... (3.138)
dPsi 1 s1 1

dWj
and -dP = c· PH· + d. ..... (3.139)
Hj J J J

where a and c are the slopes of the incremental cost curves and b and d are the intercepts.

Further, PL = ~k Pk BIG PI ..... (3.140)

Partially differentiating PL in eqn. (3.140)
and substituting in eqn. (3.137)

a·I P51. + b.1 + 2 A. (±

K=I'
Bk Psi< ~ BilHi) =A-
+ )=1+1 ..... (3.141)

..... (3.142)
132 Operation and Control in Power Systems

Rewriting the third term on the left side of both the above equations, as
S
L Bki P k = BIZ',PSI' + ..... (3.143)
K=1 S

n n
and L BjkI1Ik =B. Ph' + L BkiP k ..... (3.144)
K=s+1 1) ~ K=s+1 s .
K~j

combining the terms containing Psi and PHj for solution

..... (3.145)

and
d) n s
l-"i - L 2B)kPHk - L 2B)IPsl
k=s+1 1=1
..... (3.146)

These two equations (3.145) and (3,146) can be solved iteratively till convergence is obtained
assuming suitable values for A. and Yj .

E 3.7 The input - output data for a particular hydro - plant is given in Fig. E 3.7.1. Find the
incremental water rate characteristic and convert it into an equivalent incremental
production cost characteristic taking the cost of water as 1Q-3Rs.lm3.

r--
""'
'"
1600
1400
1200
'"'e- ' 1000
800
~
.c 600
~ 400
i5
~
200

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450

P Plant generation (MW) ----+

Fig. E3.7.1 Input - Output Curve

Economic Operation of Power Systems 133

Solution: The incremental water rate is obtained by finding the slope of the given input -
output curve at different points. A straight line segment approximation of incremental water
rate is obtained as in Fig. E 3.7.2.

4.0

I
~
3.5
3.0
:::E
----
...,rIl
2.5
5 2.0
c:G
~ 1.5
I
1.0
~ Q.
"0"0
I 0.5
-l--+--I--+----l'---+-4--L..+--I---- M W
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
P ---.
Fig. 3.7.2 Incremental Water rate

Incremental water rate

1.7m3/s/MW for P = 0 to 563 MW
(0.0233P - 11.4) m3/s/MW
for P 563 to 640 MW
Incremental production cost
Incremental water rate x cost of water
1.7 x 3600 x 10-3 Rs.IMWh
6.2 RslMW h for P = 0 to 563 MW
Incremental production cost for the range
P = 563 to 640 MW is given by
(0.0876 P - 41.2) Rs/MW h
E 3.8 Consider the following 6-bus system with three generating plants and three load buses.
G, and· G2 are steam power plants and G3 is hydro - electric plant.
Generating 1YPe No. of Units Capacity of each Total capacity
Station unit(MW) (MW)
G, Thermal 3 12.5 37.5
~ Thermal 2 60.0 120.0
G3 Hydro 2 60.0 120.0
Total Capacity 277.5
134 .Operation and Control in Power Systems

Loads:
L1 160 MW
L2 35 MW
L3 72.5 MW
Total Load = 267.5 MW
Base Voltage = 220kV
Base MVA = 100
The B - coefficient matrix is given as
G1 G2 G3
B = G 1 [0.0210
G2 0.0034 0.02497
0.0034 0181
0.0.003 1
G3 0.0181 0.003 0.050
Characteristics of steam and hydro plants
GI - thermal station :
Calorific value of coal 5125 kcal/kg
Cost of coal Rs.45 per ton
Incremental fuel cost at near no - load Rs.21/MWh
Incremental fuel cost at 40MW Rs.23/MWh
Slope of incremental cost curve 0.05
Intercept on y-axis 21

260
260
240 236 230
215
220

1
~
200
178
187
~ 180

o 6 12 16 20 22 24
Time (h) ----.
Fig. E 3.8 Load Curve
Economic Operation of Power Systems 135

G2 - thermal station :
Calorific value of coal 4600 kcallkg
Cost of coal Rs.48 per ton
Incremental fuel cost at near no - load Rs.25/MWh
Incremental fuel cost at 40MW Rs.31.6/MWh
Slope of incremental cost curve 0.094
Intercept on y-axis 21
dF2
- = 0.094PS2 + 21
dP 2
G 3 - Hydro electric plant
Assuming Y3 = 1.0 paise/IOO m3 of water at 104 MW output, the incremental plant
cost = Rs.19.5 per MW h and at 120 MW output the incremental plant cost = Rs.36
per MWh. Slope of the incremental cost curve

y = 16.5 =1.03
-16
Intercept on y-axis = - 88

dWl
Y1
-
=--'
dP
= 19.5;0 $ PH3 $104MW
H3
= 1.03PH3 - 88;
104 $ PH3 $120MW
The system daily load curve is given in Fig. E 3.8 as shown. Obtain the economic
schedules.
Solution:
The scheduling equations are given from eqs. (6. 102) and (6.103) as

1-~-0.000068P2 -0.000362P
PI = ___A~___________________3
0.05 + 0.00042
A
21
1-- - 0.000068 PI - 0.000060 P3
A
P2=--~--------------------
-
0.094 + 0.0004994
A
88
I + - - 0.000362 PI - 0.000060 P2
P3 = A
1.03 + 0.00 I 0
A
136 Operation and Control in Power Systems

PI + P2 + P3 - (0.00021 P~ + 0.0002497 P~ + 0.0005 P~)

+ (0.000068 PI P2 + 0.000362PIP3 + 0.OOO06P2P3) PR =

in order to schedule for a specified received load, the values of I are computed from
equation as

+ (p(d)
1.(1-1) 1.(1-2) 1
1.(1) = 1.(1-1)
R
_ p(I-I)
R

where the superscript i indicates the iteration being started.

l -
p(l-I) _ p(I-2)
R R

PR is the received load and P(d)Ris the desired received load.

To start the computation, two initial values for A are assumed, namely
AI = 22.0
1.2 = 30.0
Economic schedules are then computed for different water rates over a wide range
dW 1
Y3 dP' = 0.515P3 -44atY3 =0.5paiseIl00m
3

= 0.618P3 - 52.8 at Y:1 = 0.6 paise II 00 m

=0.742P:1 -63.5atY:1 =0.7paiseIl00m
= 0.824P3 - 70.4 at Y3 = 0.8 paise / 100 m
= 0.927P3 -79.2atY3 = 0.9paisell00m
= 1.03P3 - 88 at Y3 = 1.0 paise / 100 m
= 1.24P3 - 105.5 at Y3 = 1.2 paise /I 00 m
the results of the economic schedule are shown in tables E 3.8 (a) to E 3.8 (g)
corresponding to different water rates.
Table E 3.8 (a)
Y = 0.5 PslI 00m 3
p(d) P2 PR A
R PI P3 Ptotal Ploss
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)
178.000 342786 28.1089 125.870 188.168 102033 177.965 242133
187.000 37.5000 33.4225 126.731 197.674 10.6672 187.006 24.8071
215.000 37.5000 58.5480 131.085 227.133 12.1321 215.001 27.5978
230.000 37.5000 72.1076 133.447 243.055 13.0705 229.984 29.1365
\

i 236.000 37.5000 77.5726 134.404 249.477 13.4780 235.999 29.7608

260.000 37.5000 99.5099 138274 275.284 15.2841 259.999 32.3101
Economic Operation of Power Systems 137

Table E 3.8 (b)

y = 0.6 Ps!1 00m 3
p(d) P2 P3 PR A.
R PI Plolal Ploss
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)

178.000 37.5000 30.4325 119.685 187.617 9.60962 178.007 24.4699

187.000 37.5000 38.6243 120.872 196.997 9.9923 187.004 25.3683
215.000 37.5000 64.2988 124.632 226.431 11.4309 215.000 28.2338
230.000 37.5000 78.1710 126.688 242.359 12.3596 229.999 29.8147
236.000 37.5000 83.7402 127.517 248.758 12.7620 235.996 30.4564
260.000 37.5000 106.168 130.888 274.556 14.5569 259.999 33.0778

Table E 3.8 (c)

y = 0.7 Ps/I00m 3
p(d)
R PI P2 P3 Plolal Ploss PR A.
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)
178.000 37.5000 34.7763 114.802 187.080 9.07387 172.006 24.9369
187.000 37.5000 43.1259 115.827 196.453 9.44968 187.003 25.8570
215.000 37.5000 69.3002 119.072 225.872 10.8717 215.000 28.7397
230.000 37.5000 83.4432 120.848 241-791 11.7948 229.997 30.4096
236.000 37.5000 89.1077 121.564 248.171 12.1942 235.977 31.0668
260.000 37.5000 112.001 124.484 I 273.985 13.9878 259.998 33.7546

Table E 3.8 (d)

y = 0.8 Psll 00m 3
p(d) P2 P3 PR A.
R PI Ptolal Ploss
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)

178.000 37.5000 37.1910 112.105 186.796 8.79129 178.005 25.1972

187.000 37.5000 45.6237 113.044 196.167 9.16186 187.003 26.1275
215.000 37.5000 72.0465 116.019 225.565 10.5818 214.984 29.0978
230.000 37.5000 86.4328 117.651 241.494 11.5045 229.989 30.7381
236.000 37.5000 92.0947 118.312 247.907 11.9066 236.000 31.4043
260.000 37.5000 115.205 120.994 273.699 13.7017 259.997 34.1278
138 Operation and Control in Power Systems

Table E 3.8 (e)

y = 0.9 Ps/IOOm 3
p(d) P2 P3 PR A.
R PI Ptotal Ploss
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)
178.000 37.5000 39.5740 109.453 186.527 8.52298 178.004 25.4547
187.000 37.5000 38.0938 110.303 195.897 8.89451 187.002 26.3966
215.000 37.5000 74.8023 112.999 225.302 10.3088 214.993 29.4050
230.000 37.5000 892306 114.447 241.208 112304 229.977 31.0671
236.000 37.5000 95.0556 115.078 247.634 11.6339 236.000 31.7422
260.000 37.5000 118.416 117.513 273.429 13.4335 259.996 34.5033

Table E 3.8 (t)

y = 1.0 Ps/100m 3
p(d) P2 P3 PR A.
R PI Ptotal Ploss
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)
178.000 37.5000 41.5314 107232 186.314 8.31038 178.004 25.666
187.000 35.3000 50.1235 109.682 195.682 8.68070 187.002 262182
215.000 37.5000 77.0672 110.525 225.048 10.0942 214.998 29.6583
230.000 35.3000 91.6397 111.878 241.018 11.0182 230.000 31.3386
236.000 37.5000 97.4943 112.426 247.421 11.4210 236.000 32.0212
260.000 37.5000 121.065 114.658 273221 132262 259.995 34.8137

Table E 3.8 (g)

y = 1.2 Ps/IOOm3
p(d) P2 P3 PR A.
R PI Ptotal Ploss
(MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)
178.000 37.5000 44.9039 103.559 185.963 7.96039 178.003 26.0326
187.000 37.5000 53.6119 104.220 195.332 8.33065 187.001 27.0000
215.000 37.5000 80.9275 106.321 224.749 9.74867 215.000 30.0921
230.000 37.5000 95.7020 107.476 240.678 10.6780 230.000 31.8021
236.000 37.5000 101.639 107.913 247.083 11.0835 235.999 32.4970
260.000 37.5000 125.548 109.849 272.897 12.9033 259.993 35.3412
Economic Operation of Power Systems 139

E 3.9 A system consists of two generators with the following characteristics

FI = (7 PI + 0.03 p/ + 70) 106

F2 = (5 P2 + 0.05 pi + 100) '106

Where F and P are fuel in put in K-cal/hr and unit output in MW respectively. The daily
load cycle is given as follows.

Time Load
12 midnight 6 am 50MW
6 am to 6 pm 150MW
6 pm to 12 midnight 50MW

Give the economic schedule for the three periods of the day
Solution:
Let the cost of the fuel be the same at both the plants.
dF
_I = (7 + 0.06PI )10 6 K-cal/MWhr
dPI
If C is cost of fuel in Rs/K-cal.
The incremental production cost at plant 1

dC I 6
=-=(7+0.06PI )10 xC Rs per MWhr
dP I

dC 2 6
similarly =- = (5 + 0.IP 2 )10 xC Rs per MWhr
dP 2

For economy
dP I dP 2
and P I +P 2 = 50 MW (i)
(7 + 0.06 PI) \06 xC = (5 + 0.1 P2 )106 xC (ii)
solving (i) and (ii) for PI and P2
PI = 18.75 MW
P2 = 31.25 MW
For PI + P2 = 150MW