As Edexcel unit 1 Jan 2023 class

&
Topic 1A
Mammalian
Chemistry
transport
for biologist
29/10/2022
Part 1
Mammalian transport

Importance of transport system

Introduction to dissociation curve

Dr. Nihal Gabr

 O2 Low E demand
Low metabolic rate

Less demand to O2 and

Limitation for diffusion
- Short diffusion distance High pressure ………………low
Pressure gradient
pressure
O2 Heart
Movement of fluid down pressure gradient is called mass flow .

Small surface area to volume ratio

Solution is a transport system
Larger diffusion distance
2) Diffusion would be too slow
Heart ……creat mass flow
Blood vessels …..carry blood

+ high metabolic rate In turn allow an efficient supply of nutrients

High energy demand and rapid removal of wastes .

Importance of having a circulatory / transport system

To over come the limitation of diffusion which includes :

A) small surface area to volume ratio ..so longer diffusion distance to nutrients to reach the cells
….so diffusion alone would be too slow and insufficient .
B) high metabolic rate with high energy demand .

Solution
A) heart to creat a mass flow of fluid with nutrients and oxygen to be transported around the body
…down presure gradient in blood vessels ….allowing sufficient supply of glucose and oxygen to
body cells …meeting high energy demand and allow rapid removal waste products from cells
Small organisms don;t need a transport system

Large surface area to volume ratio ..so shorter diffusion-distance

Plus low metabolic rate , so low energy demand
So diffusion would be sufficient .

Mass transport system

Heart ….generate pressure , to ensure mass flow …..by transporting substances from high pressure to low
pressure ….down pressure gradient over a long distance.

Branching blood vessels …. To transport the substances following a specific route to required body part .

Blood ….transport medium with dissolved nutrients , oxygen and waste products .

Respiratory system …..to provide large surface area for gas exchange ……maintaining steep concentration
gradient of gases ( oxygen and Co2)
 Types of circulation

Open circulation
Closed circulation

Blood is not enclosed in blood vessels Blood is closed in blood vessels , thus being
It is pumped into body cavities separated from tissue fluid / interstitial fluid

Double Single
Mammals Fish
Double circulation :

Blood enter heart twice in one complete circuit around the body

Whats meant by closed double circulatory system :

Closed …blood transported in closed vessels

Double ….for each complete circuit around the body , the blood eneters the heart twice

Advantages

1. Separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood …maintaining steep oxygen concentration gradient …for gas
exchange …thus allowing tissue to receive needed amount of oxygen to meet high metabolic rate and high energy
demand .
Explain how double circulation allows effective gas exchange ?

2. Allowing the pump of blood under two different pressures

High pressure ……in systematic circulation for longer distance
Low pressure ……in pulmonary circulation to avoid damage the delicate pulmonary vessels / capillaries in lungs .

Where left ventricle pumps blood to body and

RV pumps blood to lungs
Composition of blood

1 RBCs Erythrocytes

1. Small in size 7um almost the same size as of capillary

A) help the RBCs to move slowly in capillaries for efficient gas exchange
B) make RBCs closer to the surface for shorter diffusion distance so faster gas Exchange .

2. Biconcave shape ..larger surface area to volume ratio so more oxygen can diffuse in and out at a
faster rate

3. No nucleus ….haemoglobin
4. Flexible to squeeze through tiniest capillaries ..

2. Platelets Thrombocytes

Formed from large cells in the bone marrow called mega karyocytes

Needed in blood clotting

 Cut in a tissue ….platelets become in contact with the cut tissue
A) platelets will become sticky
B) platelets break and release

Serotonin
Stimulate vasoconstriction in damaged blood Thromboplastin
vessel Soluble
In presence of calcium ions
Reduce blood flow to the damaged area ( help convert prothrombin into
thrombin)

Preventing excessive bleeding by allowing less Prothrombin Thromboplastin convert

Thrombin
>

blood to flow near the skin surface Inactive enzyme Active enzyme
Soluble Soluble

Catalyse the
conversion of
Fibrin
Fibrinogen InSoluble protein
Globular protein Forms a mesh
Soluble Trap blood cells to form clot

Cascade of reaction =
chain of reactions Proteins in platelets cause clot to become
tighter and tougher forming a scab.
Blood clotting

Cut ..platelets in contact with cut surface ….become more sticky and break and release
A) serotonin ….to stimulate vasoconstriction to reduce blood flow to cut tissue avoiding risk of bleeding .

B) platelets release thromboplastin ( soluble enzyme )

Which in presence of calcium ions catalyse the conversion of inactive enzyme ( prothrombin ) into an active enzyme
( thrombin)
Thrombin catalyse the conversion of globular protein ( fibrinogen ) into insoluble fibrin
Form a mesh trap blood cells and platelets forming a clot .

Then protein in platelets cause the clot to become tougher and tighter forming a scab
Protect skin and cells underneath the scab divide for healing .
Understanding Partial pressure : pressure exerted by a gas in a mixture of gases .

Breathing air in Higher PO2

O2
Arterial blood
% saturation of Hbg with oxygen is high
Haemoglobin ( oxyhaemoglobin) ·?

O2
Lungs Tissue

CO2
% saturation CO2
of Hb with
oxygen Venous blood Haemoglobin ( less oxyhaemoglobin)

Lower PO2
% saturation of Hbg with oxygen is low
88

X
Lungs

Tissue

2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14 Partial pressure of oxygen in blood

 % saturation Hb
Lungs
Understand only
of Hb with
Binding

~
oxygen
At Tissues 1. At high PO2 in blood
Oxygen diffuse from lungs into
blood
1. Low PO2 in blood Bind to haemoglobin ( OXYhbg)
2. Oxygen leave the Increasing % saturation of
blood to respiring haemoglobin with oxygen
tissue Dissociating

3.% saturation of Hb

Hbg with oxygen is

low …….
Oxyhaemoglobin Tissues
dissociation .
Dissociation of oxygen from hb

Partial pressure of oxygen in

blood = concentration of
oxygen
Haemoglobin …transport oxygen …..Hbg + 4O2…….HbO8 ( Hb.4O2) ….oxyhaemoglobin
Haemoglobin ..transport Co2 …………..Carbmino haemoglobin

Hb - N CO2 Hb - N
cotH
 % saturation
Lungs

#
of Hb with 1. At high partial pressure of oxygen in
oxygen blood .
At Tissues ( oxygen enters the blood ).
2. Where oxygen Diffuse down its
1. Low partial pressure of
concentration gradient into blood
oxygen in blood ( oxygen
3. Oxygen bind with haemoglobin .
leave the blood to tissue )
4. % saturation of haemoglobin with
2. Oxygen dissociation
oxygen is higher .
from haemoglobin
3. Diffuse down its Why Hbg affinity to oxygen is higher at lungs ?
Tissues
concentration gradient to Higher oxygen concentration
Where Hbg affinity to oxygen is higher ( CO2
respiring cells / tissues Dissociation of oxygen from hb concentration is low ) ..so less H+ ion concentration
4. % saturation of Partial pressure of
….so Hbg has higher affinity to Oxygen ..so more
oxyhaemoglobin …transport more oxygen to respiring
haemoglobin with oxygen is oxygen in blood =
cells
concentration of oxygen
low
Why at tissue % saturation of haemoglobin( affinity) with
oxygen is low ?

Where there is high Co2 concentration ….so high hydrogen ion concentration..so Hbg
affinity to oxygen will decrease , as it has higher affinity to H+
So forming haemoglobinic acid
So more oxyhaemoglobin dissociation
For oxygen to be more readily available for respiring tissues
 T Respiring cell Understand
High CO2 concentration
Co2 Co2

Co2 Co2

5% of CO2 remain in
1 blood plasma

3 85% of CO2
Plasma 3c HCO3-

3a Cl-
2 10% of CO2 bind to
haemoglobin to form CO2 + H2O Carbonic
……………………H2CO3
anhydrase ( carbonic acid )
Fast reaction
carbamino haemoglobin . Thus maintaining steep

RBC
concentration gradient for
diffusion of CO2 from tissue to + + t
blood
Free oxygen molecule
3d
Diffuse down its 3b H2CO3 ……………H+ + HCO3-
Chloride
concentration CL- shift to
balance the
gradient into the cells electronegati
4 Hb.O8…………Hb + 4O2 vity
02
O2
O2 5
6 O2 b Haemoglobinic acid
 nY
Lungs Understand
O2
or
tur O2

Ye*epvinie
O2
O2
X
I O2

N O2
I
Not
2 A)5% CO2 in plasma

Plasma 1 1. Oxygen diffuse down concentration gradient

3 B) 10% transported as Carbamino haemoglobin in RBCS

CO2
RBC CO 2 leave Hb …….free
CO2

CO2
CO2
4 C) 85% of CO2 transported as HCO3-
HCO3- + H+……………H2CO3 CO2
H2CO3 ……………..CO2
Carbonic + H2O
anhydrase
Reverse 5
reaction
Haemoglobinic acid Hb + 4O2 …….Hb.4O2
HHb…..Hb
-> + H+
Respiring cells
1.low PO2 and high CO2 concentration
- Co2 diffuse down its concentration gradient from cell into blood :
( high PCO2)
A) 5% of Co2 will be transported in blood plasma
B) 10% of CO2 bind to Hb to form carbamino haemoglobin
2.H+ increase Study
C) 85% of CO2 3.Affinity of haemoglobin to Oxygen
CO2 + H2O …………….H2Co3 decrease
H2CO3…..H+ + HCO3- …….diffuse out of RBC 4.Hb Has higher affinity to H+
5.More Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation
- HB.4O2….Hb + 4O2
6.So more oxygen is made readily
Hb + H+ ………HHb ( hamoglobinic acid )
availble for respiring tissue…diffuse down
Affinity of Hb to Oxygen decrease / hbg has higher affinity to Hydrogen ions
- oxygen free molecules in cytoplasm of RBCs its concentration gradient .
Diffuse into respiring tissue

In lungs
Oxygen diffuse down its concentration gradient from alveoli into blood 1. higher partial pressure of oxygen ,
A) HHb ( haemoglobinic acid ) …..Hb + H+ 2.Affinity of haemoglobin to Oxygen is high
Hb + 4O2 ….Hb. 4O2 3.Hb Has lower affinity to H+
4.More Oxyhaemoglobin formation
B) H+ + HCO3- ….H2CO3 5.So more oxygen is transported to
H2CO3 ….CO2 + H2O respiring tissue .
Study
B) Co2 free molecules diffuse into alveoli
% saturation of
🐘 🐁
Elephant

-
f
Hb with oxygen More respiration
Read
More CO2
More H+
Mouse
Hb has lower affinity to )2
More oxyhaemoglobin dissociation
PO2 More O2 readily available for cells
Lower % saturation of hb

Bohr’s shift
 🪑 🐘 🏃 🐁
% saturation of

f
Hb with oxygen Elephant

Role of carbonic anhydrase

Co2 ….more
A
Mouse
H+ ……more Catalyse a fast reaction between
Higher % saturation
ba Hb has lower affinity to oxygen
HHb ….more CO2 and water in respiring tissue to
More oxyhaemoglobin dissociation
produce carbonic acid which
Lower % saturation
Lower % saturation
dissociate into H+ and HCO3-
PO2 And catalyse reverse reaction in lungs

Dissociation curve of is shifted to the ( right ) in respect to ……..

Haemoglobin affinity to oxygen is ……( lowered )
At low PO2 , the percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen ……..( lower).
So more oxyhaemoglobin dissociation ….so oxygen made readily available for respiring tissue .
To meet high energy demand / high metabolic rate
Large surface area to volume ratio so lose more heat
So higher rate of respiration
Reasons of decrease of affinity of Hbg to oxygen at respiring tissue
PO2
Affinity At respiring cells.. incase of higher metabolic rate
Saturation Higher CO2 concentration produced
Dissociation So more hydrogen ion concentration
Hb has higher affinity to H+ ions forming Haemoglobinic acid HH
So more oxyHbg dissociation
 Bo Study Explain shape of the curve / allosteric mechanism

~
Haemoglobin is made from 4 polypeptides with 4 haem group ,
where haemoglobin pick up the oxygen molecules till it becomes fully
Imp
saturated
First molecule of oxygen combining with iron atom in the first haem
group

Allosteric mechanism Whole molecule become distorted ( conformational change)

Makes it easier for the second oxygen molecule to combine with
second haem group ..which makes it even much easier for the third
and fourth oxygen molecules to bind to the other haem groups

B has higher affinity to oxygen

Then as haemoglobin becomes saturated the curve flattens out as
At low PO2 ..has higher % less oxygen can bind .
saturation with oxygen

Foetus Imp
Adult Explain the shape of the curve

Fetus depends on its mother form oxygen supply

So fetal haemoglobin has higher affinity to oxygen
Than adult / mother Hbg
So can remove oxygen from mother’s blood at low PO2

01093850599
 At high altitude
Imp
At high altitude lower pO2
PO2 is lower than at sea level
So less oxygen in inhaled air
Lungs
Lower PO2 in alveoli
Lower concentration gradient between alveoli and blood
So Slower rate of diffusion of oxygen from alveoli into blood Sea level higher
So haemoglobin is less well saturated with oxygen PO2
Less oxyhaemoglobin …Hb at low PO2 has lower affinity to oxygen .
So less oxygen in blood …so less respiration …..altitude sickness and hypoxia

Solution / adaptation.

A) produce more RBCs ……compensate for smaller volume of oxygen being absorbed
B) increase heart rate and breathing
C) increase capillary density
So tissue will receive sufficient O2
5/11/2022
Part 3
Cardiac cycle
Blood vessels
 ->
Epithelium …tissue ( epithelial cells ) Squamous epithelial cells ( squamous
epithelium ) flat cells
thi
Refers to a layer of cells lining an organ A) blood vessels ( endothelium )
we
One layer of cells , squamous , inn er
part of the organ
B) alveoli Wid
Blood vessels
Columnar ( ciliated )
rig
Tunica externa ( outer layer)
Smooth muscles

D
Artery Collagen Contract and relax
Vein ( vasoconstriction and
Tunica media vasodilation) change
Smooth muscles diameter of blood vessels
to accommodate the
Elastic fibres
volume of blood reaching
Collagen

·
different body parts ..

Elastic fibres
Tunica intima

Endothelium
Wall in one cell thick
Squamous ( single layer )
Facing the lumen and
minimize the friction
with moving blood .
Somet
Stretch ( expand) and recoil
( become narrower) ..maintain
blood flow under high pressure
Collagen
Needed to provide strength to withstand
high pressure without bursting .
 Arteries 3. Tunica initima ( endothelium )
Function: carry blood under high pressure away from the heart Single layer of flat thin cells with smooth
Carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary and umbilical artery surface facing lumen to smooth out blood
flow with least frictional resistance .
1. Tunica externa :
Contain collagen and elastic As it is folded …expand ( stretch )during
fibres systole to increase diameter of lumen to
To withstand high blood re avoid damage of endothelium.
pressure without bursting
( collagen gives strength )
4. Narrow lumen
To maintain blood flow under high
pressure
2. Tunica media ( middle layer )

A) smooth muscles ……to contract and relax to change

the volume of the blood delivered to different body parts
by changing the diameter of artery ( vasoconstriction
and vasodilation )
B) elastic fibres : stretching ( expand ) and recoils
( become narrower ) …to smooth out and maintain
blood pressure
 Aorta
Artery
Arteriole

1. As we move further away from the heart , the lumen gets narrower , help resist the blood flow to maintain
blood pressure

2. As we move away from the heart , elastic fibres decrease while smooth muscles increase .

Aorta has a lumen with wider diameter

More collagen
More branches to more organs
 Explain how aorta is adapted to its function :

1. Thick outer wall contains collagen …+ function of collagen

2. Tunica media with many smooth muscles and elastic fibres
A) smooth muscles accommodate the volume of blood being transported to different body parts by

ior
contraction and relaxation .
B) elastic fibres to stretch and recoil to maintain high blood pressure .

3. Inner folded endothelium …( single layer of squamous epithelial cells ) expands upon ventricular
systole to prevent bursting and with stand high blood pressure without damaging endothelium .

4. Higher % of elastic fibres

5. Semilunar valves to prevent back flow of blood during diastole ( relaxation )
6. Branches to supply blood to different body parts
Function : return blood from body organs to heart
All veins carry deoxygenated blood except for pulmonary and umbilical vein

Read
 What ensures the blood to return to heart from vein

Muscle contract
Muscle relax ,
Squeeze on blood
semilunar valve close
To force move
preventing back flow
forward
of blood

Inhale
Imp Less
pressure on
heart -
•
Pressure venacave is low

→←

→
re

Pressure high

Less pressure on heart

⑭ Pressure on vena cava is low

Pressure in lungs High pressure

Mass flow
Low pressure
decrease
Pl
Pressure in vein increase
Capillary Is a tissue
Important underlined words '
Why atria has thinner walls than ventricles

Atria receive blood at low pressure from veins

Also pump blood for shorter distance into ventricles .

Why walls of left ventricles are thicker than walls of right ventricles ?

Generate higher blood pressure during systole

Over come higher resistance to blood flow in arteries due to their narrow lumen
Transport blood under higher pressure for longer distance to all body parts

Coronary arteries

Transport / supply heart muscle with oxygen and glucose for aerobic respiration to release energy for
contraction
Branch directly from aorta :
A) much faster to reach the heart
B) aorta closest blood vessel with oxygenated blood so supplies the heart muscle with highest level of
oxygen
Septum

Separate the right from left side of the heart

A) prevent mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to MAINTAIN steep CONCENTRATION
GRADIENT ..to allow sufficient supply of oxygen to body tissues .

B) to allow blood to be pumped under two different presures

High to body
Low to lungs

Myoglobin

Respiratory pigment in heart muscle

Has higher affinity to OXYGEN than haemoglobon
To store oxygen
To keep the heart muscle contracting using energy from
aerobic respiration
 Systole ……contract ……stretch
Diastole …relax………recoil

How structure of artery -

help maintain blood
pressure .
Heart beat ( systole
and diastole )
Contraction and
relaxation per one
beat …maintain blood
pressure
Ventricular systole Stretch
-
1. Heart pump blood under high pressure
2. High blood pressure surge into arteries
So elastic fibres stretch ( EXPAND )
3. So lumen of artery becomes wider
4. Reduce blood pressure a little
5. Accommodate / adjust greater volume of blood under high
pressure without damaging the artery walls …doesnt rupture …with
the help of presence of collagen in walls to increase the strength

Recoil
Ventricular diastole

Elastic fibres in arterial walls recoil ( unstretched ) inwards as

blood under low pressure surging into them ….recoil thus help
maintain high blood pressure and rapid flow of blood
8/11/2022
Part 4
Cardiac cycle
Atherosclerosis

DR. Nihal Gabr

 > omg
Lungs

:*
""

Pulmonary circulation

money .
aorta .
or
a
artery
semilunar
.

Teniente -0 Pulmonary
⇐ vein
.

atrioventricular
""

- Septum .

hepatic vein Systemic circulation

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Liver hepatic artery

§
hepatic
Portal .

vein
Small intestine

ythenaluein gmj
Kidney
Renal artery
.
?⃝
?⃝
LORD
In ……vein ………atrium
Away ….artery …..ventricle
 Structure of the heart

1. Chambers …mentioned before

2. Septum …..mentioned before
3. Valves :
A) atrioventricular valves :
B) semilunar valves
Function:
Open to allow the blood to flow in one direction ( from ..to ..) and close to prevent back flow of blood .
Thus maintaining pressure and steep concentration gradient of oxygen and Carbon dioxide .

Semilunar valves : prevent back flow of blood from aorta to the left ventricle
And from pulmonary artery to right ventricle
Tendinous cords
How atrioventricular valves are adapted :

Ventricular systole ..increase in blood pressure in

Cusps
ventricles …papillary muscle contract …..which
are attached to the cusps of the atrioventricular
valves by TENDINOUS CORDS …so this Papillary Cusps
contraction pull on the tendons ….to close the
valve and hold the cusps in place and prevent
them from turning inside out .

Papillary muscles Tendinous cords

Semilunar valve
Semilunar valve
Close when the heart muscle relax ….diastole
Where the pressure in ventricles decrease
Slight back flow of blood from arteries
Blood fill the semilunar valves Cusps
( cause the cusps to come close together )
Preventing back flow of blood

↑
Ventricular diastole -
Low blood pressure in ventricle
 Cardiac cycle ( DIASTOLE ………………….ATRIAL SYSTOLE ………….VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE)
(Relaxed …………………atria contract ………………………ventricles contract )
0.4 S ………………………0.1 S …………………………..0.3 S

1. Diastole 2. Atrial systole

1. Both atria and ventricles are relaxed 1. Both Atria contract

2. Atrioventricular valves open 2. Both ventricles are relaxed
3. Semilunar valves are closed 3. Atrioventricular valves open
CARDIAC FILLING 4. Semilunar valves are close
4. Blood pressure in ventricles fall 5. Blood is flowing from Atria
Volume of ventricles from 0% to 70 %
into ventricles
Last for about 0.4S
Ventricular filling / Atria
emptying .
Volume of ventricles increase
from 70% to 100%
Last for about 0.1 S
3. Ventricular systole
1. Both atria are relaxed
2. Both ventricles contract
3. Atrioventricular valves close
4. Semilunar valves open allowing blood to flow from ventricles out of the heart through arteries
VENTRICULAR EVACUATION
Blood volume 100% to 0% …duration 0.3 S
 0.1 S …………………………0.3 S …………………..0.4 S
Atrial systole ……..ventricular systole …………..Diastole

Atria Contract Relax Relax

Ventricles Relaxed Contracted Relax

Atrioventricular valves Open Closed Open

Semilunar valve Close Close

Open

0
C
0.4 S…..0.1 s……..0.3 S

Diastole Ventricular systole

Atrial systole

C 0
0.3 S …..0.4…..0.1
0.1……..0.3…..0.4
 0.3
Ventricular systole

0.4
Diastole
Atrial systole
0.1
Atherosclerosis
Imp

1. High blood pressure , stress, smoke particles ..damage to the

endothelial lining of arteries
2. Body’s inflammatory response takes place where the WBCs reach
site of damage .
3. Causing cholesterol ( LDL form liver ) from blood to accumulate /
build up on the walls of arteries forming atheroma on endothelium of
artery .
4. Calcium ions and fibrous tissue build up around atheroma
….hardening. ….plaque
5. Narrowing diameter ….further increase in blood pressure + lose
elasticity of walls of arteries …so cant stretch and recoil
6.increase in blood pressure ..further damage in other areas of
endothelial lining
7. Increase risk of formation of clot . , stimulate cascade of
coagulation reactions causing thrombus to form and block small
vessels Explain how atherosclerosis can
Thus reducing blood supply to heart muscle so deprive the heart muscle lead to damage of heart muscle ?
from oxygen leading to myocardial infarction ( heart attack ) or angina
High blood pressure

Damage to endothelium

Body’s inflammatory response ,,,WBCs reach to the

site of damage
+ cholesterol LDL build up on walls

Forming atheroma
Calcium ions build on atheroma

Hardening and form plaque .

Narrowing to the diameter

Further increase in blood pressure

Stimulate cascade of reactions causing thrombus
and block vessels

Reduce blood supply to heart muscle ..deprive of

oxygen …heart attack
 CHD
Incomplete blockage Complete blockage

Increase blood pressure …..damage Stroke ….blockage / bleeding in brain

endothelium of artery ……increase
risk of thromobosis
Angina ….reduced blood supply to heart muscle due to
Plaque accumulate on walls of coronary arteries
Reduce diameter of coronary arteries
Reduce blood supply to heart muscle
Deprived from oxygen ….more anaerobic respiration
produce lactic acid …damage heart muscle
Symptoms
1. Sever chest pain during exercise extending to the left arm
Breathlessness
Treatment
1. Drug…vasodilation to coronary arteries and decrease
heart rate
2. Surgery …by pass surgery , angioplasty using stent
3. Rest on spot
Heart attack …. Plaque
accumulate on walls of coronary
arteries…..damage walls and stimulate
formation of clot where the platelets become
activated upon touching plaque / damaged
endothelium .
Blockage of coronary arteries
Reduce blood supply to heart muscle
Deprived from oxygen ….less aerobic..so less
ATP + more anaerobic respiration produce
lactic acid …lower blood pH damage heart
muscle being toxic ….heart attack
Treatment
Asprin
Run to hospital
Effect of atherosclerosis

A) weakening of blood vessels …..aneurysm

hm
B) incomplete blockage …
1. Angina minie
2, increased blood pressure ….affect kidney
Weakening to blood vessels Blockage
Affect the retina
Aneurysm Stroke
Affect the brain ..stroke Narrowing
Heart
A) angina
C) complete blockage B) increase in blood
- myocardial infraction pressure
- stroke ( disturbing blood supply to brain )
CHD

Angina Heart attack

Blockage Damaged capillaries leading to bleeding .

Confusion / dizzness/ blurred vision / slurred speech

3. Effect of atherosclerosis on health: Read only the three pages
Consequences of
atherosclerosis

Weakening of blood vessel Incomplete blockage

-
Complete blockage
-

Reduced blood supply Brain

Increased Angina Heart
Aneurysm Stroke
=blood
pressure
pectoris Myocardial
infarction

1. Aneurysm :
• Where if an artery is narrowed by plaque, blood tends to collect behind the blockage.
• The artery bulges (swell) and the wall is put under more pressure than
usual , so it becomes weakened (aneurysm).
• The weakened artery wall may split open, leading to massive internal

r
bleeding Leading to massive blood loss. And drop in blood

ab
pressure.
• This happens in the blood vessels supplying the brain or in the aorta.
• If early diagnosis takes place to aneurysm , it can be treated by surgery before they burst.
lg
2. Raised blood pressure:
( kidney )
Narrowed arteries due to plaque on walls cause raised blood pressure. =
iha
Which damages the tiny blood vessels % % of
0 protein
Effect on kidney:
If those vessels are feeding kidney tubules, high blood pressure may force protein molecules
.N

out their walls( doctors can test for protein in urine as a sign of kidney damage).
Effect on retina:
Tiny blood vessels supplying retina are easily damaged, thus if become blocked or leak, their
Dr

will be deficiency in oxygen supply to retinal cells, which would die and cause blindness.
Effect on brain
Stroke, Caused by bleeding from damaged capillaries in the brain, or blockage cutting blood
supply to brain .

3. Heart disease (CHD):

Angina and myocardial infarction (heart attack) are the
- -

two most common heart diseases.

Dr.NIhal Gabr 061

 I
I
atBath
1. Angina:
1. Plaques builds up slowly in coronary arteries. Resulting in a decrease in diameter of
coronary arteries Reducing blood flow to the parts of heart muscle beyond(after) the
plaque. So heart muscle receives less oxygen
and glucose. So heart muscle resorts to
anaerobic respiration leading to build up of lactic
acid and death of some muscles.

any
2. Symptoms:
usually first noticed during exercise, as cardiac
muscle is working harder and needs more oxygen .
The anaerobic respiration in cardiac muscle cause

r
gripping pain in chest that extend to particularly left

ab
arm, jaw and cause breathlessness.
These symptoms subside( become less intense)
once exercise stops. lg
3. It can be managed by :
• taking regular exercise
iha
• losing weight
• Stop smoking
• Reducing fat intake. t HR, Dilation Coronaycteres
At
.N

4. Treatment: E -
-

Reskny
L
Symptoms treated by resting and drugs that cause rapid dilation of coronary arteries so
Dr

supplying cardiac muscle with oxygen needed.

If it gets worse, other drugs used to dilate blood vessels and reduce heart rate.
In sever cases, they use a stent to be inserted in the narrowed arteries to hold them open, or
use by pass surgery .
surney
stentCanyiocastis

Dr.NIhal Gabr 062

 imp doi Platelet, stimulated.
2. Heart attack: -> complete blockage) -
plague Damaged
1. Caused mainly by blood clots(areythrombosis) resulting from atherosclerosis where: endothelium.
1. Plaques builds up slowly in coronary arteries. damage the walls of arteries.
Followed by formation of blood clot by:
• where platelets touch the damaged surface of the plaque triggering
O n ew m e n -r
the clotting process.
• The plaque
O mem
itself may rupture and break open, and the
-
released cholesterol will cause the
platelets to trigger the blood clotting process.
-

2. Or platelets touch the damaged endothelial

-

lining( caused by high blood pressure or smoking)

-

triggering the clotting process.

-

r
x Clot formed in coronary arteries known as coronary

ab
thrombosis Blocking the coronary artery.
- >
So part of
heart muscle is permanently starved of oxygen. Muscles
resort to anaerobic respiration. Lactate produce and
lg-

accumulate in the cells. Lowering pH so enzymes denature

I

and cells die.

-
Leading to heart attack .
- -
iha
2. Symptoms:
Pain in chest at rest that extend to particularly left arm, jaw and cause breathlessness., much
more sever than angina.
.N

It may occur at any time, though exercise may start it and often lasts for several hours.
Death may occur very rapidly with no previous symptoms, or it may happen after several days
of feeling tired and suffering symptoms mistaken for indigestion.
Dr

3. Treatment:
Not relieved by rest and vasodilation alone.
React quickly giving two full strength aspirin tablets to help stop blood clotting and send them
to hospital as fast as possible .

Notice:
1. Coronary arteries are like an inverse tree, in other
words branching downwards with larger branches
splitting into smaller ones .
2. So the extent of damage is based on on how high
the blockage is.
-
2A 1H.

Dr.NIhal Gabr 063

4. Stroke: Blockage .

- Caused by an interruption to the normal blood supply to an area of the brain,

Causes :
1. Bleeding from damaged capillaries
2. Or blockage of cerebral artery due to blood clot , an
atheroma or combination of both cutting off the blood
supply to the brain .
Notice if blockage is in one of the main arteries leading to the
a-
brain causes a very serious stroke that can lead to death, but
-

if its in one of smaller arterioles leading into brain , the effect

may be less disastrous.

Symptoms:
It varies depending on how much of brain affected .
Dizziness, confusion, slurred speech, blurred vision, or partial loss of vision,and numbness.

r
In more sever strokes, there can be paralysis, usually in one side of body.

ab
lg
iha
.N
Dr

Dr.NIhal Gabr 064

1. State the limitation of diffusion
2. Importance oh having a circulatory or a transport system
Check list
3. Composition of mass transport system
4. Why small organisms don’t need a transport system
5. Compare between two types of circulation (closed and open )
6. Whats meant by closed double circulatory system
7. Advantages of having double circulatory system
8. Adaptation of RBCs
9. Role of platelets in blood clotting …clotting cascade of reactions

10. Describe role of carbonic anhydrase

11. Describe why affinity of haemoglobin to oxygen decrease at high CO2 concentration
12. Describe why curve is shifted to the right ( Bohr’s shift )

13. Explain the sigmoid curve shape of dissociation curve

14. Explain the shape of the curve of fetal and adult hemoglobin .
15. Explain why hypoxia happens at high altitude .
16. Structure of arteries, veins and capillaries
A) arteries …identify and label parts
Describe the function of smooth muscles . Elastic fibres
Describe how the structure of artery helps maintaining blood pressure
How arteries are adapted
How aorta are adapted

B) vein …identify and label

Explain how the blood flow in vein
Why has wide lumen and semilunar valves

C) capillaries
Adaptation ..same as o level

17. Why atria has thinner walls than ventricles

18. Why walls of left ventricles are thicker than right
19. Coronary arteries why branching from aorta
20. Septum ..function
21. Myoglobin