Fluid Dynamics

ME 5313 / AE 5313
Surface Waves

Instructor: Dr. Albert Y. Tong

Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
The University of Texas at Arlington
 General Surface-Wave Problem
y z

x
e
h l

! ¶f
h : mean depth u = Ñf u=
¶x
l : wave length
Ñ 2f = 0 ¶f
e : amplitude v=
¶y
Surface Waves 2
General Surface-Wave Problem

Consider as a small amplitude wave when

e << h and l

Surface Waves 3
 Kinematic Condition at the Free Surface
y
Ñ 2f = 0 h ( x, t ) constant P
P0+
x
P0-
-h
y = h ( x, t )
Kinematic condition: A particle on the free
surface will remain on the free surface

Surface Waves 4
Kinematic Condition at the Free Surface
at y = h ( x, t ) Þ y - h = 0
D
( y -h ) = 0
Dt
¶ 0 ¶ 0 ¶ 0
( y -h ) + u ( y -h ) + v ( y -h ) = 0
¶t ¶x ¶y
¶h ¶h ¶h ¶f ¶h ¶f
- -u +v =0 Þ + =
¶t ¶x ¶t ¶x ¶x ¶y

Surface Waves 5
Pressure Condition at the Free Surface
+
Consider the pressure above the surface, P0 ,
is constant. If the effect of surface tension is
-
neglected, the pressure just inside the liquid, P0 ,
+
P
is equal to 0
P0+ (h + ) P

P0- (h - )

P (h
0
+ +
) = P (h ) = P
0
- -
(Neglect surface tension)

Surface Waves 6
 Pressure Condition at the Free Surface
Bernoulli Equation: (for unsteady irrotational flow)

At the free surface,

¶f P 1
+ + Ñf ×Ñf + gh = F ( t )
¶t r 2

Surface Waves 7
Boundary Condition at the Bottom

At the bottom, i.e. y = -h

i) u = finite (slip flow)
¶f
ii) v = 0 Þ =0
¶y

Surface Waves 8
 Boundary Condition Summary
Ñ 2f = 0
¶h ¶f ¶h ¶f
i) + = @ y = h ( x, t )
¶t ¶x ¶x ¶y
¶f P 1
ii) + + Ñf ×Ñf + gh = F ( t ) @ y = h ( x, t )
¶t r 2
¶f
iii) = 0 @ y = -h
¶y
Surface Waves 9
Small Amplitude Surface Wave

e << h and e << l Þ h << h and h << l

¶h ¶f
Þ << 1 and << 1
¶x ¶x

excluding high
frequency waves

Surface Waves 10
Small Amplitude Surface Wave
Linearization of B.C.
¶h ¶f ¶h ¶f
i) + = on y =h
¶t ¶x ¶x ¶y
0

¶f ¶h
is second order small
¶x ¶x
¶h ¶f
Þ = on y =h
¶t ¶y
Surface Waves 11
Small Amplitude Surface Wave
Expanding at y = 0

¶f ( x,h , t ) ¶f ( x, 0, t ) ¶ 2f ( x, 0, t )
¶y
=
¶y
+h
¶y 2
+ O (h 2
)
¶f ( x, 0, t ) ¶h ( x, t )
Þ =
¶y ¶t

Surface Waves 12
 Small Amplitude Surface Wave

ii) Bernoulli Equation

¶f ( x,h , t ) P ( x, t ) 1 0
+ + Ñf ×Ñf + gh ( x, t ) = F ( t )
¶t r 2
Expanding at y = 0 and deleting H.O.T. :

¶f ( x, 0, t ) P
Þ + + gh ( x, t ) = F ( t ) Eq. 1
¶t r

Surface Waves 13
Small Amplitude Surface Wave
Absorb F (t ) into f , we have
f = f ( x, 0, t ) + ò F (t ) dt
So Eq. 1 becomes,
¶f ( x, 0, t ) P
+ + gh ( x, t ) = 0
¶t r
¶ 2f ( x, 0, t ) 1 ¶P ¶h ( x, t )
+ +g =0
¶t 2
r ¶t ¶t
Surface Waves 14
Small Amplitude Surface Wave
With
¶h ( x, t ) ¶f ( x, 0, t )
=
¶t ¶y

It becomes:

¶ f ( x, 0, t ) 1 ¶P
2
¶f ( x, 0, t )
+ +g =0
¶t 2
r ¶t ¶y

Surface Waves 15
 Small Amplitude Surface Wave
Summary:
Ñ f =0
2

¶f ( x, 0, t ) ¶h ( x, t )
i) =
¶y ¶t
¶ 2f ( x, 0, t ) 1 ¶P ¶f ( x, 0, t )
ii) + +g =0
¶t 2
r ¶t ¶y
¶f ( x, -h, t )
iii) =0 v=0
¶y -h
Surface Waves 16
Propagation of Small Amplitude
Surface Waves
2p
Consider: h = e sin ( x - ct )
l
c
e

e << h and e << l

Surface Waves 17
 Propagation of Small Amplitude
Surface Waves
Boundary condition:

¶f ( x, 0, t ) ¶h ( x, t ) 2p c 2p
i) = = -e cos ( x - ct )
¶y ¶t l l
¶ f ( x, 0, t )
2
¶f ( x, 0, t )
ii) +g =0
¶t 2
¶y
¶f ( x, -h, t )
iii) =0
¶y

Surface Waves 18
Method of Separation of Variables

f ( x, y, t ) = X ( x - ct ) Y ( y )
¶ 2
f ¶ 2
f
Ñ f = 2 + 2 =0
2

¶x ¶y
¶ 2f ü
= X "Y ï
¶x 2
ï
ý Þ X "Y + XY " = 0
¶f2
ï
= XY "
¶y 2
ïþ
Surface Waves 19
Method of Separation of Variables
X "Y + XY " = 0
X" Y"
+ =0
X Y
2
X" Y" æ 2p ö
Þ =- = -ç ÷
X Y è l ø

f ( x - ct ) f ( y)

Surface Waves 20
 Method of Separation of Variables
2
æ 2p ö
i) X "+ ç ÷ X =0
è l ø
2p 2p
X = A cos ( x - ct ) + B sin ( x - ct )
l l
2p 2p
i ( x - ct ) -i ( x - ct )
or X = A'e l
+ B 'e l

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 =
2𝑖 2
Surface Waves 21
 Method of Separation of Variables
2
æ 2p ö
ii) Y "- ç ÷ Y =0
è l ø
æ 2p y ö æ 2p y ö
Y = C sinh ç ÷ + D cosh ç ÷
è l ø è l ø
2p y 2p y
-
or Y = C 'e l
+ D 'e l

e -e y -y
e y + e- y
Note: sinh y = and cosh y =
2 2
Surface Waves 22
Method of Separation of Variables
f = XY
é 2p 2p ù
f = ê A cos ( x - ct ) + B sin ( x - ct ) ú ×
ë l l û
é æ 2p y ö æ 2p y ö ù
êC sinh ç l ÷ + D cosh ç l ÷ ú
ë è ø è øû
2p
f ! cos ( x - ct )
Note: From b.c. (i),
l
ÞB=0
Surface Waves 23
 Method of Separation of Variables
0
é 2p 2p ù
\f = ê A cos ( x - ct ) + B sin ( x - ct )ú ×
ë l l û
é æ 2p y ö æ 2p y ö ù
êC sinh ç l ÷ + D cosh ç l ÷ ú
or ë è ø è øû
é æ 2p y ö æ 2p y ö ù 2p
f = êC1 sinh ç ÷ + C2 cosh ç ÷ ú cos ( x - ct )
ë è l ø è l øû l
where C1 = AC and C2 = AD
Surface Waves 24
Method of Separation of Variables
¶f ( x, -h, t )
From b.c. (iii), =0
¶y
¶f é æ 2p y ö æ 2p y ö ù
= êC1 cosh ç ÷ + C2 sinh ç ÷ú =0
¶y ë è l ø è l ø û y =- h
æ 2p h ö æ 2p h ö
C1 cosh ç ÷ - C2 sinh ç ÷=0
è l ø è l ø
æ 2p h ö
\ C1 = C2 tanh ç ÷
è l ø
Surface Waves 25
 Method of Separation of Variables

2p é æ 2p h ö æ 2p y ö æ 2p y ö ù
f = C2 cos ( x - ct )ê ç
tanh ÷ sinh ç ÷ + cosh ç ÷ú
l ë è l ø è l ø è l øû

2p é 2p y ö æ 2p h ö æ 2p h ö æ 2p y ö ù
= C2 cos ( x - ct ) êsinh æç ÷ sinh ç ÷ cosh ç ÷ + cosh ç ÷ú
l ë è l ø è l ø è l ø è l øû

é æ 2p h ö ù 2p é æ 2p h ö æ 2p y ö æ 2p h ö æ 2p y ö ù
= êC2 cosh ç ÷ú cos ( x - ct ) ê sinh ç ÷ sinh ç ÷ + cosh ç ÷ cosh ç ÷ú
ë è l øû l ë è l ø è l ø è l ø è l øû

Surface Waves 26
 Method of Separation of Variables

é æ 2p h ö ù 2p é æ 2p h ö æ 2p y ö æ 2p h ö æ 2p y ö ù
f = êC2 cosh ç ÷ú cos ( x - ct ) ê sinh ç ÷ sinh ç ÷ + cosh ç ÷ cosh ç ÷ú
ë è l øû l ë è l ø è l ø è l ø è l øû

C2 2p é 2p ù
f=
p
cos ( x - ct ) cosh ê ( y + h )ú
æ 2 h ö l ël û
cosh ç ÷
è l ø

Surface Waves 27
Method of Separation of Variables

2p 2p
Y = C sinh ( y + h ) + D cosh ( y + h)
l l
is also a valid solution

Surface Waves 28
Method of Separation of Variables
Consider b.c. (ii)
¶ 2f ( x, 0, t ) ¶f ( x, 0, t )
+g =0
¶t 2
¶y
2
¶f
2
æ 2p ö 2 2p
= -C2 ç ÷ c cos ( x - ct )
¶t è l ø l
2

¶f 2p é 2p æ 2p h ö æ 2p y ö
g = gC2 cos ( x - ct ) ê tanh ç ÷ cosh ç ÷
¶y l ë l è l ø è l ø
2p æ 2p y ö ù
+ sinh ç ÷ú
l è l øû
Surface Waves 29
Method of Separation of Variables
¶f 2p 2p æ 2p h ö
Þg = gC2 cos ( x - ct ) tanh ç ÷
¶y l l è l ø
Substitute into b.c. (ii)
2
æ 2p c ö æ 2p ö æ 2p h ö
Þ -ç ÷ + gç ÷ tanh ç ÷=0
è l ø è l ø è l ø
gl æ 2p h ö
c =
2
tanh ç ÷
2p è l ø
æ l ö æ 2p h ö
2
c
=ç ÷ tanh ç ÷
gh è 2p h ø è l ø
Surface Waves 30
Deep Water Waves
Special Cases:
(i) h >> l (deep water waves)
2p h æ 2p h ö
>> 1 Þ tanh ç ÷ ®1
l è l ø
e x - e- x
tanh x = x - x ® 1 as x ® ¥
e +e
c 2
l gl
= Þc =
2
gh 2p h 2p
Surface Waves 31
Deep Water Waves

tanh x = 0.99 Þ x = 2.65

2p h 2.65
= 2.65 Þ h = l
l 2p
l
Rule of Thumb: h>
2
(can use deep water wave solution)

Surface Waves 32
Shallow Water Waves
(ii) l >> h shallow water waves
2p h æ 2p h ö 2p h
<< 1 Þ tanh ç ÷®
l è l ø l
e 3
Note: tanh e = e - + ...
3
æ l öæ 2p h ö
2
c
Þ =ç ÷ç ÷ =1
gh è 2p h øè l ø
Þ c 2 = gh
Surface Waves 33
Effect of Surface Tension

Ñ 2f = 0 v=0=
¶f
¶y

¶s
+
s x +Dx =sx + Dx
P 0 ¶x
¶q
P- q x +Dx = qx + Dx
qx 0 ¶x
sx
x Dx x + Dx
Surface Waves 34
Effect of Surface Tension

DxP + s x sin q x = DxP + s x +Dx sin q x +Dx

0
+
0
-

Small amplitude wave

¶h
Þ sin q ! tan q =
¶x

Surface Waves 35
 Effect of Surface Tension
¶h ¶h
DxP + s x
0
+
= DxP0 + s x +Dx
-

¶x ¶x x +Dx

¶h æ ¶s öæ ¶h ¶ 2
h ö
DxP0 + s x
+
= DxP0 + ç s x +
-
Dx ÷ç + 2 Dx ÷
¶x è ¶x x øè ¶x x ¶x ø

¶h ¶ 2
h ¶s ¶h
= DxP0 + s x
-
+ s x 2 × Dx + × Dx
¶x ¶x ¶x ¶x

Surface Waves 36
Effect of Surface Tension
¶ h ¶s ¶h 2
P -P =s 2 +
0
+
0
-

¶x ¶x ¶x
Assume: s = constant
¶s
Þ =0
¶x
¶ 2
h
P0 - P0 = s 2
+ -

¶x
Only the dynamic b.c. is
¶h 2
Þ P = P -s 2
0
-
0
+ affected by the presence
¶x of surface tension
Surface Waves 37
 Effect of Surface Tension
b.c. (ii)
¶ 2f ( x, 0, t ) 1 ¶P( x, t ) ¶f ( x, 0, t )
+ +g =0
¶t 2
r ¶t ¶y
¶ 2
h ¶f
P = P0 = P0 - s 2
- +

¶x ¶y
¶P ¶ ¶h
æ 2
ö ¶ æ ¶h ö
2
= -s ç 2 ÷ = -s 2 ç ÷
¶t ¶t è ¶x ø ¶x è ¶t ø
¶p ¶f 3
= -s 2
¶t ¶x ¶y
Surface Waves 38
 Effect of Surface Tension
Put back into b.c. (ii):

∂ 2 φ (x,0,t) σ ∂ 3φ ∂φ (x,0,t)
− +g =0
∂t 2
ρ ∂x ∂y
2
∂y
which yields:

c2
l é s æ 2p ö ù
2
æ 2p h ö
= ê1 + ç ÷ ú tanh ç ÷
gh 2p h êë r g è l ø úû è l ø

Surface Waves 39
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

y v = ¶f2 u2 = U 2 +
¶f2
2
¶y ¶x U 2 r2 +¥
x
v1 =
¶f1 ¶f1 U1 r1
u1 = U1 + -¥
¶y ¶x
é i 2lp ( x - at ) ù
y = h ( x, t ) = Re êe e ú
ë û
only the real part is used
Surface Waves 40
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

Note: complex form is introduced to treat

instability interface

a = c + id

Surface Waves 41
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Previously: a=c ( d = 0)
2p
i ( x - ct )
y = h ( x, t ) = e Re[e l ]
é 2p 2p ù
= e Re êcos ( x - ct ) + i sin ( x - ct )ú
ë l l û
2p
Real part = e cos ( x - ct )
l

Surface Waves 42
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Consider pure imaginary: a = id ( c = 0)
é i 2lp ( x -idt ) ù
h = Re êe e ú
ë û
2p 2p
é l l dt ù
i x
= Re êe e e ú
ë û
2p dt
æ 2p x ö l
= e cos ç ÷e
è l ø
Surface Waves 43
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
d < 0: h will decay
d > 0: h will grow (unstable)

Note: complex roots come in conjugate pairs.

i.e. a = c ± id
Whenever a is complex, i.e. d ¹0 , the interface
becomes unstable.

Surface Waves 44
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

¶fi
ui = U i + i = 1, 2
¶x

fi = velocity potential for the perturbation to

the uniform flow caused by the waves at
the interface.

Surface Waves 45
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Governing Equation: Ñ 2fi = 0 i = 1, 2

Kinematic Condition:
D
( y -h ) = 0
Dt
¶ !
( y - h ) + (u ×Ñ)( y - h ) = 0
¶t
¶ ¶ ¶
( y - h ) + ui ( y - h ) + vi ( y - h ) = 0
¶t ¶x ¶y

Surface Waves 46
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
¶fi ¶fi
ui = U i + ; vi =
¶x ¶y
¶h æ ¶fi ö æ ¶h ö ¶fi
Þ- + çU i + ÷ç - ÷+ =0
¶t è ¶x ø è ¶x ø ¶y
¶h ¶h ¶fi ¶h ¶fi
Þ- - Ui - + =0
¶t ¶x ¶x ¶x ¶y
¶fi ¶h ¶h
Þ = + Ui i = 1, 2 at y = h ( x, t )
¶y ¶t ¶x

Surface Waves 47
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Linearized:
¶fi ( x, 0, t ) ¶h ( x, t ) ¶h ( x, t )
= + Ui at y=0
¶y ¶t ¶x
Dynamic Condition:

¶fi Pi 1 ! !
+ + (ui × ui ) + gh = F (t ) at y = h ( x, t )
¶t ri 2

Note: F(t) can be absorbed intofi

Surface Waves 48
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

2 2
! ! æ ¶fi ö æ ¶fi ö Second order small
ui × ui = ç U i + ÷ +ç ÷
è ¶x ø è ¶y ø
Constant
2 2
¶fi æ ¶fi ö æ ¶fi ö
= U i + 2U i
2
+ç ÷ +ç ÷
¶x è ¶x ø è ¶y ø

Surface Waves 49
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
¶fi ¶fi
ri + Pi + riU i + ri gh = 0
¶t ¶x
Again, it can be expanded at y=0 and linearized as:

¶fi ( x,0, t ) ¶fi ( x,0, t )

ri + Pi + riU i + ri gh = 0
¶t ¶x
(i = 1, 2)

Surface Waves 50
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Neglect surface tension: Þ P1 = P2

¶f1 ( x, 0, t ) ¶f1 ( x, 0, t )
Þ r1 + r1U1 + r1 gh ( x, t ) =
¶t ¶x
¶f2 ( x, 0, t ) ¶f2 ( x, 0, t )
r2 + r 2U 2 + r 2 gh ( x, t )
¶t ¶x

Surface Waves 51
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Boundary Condition:
(i) y ® -¥
!
u1 = U1i + 0 j
¶f1 ¶f1
Þ Ñf1 = 0 or = =0
¶x ¶y
(ii) y ® +¥
!
u2 = U 2 i + 0 j
¶f2 ¶f2
Þ Ñf2 = 0 or = =0
¶x ¶y
Surface Waves 52
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Solution:
2p 2p
y i ü
( x - at )
f1 = A1e e l l
ï b.c. at +/- infinities
2p 2p ý have already been
- y i ( x - at )
f2 = A2 e l e l ï applied
þ
Kinematic b.c. gives A1 = ie ( -a + U1 )
2p 2p
y i ( x - at )
Þ f1 = -ie ( a - U1 ) e
l
l
e
(detail)
Surface Waves 53
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

Similarly,

A2 = -ie ( - a + U 2 )
-
2p 2p
y i ( x - at )
f2 = ie ( a - U 2 ) e
l
l
e

Surface Waves 54
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
The only b.c. left is the dynamic condition at y = 0
¶f1 ( x, 0, t ) æ 2p a ö
r1 = r1 A1 ç -i ÷
¶t è l ø

æ 2p a ö
2p = r1ie ( -a + U1 ) ç -i ÷
i ( x - at ) è l ø
Note: e l
is a common factor
and is deleted

Surface Waves 55
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Similarly,
¶f2 ( x, 0, t ) æ 2p a ö
r2 = r 2 ( -ie )( -a + U 2 ) ç -i ÷
¶t è l ø
¶f1 ( x, 0, t ) æ 2p ö
r1U1 = r1U1ie ( -a + U1 ) ç i ÷
¶x è l ø
¶f2 ( x,0, t ) æ 2p ö
r 2U 2 = r 2U 2 ( -ie )( -a + U 2 ) ç i ÷
¶x è l ø

Surface Waves 56
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
r1 gh ( x, t ) = r1 ge

r 2 gh ( x, t ) = r 2 ge

Putting all six terms back into the dynamic b.c. and
after some algebraic manipulations gives:

a -
2 2 ( r U
1 1 + r U
2 2 ) a+
r U
1 1
2
+ r U
2 2
2
+
g l ( r 2 - r1 )
=0
( r1 + r2 ) r1 + r 2 2p ( r1 + r 2 )

Surface Waves 57
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
Solution:
( r1 - r 2 ) g l r1 r 2 (U 2 - U1 )
2
r1U1 + r 2U 2
a= ± -
r1 + r 2 ( 1 2)
r + r 2p ( r1 + r2 )
2

Special cases
(i) U1 = U 2 = 0 ; r2 = 0
gl gl This agrees with the
a=± or a =
2
previous result for
2p 2p deep water waves
No imaginary part =>Stable Waves
Surface Waves 58
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
(ii) r 2 = 0
gl
a = U1 ±
2p
Again, no imaginary part. Therefore, Stable Waves.

(iii) r1 = r 2 ; U 2 ¹ U1

(U 2 - U1 )
2
U1 + U 2
a= ± -
2 4

Surface Waves 59
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

U1 + U 2 (U 2 - U1 )
a= ± i
2 2
Non-zero imaginary part => Unstable Interface

It is known as Helmholtz or Raleigh Instability

The interface can be stabilized by surface tension if

2πσ ρ
− (U1 − U 2 ) ≥ 0
2

λ 2
Surface Waves 60
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface
(iv) U1 = U 2 = 0 ; r1 ¹ r 2

r2
r1

a=±
( r1 - r2 ) g l
( r1 + r2 ) 2p
a) r1 > r 2 b) r1 < r 2

Surface Waves 61
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

a) r1 > r 2 (e.g. oil on top of water)

a=±
( r1 - r2 ) g l
( r1 + r2 ) 2p
No imaginary part=> Stable Interface

Surface Waves 62
 Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

b) r1 < r 2 (e.g. water on top of oil)

a=±
( r1 - r2 ) g l
( r1 + r2 ) 2p
Non zero imaginary part=> Unstable Interface

It is known as Taylor Instability

Surface Waves 63
THE END

Surface Waves 64
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

¶f1 ( x, 0, t ) ¶h ( x, t ) ¶h ( x, t )
= + U1
¶y ¶t ¶x
2p 2p
¶f1 ( x, 0, t ) 2p y i ( x - at )
= A1e l e l
¶y l
2p
¶f1 ( x, 0, t ) 2p i ( x - at )
= A1e l
¶y l

Surface Waves 65
Propagation of Small-Amplitude
Waves at an Interface

2p
¶h ( x, t ) æ 2p a ö l ( x - at )
i
= e ç -i ÷e
¶t è l ø
2p
¶h ( x, t ) æ 2p ö i ( x - at )
U1 = U1e ç i ÷e
l
¶x è l ø
2p æ 2p a ö i 2p
Þ A1 = -e ç i ÷ + U1e
l è l ø l
(back)

Surface Waves 66