T HE TA L M U D

A RSENE D A R M E STETE R

T R A N S BA T E D F R OM T HE F R E NC H

HE NR IE TT A S Z OLD

PH L I AD E LPHIA
TIIE J E W IS H PU BL IC AT IO N S O C IE TY OF A M E RIC A
1 897
 Co w m a n r -

, N
1 897 , I

THE J E W IS H PUB I C I ON S OC I E
L AT TY OF AM E R I C A

PR ES S OF
E DW A RD S T E R N C O , INC
. .

I
PH L A D E L PH A I
 PR E FA TORY NOTE
THE f o llo wi n gpassage from the biography of
Ars ene D m arprefixed to Volum e I of hi
e s t e t e r, s

R i
el
q ueS
s fi deserves
'

cz e n t z
'

quotation
q ues both on
account of its critici m of E manuel D eutsch s
, ,
’
s

brilliant article on the Talm ud which originally

appe ed in the " l R i w for October 7
,

ar ua rter y ev e 1 86

reprinted as of this and

,

N
'

( 3 Sp iO S ) ec a l en es as

illustration of the phen m enon ften noted in

.
,

an o O
the scientific world that investigators wholly i
,

dependent and perhaps in ignorance of each other

, ,

publish work of sim ilar i mport si m ultaneously

,

though the phase of the subject presented m y

,

have been completely neglected up to that tim e

The biographer A é equally distinguished
.

’
rs ne s

brother Jam es D m says (page )

,

ar es t e t er, xv : In
that period f lls his first essay an essay on the
, ‘

T lmud in which he undertook to give an idea

,

of the contents of that vast com pilation of its

,

form ation and its history and which even leavi g

,

out of consideration the age of th author h

, ,

— e
”
e

was then about nineteen years ld is a marvel

,

O
by reason of i precision clearness and grasp of
ts
the subject That essay m ight have sufficed to
, ,

establish the reputation of an Orientalist d an

.

an

histori n U nfortunately Ars ene did not find the

a

m ans to publish i t As he was ab out to finish it

.
,

e
there appeared in an E nglish review an article
.
,
6 PRE F ATO RY NO TE

on the Talmud treating in reality of ly any s carc e

thing but the Mishna and written with pe fect

,

appreciation of the public to which the journal

,

appe led is h model of a superficial popular

a It t e

enjoyable exposition D eutsch s article created a

.
, ,
’

sensation in E ngland and was translated in France

.

C o m ing after it A é superior though it was

, .

’
rs n e s,

wo ld have appeared to be inspired by it there

, ,

u It
fore re m ained unpublished despite the fl later
.

‘
e o rt s

on made by M Gaston Paris to eff ect its appear

ance in the French reviews
.

N ih o tw t
standing the great and happy hanges brought
.

about in France during the last fifteen years in

studies of this kind which have found a centre at
the B l d f l m E d and an organ in the
,

ea e es a es tu es

his article h preserved

-

R evued E d f i
es tu es a r/ es , as

its originality uni mpaired and even now is unique

in our language as a summ ing up of the vast Tal
,

m udi chaos
e

I a foot note the biographer say s My brother

.

n :

later retouched his article and introduced the ref

-
,

ren es to D eutsch contai ed therein The essay

,
”
c e n

here translated from the R

.
,
'

S ifi
'

elz q ues ez ent q u es

finally in 889 the year following the death of its

,

author fou d its w y into the R d E d

, ,

, n a ev ue es tu es

T T A N L AT O IIE R S R
 THE TA LM UD

THE Talm d exclusive of the vast Rabbini liter

u c

ature attached to it represents the uninterrupted

,

work of Jud ism from E zra to the sixth century

,

of the common era the resultant f all the living O

forces and of the whole religious activity of a na
,

tion If we consider that it is the faithful mirror

of the m anners h institutio s the knowledge f
.

t e n O
the Jews in word f the whole f their iviliza
, ,

a O O C

tion in Judea and Babylonia during the prolific

,

centuries preceding and following the advent of

C hristianity we shall understand the i m por ance t
f a work unique of its kind in which a whole
,

O
people has dep sited its feelings its beliefs its
, ,

soul Nothing indeed equal the impor ance

, ,

ca n t
of the Talmud unless it be the ignorance that pre
.
, ,

vails concer ing it For what is generally known

,

n
of this book ? At the ut most its name People
.

have a vague idea that it is a huge str nge fantas

.

tic work written i a till more fantastic style

, ,

n s

in which bits of ll sorts of more or less exact

, ,

knowledge together with dream s and fables lie

heaped up with the incoherency of complete dis
, ,

order But it h not yet been made plain that it

as

is the work of a nation the expression of a social

.
,

system d that in vir ue thereof it falls under the

,

an t
laws governing the progress of hum nity I is
,

a t
not understo d that it is a human product whose
.

o ,

( 7)
8 T HE TA L M U D

origin and develop ment are hu man capable of b e

ing resolved into laws and therefore laying clai m to

,

scientific analysis Fro m a very diff erent point of

,

view it has heretofore been studied Up to the

.

present this word Tal m ud has had the po er of

.

w
kindling passions and exciting acrimonious strife
,

The i mpartiality of which the author of the A l

.

n na s

boasts i i ? s uedi should not be expected

n et s tu o,

those who have written about this book I have

,

Of
not in m i d the last three centuries during which
.

its tudy was oftenest inspired by religious passio

,

s n ;
Christian scholars for the m ost part looki g upon n

it as a monstrosity an i fernal production which n

damned the m orality of the Jewish people and

, ,

the Jews hotly defending the sacredness of a work

,

that was the bulwark of their faith d the m an e

bodim ent of their religious life E ven in our days

when the dem and for a m ore scientific treat m ent
.
,

is justifie the Talmud h in general not been

d, as

accorded i mparti l criticism which rising above

a

polem ics should exam ine it dispassionately and

, ,

co sider its nature dgrowth in the spirit that the

, ,

n an

physiologist carries into the stu y f an ani mal or d O

the philologist into that f the haracters f a lan O C O

g uage The Jews of Germany alone in the E uropea n

world of scholars have built up the science of the

.

Tal mud by the application f the critical m ethod O

which was unknown to the Jewish histori s of
,

an

the middle ages About forty years ago Jost

and Rapoport by their lear ed resea ches
.
, ,

Z un z n r

inaugurated the great movement that continues

,

with unabated vigor in our own time M y . an

 T IIE TA L MU D 9

names suggest themselves mong others those ; a

of Kroch mal Her feld Graetz Fr nkel and above z a

all Geiger who is remarkable for the assurance
, , , , ,

and the force of his bold criticis m Their i fl

, ,

n u

ence is not confined to the Jewish world Their

.

work has succeeded in obtruding itself upon Prot

.

scholarship both liberal and orthodox for

e s t an t e

i g it to invite Talm udic research into the circle

, ,

of the sciences But outside of Germany their

labors have m with o ly faint response
.

et n In
France d E gla d they have been al most
.

an n n un
known up to the present ti me and although special
,

works are beginning to see the light of day it is

,

true that in the main nothing of these studies

,

penetrates to the general public on this as on the

other side of the Channel For the benefit of this
public it is proposed in the following pages to give
.

a cursory idea of the Tal mud by reviewing the

,

principal results of German criticism The first

,

part shall be devoted to the analysis of the Talmud

.

collectio and to the exam i ation of its two m

n n co

pone t elem ents the H l l and the H gg d

n a ae za
‘
a a a

The econd part is reserved for the history of the

, .

development of the bo k and of the laws gover o n

ing it Fin lly after a glance at i vicissitudes

a ts
during the m iddle ages and in m odern ti mes we
.
,

shall indicate what rem ains for science to do with

,

th Tal m ud and what sci nce m y expe

e fi d e a ct to n
in it for h history of mankind at larg
,

t e e .

Ch pro no un ced as i n th e German Nae/i t .

IO THE TA L M UD

PA RT FIRS T

A NA LYTI C S K E C H T OF THE TA LM UD

HA A T T GE NE R AL C R C E R IS IC S

I one f the heavy folios that constitute the

F O
Talm ud collection be opened at random the eye will
be m by a text in the square Hebrew characters
,

et

which is fr med on the right and left by n rrow

,

a a
colum ns and above and below by wide bands of
a finer text printed in the Rabbinic characters
, ,

The fram e is the work of French com m ntators

, .

of the m iddle ages the portion fram ed is the ;

TA L M UD
The T lmud in turn is composed of two dis
.

tinct parts the M HNA d the G MA A the

, ,

IS an E R ;
former the text the latter the comme tary upon
,

n
that text An analysis f the T lm ud must there
,

O a

fore begin with that of the Mish a

.

By the term Mishna we designate a collection of

.

decisions d traditional laws em braci g all de

an n
of legislation civil and religi us This
,

pa rm
t en t s o

code which was the work of several gener tions

, .

of Rabbis received its final redaction towards the

,

end of the second century at the hands of R bbi

,

j / d
e zu a l H ly tIt is
ze divided intoo six sections
.
,
 L UD T HE TA M II

which in tur are subdivi d d into treatises chap

n e

ters d paragraphs
,
‘
an

Its l guag a Hebrew that has suff ered a

, .

an e

Th e sec ti o n is c alled S ede r ; th e trea tis e, M a ss eelzetlz ,

li terally w eb; th e c h a p ter, Per ek ; the p arag raph , th e s i m

ples t elem ent of th e c o de, bears th e na me o f th e c o de its elf ,

Th e fo llo wing s ummary o f the c o ntents o f th e s ix sec tio ns

wi ll en ab le th e rea der to apprec i ate th e exten ded vari ety Of
th e s ubj ec ts em b ra c ed b y th e legi s la ti o n o f th e M i s h n a
—
.

S ect o i n I : S ee ds A fter a c h apter devo ted t o th e b ene

.

dic ti o ns i t trea ts o f ti th es firs t f rui ts s ac ri fic es a nd g i fts due

, ,
-

, ,

fro m th e pro duc e o f th e la nd to th e pri es ts th e Levites a nd , ,

th e po o r ; o f th e c es s a ti o n o f ag ri c ultural la bo r duri ng th e
S a bb a ti c year ; a nd o f th e pro h i bi ted mixt ures i n seeds a nd
i gr ft i g
n a n — In all elev en treati s es
—
.

S ec ot i n I I F eas ts Of th e S a bb ath and S abb a th res t o f

.
,

feas ts a nd fas ts : Pas s o ver Tabern ac les New Year th e D ay , , ,

o f A to nem ent a n d th e F as ts
, o f wo rk fo rbi dden c eremo n i es ,

to b e o bs erved a nd s a c rific es to b e bro ugh t o n tho s e da ys

, .

Twelve treatis es
—Th e
.

S ec tio n I II W o m en . leg i s latio n c o n c ern i n g m ar

di vo rc e, th e lev ira te m arri age, a nd a dultery ; vo ws and
ri ag e ,

th e reg u la ti o ns f o r t h e Na z i ri te — S e v e n t re a ti s es
—
. .

S ecti o n IV : F i n es C ivi l leg i s la tio n, b es i des a trac tate o n

.

i do la try, and o n e c alled A bo tli , c o n sis ti ng o f a c o llec ti o n o f

th e ethi c al s en tenc es o f th e R a bbis . Th i s .

s ect i o n trea ts o f
c o mm erc i al t ra ns a c ti o ns , p urc h as es , s ales , m o rtg ag es , pre
s c ri pti o n s , etc ; o f leg al p ro c edure, o f th e o rga n i z ati o n o f
—
.

b
tri una ls , o f wi tnes s es , o a th s , etc T en trea ti s es . .

S ec tio n V : S ac red Things .

-
Th e legi s lati o n c o ncerni ng
s acri fic es , bo rn clea n
th e firs t -
an d unc lea n a ni m als ; th e de

Hero d s Tem ple —E leven treatis es

,

s c ri pti o n o f
’

Puri fic atio n s —Laws

. .

S ec ti o n VI . c o nc ern i ng Levi ti c al
c lea n ness a nd un c lean n ess ; c le an a n d unc lean rso n and
pe s

th i n g s , o bjects ca pa ble of bec o ming unclean by c o ntac t

—
.

Purific ati o ns Twel . ve treati s es .

I2 T HE TA L M UD

strong Ch ldaic i fusion and has freely dopt d

a n a e

Latin and especially Greek words the Mishna is

,

written in a simple style so concise as sometimes

,

to be obscure D igressions are avoided and the

,

anecdotes m with here and there are introduced

.
,

et

with the object of illum inating opinions with the

light of facts
It is useless to dwell on the legislation of the
.

Mishna which has so ften been expounded and O

analyzed recently again in an article in the
,

let us proceed at once to the

,

" l
ua rter R i w y ev e ;
1

Gemara B a word m ust first be said concerning

ut

a collection called T if /
.

os t za

Rabbi J h d the Holy had not incorporated in

.

e u a

h Mishna ll the decisions of the Rabbis that had

t e a

preceded h im A considerable number found no

place in the code either because in his eyes they
.

were not vested with sufficient authority or b

,

cause they were useless repetitions of those pub

,

li h d by h i m
s e U nder the nam e B / / ( o ra i t zo t z ex

m ) the greater part of the excluded decisions

.

te a

were collected little later in the order of the

,

Mishna with the sam e divisions and subdivisions

and gave rise to a new book the T if l or ddi
, ,

os t za , a

The T if h the work of the Babylonian

,

ti on os t a,
schools was compiled by R Hyy and R O h y
.

a s a a,

and presents the same e te nal ch act ristics

, . .

x r ar e as

the Mishna the am e language d the ame style

— s an s
—b ut necdotes form a far m ore considerable ele
a

m ent The T f / and the B / / i p

. osz t za o ra i t zo t z n co r o r

E manuel D euts c h , The Ta i m m4 " ua r ter ly Revie w .

Octo ber , I 867 .

 T HE TA L M U D I3

a e t d ith ne er i n th e ish To s if t h a no r i n th e M na are

am g h on tit t l m nts of h G ma a
t e co ns uen e e e t e e r .

This th b i g to h G m the p
en, rn s us t e e ara, er

co e t followin ish a in all its

,

p l
et ua mm y g h M n ar t e n

divisions and ubdivisions It h come down to s

‘
as

us in two difl forms or redactions Th one

.

'

eren t e

is h w rk of the P lestini schools d w

.

t e o a an an as

draw up at Ti berias in ab ut 3 8 the ther m

,

n o 0; o e a

nate from the Babylonian academies S or

s at a,

Nh de d P mb d h
a r ea, an and w reduced to u e it a, as

writi g by R Ashi and his di cipl R bina

n s e a re

i i g its fi l shape fro m R J é in about 5

.
,

ce v n na OS 00
The Babyloni n Gemara i mprop rly called the
. .

a e

Babylonian Talmud is clearer and more complete

,

tha the P lestinian Gemara still more i

,

n a nac c u

ly c lled h Jerusale m Talm ud The former

,

rat e a t e

ther fore w adopted by the synagogue and

.
,

e as

the other of higher impo tanc to c itical re rch

, ,

r e r s ea

by reason of its great r a tiquity w neglected

,

e n as

by the Ra bbis d the opyists of h middle g

,

an C t e a es.

and has e ch d us in a much damag d condition

r a e e

and not without h ving lost many a page in its a

journ y acros h centuries Unfo unately

e s t e rt to o ,
there exists but manu cript c py of h Jeru
.
,

o ne s o t e

s alem T lmud that used for the di i p i p

a , e t o r nc e s

No t i n abso lutely all C ertai n parts o f th e M ish n a lac k

1
.

their Gem ara ei th er bec aus e th e disc ussi o ns relati ng to th em

,

were no t co mmi tted to wri ti ng o r bec ause th o ugh e di ted , , ,

th ey h ave no t reach ed us T h us i n the first and i n the last

.
,

sec ti o n , a s i ngle trea tis e h as i ts Co m m entary In th e fif th ,

.

th a t o n s a c red th i ng s , two trea tis es are beref t o f thei r co m

mentari es .
I4 T HE TA L M U D

no o th ma cript by h id f which i m i
er n us t e a o ts ut
l t d te might b corr ct d h be preser d
a e xt e e e as en ve

Babylo ia riv l h had happie lot ma u

.

I ts n n a as a r ; n

s cript are lacking though f h m st p

s no t or t e o art

f agment y d p to 864 ther had app r d

,

r ar an u 1 e ea e

forty fo ditio s of thi Tal mud i ncl ding h

,

ur e n s u t e
Mish h G ma d the c mment ri all
-

na, t e e ra, an o a es ,

paged lik ch ditio u mbering thousands of

a e, ea e n n

copies each copy co taining leaves divid d n e

up into twelv mas iv folios

, ,

e s e

h l n gu g of h Mish na the g oundwork

.

I n t e a a e t e r

is Hebrew of the Gemara the same an ot be

; c n

sa id Its l g age comes closer to the pop l r

an u u a

idiom a sort of A amean more or less corrupt

.

However speci m s of the Hebrew of e ry age are

, , .

en ve

with som time e of the cla sic Hebrew

,

m et e s ev n s

cordi g to h tiquity of the incorp r ted

, ,

ac n t e an o a

te s A fter the return from the Capti ity Hebrew

xt v

artificial lang ag used by the R bbis de

.
,

w as an u e a

gene ati g little by little into low Hebrew i mpreg

,

r n

ating it elf mor d m ore with A m ic elements

,

n s e an ra a

and finally merging into the di l of the people

,

a ect

This e plains how it happens that ingle page of

.

x a s

the T lmud contai s three or four difi

a lan n eren t

g age or rathe speci men of

u s, la g age at r s o ne n u

thre or four difi stages of degene acy It is

e erent r

not r re to find h red ctor f h T lmud fi m

.

a t e a O t e a co n r

ing the opinion of a Rabbi of the fourth century by

quoting that of a teacher of the second word for
word h same as the former except that it is writ
,

t e
ten i Hebrew The gener l principle m y be enun
,

n a a

d that purity of language is testi m ony to h

.

i
c at e , t e
f t h e t e xt s re i n t h e T a lm u d .
 T HE T AL MU D I5

Let us rther i to h G m
pen et rat e fu d n t e e ara, an

co nsid r its riou tures Th first tri king

e va s fea e s

ch cteristi is h e ent of h comm ntary as

.

ara c t e xt t e e

compar d with that of h e t Many M ishna

e t e t x a

of fi i line is cco m panied by fifty or si ty

.

ve o r s x s a x

pages of planation In proli an elabo ation

ex so x r

of ours the lucid order of dept s exposition

. ,
’
c e, an a

m ust not b pe ted The broad line of well

e ex c s a

d fi d plan providing proper plac for e ch p rt

.

e ne a e a a

of the Gema a Would b ought in vain The m d

r e s o

ern schola with his h bits of order d m ethod

.

r a an

would find himself ingul rly out f hi elem ent s a O s

there Usually the Gemara present the app r s ea

a ce of a boundless sea of di cussions digressions

.

n s

arratives legends wh erein the M ishna aw iting

, ,

n a

explanation i ompletely ubmerged The reader

, ,

s c s

of its pages in which the m ost widely separated

.

objects matter of cour pla ed in close

,

are as a se c

jux apositi in whi ch ll thing mi and clash with

t on, a s x
each other in h magnificenc of barbaric disorder
t e e

m igh t readily i magine hi mself a sp ctator at the

,

enactment of an endless dream subject to no laws

but tho e f the association Of ideas N even the
,

s o ot

most circu mscri b ed discussions fail to g ive roo m to

.

this cha acteristic disorde For instance to l i

r r e uc

date a point under discussion aquotation is needed

.
,

a quotation of a line L it not be supposed that it et

is conside d sufficient to indicate the w argu

.

re ne

m ent incidentally It is developed quite at length

with all its ramifications so that to g asp its whole
.

extent it becomes neces ary to forget the first and

, ,

hief object th suggested it N is this all

,

c at . or .
16 THE TA L MUD

This argument in turn calls up a other i h n no t n t e

least germane to the principal question and fter
,

the mind has been st aying among unrel ted dig

,

r a r es

sion for the space of five or six pages it must i

s n

order to r ach the st rting point pai f ully ret ac

, ,

e a n r e

the successive serie of arguments extricating

,

s as

it goes along details useful in the discussion if any

,

there b Worse still when the commentary by

,

the essential nature of its bject lacks stability and

.

O
precision In the explanation of a Mishna the opi n

ion of a Rabbi is quoted the Mishna is put aside

.

;
in order to reproduce all the pinions bearing this O
Rabbi s am Among them are mo al dicta or
’
n e r

principles of hygien In consequence a whole

.

page of maxim s or of m edi al formulas defile before

.
,

the reader Then follow incantations tales of de

m ons p pul r legends Often the connecting link
.
,

o a

is not visible Ch nce has brought together two

, .

absolutely irrelevant f agments ffi i reason

—
.

r su c en t

for the redactor of h Gemara to join them to each t e

other In thi flood of digressions h M ishna s t e
seems forgotte the re der at all events has lost
.
,

n ; a

it from sight so completely have his thoughts been

borne away on this meandering course directed it
,

seems by fa cy alone But suddenly it m eets his

, ,

eye as at a turn in the road The thread is resumed

, .

the explanation proceeds But how many dig

.
,

res

sions are needed to m ke a Mishna exhaust its

.

Gemara "
It is only after a ti me says the author of h t e
article on the Tal ud that the
,

" l
ua rter y R i w m
ev e

student learns to distinguish between two m ighty

,
 T H E T AL M U D I7

c u e ts in the book— urrents that at ti m es flow

rr n c

par llel at times seem to work upon each other

a

and to impede each other s action the one eman

, ,
’

;
ating from the brain the other from the heart
the one prose the other poetry the one carrying
—
,

with it all those men l faculties th t manifest

,

ta a

them selves in arguing investigating comparing

developing bringing a tho and points to bear up n
, , ,

us o

one and one upon a thousand h other springing

,

; t e

from the realms of fancy of i magination feeling

humor The first named is called H l l l
, , ,

a ae za z

a ter applied both to the process

,

( R l
u e, N m ) or m
of evolving legal enactm ents and h enactments
,

t e
th emselves The other H gg d l ( L g d S g ) a a a z e en a a

not so m uch in our modern sense of h word

.
, , ,

t e
though a great part of its contents comes under
,

that h ead but because it was only a saying a ‘ ’

thing without authority

, ,

Infact precise as arethe boundaries of the domain

of the Halacha so v gue and ill d fi d are those
,

a e ne

of the Haggada It is elusive varying fro m the

-

fantastic legend the m oral m xi m from the

.
,

to a

m agic form ula to h istorical narratives and chrono

,

logical records I is an accurate definition to say

t
th at it is what is Halacha The latter on the
.

no t

other hand is clearly defi ned for eve y hing called

.
,

r t
Halacha has a sacred character compelli g the
,

espect of the believer Halacha is LA W in all its

,

authority it constitutes dogm a and cult it is the

.

; ;
fundamental elem ent of the Tal mud and with it
we ought to begin our investigation of the Gemara
,

.
18 T HE TA L UDM

HALA H T HE C A

T H nam e Halacha applies

E only to the sp ci l no t e a

laws established by the Rabbis but al o to h di

,

s t e s

that result in the establishment of such

,

i
c uss o n s

laws The schools did not stop at the t xt fixed by e

Rabbi J h d they used it as h point f depart

.

e u a; t e O
u re, and with the aid f various B l l and the O o ra i t z o t z

To s if they we t
t/za , on to explai and ndevelop the n

Mishna and render new decisions The Mi hna in s

fact could not be co sidered a final text When

.
,

earlierdeci ion are adduced it usually fail to indi

, .

s s s

ate their ource som ti mes the name of the aut hor
,

c s ; e

is added but only in orde to ppose anoth r author r O e

ity cited in the same way and in the latter case
,

;
though om etim es a decision between the two
,

s an

ta g pi
o ni st c
i ions is mOad the
n question is m ost e,

frequently left su pe ded All this m ust be taken

s n

up ag in the discussions begun m ust be finished

.

the points u der debate determ i ed with precision

,

n n

order and light introduced everywhere this is the

,

work f Gemara It first devotes itself to the

O the
laws set down as establi hed i nquires into their
.

origin and rejects the various explanations off ered

,

until one is found holding its ag inst all

, ,

o wn a

objectio s Often it shows that the decision

n

re c ed by h Mishn is i m plete obscur con

.

a h t e a n co e,

and t at it ca ot be de to a ply to
,

i
t ra d c t o r
y , m h llnn a p a
20 T HE TAL M UD
G E MA RA : Of w h at c as e do es th e M sh na i s p eak P
Has he bee n me d by th e th i rd pa rt y b e fo re th e
w c i
ra ns o

firs t h as re n o un e d h is ri g ht f ?
u
o n er o po ss es s on

Ra ns o m e d t o bec o m e free , wh y s h o ld h e n o t b e ma de
a S la v ? Is it a fte r th a t re n un c ati o n i
Ra nso m ed to
v u
e

be a s la wh y s h o ld h e no t b e fre e
i u i
e,

A bai a an s we rs : Th e M sh n a s ho ld b e e x pla n e d
'

t eri o ri h ero servi et . Po s teri o ri h ero no n, qui a in li beri no min e

redem i t ; p ri o ri h ero no n , n e renueri t c um redi m ere. R S i m eo

.

b en Gam ali el di ci t : s eu hic s eu llli c s ervi et. C enset, ut o ffi

c i um i ngenuo s li berare, s i c s ervo s o fli c i um ess e li berare .

D ic i t R a b a : po st quidem ; et, in servi n o m i n e, po s terio ri

h e ro s ervi et ; i n li beri no mi n e h ero nec po ss ervi et nec p ri o ri

terio ri h ero ; po s teri o ri h ero no n , qui a i n li beri no m i n e redem i t
c um ; p ri o ri h ero n o n , qui a po s t repudi ati o n em es t R S i meo . .

b e n Gamali el di c i t s eu h ic s eu h ac servi et , ut n
)
Hiski ae ;
qui a di c i t Hiski as : c ur dix ere seu h ic s eu llli c servi et, ne

s i ng ulus ultro h o s ti b us s e o ff era t e t e m an u h eri vi ndi c et .

" uae s ti o : di c it ei s R S i m eo b en Gamali el ut

. o ffic i um in
g e n uo s i n li bertatem vin di c at e, sic servo s esse o ffic i um .

" uo a d A b af a m , q ui dic i t ante repudium , h o c est quo d di c i t

‘

n "ut . S ed quo ad R a bam , qui d t o ut ? Ob r d Hi ski ae est ?

T i bi dic i t R a b a : R S i m eo b en Gam ali el igno rab at quid
.

dixi s s ent D o c to res et s i c ei s lo c utus es t : s i a n te repudi ati o ne m

di c i t is , ho c es t r d ut ;
)
Si po s t repudi at i o n em di c i ti s , ut n
His ki ae .

E t R a ba q ui di c i t po s t et p o s te ri o ri h ero , po s teri o r h erus

a q uo a c q ui ri t ?
A c ap ta n ti b us

C apta ntes i ps i, qui s ei s ac q uiri t etc .

No w, i n th is pe c uli ar Lati n s uppress th e h yp h ens , c o mm as ,

a n d p e ri o ds Beg i nn i ng wi th th e wo rd Gem a ra , let all th e
.

s en ten c es fo rm o nly a lo ng s tri ng of wo rds plac ed o ne a fter

th e o th er, nei th er th e b eg i n n i n g no r th e end o f a p ro po s i t io n
b ei ng di s ti ng uis h a ble, a nd yo u will h av e a n a lm o s t exac t f ac
s i m i le o f th e text, wh i ch m ay b e re c ko ned am o ng th e eas i est
to dec iph er .
 T HE TA M L UD 2I

t h us : We i
dea l ng w th th e i in wi h ch th e firs t
i
a re cas e

o wn er h as n o t re n o u nc e d his r h
g ,t a n d th e S lav e ra n

m e d to re m a i n a s la v e re t urn s to s e rv e h is firs t m as
i
so

te r ; ra n s o m e d to b e fre e h e s e rv es n e th e r t h e s e co n d,

i
,

wh o m e d h i m to s et hi m at l b e rty , t h e firs t ,
i i
ra n s o no r

wh o m g h t h a ve p erm itte d h i m t o re m a i n i n ca pt vi ty
i i
.

R S m e o n s o n o f Ga m a l el s ay s : In a n y c a s e h e t e
i v
.
, ,

ma th e s la ve o f t h e firs t m as te r be c aus e i t i s e y
v
ns , er

bo dy ’
s duty t o ra n s o m s la es e q ua lly wi th fre e m en
(a n d c o n s e q u e n tl y it ca nn o t be s upp o s e d th a t th e firs t
m as te r w o uld ha v e a llo we d h i s s la ve to rem a i n in ca p

t i vi ty ) .

Ra b a a n s w e rs : T h is i s th e wa y to un de rs ta n d t h e
Mi s h n a : We i w
de a l n g i th th e ca s e i n h c h th e firs t wi
w i
a re

h as re n o un c e d h is h t up o n th e S lave A nd
i i
o n er r g .

th e M s h na de c lare s th a t m ed i n o rde r to re m a n

v v
, ra n s o

a s la e, t h e s la e s e rv e s h i s s e c o n d m a s te r ; ra n s o m ed
to be s et free , h e n e i th e r t h e firs t wh o h as
i
s e rv e s , re

n o un c e d h is r h
g ,t n o r th e s e c o n d, wh o ra n s o m s him
t o s et h im at lib e rty A nd R S im eo n , Of Ga m a li e l,
i v
. . so n

ys th a t i n a n y c a s e h e re m a n s a s la be ca us e h e
i i
sa e,

a dm ts His kia s ’
i l n a m el y th at if li b e rt y c o uld
ob i p p ,
i
r n c e ,

be ta n e d th us , S lav e s wo uld de l v e r th e m s e lv es up t o

th e en e my i n th e h o p e o f be i n g ra n s o m ed and b ec o m
i n g fre e .

But i n a Bo rai th a i t is s a i d: R S i m eo n ,
. so n o f Ga m a lie l,
ys bb is : A s i t i s a duty to ran s o m fre e m e n
t o th e Ra
v
sa ,

s o i t i s a duty t o ra ns o m s la e s T h e e x p lan a ti o n o f
v
.

th e Mi s h na g i e n by A b ai a a g re e s wi th th e Bo rai th a
'

i i
S n c e A ba i a a tt r b ute s to R S m e o n b e n Ga m a li e l
'

i ,

i p re .

c i s e ly t h s reas o n But h o w th e Bo ra i th a b e un de r

i i
. c an

s to o d i n th e e x p la n a t o n by Ra ba Ra ba j
us t if y
i
, s nc e c an

R S i m eo n b e n Ga m a l e l s
’
i i o nl y by His kia ’

i
. o p n o n s

p ri n c p le

Ra ba a n s we rs : Th i s Bo ra i th a i s i n c o m p le te , an d its e lf
22 T HE TA M L UD
needs th e fo llo w n g i i n te rp re ta ti o n : R S me i o b e n Gam
i bb i
. n

ali e l, t k n o wi n g t h e o p n i o n o f th e Ra s e xa c tl y
wi
no ,

ys to th e m : If y o u s p e a k o f th e c as e i n h c h th e firs t
i i i i
sa

m a ste r h as no t re n o un c ed hi s r g h t , I a dm t th e p r n c
l “
As i t is duty to m etc f th e Op p o
If
i
e
p , a ra n s o , . o

te Cas e , His ki a s ’
i i l m us t b e a dm i tte d

i v
s p r n c p e .

But h o w c an Rab a wh o , a dm ts th a t th e s la e ra n
so m e d to b e a s la ve b e lo ngs to h i m th a t h as ra ns o me d
hi m , no t to hi s firs t wne r wh o h as re n o unc e d hi s
i
o
—h
,

h w Ra b a j us ti f y th e s ec o n d o wn e r s ri g h ts
’

g ts ,
i
r o c an

o f p o ss es s o n ? T h ro ug h wh o m do e s h e h o ld th e m ?
Th ro ug h th e c a p to rs w h o t o o k th e s lav e i
v riv
p r s o n e r .

But th e c ap to rs th e m se l es , wh en c e do the y de
i i
e

th e r r g h ts ? e tc .

And the discussion on this Mishna f three lines O

continues for seve whole pages n

It appears from the above passage that in its

.

Halachic portio s the Ge m ara uses the dialogue

, ,

form But it will not do to think f Plato s ani O

’

m ated dialogues in which the reader sees not only

.

thoughts conflicting and clashing but souls with

,

their passions their sentim ents with all that

,

m akes the m hu m an Here we have dialectics in its

, ,

driest and most laborious developm ent The dis

.

are not but na es and argu ents

.

p ut a n t s m m m en ,

And the style if the la guage in which h dis

.

— n t e
eussions are clothed can be dignified with the name
style A ti mes the phraseology is diff use and
t
swathed in a score of words when six or eight
.
, ,

would fli the idea drags painfully Again at

su c e,

other times the language is exasperatingly

.
,

co n

cise letter tanding for a word a word for a

,

, a s ,
 UD T HE 3 T AL M 2

clause "uestions whose c mplete statement o

would take lines are indicat d by a ingle term

.

e S

from which as it were they hang suspended

,

There are peculiar form ulas in which whole ideas

, , .

seem to have deposited them selves and becom e

crystallized The two words A l m l ( a a t zeua u ver u m

ean i ou aintain that only

.

our d ) m
ocen t B f y m :
“
ut

the thesis contrary to the one upheld by m is e

true i i i h The word M i / (

w ly —
s t ta ug t na a n u ude

found at the beginning of a nu mber of

,

no bi s

Gemaras means What is the origin f the : O

decision of the Mishna ? But as Mishna
,
”
o ne or

di i ly co m prises several only the answer and

n ar

the objections made to the ans er can clear up the

,

w
thought S uppress the com mentary by Rashi that
m asterpiece of precision and clear ess and the
.
,

Talmud becom es al most enigmatic even to a pro

,

fi i c en t Tal mudist Put B f Talmudic D i uxt o r

’
s c

I do not ention a g a ar there exi ts

.

ti y (
o n ar m mm r ; s

none of the language of the Ge mara) into the

hands of a scholar that has a fair knowledge of H e

brew and Aramaic but has ever see the l n n Ta

m d it will b i m possible for i m to decipher a
,

u ; e h
page We say d iph and the figure of speech is
ec er,

not exaggerated he truly has before h m a text of

.

i
hieroglyphs or inscriptions in unknown characters
S true is this that even the Jews who find the
.

study of the Tal m ud easier than others speak only

,

of deciphering it S uppose the teaching f the

,

O
Tal mud suddenly inte r pted during the life of a
.

r u

g neration the tradition nce lost it would be well

e ; o

nigh imp ssible to recover The difficulties are of

,

o it .
24 L UD T HE TA M

diverse kinds growing out of the language d the an

subjects The linguistic perplexities are certainly

,

not lessened by the m ethods of teaching employed

.

up to h present ti me The inadequacy of the

t e

books compels the student to have recourse to the

.

'

peculiar method of traditional teaching that pain

ful m ethod which eff ects mastery of the language
,

only by m eans of long habit But a good gram

a complete lexicon a table of Tal mudi form
.

ma r, c

ulas they are not excessively num rous would

,

— — e

greatly curtail the labor Y the gre test diffi e t, a

would re main to be conquered difficulties

.

cu lit es
almost insuperable because inherent in the very
,

nature of T lmudic argu mentation The lucid

,

French m ind wo ld be hard put to it to reconcile

.

u
itself to these discussions which wind in and out
through endless laby inths of subtlest re soning
,

r a

It were absolutely necessary to assume the Orien

.

tal habit of m ind that ease and force of imagina

tion which bear thought beyond the lim its of our
,

systematic straitlaced logic and enable it to

rasp the intangible relations between the ost
, ,

g m
widely separated things I is necessary to accus t
m oneself to that re fine m ent of reasoning which
.

to
p net tes to the i nermost depths of an idea and
e ra n

analyzes its most delicate most e a escent shades

,

v n

until the feeling of reality fades away The i fl

, ,

n u

ence such a book can wield upon the intelligence

.

of a nation is patent The daily study of the Tal

m d which a m ong Jews began with the age of
.

ten to end with life itself necessarily was a severe

,

gymnastic exercise for the mind thanks to which

,

,
 L UD T HE 5 TA M z

it acquired incomparable subtlety and acumen

Reasoning accustomed itself to accu acy thinking
.

to logic in a word intelligence grew in depth In

,

;
depth mark you not in extent D iscipline a well
, .

endowed mind with Tal mudic study and you will

, , .

p oduce a dialecticia forceful by reason of his

,

r n,

logic and his penetration you will have the ; un

equalled scholars f the French German or Polish

o

schools who spend all their ability on casuistic

, ,

com mentaries you will have a S pinoza who

,

; c ar

ries Talmudic acuteness and profundity into phil

,

O sophy But do not expect to find largeness of

view breadth f outlook exp nsiv n ss of idea
.

O a e e s

The Halacha ignores all that It is ratiocination

, , .

deductive reasoning r ised to the highest power

,
.

and takes no account of inductive reasoning

,

This haract ristic of the Halacha naturally sug

.

C e

gests another monum ent raised by learned m en to

the glory of religion and one is tempted to pro
nounce the name of S cholasticism In fact the
,

comparison is seductive S cholasticism like the

.
,

H lacha is the work of schools lik e the H lacha

.
,

a ; a

it rests upon deduction d like it mploys the

, ,

; an e

deductive method But though S cholasticism with

,

the S yllogism and the Talm ud with its h m

.

er eneu

tic laws with the seven rule of Hillel with R

,

Ishmael s thirteen principles or Akiba s m ethod

, , .

’ ’

seek to do but one thing nam ely to demonstrate

, ,

they diff er absolutely as to the im of their demon

, , ,

i The one wishes by reasoning to estab

s t ra t o n s

lish the reality of dogm atic principles the other

.

;
tri s only to remem ber to rec ll half forgotten or
e , a
26 UD T HE TA L M

badly reported legal decisio and by an fi of ns , e o rt

reasoning memory to rediscover h m their

,

t in
'

e en

cholasticis is a philo ophic s ste very

,

t ir e t
y S m y m s

li m ited to be sure very petty an ensla ed system

. ,

but as hu m an reason is not called

, , , ,

a ue i l / l i
la t zeo og a ;
upon to do its full pa t this philosophy will some r

day do m inat and overthrow theology T lm udic

,

e a

Halacha is anything but this Philosophy it knows

.

not even by nam e and cannot know it m oreover

.

it ought not to know it since it a pires to but one

, ,

thing to establish for Judaism a C p j i E l

,

o r us ur s cc e

i
s ast ei i
If the nature of the Halacha has been made clear
.

and if besides it is rem embered that it e mbraces

,

all depart m ents of religious and civil legislation it

will be seen how lim ited a con truction m ust be
,

put upon h word encyclop dia which has been

t e ae

freely applied to the Talm ud The Talm ud i i

,

s n

deed encyclop dia in the sense that it contai

.

an ae ns

information on all subjects of knowledge cultivat d e

in the epoch of its composition all of which have

left in it some trace or rem inder of themselves
,

But one must not expect to see the Rabbis treat

.

the sciences such Ca t a glance at the m

as s su

m ry of the contents o f the Mishna giv n at the

.

a e

beginning of th is article The first sectio deals n

with the laws having reference to the produ ts of

.

h fi ld
t e S o m e am ong them b ear on the m ixing
e

of seeds Thus the Rabbis are led to speak inci

.

dentally of botany and to adduce certai botanic

.

facts previously acquired with the sole im of a

m ki ng them su b serve the establish ment f h

a o t e
28 L D T HE TA MU

d in their ti m e
va t e order to abstract from th m in e

principles available for the establish ment of the

,

Halachoth Moreover this m iscellaneous knowl

dge was acquired not for its own sake but to
.
,

press it into the service of the Halacha S cience

, ,

was not the end merely the instrument permitting

.

h atta n m ent f the end

,

t e i o

Nevertheless it ook protracted study to co mpass

.

t
the Halacha in all its extent and diversified mani
testations The title of Rabbi was to be gained no t

in a few years and at a period in which books wer

.

r re in which particularly tradition m ight not be

,

reduced to writing a long pupilage was necessa y

, , ,

to entitle one to part i cipation in the discussions of

,

the sages One is l most tempted to take literally a

the Talm udic accounts that tell of twenty years

.

passed by som e of the eminent doctors of the

Halach a in the apprenticeship to the L aw

To complete our examination of the various char

.

i i of h Halacha the method

a c t er s t c s t e Of i n s t ruc
tion rem ains to be considered The Rabb s kept
,

i
schools (B l I M i d l l f d ) i the
.

et z za ras z, zo us e o s tu n
y
l caliti es in which they lived and num erous disci
-

ples gathered in them S ome doctrinal point was

,

assi g ed to the students elaboration and on

.

n fo r
the day of h discussion they presented them
,

t e
selves with their arguments all prepared The
m a ter catechised the m and by a series of ques
.

tions ski lfully put led them to find the answers

,

themselves The instruction then was not tech

such it was a protracted conversation int
.
, ,

i
n c ally o

which the Rabbis decoyed their dis iples and from c ,

 L UD THE9 TA M 2

which they b asted that they deri ed m ch

o v as u
profit as the latter The disciples in turn spre d a

the doctrine of their master broad Thence h

.
, ,

a t e
expression m with every step in the T lm ud
.

et at a :

S uch a one says in the nam e f d wh o s o an so , o

h d it f ro m such another A for the discussions

- -

”
a S

that were to result in the fixation of the L w

.

they took place in the following way The Rabbis

,

in the tribunal or y h d i often mp

.

m et s n e r n, a cco a

nied by their pupils who liste d in silence b hind ne e

a bar After a public discussi on the point of doc

,

trine w decided by a p ur lity of the votes of the

.
,

as l a

Rabbis The session was presided over by h t e

or p i and by the president of the tri
.

N ass i , r nc e,

bunal (A b B h D i h h i f of h h f j
et n, t e c e t e o us e o us

ti ) the two religious heads of the nation

ce The
T mud asserts that these two d gnities date back
, .

al i
to the institution of the Great S ynagogue and
perpetuated them selves without interruption from
,

S i m eon the Just conte m porary of Alexander the

Great and last m em ber of that assembly The
,

Mishna cites a series of pl ( h) of Rabbi s

.

co u es su
g at
succeed ng each other in the instruction of the
i
ora L w from S imeon the Just to Hllel and S ham
l a i
m at,and seems to confer the tit e of N i on h l ass t e

first and A b B D i on the second of eac cou

e th rt h
ple Hillel and S h mm wer h last of the
, ,

a at e t e

series of couples and thei r successors explicitly

.

bear the two titles As instruction was obliga

,

tory and schools were nu m erous in Palestine every

.

no matter of what ran could aspire to the

,

m an, k,
highest dignities Outs de of the p i esthood
. i r ,
4 0
3 L UD THE TA M

k n wl dge alone con sti ut ed no bility Wit ne s

o e t s

Akib who from the estate of sim ple hepherd

.

a, a S
ro e to be the great doctor of the Mishn the
»

s a,

second Moses The lm i d Ch h m ( student ) ”

Ta ac a

i f he distinguished h im se f received the title of

.
,

l
doctor from his m asters and though gratitude and
,

the adm iration of the publ ic reserved the itle of

,

t
N i for the illustrious fam ily f Hillel at le st
ass o a

the Rabbis could choose the A b B h D i from

,

et n

among those m ost dese ving of the office When r

the student was judged worthy of the title of

.

doctor Rabbinical authority was conferred pon u

h i m by a peculiar cere m ony called S mi h or [m

,

e c a

p i
os i (f
t on h h od ) This ordination
t e was
an b s
.

a so

ly neces ary to give hi m the ight to decide

.

l ut e s r

an d to fo bid to invest hi m actu lly with the power

r a

to which his knowledge entitled him mor lly The

,

ceremony was o f the utm ost importance for the

.

Jews since it was efficacious in insuring the p er

o tradition as was well illust ted during

,

p et ui y tf ra

rsecutions o adrian at the ti e of Bar

,

t h e p e f H m
revolt Wishing to destroy the Jewish
,
’
C hb oc a s

nation Hadrian condem ned to death every Rabbi

.

con ict d of having given or received the S m i h

,

v e e c a

O day the Tal m ud tells a govern ment de

.

“ ” “
ne

cree condemned to the ack both h im that gave

, ,

and him that receiv d the S m i h The city in e e c a

which the cerem ony took place with its environs

.

in radius of two thousand st p w to be d

a e s, as e

stroyed What did Judah ben Baba do ? H e

placed hi mself in a valley between two large towns

.

U sha and S h ph m and ordained five disciples

,

e ara , ,
 L D THE TA MU
3 1

R M R J d h R S i m on R J Oé, nd R
eIr, u a e s a

Nehem i h S carcely w the ceremony completed

. .
, .
, . .

a as

wh h enemy p rceived them R Judah ben

.

en t e e

Baba had time only to say to the Rabbis Flee

:
. .

‘
:

my so s l — And thou 0 master I am like

,

n
‘ — ‘
a

tone that lies i mmovable And it is s id th t

,
’
s a a

the Roman soldiers did not bandon his body until

.

they had riddled it like a sieve with three h undred

lance th sts Later when the ight of S em icha
ru
”
r

was irre ocably taken from the Jews of Palestine

-
.
,

the work of h schools stopped d the chain of

,

t e an

tradition was broken The cons antly g owi ng

,

t r

power of h Church thus d to the losing of the

.

t e le C

B h M i d h i m and in about 3 7 the critical

at é ras 0
ondition of the school of Tiberias forced h R b
-

c t e a

bis r duce to writing the Palestini n Gemara

to e a

( Ta lm udje ru s h a lm i

HA ADA T HE GG

W ha e now arrived at the second c rrent whose

E v u
existence in the sea of the T lm ud to em ploy“
a
”

the expression of the Rabbis was m entioned above

,

The question What is h Haggada we answered

, .

t e
by saying that whatever in the Talmud do s not
, ,

appertain to the legal discussions and does not bear

upon the explanation of the Halacha belongs to
,

the real m of the Haggada It embraces not only

,

hom ilies pr aching and difying explanations of

.

e e

the Bible all that addresses itself to the heart to

, ,

—
32 L UD THE TA M

touch it to the mind to persuade i but als— t o

history and legend the most varied inform at on of

,

i
a scientific haracter in m athematics astronomy
,

physics medicine and atural history The H g

, ,

n a

gada is lk in all its wide play and vague generality

, , .

ta
the daily di simple conversation or moral i
,

on t, n

struction interr pting or following the learn d and

u e

painful discussions of the school and esting the

,

weary spirit It is evident then that the Haggada

cannot have authority and though it m y elicit
.
, ,

veneration from h crowd because it issues from

,

t e
the mouth of official teachers whose words are
,

respected its characteristic is not legality it does ;

not legislate Objections are not raised to a
,

Haggada is one of the les of the Tal mud E lse

.

”
ru

where it is said A decision is not rendered accord

, .

ing to the Haggada The Rabbis speci lly devoted

,

to the study of the Halacha m aliciously applying

.

to the Aggadist a verse from E cclesiastes called

,

h im A m h m G d h h gi
an to w i h o o at ven r c es , y et
because he
,

g i
vet h h i m p not j h m o wer to en o
y t e

can m ake use of his Haggadistic knowledge neither

,

to perm it nor forbid neither to declare clean nor

to
to declare unclean
,
”

In the immense field of the Haggada the Ori

.

ental m i d unfolds in all its wealth and fulness

n

Here especi lly we m ust seek the beliefs id as

.

a e

sentiments that animated the Jewish indeed the

, ,

Asiatic world in the productive centuries that

,

saw the enorm ous expansion of h superstitions

, ,

t e
of the E mpire d the germination and grow h
an t
of the religion of Jesus and h apostles that t e ;
 L UD T HE TA M 33

sa w the rich developm e t of Oriental mysticism n

and the supreme eff or of Greek philosophy shed
t
ding a last and brilliant gleam This treasury
where the noblest beliefs the world has b en
.
,

able to conceive as well as the most fantastic

thoughts that have ever crossed human brain lie
,

prom iscuously heaped up is a sort of m icrocosm

,

in which tha submerged ivilization reappe rs in

, ,

t C a

its m ost salient features Add ll that is ch rac a a

i i of Judais m and gives it its distinctive st mp

.

t er st c a
—its religious d m oral beliefs its custo m and
,

an s
usages springing from its religio doctrines or
,

us

if b rrowed from neighboring natio s so completely

, ,

o n

transformed and so well marked by the Jewish im

,

press as to appear Jewish and you will understand

—
the profound charm ex rci ed by the Haggada over
e s

the thinker and the s h lar that investigate the

c o

m anifestations of hu m an thought under whatever

form they appear A great piece of work m ight be
done the sifting and ordinating of the H g
—
.

co a

ada s heterogeneous wea th It would be

-

l
’

g n ec es

sary to go over the whole ground and make a

.

system atic classification such as we of modern

,

times d mand how what the Haggada knew of

,

e ; S

the exact and hat of the atur l sciences present

w n a ;
the allotment f truths hich it has been able to
o w
discover and of errors which it harbors It would
be necessary to scrutinize its m orality and its
.

re

ligi philosophy (the only philosophy it knows)

o us

and see to what level it was able rise And it

,

to
were sp cially important to study the oddities the
.
,

fables the superstitio s of the Hagg da since in

,

, n a ,
34 L UD THE TA M

the hist y f the hum n mi d thi g is m re

or o a n no n o

instructive than the study of the di s of the s eas e

intellec which e abl the better to derst nd

t, n e us un a

the m ind in its he lthy st t on the principle th t a a e, a

se ds physiology to the ex m i atio of m orbid

n a n n

phenome a The str nger the c stoms of other

n a u

a ions appe r to us the odder thei r m nner of

.

n t a a

feeli g and of reg rding things the m ore fruitf l a

,

n a u

ource are observation and research for the phi

,

I
OS Op h Nothi g therefore m y be negl ct d
er n a e e

and without feari g the outr ge to our habits or

.
, , ,

n a

the shock to our modern taste we should accept

the pebble well as the prec ious stone m and
,

as ud

slim e as well as the pure d lim pid waters i a

,

an ; n

w rd bring together ll the production f the

o a s o
popular imagination whatever they m y be in
,

which ature expresses herself in l her

, ,

n al ‘
na i vete,

and displays herself in her nakedness This is the

work without dignity and charm that awaits
.

no t

performa ce and that m ight tempt a m ind at once

, ,

p tient and bold But it is easy enough to trace out

,

a plan or point out a d i d The important

.

es era tunz

thi g is to re li e both
.

n a z

We m ak no pretense of giving e en a sketch

.

e v

of the work indicated We content ourselves with

put ing together som e few features that convey
.

t
at le t an idea of the Hagg da
as a .

In the exact sciences the Haggada prese ts the n

sing lar characteristi c of a m ixture of truths

,

u a nd

errors thus seem i g to prove the acceptanc of n e

ertain scien ific traditions from alien sources

,

c t ,
3 6 T HE TA L M U D

lay d in no case does h appear before the lap

e ; s e se

of 9 % days plus and 73 par s of an hour The

2 t
”

hour in the Talm ud is divided into 8 parts i —

.

10 0 n

p sing notice the happy choice of a numb r di is

as e v

ible by every digit except 7 All reductions being

,

m ade we have 9 days hours m inutes 3 3 +

.

2 12 44
s cond The m ean length f a synodic r volution
, , , , .

e s O e

b eing 9 days hours m inutes seconds

.

2 12 44
the approximation is seen to be very close Here
, , , ,

is a curious assertion The sages of Israel m ain

.

tain that the sph re is motionless and that it i the

e s

planets that move the learned m of other na

,

; en

tions m aintain that the plan ts fix d to the e a re e

spher which turns B what is one to say

e, ut

about the following ? The sages of Isr el m ain

.

“
a

tain that during the day the sun rolls under the
fir m m a and during the night above it (which
en t ,

renders h m invisibl ) the sages of other nation

i e s

m aintain the contrary It see ms that R Joshua

towards the end of first centur knew how
. .

( y ) the
to calculate the period of com et to which H l the a

ley s nam e is attached T Talm ud spe ks of the

’
he a

profound astronom ical learning of S amuel the

.

Babylonian who made a special study of the moon

H is the one who asserted that he as well
, .

e wa s
acquainted with the paths of the heavenly bodies
as with the streets of N h but he was holly e a rdea ; w
unable to explain the na ure of comets We t
kno only by tradition he added that the m
.

” “
w co

ets do not cross Orion lse th y would shatter the

, ,

e e

worl if they appear to cro s it it is the light

,

d, an d s

cast that traverses the constellation not they

,

°
v ,
 U T HE TA L M
37 D

themselves These quotations in which the word

occurs several tim es seem to prove that
.
,

tra d i
it on

though som e of the Rabbis devoted th em selves

, ,

spec ally to the ex ct sciences the others were

i a

totally unacquainted w th them H they a

,

i ad s c i en

m ethod of research ? We do not think so we

.

t fic
i ;
r ather incline to the opinion that the greater p rt a

of these scientific facts wer borrowed either from e

the inhabitant of Irak or fro the Gr eks

s m e .

In natural history and i anatomy the Haggada n

is clearer Here the Rabbis made bservations O

doubtl ss because the Halacha is m ore pa ti
.
,

e r en
l ly i nterested in thes depart m ents having for
ar e

instanc to l gislate on agricultural subjects

, ,

e, e

classify the mammals the fish and the birds as

,

clean and unclean and study the diverse dis

, ,

eases that can attack the clean an mals There

,

i
fore facts were collected ani mals di sected t eir
.

s h
organs studied the brain whose superior and
, , ,

inferior mem brane are known the cerebellum

,

;
whose diseases m y cause i m potenc the spinal
,

a e ;
cord which the prolongation of the cerebellum
is
and whose lesions in certain cases f tal in
, ,

a re a

others do not bring on death the h art with its

,

; e

two ventricles its two auricles and the p ri

,

cardium The lungs and the sto ach are the

, ,

m
bjects of speci l study By the side of ngenious
.

O a i
bservation general principles are found E very
.

O s,

horned anim al is clovenf ooted The presence ” “

of scales proves existence of fins The form

.

”
th e
of the g indicates the class f the bird The
.

e g o .
3 8 L UD THE TA M

Rabbis observed that the m ilk of an nclean animal u

does not curdle that ani mals cast their young by

day or by night according as they copulate by day
or by night that the union of animals with the
,

;
same mode of opulation and the same period of
C

pregnancy is fruitful They know the am i nthus a

that whitens in the fire But they assert agreeing

.

in th is respect with ucretius Pliny and the

.
,

L
whole ancient world th at the lion is afraid of the
, ,

crowing of the cock nor do they contradict

,

; ah

oth r f Pliny s statem ents that the salamander

e o
’

extinguishes fire They look upon apes of the

,

larger kinds as half m and they know the

.

en ,

S h m i created says the Mishna during the twi

a r,

light f the sixth day a worm as large as a barley

, ,

grain whose look cleav s rocks therefore as the

,

Temple was to b constructed with stones

, ,

e un

touched by iron the S h m i was used to cut them

, a r .

Natural history leads us to m edicine which was

always cultivat d am ong the Jews and rem ained a
,

scientific tradition with them up to m odern ti m es

,

It is therefore not surprising to find fairly ex

.

tended information on the subject in the Haggada

, ,

Whole pages are taken up with the explanation of

.

m edical form ulas and pharm aceutic prescriptions

There are hygienic lessons and series of i j
.

n un c

tions as to the use of si m ples Our ignorance of

these matters forbids our m aking a selection and
.

g iving extracts We believe however that it

would be interesting to investigate whether the
.
, ,

H ggada contains a collection of personal b

a o s er
 T HE TA L MU D 9

and true experiments as they were con

vati o n s

d to be by the Jewish schol rs of the m iddle

,

sid ere a

ages The author of the C J h d Hlevi o z a ri , e u a a

maintains t h at h Tal m ud boasts knowledge not

.
,

t e

to b found i either Aristotle or Galen Perhaps

e
'

n
too its notions connected by gen r l system
.
,

a re e a

atic views i which case it would be necessary

,

to investigate whether h m edical theo ies were

,

t e r

not borrowed from or at least influenced by the

schools of Hippocrates Galen and S oranus At
, ,

all ev nts in our opinion we have here inter

, , .

e an

esting problem in the history of m edicine

, ,

D id the Rabbis look with favor upon m agic l

.

m edicine that m a s of p i i practices s su erSt t o us

with which Chaldea flooded Asia d E urope ?
,

an

K nowi g their disposition to be what it is we can

n

boldly nswer N S om ewhere in the Talm ud it

,

a o

is told that King Hezekiah b id and destroyed

, .

m edical book and h act is praised because says t e

Maimonides the book contained talis ma ic reme
, , ,

dies I i nevertheless not astonishing to find a

,

t s,

large part of the Haggada given over to m agic

.
,

among the m asters of the black art fig res

.

Y et u

neither S amuel the Babylonian nor Theodosius the

Palestinian of whose medic l science the T lmud a a

m akes boast There Rabbis that recall with

,

a re

more or less credulity the popular superstitions

.

the study of which it must be conceded is not

,

without interest for it is ve y curious to see how

, ,

pseudo medical practices common to the whol

,

of Asia m ong the Jews take on form s i which

-

a n

their peculiar g nius is r v aled Accordi g

,

e e e . n to
40 T HE TA L M U D

Pliny h quartan fever is cured by suspending

t e

fr m one s neck the longest tooth of a black dog

,
’
o

or som e dust in which a sparrow has w llowed

,

tied up in a piece of linen attached by a red

,

thread R Huna is more exacti g One m ust n

:

take s ven thorns from seven palm trees seven

. .

splinters fr m seven beams seven pegs from seven

,

bridges seven inders from seven ovens seven

,

grains of dust from seven door pivots seven kinds

, ,

of pitch from seven ships seven ca away seeds

,

finally seven hairs from s ven old dogs

, ,
”
an d, e

recognize do you not in the m ultiplication

, .

Y ou

of ingredients the riotous imagination of the Ori

, ,

ental and in h use of the Jewish tendency

,

t e s even

to m ake this number sacred ? Perhaps however

,

it is proper to look upon this prescription by R

, ,

Huna as hidden irony against the popular

.

j p re u

dic s which h is secretly combati g even while

e e n

appearing lower himself to them The follow

,

to
ing advice is characteristic leaves no room
.

an d

for uncertain interpre atio s Against a burning

,

“
t n

fev r says R J h
e
”
take a knife made oc a nan ,
“
en

i ly of iron go into h underbr sh and tie a

, .

t re t e u

white hair to it on the first day cut a notch into

,

a thorn while saying the verse from E xodus The :

angel of the Lord appeared unto Moses etc ( in ’

the burning bush) The next day make another

, .

incision in the thorn and say The Lord saw

.

‘
:

that Moses turned aside to see The third day

,
’

return and say God said to Moses D raw not

.

‘
:

igh hither That done bend to the ground and

, ,
’
n

pronounce these words Bush "Bush "it is not

.
, ,

‘
:
 THE TA L M U D 4 1

b ecause thou art the greatest but because thou

art the humblest of the trees that the Holy One
,

blessed be H has m ade Hi glory to descend

,

e, s

upon thee and as the fire was lighted before

M ishael and Azaria and fled before
,

H i
an an a,

them so m y the fever which burns in m flee

, ,

a e

before m " If this practice was inspired by

,
’
e

a lien ustoms Judaism has transformed it in a

c

singul r way and given it its own impress Means

,

a
are found f turning popular superstitions to edi
, .

O
f yi ng ses and of reading an elevated lesson of
u
m orali ty into a good wife s prescriptio — E lse
’
n

wh ere Aba a reports numerous formulas in the

t
nam e of his mother a wom an celebrated in T l a

m d de m onology three m adder colored threads

,

u ic :

the red t read of Pli y around one s neck

-

h
’

( ?) n

arrest disease five drive it away seven are a safe

ard against spells Y says R Aha bar
, ,
”
g u es ,

Jacob if the wearer of the threads sees neither

. .

the sun nor the moon nor rain and hears not
,

the n i of iro nor that of the forge nor the

, , ,

o se n,

crowing of a cock Why then the virtues of

,
”

adder colored threads fa l to the ground

.
, ,
”
th y m l
answer R Nachman for thou d m d the
-

“
s e an es t

impossible
.
,

Turn page and from magic receipts we pass to

.

pure magic The Haggada unveils strange my

,

I tells at great leng h of de mons who

.

t er i es t t
like m ortals eat and drink live d die and repro
.
,

an

duce th m selves in these respects partaking of

, ,

e
hum n weakness but who are winged transport
,

them selves in an instant over the whole universe

, ,

,
42 T HE TA L HU D

k now the future and in isible sum y v can as e an

fo m they pl e Y are i form d that om e

,

r eas ou n e s

charged with the m i sion of rubbi g p g i s

.

are s n u a a n t
you without your knowl dge and that is the e r ea

your ga m ents wear out that others deli ght

,

so n r ;
i de troy ing unoccupied dwellings but l
n s e them ea v

at the sight of a m Therefore the owner of

,

an a de
d house ought to b grateful to h im h takes
.
,

se rt e e w o

up his residence i it S om e perch the ro fs n on o

and on the lookout for p sers by to c s spell

.
,

are as a t a

on them others sit down on the rings of n i ls

-

; pa a

incautiously thrown on the grou d then woe to n ;

the wom an with child who walks over them others
on onions or on garlic with the outside skin taken
fi b w re of sw llowing them alo g w th thos
,

o : e a a n i e

vegetables I Others hide them selves in water dur

ing the night therefore precautions m ust b ken
; e ta
when one is thirsty at night " Thus
,

D not drink at night

o The dem on S h b i i a r r

who t kes up his abode in w ter is to b fe red

.
,

a a e a ;
he strikes blind those who drink If h owever
,

you thirsty awaken your companion and say

.
, ,

a re

drink together The dem on will keep hi m

, , ,

L et us

elf quiet If you are alone make a noise with

.

your pillow and say aloud Thou d son of

. ,

s o an so ,

and h m h has told thee Beware of

- -

, ,

so , t y ot er :

in white v es
so - -

”
S h b i
a i b i i
r ri i i i i i r r r r r r as

We m ight continue our quotations endlessly

, , , , , , .

The reader see a ph ntasmagoria pass before h i

.

s a s

eyes ometim es st ange odd ridiculous som

s r e

ti m es i mpish bold audacious seem ing to m ock

, , , ,

at

h law o f nature and bid defiance the r le of

, , ,

t e s to u s
44 THE TA L HU D

h er c ptive ancestors h rd two thou n ye

a ea sa d ars

ago on the banks of the E uph ates r .

Between legend d history the bound ry line is an a

not well m r ed especially not in the i m a i nation

a k g
of an O i ntal L us cross it and inquire into
,

r e et

the valu of H ggada as an historic authority

.
,

e t he a

This question admits of two contr dictory nswers

.

a a

for according to the point of vi w it is equally just

,

to concede and to refuse value to it To hope to

, ,

fi d in the Haggada precis and det led h

.

n i e ai c ro n

cles scr pulously e act d circum stantial nar a

u x an r

of events is to run the risk of comp ete

,

ti ves l
disappoi tm ent The Haggada i totally ig or nt
,

n s n a

of what is properly called history Re lity and

.

dre m m i gle in nebulous vagueness It does not

.

a n

seem to have an accur te idea of time The

.

O ient in fact im m obile in its unch nge ble exist

.

r a a

ence c nnot have the precise notion of tim e

, ,

a so

clearly convey d to the Occide tal m ind by per

,

e n

p m
et ualut ations Thus the various epochs of the
pa t seem to be put upon the same plane E dom
.

Nebuchadnezzar Vespasian Titus Hadrian all

.
,

the e em ies of the Jewish race m erge into one

, , , ,

type and one is substituted for the other i the

,

long m artyrology of its history If for insta ce

,

there is any event that should have left deep t aces

.
, ,

in the m emory of the nation it assuredly is the

destruction of Jerusalem d the Holy House
,

“ ”
an

concerning the various phases of the struggle

.

Y et ,

the m that took part in and directed i and the

,

en t,
fin al c t trophe clear d accu ate da a sought
a as , an r t are
 T HE TA LM U D 45

in vain Aside fro m som e vague details in which

the lement of truth they m y contain waits to be
.
,

e a

set free by criticism absolutely nothing can be

found But what the Haggada does know are
,

the poetic legends that thrill the populace and

.
,

go straight to one s heart It tells the story of

,
’

Martha the wife of the high priest Joshua ben

.

Gamala h elegant fastidious lady to whom were

,

t e
pplied the words of euteronomy The tender
, ,

“
a D :

and delicate wom an am ong you which would not

adventure to set the sole of her foot upon the
,

ground for delicateness and tenderness and who

dies of hunger in the streets of Jerusalem or
,

ac

cording to another version is dragged across coun

, ,

try bound by her hair to the tail of a wild horse

,

It tells the story of that Zadok who bewails the

.

m isery of his land and in his grief conde m ns h i m

self to a forty years fast H ate only one fig a
,
’

day and he grew so thin that this fig could be seen

.

to pass down hi throat recounts with all

,

s It
possible precision the fortunes of the son and the
. .

daughter of the high priest Ishmael ben E lisha

after the sack of the Holy City They were sold
as slaves to two neighboring master S aid the
.

— s

first I have a slave of incomparable beauty And—

I aid the other possess the m ost beautiful m aiden
,

imaginable us join them in marriage and

, ,

L et
share their childre the evening they locked
.
,

— n In
them togethe in a chamber The youth
up r re

m ained in one co ne the maiden in another

.

r r.

The form er said I a priest the son of a high

.

priest hould take to wife a lave " The latter

, ,

, S S
46 THE TA L M U D

s aid I the daughter of a high priest should m y

: ar r

a slave " Th us they lame ted all night With the

, ,

d wn came reco nition and ch le ping towards

.

a g ea a

ther they stood clasped in close emb ace until

,

h
t eo r

their souls took flight And stirred to his depths

,

the nar ator recalling the verse in Lam ntations

.
, ,

r e

exclaim s For the e things I weep m ine eye

, ,

“
s :

m ine ey e runneth down with w ter — S uch are

, ,
”
a

the recollections that rem in of the catastrophe

.

a
—legends and tal s This is no longer histo y or e r

if you will it is still history but of the k i d m ade

.
, ,

by the people
, ,

Ass redly it will not do to require of h H g

.

u t e a

g da the exactitude of an historic chronicle And

.
,

if perchance we find here and there buried under

.

a thick layer a few precise data a few accur te

,

notes a few lines of histo y the S d 01 m

, ,

r e er a

the
, ,

( C h i l of
ro n c eh IV ld ) M i l ht T h
e or eg lo t aa n i t

it ust nevertheless be conceded

,

( R llo f F ) o m a s ts

that the Haggada has nearly no value at all as a

,

docum entary source

But precisely because the nar ativ of fact is
.

r e s

m erged into legend the Haggada ought to y ield

all the interest of legendary chronicles It will not
,

do to turn up one s nose at lege d it is the b

.

’
n ; a so

l
ut e ly necessary co m ple m ent of history which
usually presents facts in ll their nudity d dry
,

a an

ness B facts far from being all that is essen

ut a re

ti l There is the idea hiding beneath the fac s

.

a t
and dominating them as vital force animates
.

t he
skeleton of a ni mal N this idea which only
,

n a ow

h g e t difficult y can be abstracted f o m a series

.
,

w it r a r
 T HE T A L M U D 47

of facts appears in all its clearness in legend By

means of legends a people expresses its desires
, .

its aspirations its ideal later tra slated into facts

, ,

and xpresses th em with precision so much the

, , ,

greater as h form of the legend is ague d its

t e v an

web loose In legend we h ave first a narrative in

itself with out historic value and then the idea
.
,

which is crystallized in the narrative form and

, ,

which nswers to a real sentim ent reproduced with

,

the greatest clearness d therefore of consider

,

an

able value to the histo ian In th is sense legend

,

should be invested with authority of a certain kind

.

and this i the auth ority that the Haggada m y lay

,

s a

claim to In the Haggada we find l l l it o ca co o r ;

conveys Jewish manners customs and beliefs the

.
,

sp rit of the institutions and the religion in a word

, , ,

i
the soul and h life of the nation
, ,

t e

To complete this all too superficial examination

.

of the Haggada there rem ains for to peak of us S

its m or l and religious philosophy The " l

,

a ua rter y
i w writer with the warm th characteristic of
.

R ev e

his fine plea for the Tal m ud has given an eloquent

,

exposition of the system reproducing Abraham

,

Nager s sub stantial contri b ution to the subject

,
’

We sh all give a m of the sam e work supply

.

res u é
ing c rtain features that were omitted and that to
,

e
us appear i mportant
In the beginning there was othing God by an
.

act of Hi will created matter or the first sub

.
,

stance according to som e water according to

,

oth ers water i and fire and organiz ing these

, , ,

a r,

el m ents H form ed in Hi own good time the

, , ,

“ ”
e , e , s ,
4 8 T HE T AL HU D

w rld as it is G d then is at once

o tor d o
“
crea an

rchitect What process of cr tio ?

,
.
,

a — h
”
w as t e ea n

That is a m yst ry Ce ain it is that ngels

.

e rt th e a

h d naught to do with it for they wer form d

.

a e e at

the rliest on the second y of creation tha it

,

“
ea da t
m ight not be said Michael str tched out the fi m
,

: e r

am ent to the no h and Gabriel to the south B rt ut

the world once cre t d Providence brought nothi g

, .

a e n

to pass without consulting the celestial house

,

hold Besides there is an a g l the m a ter of

”
n e
“
s

the world who is the interm ediary betwe n he v n

.
, ,

e a e

and arth M that is the eated near

,

e eta t ro n , o ne s

the heavenly throne ( ach nation

, ,

h ) E m eta t ro no s

neve heless has its special tutel y a gel well

.
,

rt ar n as
as its guardian constellations with the exc ption of
, ,

Is ael who has neither angel nor const latio so

,

“
r el n,
lo g as he observes the div ne law Israel sta ds
,
”
n i n
under the eye of God Him self
.

At the sam tim e with the world God

.

e d crea te

m i acles which the ceforth fall under the i mm

,

r n ut

able laws of nature regulating the universe despite

,

the evil that m y result Cre tion has for end a a its
who in turn is to use the world to exec te
.

m an , u
the will of God on earth h m of creation thus t e ai

being the realization of the divine here below If

,

Israel accepts the L ( all other nations having

.

aw

refused it) God will m aintain the world if ; n o t,

H will caus it to drop back into nothing ess

,
”
e e n

The im of m earth then is the k owledge

.

a an on n

and the practice of the L without which there

, ,

“
a w,

were neither heaven nor earth the — on La w “

which God h d Hi y fixed when H created the

a s e e e
 T HE TA L M U D 49

univ rse h mason that builds a house has in

e as t e

m ind the plans and the external ppea ance

,
”
a r

endowed with free will created last the

.

M an
“
on

eve of the S abbath that he m ight at once take his

,

place at the holy b nquet ought therefore to

,
”
a

strive endlessly for perfectio which eventually

,

n,

renders him superior to the angels for in pite of S

their eternal and infinite pe fection they are with

, ,

out liberty and neither earn com m endation nor

,

incur censure
,

H w is this perfection reached ? By the pra

.

o e

tice of the L and the doing of good deed Use

aw s
less to give examples of the m orality of the Phari
.

sees The subject is too fam iliar It is well known

that the Talm ud m y lay claim to h most exalted
. .

a t e

ideals of goodness that human mind can conceive

of d that ll the moral ideas incor orated in the
an a p
Gospels h d long before passed from mouth to
,

m outh in the streets of Jerusale m Glance thro gh u

the M ishnic treatise A b h and you will find ll

.

ot a

that the most delicate charity the m ost efined d

,

r an

intelligent k indli ess can inspire into souls nat

,

ura l y disposed to the good

l Hu man dignity the
sacredness of manual labor the supe iority of good
.
,

works over learning the equality of m before

,

en

the divine tribunal no m atter what religion they

,

m y profess these arethe great principles asserted

,

a —
d p eached by the Haggada on every page
,

an r

The Tal m ud says Nager has its peculiar p y

.

In a num ber of passages the Platonic

, ,

ch l y
o og

theory of the pre existence of souls is stated but

.

nowhere does metempsychosis appear Plato s

-

,
’
.
5 0 L UD T HE TA M

doctrine appealed to the poetic i magination of the

Rabbis more than the Ari stotelian theory which
m ade of the soul the entelechy of the body All
,

the souls called to ter estri l life were created in

.

r a

the beginning and kept in reserve They have

all em bracing knowledge f the L w up to the
, .

O a

m o m ent in whi h they unite ith a body Then an

-

c w
angel loses h m outh of the hild and the soul
.

C t e C

forgets all it knew —N original As God is

,

“
O S in :

pure so the soul is pure —E very child on leav

.

ing its m other s wo mb is m ade to swear by

, .

’
an

angel that it will be just B a ured he says to e ss

”

it that God is pure that Hi serva ts are pure

.
,

“
s n

and that the soul given to thee is also p re In

, , ,

one passage however a tea her speaks crim e

.

c of the
of Adam which recoils on the whole of mankind
, ,

When the serpent tempted E it corrupted

, .

“
v e,

her with its venom I rael by bei g witness s n

of the Revelation at S inai was cured of the dis

.
,

ease h idolat rs could not be cured But

,

“ ”
; t e e in
gener l the story of the fir t has not f ound an
.

a s si n

echo in the teachings of the sages l ewhere it E s

is expressly said N death itho t i no grief

.

0 w u S n,

without fa lt It is also said that childre dying

u
”
n

infancy or at birth m y enter into the future

.

In a

life
Whenc then comes ? From m an s free
.

’
e, sin

will E verything is fore een say Akiba but

,

“
s s

liberty is granted And el ewher verything

. , ,
”
s e : E
is in power of God ex ept the fear of God
.

th e c

Hu an destiny is not f fill d her b low the

.

m ul e e e ;
oth r wor d is the soul s true home This th is
e l
’
. e ar
5 2 T HE TA L M U D

are condem ned to the torm ents of the nether

world E ter al punishment is reserved for well
n

fi d classes of sinners as for exam ple those

.

de ne

who knowing the L w have entirely abjured it and

, , ,

those who not only sin them selves but d aw others

,

into crim e The description of these tortures is

,

vague and cont adictory as i that of the low r

r s e re

gions them selves In fact the Talmud gives us

,

not so much a system as a series of individual pin

.
, ,

O
io s The fi in the V f Hi bm ( Hi
,

n re a lley o nn ei n
g
p ays the principal As the
.

nb m h g e ) l en ne Ol r e

Rabbis incline more or less to the popular beliefs

, .

the descriptions are m ore or less mater l The

,

ia

same holds good in the descriptions of future

.

re

wards For instance we have the peculiar belief

that the flesh of the Leviathan preserved in salt
.
,

since the first days of creation will be divided among

,

the just and that fro m its tanned hide tents will be
,

m ade whose bri liancy will fill the universe S uch

,

l
fantastic features equally haracteristic of the hell
.

and the paradise of the m iddle ages do not fi

,

a ec t

the elevated pirituality pervading these beliefs

,

Thus we have Rabbi denying the very existence

.

o ne

of hell There is no hell in the future world

“ ”

says R S i mon ben Lakish But the Most Holy

.
,

m akes to shine Hi sun whose splendor fills the

. .

righteous with happiness and causes the wicked to

,

suff er Thus the soul finds re ard or punishm ent

,
”
w
within itself The student recognizes to use the
.

expression of the chools the subjective har cter

,
.

s C a

of the sanction attached to the m oral law

,

S uch are the teachings trans m itted by the H g

.

a
 T HE T A L M UD 53

gada and spread among the people by popular

preaching They were conveyed in a peculiar and
,

rather original form well worthy of description

.

All of them were connected with the Bible to

.

which the Rabbis considered them selves obliged to

,

t ace the ideas they developed It is the applica

r

tion to the Haggada of the m ethod created by R

.

Akiba for the Halacha The orator took a verse

.

which he com m ented on in a thousand ingeniou

.
,

ways educing from it all sorts of m oral lessons It

m attered little to hi m if he did violence to the
, .

words or abused a gram m atical construction or

,

changed letters or words according to his caprice

, ,

E qually little it co cerned his listeners who

.

however were deceived knowing as well as

, ,

no t

him self the fantastic character of his explanations

, ,

But othing equals the ease with which they

.

n ac

d the m for they craved only di fi

c ept e Y e cat i o n et

the preacher called to his aid allegory par ble l

, .

a e

which acco panied the co entar on the

, ,

gen d m m m y
text and ometi m es even were confused with it
,

And as he had the powerful and faci e i magination

, .

l
of the Oriental he needed only the gift of fluent
speech to harm an audience disposed to yield to
,

his fascinati ns convinced i advance and happy

o n

to hear another give uttera ce to the fe lings hid

, ,

n e

den in their hearts The orator m ight be one of

the doctors of the Halacha that addressed the
.

congregations as em bled in the synagogues on days

s

of reunion S abbaths or holidays In such cases

true hom ilies were pronounced But usually the
, .

speak r was any chance person that gath red a

.

e e
54 T HE TA L M U D

c owd about h m the street and held it under

r i on

the spell of i mprovisations S uch were Judah

,

h is
the son of S iph and M i the son of
.
,

er e us , at a t h a s ,

M g l h those victi m s of Herod of who m J

ar a ot o

sephus speaks those beloved orators endowed with

,

h gift of inspiring crowds and enkindlin g popular

,

t e

risings Who wishe to live to live l ng ? cries s o

”

an Aggadi t in the pen street Who wishes to

.
,

“
s O
buy happiness ? The original questions attract
.

a crowd de anding to know the o ator s secret

m r
’

Thou desirest to liv m any day he ans ers

.

“ ”
e s, w
thou to enjoy peace and happi ess ?
,

wi s h e s t n
K ep thy tongue fro m evil and hy ip fro m peak
e t l s S

ing guile S eek peace and pursue it D epart from

,

the evil do good And paraphrasing these

.
, .

”
an d

words of the P al mist ( P xxxiv 3 he devel

, .

s S 1

ops his ideas the m id t of the attentive crowd

.
,

in s

Wh at in fact was the importance of A i i

.

gg a d s t c

teaching ? As uredly it had consid rable value

, ,

s e

The study of the Hala ha could have appealed only

.

c
to a restricted part of the Jewish pop lat io The u n

schools and the d m doubtless w r f

.

a ca e ics e e re

q d
uen teby a large nu m ber o f disciples eager to
liste to the instruction of the Rabbis But they
,

by no m eans constituted the kern l of the l

.

e O
p pu a

tion and what was there for the peopl outside of e

this popular preaching these m oral lessons given

,

by m that poke its imple language and put

,

en S S

themselves on a level ith it ? The Rabbis them

,

w
selves whose erudition raised the great monu
m ent of the Halacha did not disdain to speak to
,

the populace and dropping all scientific apparel

,

, ,
 T HE TA LMU D 55

array them selves in the si mplicity of heart

an d the ingenuousness of the hu ble m they m en

addressed A number of names m ight be cited

O will su ffice that of Akiba the first redactor
. .

ne

of the Mishna whom the adm i ation of his con

, ,

temporaries placed by the side of Moses and who

,

says the Tal mud was great in the Halacha and

, ,

equally great in the Haggada Nevertheless it is

,

ea y to recognize two well marked tendencies two

.
,

distinct m ovem ents and at first ight it is evident

-

that though the e two m ovements were someti mes

,

parallel they m ight som eti mes contr dict each

,

other Were all the Halachist doctors Aggadists

,

?
Obviously not The Hal cha and the Haggada de
.

m d d opp ite gifts they illustrate the natural

.

an e os ;
O pposition b tween scien e and po try Again
e c e

the Haggada was calculated bri g about by

.
,

to n in
sen ible d grees the predo minance of inner religion
s e

over external form s and the dep eciatio of b r n O s e rv

an c es and cerem onies — instinctive tendency an

bou d to work its eff ect upon logi al m inds a

n c ;
germ of di idence to grow d lead to the
ss a pt an

separation of Halachists and Aggadists

These inferences find full c nfirm ation in the
.

study of facts We are fortu ate to be able n to

shel er ourselves behind the authority of the
.

t
learned author E h Hi
Of t h e f P l s say o n t e s to ry o a es

i
t ne The inhabitants f Galile says M D O e,
”
e

p in ill repute on account of their

.

“
ren b g (
o ur

ignorance of l al aff air seem to have replac d

.

eg s, e

s ubtl ty of m i d by ardor of heart and supplied

e n

lack of ability for brilliant tilts in scholastic discus

,
 5 6 T HE TA L M U D

ions by excessive energy of feeling and tricks of

S

expression ori ginal ather than delicate O r ne

lways ends by attaching little v lue to what one

, .

a a

is ig orant of and has not bee able to learn espe

n n

i lly if success co m es in despite of ignorance and

, ,

c a

seems come precisely from a quarter despised

,

to
by the infor m ed and instructed The merchant
who converted the young prince of Adia
.

H an an i a ,

bene to Judaism did scruple to absolve h m from

no t i
the duty of circum cision considering it binding
,

only on the seed of Abraham The Aggadists

,

indeed learned from Isaiah and even Jeremiah a

.
,

certain disdain for cere monial bse vances which

,

O r

naturally reacted on the Halachists occupied with

,

hairsplitting casuistry on the subject of those very

cerem onies
D oub tless there were m who though devoted
.

en

to Rabbinic science still occupied them selves with

,

the instruction of the people at the synagogues in

,

religious tr ths which they sought to support with

u

texts from the poetic portions of the S criptures

,

But it is equally certain that others by reason of

.

temperam ent or inclination gave themsel es up to

,

v
the one or the other development of Judaism exclu
,

i ly A glance at the T lm uds and the M id

s ve a h im ras

to reveal m any names that figure in the

.

su fli c es

H l h and are never m with in the A

a ac a, as
et g a a a
'

likewise Aggadists are found that are never m

,

en

t i o ned in the Halachic discussions To becom e an

Aggadist only ardent co viction lively imagina
.

tion and facility of invention were necessary quali

,

—
ties not rare in times when ppression by lien
,

O a s
 T HE TA L M U D 57

revives national ze l and among a people that

a

receives i mpressions pidly and promptly tran

,

ra s

lates them into w rds An Aggadist then could

,

b e produced without great di fficulty but long and

.
, ,

serious study was necessary to penetrate to the

,

depths of the Halacha As the value of a thing is

usually m asured by the difficulties surmounted in
.

its acquisition the Halachists in their turn under

rated the preachers or Aggadists who as said
,

above were not always charmed with the d d

, ,

e uc
tions of the Rabbis
,

The Talm uds have preserved num erous indica

.

tions of the slight repute in which the Agg dists a

were held by the Rabbis If however the passages

relating to this subject contradict each other and
.
, ,

if a Rabbi who but now extolled preaching peaks

,

of it scornfully we m ust be surprised they no t ;

are judgments rendered under the influence of an
,

Agada recently heard and are determined by the

m ore or le s respec ful attitude assu m ed in it to
,

s t
wards Rabbinic studies D isdain for the Halacha
has fou d a place particularly in Christian writings
.

and in the school of S Paul We think that we t

do not err in maintaining that at its birth the A g
. .

ga di were
st s the”
m ost powerf ul auxiliaries o f C hris
i i y
t an t
The results of historic criticism then establish
.

the justness of the deductions reached by psycho

, ,

logic observation Human nature is too feeble to

attain to a complete expansion of all its faculties
.

;
one of them at least is sacrificed to the cultivatio n

of the others S ome pursue the ideal of the good

.
,
 5 8 T HE TA L M U D

other that of the true and only in are in tance

s r s s
is heperfection at once of knowledge and good
,

t Of
ness rea hed S urely wh t is true of the individual
c a

is with greater force true of the crowd in which

.

tendencies realize and a rt them elves m ore

,

sse s

powerfully Judais m is proof thereof but not the

on y proof Wi hout goi g far afield we find an
.
,

l t n

illustration of a imilar pheno m enon in the C h l

.
,

S at o

ic i m of the m iddle age

s It like wise off ers the s

spectacle of these two pposite currents w ying

.

O s a

the m ind of m in the riv lry of its two mo a tic

s en a n s

orders Benedictine and the Franciscan the

th e
l arned ord r and the m e dicant order which epit
, ,

e e n

their duties the one in the pursuit of the

,

o mi ze

true h oth r i the pur uit of the good and

, ,

t e e n s

which to c clude with expres ion of the Rab

, , ,

— on an s

bis mi ht h ve said h f rm er truth saves from

— g a t e o

death the latter harity ave from death

, ,
1
, , C s s .

It m a y b e use ful to g ive h ere a li s t o f th e bo o ks c o m po s i ng

1

th e Ha gg a da li tera ture Th i s lit era ture C o m pris es o nly exe

.

g eti c expla n a ti o n s o r S c ripture i nte rp retat i o ns g i v en i n th e

s y n ag o g ues o r in o
p p ula r h o m ili es T h e e p i th e t M i dr a s h .
, o r

ex pla n a t i o n , w a s ap pli ed to th e m . Th e f
ch ie c o llec tio n s o f

M i drash i m ar e th e fo llo wi ng
T h e g reat Pes i h ta , o r Pes ih ta R a bba th i , of Pa les tini an
o ri g i n, attri b uted to R C a b a n a . .

The M i dras h R a bba , Hag g a dis ti c c o mm enta r y on th e

Pen tateuch a nd th e bo o ks o f E s th er, E cc les i as te s , S o ng o f
S o ng s, R ut h , an d Lamenta ti o n s .

T h e M i dras h Yela m den u an d th e Ta n ch um a o n th e

Penta teuc h .

T h e M i dras h S h o h h er To b o n th e Ps alms a n d th e Pro verbs .

T h e c o m p i la ti o n o f t h es e M idra s h i m , mo s t o f th e m v e ry
anc i ent, c a nn o t b e tra ced b a c k furth er th an th e S ixth c entury .
60 THE TA L M U D

PA RT S E C OND

T HE FORMATIO N OF T HE TA LM U D
T HE S PI R I T OF T S FORMATIO N I

T H essential
E haracter of every revealed
C re

lig ion is immutability Claim ing the exclusive

possession of the truth it cannot adm it that it
.

m odifies itself at the will of the ti m es and follows

,

the march of hu man thought in its successive

,

transformations For truth issuing from God is

immutable an expression of divinity it m y apply
.

; a

to itself the biblical word I m that I m

,

“
a a

L ike Catholicis m Judais m declares e mphatically

, .

that religion has fi d no change duri ng the

,

sn e re

long series of centuries A it was revealed to S

Moses as such it has perpetuated itself to our day

.

d by h influence of the ages and of di

, ,

una fi
ec t e t e
verse civilizations Potentially it was contained
in the pri ciples taught at S inai and Moses seeing
.

the future of the nation and the religion founded

, ,

by hi mself unroll before hi m could em brace in a

single glance the vast yet homogeneous succes
,

sion of laws and doctrines

,

N Judais m finds its expression in the Tal m ud

.

ow

which is not a remote suggestion and a faint echo

,

thereof but in which it has becom e incarnate in

which it h taken form passing fro m the state of
, ,

as

an abstraction into the do main of real things The

,

.
 T HE TA L M U D 61

study of Judaism is that of the Tal mud as h t e

study of the Talmud is that of Judais m To wish
,

to understand one without entering upon the ex

.

planation of the other is chimerical They are w t o

inseparable things or better they are one and the

.

same
, ,

But the expression Tal mud is here lim ited to

.

Halacha For besides its information on various

ciences besides its m oral principles which have
. ,

been codified d so fall under the Halacha the

,

an

Haggada contains only legends fables the whole

, ,

poetic literature of the Midrashi m A one would

, ,

not think of going to the l gends of the Virgin of

.

the s ints and of S atan for the study of the Cath

,

olic dogm as so the religious idea of Judais m in its

,

pri mary and essential form must not be sough in

,

t
Midrashic literatur e

To the Halacha alone then attention m ust be

.

paid in order to understand the Tal m ud d trace

, ,

an

the law of its genesis It is the only letter in

hich Judaism has e mbodied itself point of
.

w In
fact hen the S ynagogue is questioned about the
.

w
origin of tradition we are told that the oral L
,

aw

ascends to the S inaitic revelation that its develop

,

m ent is deductive and shaped by unalter ble prin

,

and that this astounding fll of

,

ci pl
es , e
‘
o resc en c e

Halachoth is only the natural expansion of a pri m i

tive law and idea The S criptures the decisions
of the Rabbis and all that a reverent disciple of
.
,

the L w m y teach were given to Moses on S inai

,
”
a a , .
62 T HE TA L M U D
'

T HE HA L A C HA A C C OR D ING T O T HE S YNA G OGU E

ITis a cardi al principle of Judai m that along

n s

with h code compri ed in the Pentat uc Moses

,

t e s e h,
received fro m God on Mount S inai an oral L w a

hich is the com m ntary dev lop d from the writ

,

w e e e

ten L w N a pr c pt not a decision not a

a ot e e

cere monial injunction was left u accom panied by

.
, ,

oral expla ation which Mo s was to tran m it by

n s, se s

word f m outh The e expla ations moreover

'

o s n

were of the am e sacred haracter as the writte

.
, ,

s C n

L aw In concisene s the latt r oft n is b

its s e e o

scure it is inco mpl te for u ually it proc eds by

.
,

; e s e

exampl s om tim ven it co i ts of appare t

,

e ; s e es e ns s n

contradictio s om tim e of se mingly usele s

n s e s e s

rep tition E xample abou d At the m outh of

,

e s s n :

two wit es or at m outh of th r e witne s

.

n ess th e e ss e

shall m att r be e tabli hed it ay in ut r

,

the e s s s s De e

it two Is it thr e In
,

o no my 5 x 1 x, 1 ? ? L IS e e

the hi h prie t for idd n to go

.

v i t i c us x x 1 , 1 2, g s is b e

out of ctuary U d r w at circum ta c

th e s an n e h s n es ?

I he to s ut up in it all life E l ewh ere it

.

S be h h is s

is sai T u halt kill a im al as I have m

d “
ho s n s co

m an ded t e W r thi com ma d A

he he e is s n ?

s cond p s l tive to i ordin nce would

.

e a s ag e re a th s a

be ug t vai
so h w ole Pent t uch
in n in th e h a e Th e
bligation one of the essential
.

”
O y h to “
la T ep i li n ,
 T HE TA L M U D 63

Obser nces of Judaism is barely indicated by a

va

w ord On the other hand the following is found

,

in three diff erent places Thou shalt not seethe

.
,

“
:

a kid in its m other s m ilk E lsewhe historic ’

re

facts in com plete contradiction to the L are

.

aw

told although the m to who m they are attributed en

are charged with the duty of teaching the L

,

aw

The pious ki g Hezekiah celebrates h Passover

.

n t e

i the second m onth although Moses fixes it on the

n

fiftee th day of the first month The prophet E

,

n li
jah fi a sacrifice on Carm el in spite of h law
.

o e rs t e

in euteronomy forbidding sac ifices outside of the

,

D r

Temple Finally in another sphere of ideas a

striking feature of the Books of Moses is their
.
, ,

un

broken silence concerni g prim ary dogm as f the n o

Jew sh religion the dog m as of the immortality of

i
the soul and the future li e The e are not the only
,

f s

examples A considerable num ber of sim ilar facts

.

of b cure laws that cannot d without explan tion

.
,

O s o a

of im portant om i sion and of apparent

,

s s, c o n t ra di c

tions m g t be collated It is evident then that the

i h
written L tands in need of a p rpetual m
, .
, ,

aw s e co m en
tary T is is the comm entary received by M oses
h
on Mou t S i ai Thence its nam e Th
.

n n .
f : e La w o

M f
o s es S ( H l ro ml M i na i
S a a ch a e o she m i s
'

i na z
This descended orall
- -

lex M
ad S ) L
o s em e y
i na i aw

from en ration to generation Mos s ays the

.

”
g e e s

Mi hna r c ived (traditional) L on S inai and

.
,

“
s e e the aw

transm itted ittoJoshua J huatrans m itted ittothe

, ,

; os

E lders the E lders trans m itted it to the Proph ets

;
the Proph t to h M of Gr at A em
,

an d e s t e en th e e ss

bly . TheGreat Asse mbly to which the last three ,

64 THE TA L M U D

prophets H gg Zechari h and M l h i b l g d

a at, a a ac e on e

finally trans m it the oral L w to the teachers that

, , , ,

succeed each other from the coming of the S ele n

e id into Syria to the second c ntury of the Chris

n
a e

tian era
The oral L w was never to be entrusted to writ
.

ing but was to remain in the memory of m and en

form a living tradition But when the m isfor unes

,

t
that began to break in upon the p ople in the days
.

of the last Maccabees im perilled the preservation

of the sacred pledge when Titus had destroyed the
;
Temple and Hadrian had scattered the Jewish
people and proscribed the study of the L w it
,

was feared that the chain of tradition m ight be rup

, ,

t ured and the oral L w disappear in the cataclys m

a

that swept away Jewish nationality For the sake

,

of the welfare of Judaism R Judah the Holy de

.

cided to violate the prohibition and reduce the

, .

oral L w to writing This was the origin of the

a .

The synagogue declares that from the S inaitic

revelation until the rebuilding of the T mple f ter e a

the retu n from the Captivity even ntil within a

,

r u

shor time before the Christian era the oral L w

,

t a

m aintained itself intact ithout uncertainty or

,

w
obscurity After the return the novel conditions
,

surrounding the nation brought up problems

.
,

n ew

for which tradition fi d no solutio What o ere n

were the Rabbis to do ? Obviously classify them

.

by means of cer ain ratiocinative processes under

t
cases provided for by tradition These exegetic
processes themselves are taught by tradition G d
.

. o
 T HE T A L II U D 65

had foreseen that a day would come when ce ain rt

religious prescriptions would si k into oblivion n

when new questions would obtrude themselves

,
”

and H gave unto Mo es a herm eneutic syst m by

,

e s e

virtue of which the decisions of the oral L m ight

,

aw

be rediscovered in the written L all the teach aw,

ings of tradition m ight be brought to connecti n in o

w ith the text and general principl s confidently e

applied to new details and unfor e n cases The

,

es e

only thing to be done therefor to m ake the

.

e, wa s
points under discussion subm it to the e hermeneutic
,

processes But d fi of opi ion might thus i e re n c e s n

arise For though h applicability of c rtain prin

.

t e e

m ight be so obvious as to force i m m ediate and

.
,

c i ple s

unanimous assent som eti mes there m ight the on

other hand be rea on for hesitation and discu sion

, ,

s s

In these case a vote was d cisive likewise in

, .

s e ac

with a principle establi h d by the S crip

,

d
c o r an ce s e

tures that to employ the biblical expressio the n,

m ultitude ought to be followed A m ajority m akes

, ,

the law The following account fro m the Mishna is

.

a curious illustration A k b ben M l l main

.

“
a ia a h ala e

i d four propositions The Rabbi said to h im

.

ta ne s

Abandon them and we shall give y the title of

.

ou

the chief of the Gr at Cou cil H r plied I

,

e n e e p re

fer to be considered a fool all the day s of my life to

.

appe ring infamous for a ingle in tant before God

a S s

by surrender ng my convictions in exchange for

i
honors Neverthel ss at the point of deat h he e

said to his son Abandon the four propositions

. , ,

that I have taught the A d hy did t thou

— e n w s

not yield B I h d i d m f m h
— eca us e a rece ve the ro teac
66 T HE TA L M U D

ers a s n um ero us a s my a dver

tho s e wh o ha d ta ug h t
s a ri es the oppo s i te opi n i o ns , a nd I s upp o rted wha t 1

ha d lea rn t as firm ly a s they ma i n tai ne d thei r tra di

t i o ns
. Bu t a s f o r y o u, y o u ha ve lea rned the f o ur
’
deci s i o ns on ly f ro m m e, a nd a n i n di v i dua l s o
p i n i o ns

ou
g h t to g i ve w a b
y ef o re th o s e of To this a n um ber —
p incipl add the other that numbers being equal
.

r e

the opinions of the older teachers prevail over those

,

of the more recent ones And that is just For

truth is subject to change as the distance from its
. .

origin across the ages lengthens and though ;

divergence of pinions began to manifest itself
O
only very late and Hillel and S h mm at the b a at, e

ginni g of the Christian era were at varian e on

,

n c

only three p ints yet in h space of three cen

,

o t e
m ultipli d so exten ively as to
,

i
t ur es difi ere n c es e s

produce the vast sea of h Tal mud It is “

t e
natural then that an opinion which has co me down
.

to us through few interm ediaries should have more

, ,

weight than one that has passed through many

m o nth An A
s or teach r of the L poste
m o ra , e aw

rior to the com pilation of the Mishna cannot pre

.

vail against a T or teacher of the Mishna no

,

a na ,

m ore than a T can enforce an opinion opposed

,

a na

by the D i b S ph i m the words of the S cribes

re o er

With these principles regulating the discussion

, .

the development was m ost imple nothing was

,

S ;
/

left arbitrary cha ce iscussion reduc d itself

to n D e

to a deductive process N w laws were sacred by

.

the sam e warrant as the revealed laws since the

.

latter enjoined the form er by i mplication Th

,

work of h Rabbis consisted si mply in ducing

.

t e e
68 THE TA L M U D

place The whole people has r lli d about h a e t e

religious chiefs and the latter are longer P ph
.

no ro

ets but S cribes Thencefor h the streets of Jeru

,

t
s lem do resound with the eloquent invectives
.
,

a no t

of the N bi i Instead the explanations and the

e m
comm entaries of the S ph i m fill the schools d
.
,

o er an

the synagogues We no longer have dealings with

an inconstant people hesitating between Baal and
.

Jehovah but with a nation that has made its choice

and enthusiastically accepts and develops a cult
, ,

that is a well rdinated system of beliefs laws

,

CO O

and practices Its literature suits itself to this

-

, , ,

transformation N longer the rich and vigorou

.

o s
to which we such m asterpieces as
.

e fll o re s c e n c e o we

the Psal m s Isaiah Job it has become severe dog

m atic scholastic instruction which after eight
, , , ,

laborious ce turies will result in the Tal mud In

, ,

a word Hebraism is at an end Judaism is bo n

.

What are the causes of the transformation ? What

, ,

series of circum stances could have eff ected it in so

limited a period as h Captivity ? D a k questio t e r ns ,

the answers to which m y be guessed at but the a

el m ents of an unimpeach able solution are lack

,

ing This is not the place to examine and discuss

the problem the statem ent of the change must
.

;
suffice
A new era begins for Israel The whole nation
.

crowds about the S ph i to hear the explanation

.

o er m
of the L w It is learnt by heart it is commented
a

upo S chools of Rabbis spring up which charge

.
,

themselves with the duty of teaching and explain

.
,

ing the sacred word The Bible the Book esp .

, , e
 T HE TA L M U D 69

the Pentateuch M that is R

c i ally z h ra ,
’

ea di ng ,

this is the only m ntal nourish m ent indulged in

, ,

by the people It the of all science and it is a im

is cience itself For all things flow from the Bible

,
,

as all conv rge towar s it The ad onition d

,
.

e d m a

dress d to Jo hua Thou shalt m editate therein

.

“
e s

day and night h b come a reality In a word

,

as e

it is the axis on which turns the whole activity of

, .
,

the Jewish m i d n

Thus originates and grows the study of the L

.

a w,

which is called to play so considerable a O and r le ,

whence springs the b dy of traditional la s that o w
will constitute the Tal m ud
H w do these traditional laws originate ? U
.

o n

less we accept the theory f the ir S inaitic origin o

affirmed but not demonstrated by the S ynagogue

,

the hi toric documents fail to make direct answer

, , ,

to this question The first t aces of these tradi r

tions are m with late in the S eptuagint in the

.

et

Books of the Maccabees in the Book of aniel

, ,

D
contemporary with the Maccabees but they f
, ,

; su

fi ce to put it b yond a doubt that as early as the

e

time of Antiochus E p h a num ber of deci ip a n es

sions were definitely established that even then ;

h cerem onies connected with the cult and not
t e
indicated in the Pentateuch were regulated in a ;
word that a ather exten ive sy tem of bserva ces
r s s O n

and laws existed oubtless it was during the

,

D
lo g period of m ore than 5 years from E zra to
.

n 2 0

the Maccabean rebellion that this system grew up

and i mposed itself upon the Jewish nation J
,

sephus passes over this religious development with

.
70 T HE TA L M U D

profound silence but it is well known that for this ;

historian m ore or less scr pulous concerning facts u

the history of beliefs ideas and religio s i

, ,

u n s t it u

tions al m ost as though non existent H

, ,

wa s ow

ev r i is beyond question that the M of the

-
.

e t en

Great S y nagogue developed the Mosaic

,

p p r e s c r i
tions and e pecially by their per onal authority
s s

rais d a hedge about L It is po si

,

e th e aw no t s

ble to trace the traditional sy tem furt er back

.

s h
with any degree of c rtainty The critical tudy e s

of several Mishnic traditions beginning with H

.

as

m ti m es enabl s us to follow the de elop

o n ea n e v

m ent of Je ish l gi lation at once religious and

w e s

civil The searching i nv stigation of juridic points

,

led to its gradual exte ion In the ivil law the

.

ns C

extens i n pre nts no p culiar f atures its only

.

o se e e

object being the protection of intere ts of the

,

the s

individual d the pro m otion of intercourse

an t he
and the tran actions of the itizens ith each
s C w
other But with the reli ious law the ca e was g s

diff rent E m in ntly r strictive in aracter it

.

e e e Ch

was d veloped to the point of burde i g daily life

.
,

e n n

with num erous b ervanc s Its decisions m ulti O s e

plied inde fi itely and each b came the fountain

.

n e

h ad for others S o m laid do n as princi le

,

e e, w p s,

w re to bring f rt when fecund ted by ratiocina

.

e o h, a

tion a close linked ain of endless prescriptions Ch

embraci g every mom ent of human life To be

-

clear let us take exam ples

.

A Pentateuch verse says Thou shalt not seethe

, .

a kid in its m other s m ilk A old tradition first ’ ”

n

xpressed in the S eptuagint explains this erse by

.
,

e , v
 LU THE 7 TA M D 1

the prohibition to cook m eat with m ilk food This

prohibition universally recognized the Rabbis take
.

as their point of departure They deduce there

, ,

from a group of pecial laws which in turn will

.

pro e no less fruitful For instance it will give

, , ,

rise to the prohibition of eating m eat with m ilk

.
,

food of eating m ilk food im m ediately f ter m eat a

of using the sa e vessel for m eat d milk and

, ,

m an

m any others And the logical deductions will go

,

on to the bitter end nor shri k from the consider

.

ation of the m i utest details connected with the

,

kitc e h— I the Pent teuch we read

n n Thou shalt
a

not eat fl sh t at is torn of beasts in the field

e h
From this prohibition an entire code will be devel
.

O ped In fact what m atters it w ther it was torn he

h cit y or in the field so long as it is the carrion
.
,

i
n t e

of an animal killed by a wild beast or dead of a dis

,

ease ? Th purpose evi ently is to forbid eating

e d
th e flesh of a ick or u healthy m But hen
S n an i al w
is an animal or h l h Thence so d so
.

s i ck un ea t y an

m an y new laws to determ ine all the cases falling

under the interdictio Agai the prohibitio of n n, n
worki g on the S abbath What is mea t by the
.

n n

ord ? S om e m ore new laws to demonstrate

.

w w o rk
w at is forbidden and up to what lim it N is
h — s or

th is all To these laws logically and unavoidably

deduced fro m m ore general long recognized laws
.
,

m ust be added ordi ances of recent institution

, ,

One Rabbi maintains somewhere in the Tal m ud

.

that certain ones of these rdinances were later o

considered traditional S inai tic laws Besides

there are measures and decrees ( k h Geze
, .
,

Te ano t ,
7 2 THE TA L M U D

roth ) passed by the S y d at the dictate and nh e ri n

under the str s of circum stances which fro m the

es

m m ent of th ir pro m ulgatio had the uthority

, ,

o e n, a

of religious laws Th us is woven an i tricate b n we

of prescriptions ceaselessly r producing others of
.

their kind which enthusiastically acc pted by a

,

people enamored f its religious system are at once

, ,

con crated by usage S uch is the work to which

,

se

the schools devote themselves especially in h

.

t e

century preceding and in that following h d

,

t e e

struction of the second Te mple By that time the

m ultiplicity of la s was so great that the links
.

w
connecti g a particular law with the prim itive law
n

biblical or traditional from w ich it was deriv d

,

h e

could be grasped only with difli l y Recourse

, ,

cu t
was th refore h d to artificial m ethods for the pur
.

e a

pose of establishing a direct connection betw en e

the Pentateuch text on h one hand and the t e

early traditional laws h deduced laws of whatso

,

t e
ever derivatio and the laws f institutio
,

n, o re c e n t n,

on the other There w e first Hillel s seven rul s

,

’
er e

of interpretation from which R Ish mael evol ed

.

hirteen Th n cam e the curious bold m thod

, .

t e e

that Akiba has the distinction of havi g applied

.
,

and developed with undaunted consi tency It is s

based on the principle that in the S criptures no

.

thi g is superfluous eith r phrase nor word nor

n n e

particle nor l tt r that down to the m ost i ig

, , ,

e e ; ns

detail everythi g has peculiar value and

,

n i fic a n t n

that besides the obvious m eani g of the text the

,

intellig nt m i d ough to discover a thousand hid

e n t
den m eanings t ousand occult hints S uch and
, a h .
 T HE TA L M U D 73

such a word y us ge is written with a

c o n t rar to a

w w in another the is lacking apparently

, ,
.

o ; wo w
without reason here the word d is redundant ; an

ther the conjunction is suppressed all indica

—
,

tio s of half revealed things of laws if the verse

n

has l g l bearing of facts if the verse is of

-

, ,

a e a an

other character The book f Genesis for example

, ,

pens with the words In the beginning God

.
, ,

“
O :

created heaven and earth Th word heaven e

“

in Hebrew is preceded by the particle h usually

.

et

the ign of the accusative but sometim s also mean

,

S e

That particl must ha e so me m eaning

,

i h
ing w t e v

says Akiba and he explai s the verse in the follow

.
,

ing m anner God created i h (the celestial hosts

,

: w t
that is the stars) heaven and earth This method
,
”

which in principle was recognized by the Fathers

, .
,

of the Church S Basil S Jerom e S Ch y t t t r so s

m was applied to all the religious prescriptio s

, .
, .
, .

to n

e tabli hed by the Rabbis Th enceforth h ordi

,

s s t e

anc s of the Rabbis and the practices sanctified by

.

n e

tim e but lacking a sure foundation ere clothed w

with a sacred character and animated with new life
, ,

by contact with the Holy S criptures The impor

, ,

tance of the method is patent In m odern society

.

the law preserves its character for m ajesty in the

.

eyes of the people Y it is considered a human et

work subject to error capable of m odification or

.

am elioration according to changing needs It is

, ,

respected because it has been freely assented to by

.

all and the people honor in it h wi h and ork of

, .

t e s w
ll In a society pre e m inentl y religious like that
,

of the Jews the sam e feeling cannot prevail A

-
.
,

, .
74 T HE T A L M U D

n um be of Rabbinic prescriptions could do btless

r u

have be n shown to originate ancient d ven

e in an

c rable traditions but m any were of recent i i n st t u

tion H could they be urged upon the people
,

ow

and m ade to influence their m anners if they were

.

not clothed with a sacred character d in whatso

,

an

ever way possible justified by the very letter of the

,

S criptur s ? This m ethod likewise by providing

e

the shelter of the L opened the way to the modi

, ,

a w,

fi i and the useful reforms made necessa y by

c at o n s r

circumstances Thus Judais m acco mmodated itself

to the constantly shifting needs of a society con
.

ly in a state of upheaval and consec ating the

s t an t r
aspirations of each new g neration it could develop
, ,

and progr ss boldly on the pa h of reforms This

,

e t
m thod secured the religion against the iner wor
.

e t
ship f the word and the letter snatched it away
o

from tagnation and by the flux and m ovement it

,

produced i fi d and fortified faith Thus it sanc

, ,

v vi e

d at onc tradition which thenceforth was

, .

i
t o ne e

fix d and future innovations t hat might crop up

,

D i d the people understand i mm ediately the m

, .

i
m nse i m port f the procedure ? We do not k ow
O
‘

e n

but certainly they conceived profound ad mirat ion

,

for the m able to duce bushels of decisio s from

an e n

every stroke of a letter Arbitrary as the m ethod ”

m y see m to us the favor it m with m y be ex

.

a et a

plained by the ardent desire of the people pointed

,

out above to find ev rything in the Holy S criptures

,

They are looked upon by the people as the source

.
,

of all knowledge The Rabbis inve t nothing n ;

they merely rediscover in the S acred Writings
.
76 T HE TA L M U D

had no schools whose disciples m ight have been

rec uit d fro m am ong people But the priests
r e th e
formed a college and among them selves t h y prop
,

d their traditions which however were

,

agat e te

by the people uring the great upheaval

, , ,

j
ec t ed D
that terminated in the catastrophe of h year
.

t e

70, the S adducees h were sincere Jews

w and
o

repudiated only the e aggerations of the Pharisaic

, ,

x
system fused with the people and all disse sion n

was forgotten i the face of the com mo danger

, ,

n n

B after the destr ction of the Te m ple when h

.

ut u t e

Rabbis established their schools at J b in the

,

a n e,

north of Palestine the priests whose services had

becom e superfluous exiled themselves to the
, ,

Da
or the S outh d there established rival
,
‘
rom a, an

schools in which they taught the sacerdotal tradi

,

tion While Akiba s num erous disciples developed

,
’

the word of the master R Ishmael ben E lisha

.

high priest taught in the D ar ma Rigorously

, .
,

o
confining to its narrowest li m its the system of i
, .

t er
p i dopted
reta t o n a by A k iba he explained the
Pentateuch according to its simplest sense H
,

thrust out of the Books of Moses the lessons that

.

the school of the north m ade dom inant and pre

served the variants that ancient priestly tradition
,

had sanctified We owe to h im comm entaries on

all the Books of the Pentateuch except Genesis

.

They are the M h i l (m ) com m entary on

.

ec ta ea s u re

E xodus S if co entary on eviticus

,

(
; b h ) ra m m oo L
also called T h C h i m or L w f h P i
, ,

o ra t o an a o t e r es ts ,

account of the num erous Levitical prescriptions

,

on

which form the object of the third Book of Moses ;

 T HE TA L M U D 77

finally S if (
re bo o hs com mentaries on Numbers
), t h e

euterono y These are the only works b

,

an d D m e

by the school of D Om The school

.

q ueat h e d ar a

in fact soon vanished into d rkness being each

.
,

day m ore and m ore obscured by the brilliant light

, ,

irradiating from its nor hern rival The m entio ed t n

works m oreover were preserved only because the

.

Pharisaic schools adopted them after having m odi

, ,

fi d the m by touches changing their character

e

However the alterations were not so radical but

.

that under the Pharisaic layer traces re mained of

,

the S adducean or at least sacerdotal m ethod

Thanks to these vestiges the historic science of
, , .

our day has succeeded in rediscovering the spirit

,

of the origi al work by a circu mstantial study of

n

the language of the Halachoth and the Pentateuch

injunctions i volved in them By establishing
, ,

n te

the text t hree fourths fi d a pecies of p lim

-
.

e ac e S a p
sest it not only restored the work of Ishmael ben
-

E li ha s school b ut de m onstrated the perm anence

,
’
s

of S adducean instruction
,

Akiba however had yet finished his work

.

no t

To have connected ll the traditional and recently

, , .

instituted laws with the Pentateuch was not fi s uf

cient It was necessary to co ordinate d u ite an n

them into a sort of code In fact in the schools

.

the co m m entaries and the instruction of the Rab

.
,

b is had at firs followed the text of the L w and

t a

the order of its chapters and verses determ ined

,

the order of the Halachoth But when the H h a lac

oth by the successive labors of the schools h d

.

m ultiplied extensively it becam e i m possible to

, ,

,
7 8 T HE TA L M U D

teach them in that order E ach verse was a com e

by co entary of infinite length the

.

p i
an e d m m a ;
text disappeared buried u der the notes A clas
.

thus became necessary and this agai

, .

s i ficat i on n
was Akiba s work Hi master m ind succeeded in
,
’
s

putting order into h vast chaos of decisions But

.

t e

he could do no more than trace the outlines The

.

Rom n hangman preve ted im from finishi g the

.

a n h n

work which his school continued and a disciple of

his follo ers R Judah the Holy of the i llustrious
, ,

w
f a m ily of Hillel h d the glory of m aking the final
, .
,

com pilation of the Mis na and attaching his name

,

h
thereto
It was an im por ant achievem ent this ifi
.

t co d ca

tion of the oral law and one big with results

,

Once taught from the written word the Mishna

, .

in
T dition received its final consecration It ceased
,

ra

to be tradition to beco me a L
.

— L w m n ew aw a a co

preciser and clearer than h ancient L

.

p l e t er, t e a w,

which found itself relegated to the background

,

It is better to be occupied with the Mishna than

.

with the L said the Rabbis the L m y

aw, ;
“
aw a

be co mpared to water but the Mis na is wine h

Why in fact should one lose ti me in puzzling over
, .

the original text when complete explanation is

, ,

ithin reach of l when the Mish a contains

,

w a l, n

both text and commentary ? S tradition from o

being a comm ntary on itself becom es a

,

e t h e L aw,
second a la w, to the expression of
D e ut ero s i s , us e

the Fathers of the Church and takes the place of

the first Th e e f ter the work of the schools
,

r a

thought to be at end will be resumed The

. , ,

an , .
 THE TA L M U D 79

lo ng labor expended on the Pentateuch and ter

m i g i
i n at the Mish na will be applied to the
n n

M ishna to produce finally the Ge m ara The text

of the Mishna will be taken up again and dis
.

cussed E very Rabbinic pinion whether anony O

m ous that is ad m itted by all or cited with its
.
,

author s nam e hat is with every possible reserva

, , ,
’
t
tion will be argued debated developed explained
, ,

Obscure poi t will be illuminated and so again

, , , , .

n s

new decisions will be arrived at A f ter three

,

nd a

centuries of discussion the Gem ara will be finished

.

and the Tal m ud losed Th s a era begins

, ,

C u n ew

with the compilation of the Mish a But a new

.

era m ust have a new nam e The doctors of the

.

Mishna had been T m p teach rs

.

a na z re ea ters ; th e e

of h epoch upon which we are about to e ter

,

t e n

a rec lled A m di
a —
m o ra i two well chosen s co u rs e rs

nam es in each case characterizing exactly h

,

t e
nature of the inst ucti n For if on the one
,

r o

hand the T m only taught tr dition o ly

.
,

anat a n re

produced and repe ted decisions received from

, ,

ancient times to transm it them to disciples then

on the other hand this tradition once fixed there
, ,

remained nothing m ore than to discuss the L

, ,

aw

and to discourse
This work of the teach ers of the Gem ara does
.

not withdraw itself wholly from foreign influences

While they are building up the code the solid
.

on

ba i of the Mishna a neighboring nation who e

s s s

form idable pow r t ey know o ly too well i

, ,

e h n s eu

gaged about a si milar ta k and with incomparable

,

force and m arvellous genius raises the m onu m ental

,
80 T HE TA L M UD

Co rpus j on
uri s which will e
ci vi li s,
b propped
the legal systems of E urope H was it possi ow

ble for the Rabbis to escape the influence that

.

Roman legislation whose rigor and formalism they

hould have been the first to ad mire could
,

S ex er

cise upon them ? In point of fact the vil law of

,

Ci

the Tal mud is impreg ated in al m ost all its parts

,

with the spirit of the Roma system E ven f m n or u

las and expressions borro ed from Rom e can be

.

w
found in it Certain depart m ents of legislation
such as the laws on slavery and prescription for
.
,

which the Pent teuch furnishes not a hint or

,

sketches barely the shadow of a theo y are al most

,

entirely i spired by Roman legislation B all

,

n ut

they borrow takes on m odifications under the m

.

n ip l i of the Rabbis The Jewish m ind trans

u at o n

form ed the alien elements by impressing upon

.

them its peculiar character A d from this vast n

crucible in which three centuries had m elted down

.

the materi ls of diverse origin gathered by the

,

schools was to em erge the essentially uniform d an

homogeneous work of Talm udic legislation

,

INF LU E NC E OF E VE N S T ON T HE D LOE VE P M E NT OF
H A A HA THE L C

N h preceding pages we studied only the i

I t e n

ternal development of the Halacha It is time

,

no w

to consider whether external circum stances

.

e x er

i d influence upon this developm ent

c se whether
and up to what point they trammelled or favored it .
 LU T HE TA M D 81

Although its first traces are found only in the

M accabean epoch it is well known that the work of
the Jewish schools resulting in the Tal mud began
,

on the return from the Captivity From that p e

i d until the ti m e o f the final redaction of the

.

r o

Tal mud four great ev nts m ark the his ory of e t

Judea the persecutio s of Antiochus E i h

,

: n pp a n es,

followed by the establishm ent of the kingdo m te

by the Hasmonean h birth of Christianity

-

s ; t e ;
the destruction of the Te mple and the last revolt
of the Jews under Hadrian We shall exam ine
,

the influence upon the fo m ation of the Halacha

.

attributable to each of these even s t

In the long and tranquil y rs of the Persian
.

ea

dom ination Judaism under the direction of the

.

M en of the Great S y nagogu c uld grow

, ,

e, o un

shackled and inst uction little by little r p e n e t ra t

ing the mass of the people formed the national
, ,

m ind The persecutions of Antiochus ther fore

,

e
were nothing more than a passi g st rm which we
.
, ,

n o

m y well believe fi d a revival and streng hen

, ,

a e ect e t
ing of religio s feeling We say we m y well b
,

u a e

lieve for we possess no do um ents to acquaint us

.
,

c
with h precise nature of their influence The
,

t e
triumph of the Maccabees again insured a certai
.

n
tranquillity for the Jews thanks to which the Rab
bis as under the Persian domination c uld calmly
,

prosec te their lo g continu ing work But Rom

, ,

u n e

enter upon h scene Pompey takes possession

.

s t e
of Jeru alem d desecrat s the S anctuary S oon
.

s an e

Judea falls nder the iron yoke of the procurator

, .

u s,

wh ose odi u tyranny l ads the terri ble i

o s e to n s ur
 2 T HE TA L M U D

rection of the year 65 The history of the heroic

superhuman struggle ending with the bu ning of
,
.

the Tem ple and the annihilation of the Jewish

state is well known It would eem that a revo s

like this ough t to react powerfully upon

, .

lut i o n

religious conditions The results ho ever do not w

correspond to the greatness of the catastrophe
.
, ,

;
f or the influence was material rather than m oral
With the destruction of the Tem ple disappeared a
.

part of the cult and a whole set of ceremonies All

connected with the sacrifices was abrogated by the
.

force of circu m stances B the rest of the cult ut re

m ained intact no cause m oreover presenti g itself

.

to m odify its pirit The fact is that t hough the

, , ,

Je sh nationality was crushed the religion was

.
,

wi
not persecuted The political m old shattered the
,

rel gious mold remained perfect and preserved the

.
,

i
hope of the stablishm ent of national d
,

te e in e p en d

ence This is what Vespasian did not under

-

stand and in permitting R J h ben Z kk

.

oc an a n a at

to tran port his school to J b he did not realize

, .

s a n e,

that he was allowing a fire to be kindled on a new

hearth of insu rection S ixty years after the fall of
r

Jerus lem in fact the grandsons of those who saw

.

the ruin of the Holy House rise at the call of

, ,
”

Akiba ru h to arms chase the Rom ans out of Pal

,

reconquer their land su mmon all their

, ,

es t i n e,

brethren of the E mpire and for an instant rect

,

re e

the kingdom of their ancestors It is a grave m

-
,

m ent for this struggle i to decide not only upon

.

Israel s fate but also pon that of h new sect

, ,
’
u t e
that Israel has perm itted to go fo th from his
,

r
84 UD T HE TAL M

says a Talmudic text Because I obs rved h e

‘

t e
law of circumcision Why art thou led away to
.

—
punishment Bec use I was faithful to the S b
.

— a a

bat h Why
— th ou scourged Because I obeyed
—
art

the injunction of the L l b In the face of these u a

”

consequences h Judeo Christians break h last

.

t e t e

bond uniting them with the Je ws and throw them

-

selves into the arm s of the Paulinians The

,

C hurch which preach es the a bolition of

.

m c ere o

nies sees her triumph assured

,

But if the result of this w is to precipitate h

.
,

ar t e
C hurch long h road upon which h has just
a t e S e

ente ed so resolutely it ought to have the opposite

r

influence on Judaism plungi g it deeper into

,

Pharisaism And that for two reasons The first

,

producing an fi only during a li mited period is

. .
,

e ect

the religious persecution which Hadrian himself

,

enforces against the Jews For the more the cer

are persecuted and the more the people
.
,

em i o n es

feels its lot bound up with them the greater grows

,

their i mpor ance in the eyes of the beli ever the

,

t
m ore do they te d to beco me absolute Then
,

when the persecutions abated and the people

.
,

b egan to breathe m ore freely it was necessary to

,

institute a separation from the Church which

,

gained territory day fter day The diff erences

,

dividing the two religio s had to be m arked more

.

clearly And the more unreservedly growing

Christia ity opened its ample bosom to the pagan
.

nations the m ore Judais m inclined to retreat j l ea

ly withdrawing into itself and m u ltiplying its

, ,

o us

p r ctices and bse vances from day to day from

a O r ,
 T HE TA L M U D 85

hour to hour The abyss parting it from the Chris

tians and the pagans deepen d It remained iso
.

lated in the m ids of hostile natio s and this isola

.

t n

tion constituted its strength Th s becam e possi

,

ble the stra ge pheno menon uniq e in history I

.

n u

b lieve of a people dispersed to the four corners of

, ,

the earth yet one of a nation w thout a land y

,

i et

living The m iracle was acco mplished by a book

, , ,

h Tal m ud The Tal mud was the ensign Which

.
,

t e
served as a allying point for the disper ed of Israel
.

r s

The thousand austere and m inute practices that

.

it njoins were so many strong bonds attachi g

e n

one to the other Thus by a curious series of

actions and reactions h religi ous m ovem ent
. ,

t e
that gave birth to the Mishna brought about the
,

national uprising under Hadri n Through its a

influ nce on Christianity this rebellion reacted

.

indirect ly on h religious movem ent that produced

,

t e
the Tal mud And the Talm ud in turn maintained
the unity of the people conquered and crushed
.
, ,

yet none the less living and resisti g

, ,

n .

S PIR I HA A H T LO M NT
OF T HE L C IC D E VE P E

L us now cast a glance backw rds and take a

ET a

b ird s eye view of this eff ective develop m ent of

,
’

Pharisaic formalism We are at once struck by

-

its system of bservances having relation to every

.

O
m o m ent of life The believer finds himself en

meshed i a net work of prescriptions wh i h l

.

n -

, c c o se .
86 THE TA L M U D

in upon h i m on all sides and reduce hi m to n er ev

ending slavery slave y accepted freely and with

,

— r

joy for this sacred a th ousand times blessed yoke

is the condition of happiness Chained down by
, ,

the m any links that his religion has forged into a

.

syste m around h im he has only to follow without

fatigue or eff ort the divine commandments H
,

has no need for long reflection upon his duties

.

an d

for m uch reaso ing on the rules of conduct b

n a

solved as he is by religion which h done all this

,

as

work for h im E ach day each hour is unalterabl y

,

ar nged by regulations from on high In the

.
, ,

ra

morning prayers and thanksgivings at noon

.

;
prayers and thanksgiving in the evening pray
, ,

s ;
ers and thanksgivings b nedictions before the
,

; e

m eal after the m eal b enedictions At sight of h

; t e

im posi g phenomena of nature of a storm the sea

, .

the first spring blossoms tha ksgivi gs Thanks

, , ,

n n

givings for a new enjoyment for unexpected good

, .

fortune on eating new fruits at h announcem ent

,

t e

of a happy event P ayers of resignatio at the

, ,

r n

news of a misfort ne At the tomb of a beloved

.

being set prayers words all prepared to console

.

;
who have just been overtaken
,

h w
t e s o rro i k str c en ,

by affl iction E ve y em otion and every feeling

r

the m ost fugitive as well as the m ost profound are

.
,

foreseen noted and embodied in a form ula of

,

prayer or of benediction In the m ost solemn m

, ,

m ents o f lif in the m ost vulgar when the soul

.

e as

forgets i tself and allows itself to drop into the

,

prose of daily routine or whe crushed under the n,

load of lively e motions it gives way yi elding to its

,

, ,
 THE TA L MU D 87

powerlessness the believer finds himself in the

presence of a commandment of a M i w to be
,

te a

accom plished recalling hi m to heavenly thi gs

,

sanctifying the present hour and keeping h i m in

, ,

perpetual com m unication with the divine If he

,

wishes to breathe forth hi feelings and give them

.

definite shape he finds ready m ade fo mulas at r

hand which he has but to repeat with fervor in

-

order to pour out his soul before God The Israel

,

ite then has need of pai f ul eff or s in see king

.

no n t
the road to alvation It i wide open to h im
, ,

s s

thanks to his religion that tender provident

.
,

m other who convoy s h i m to happiness provided he

, ,

obeys the divine prescriptions and with docility

,

goes whither God leads h m S uch is the system

,

i
the re ing of which the Talmud has pursued with
.

ar

the force of bold logic C uriously enough no

where can the precisely formul ted expression of
.
,

this system be found Moreover it is well known

that the S y g has ne er summoned a Coun
.
,

na o ue
'
v

cil to decree a dogma and im pose i upon the faith t

of the nation But whether a precise formula
em bodying their system was present in the minds
.

of the Rabbis or whether they unconsciously fol

lowed it out it m y none the less be abstracted in
,

all its clearness fro m the very pirit of Halachic

,

developm ent namely i mpotence of hu man reason

:

to direct itself in the search for truth and the duty

,

i mposed upon religion to teach it truth

,

In fact is not this the system of all religion D

.

s o

they not one and all recognize the powerlessnes

,

of human reason to arrive at truth without a sist s

88 T HE TA L M U D

ance from above ? Are they not all sent down

fro m heaven to lead m to salvation ? Judaism an

th n has followed out a natural evolution and per

,

haps this is the point of view to be assumed in

, ,

explaining its derivation fro m Hebr ism E very a

religion is at first based upon ideal principle

.

s,

principles of justice and charity which for som e

time i a vague and indeterminate form satisfy
,

certain ardent religious spirits But it cann t

, ,

long persist in this indeterm inate form it clothes

, .

;
i tself with a body b eco m es a dog m a and is tran s

form ed fro m moral instructio which it first was

, ,

n,

into a positive religion The if it is logi al it

,

n, c

condem ns itself to pursue the cours boldly taken

.
,

by Pharisais m That is what we are taught by

the theoretic concep ion of the religious idea and
.

t
t at is what is proved by history History tells
,

h
us that every religion rests upon form lism It
.

tells us tha M h m i m like Judaism h ar

.

t a o et an s as

rived a cult burdened with ceremonies It

, ,

at

shows us in Italic polytheism an infinite m ipli

.

ult c

ity of divinities directing the conduct of m It en

shows us the Roman peasant trembling before the

.

fo ur h t d gods that
o us a n presided over every act
and mom ent of lif e and L ucretius delivering m en

from the h i of religion It tells us that h

c a ns t e
Brahm ins arrive at scholasticism comparable with
.

the Tal mud that the doctrine of S Paul itself

; t
the doctrine founded on the rejection of everyexter
.
,

nal observance later gives birth to the S m m Th u a e

l g i of S Tho m as Aquinas and to the syste m of

,

o o ce t
c remonies from which Protestantism was a
.

e reac
 THE TA L M U D 89

tion It tells us finally t at if Protestantism lone h a

has hitherto escaped this law it is because it is

.
, , ,

a compromise between religion and philosophy

,

and that logic condem ns it to end up either in f rm

,

o
ali m or in deis m
s Judais m then could not but
pursue this course and urged by h logic of
.
, ,

t e
things which w favored by an array of circum
,

as

stances destructive f the politic l existence of the

,

O a

natio b fi for its religious work it pursued

n, en e c ent

it to the end Accordingly the Tal mud is the

,

completest expres ion of a religious m ove ment

.
,

and this cod of endle s prescriptions and minute

,

e s
ceremonials represents its pe fection the total in r

work of the religious idea In our eyes this is its

g eatest titl to the respect and the con ideration
.
,

r e s

of thinker this is its greatest merit C rtainly

s ; e
Judaism m y be regarded as austere and arid It
.
,

has not the splendor and brilliant exuberance of

.

Greek or Hindoo polytheism We are f removed ar

from the superabundant vi gorous poetry p d

.

erva

ing the dazzling ffi of Aryan my l

,

e o re s c e n c e t ho o
gies Herein lies the great advantage of p ly h o t e
i m and pantheis m over m onotheis m But we are
.

now not co sidering religions from the point of

.

n
view of art we are investigating only their dog
;
m atic d velop ment in so far as it can be abstracted
e
and extricated from the rest of hu man faculties
,

Taken in this way that of Judais m has been m os

.

t
logical since without hesitation it has proceeded
,

to extrem e consequences If these consequences

,

incur Condemnation then system as a hol

.

the w e

m ust be conde m ned f the starting point is

,

, or
90 T HE TA LM UD

wrong If the starting point is accepted it is nec

essary to go to the bitter d and endorse ll the
.
,

en a

consequences At all events the Talm ud h done

,

as

so and thanks to it we have in Jud ism the m

.
,

a co

d consequently the m ost perf ect expres

,

pl e t es t , a n

sion of the lig id a

,

re o us e .

T HE TA LMUD I N T HE DL
M ID E A GE S A ND M O D E RN
TIME S
C ONC L US ION
WEhave arrived at the end of our task E n

i g to appl y the critical m ethod to the

.

d e avo r n

investigation of the Tal mud we have demanded

from an analytic study information on the elements
,

composing it d fro m an historic study the an

supre me law or idea governing its formation B

,

fore we close this article it m y be proper to cast

.

a glance at the fortunes of the book in the m iddle

,

ages and in modern times and to indicate cursorily

what science m y still demand of it for the general
a

history of humanity
When a century after the compilation of the
.

Palesti ia Gemara the Babylonian Talm ud in its

,

n n

turn received its final shape it was universally

, ,

adopt d in the Jewish schools and the hiefs of

, ,

e C

the Academ ies the S b m ( pi i gi from

,

a o ra i o n on vers ,

the sixth to the eighth century) declaring the text

,

ed decided that no more modifications could b

,

fix . e
92 T HE TA L M U D

brevity pre ision and clearnes In the following

c s
century Maimonides the eagle of the Syna
, , .

gogue publishes his Arabic commentary on the

, ,

Mishna and the m asterly work called M i h T

,

s ne o

ra h the second law in which e mbracing the

“ ”

whole dom ain of the Halacha he seeks to syste m

, , ,

the vast mass of de isions In Fra ce Rashi

,

at i z e c n

created a school With him directly is connected

.
,

the galaxy of French Rabbis in the twelfth and

.

thirte nth centuries to whom the world owes the

e

Talm udic glosses called T aph h or A ddi i

,

os ot t o ns

It is this work of the T hi together with

, .

o sap sts

Rashi s co mmentary become a classic that frames

’

the text of the M ishna and Gemara in all the

, ,

th e
editions Fro m France the move ment spreads to
north west rn Germany which in the thirteenth
.

d the fourteenth entury furnishes its contingent

-

an C

of commentaries and supercommentaries These

diverse works bear the same character In all the
.

various decisions reached by the Gemara in the

.
,

diff erent cases discussed are compar d is e ; o ne

sought to be explained by the other the import d an

extent of each are determ ined and in all the order

,

or rather the disorder of the Gem ra somewhat

, ,

p lliated is followed With the exception of Mai

,

no one thoug t of introducing the light

, .

m idon es , h
of meth d into this vast chaos and of cl sifying
,

o as

all the Halachoth logically The German Jacob

ben Asher in the fourteenth century taking the
.
,

h as his m odel undertak es a m ethodic

, ,

Mi h s T ne o ra

piece of work For a century the att mpt remains

,

without imitation the fift n h cen ury produces

.

; ee t t
 T HE TA L M U D 93

n othing for the Halach But in the ixteenth a S

ce tury appears the Polish school whose works

.

hough not cha cterized by the breadth of

, ,

t ra p co nce

tion that distinguishes Maimonides Ali h T ’

s ne o

ra h are re m rkable for penetration and depth

a

perhaps lacking in that b k This school has for

, ,

an
its im the completion of R Jacob b Asher s
.

’
a en

work and in 567 Joseph Karo publishes his S h

.

1 ul

bl ) i which all the

,

h an A kh ( h p p ru d t e re a re ta e n

religious and civil laws of the Jews article by arti

,

cle are classified according to subjects The codi

,

of the Halacha is thereby completed but

, .

fi i
ca t o n

work of the commentators which con

,

no t h t e

upon the text of the Code during the eigh

,

i
t n ue s
h century and in our day is not at an end in
t e en t
Bohemia in Hungary and in all the sections of
,

the world where the Jews have most faithfully pre

, ,

served the customs and usages of past times .

While Judaism in the wh ole of E urope is m e

ployi g ll its intelligence and ll its activity in

n a a

the completion of its reat Tal mud work wh t is g a

the fortune of the book among Christians ? The

,

Jews were persecuted the work that was the ;

soul of the unfortu ate nation w not to be n as

spared It has been proscribed and imprisoned

and burnt a hundred times over says the author
.
, ,
”

of the " l R i w article From Justini

, ,

ua rter y ev e an ,

who as early as 5 5 3 A D honored it by a special

.

interdictory Novella ( Novella down to Clem

, ,
. .

ent VII I and later space of over a thousand

— a

y ears both the secular and the spiritual power

— s,
94 T HE TA LMUD

kings and emperors popes and anti popes vied

with each other in hurling anathem and bulls
-
, ,

as

and edicts of wholesale onfisc tio and fl C a n co n ag ra

tion against this luckless book In 39 Gregory ”

12

I" has it burnt in France and in It l y

,

i a ; n 1 264 ,

Clement IV renews prohib tio and condemn the i n, s

to the stake those who harbor manuscripts of it

Two centuries later the interdict is not yet
.

te

m oved and it took fro m to 5 9 that is 1 4 84 1 1

thirty six years to print twenty three treatises

, , ,

the publication was secret In 5 L " abro

- -

1 20, eo

gates the decree But in 5 5 3 at the instigation

.

of the apostate Jew S olo mon Romano Julius III

.
.

again im poses the int rdict and h the Tal mud

, ,

e as

burnt at Ro m e and at Venice Paul IV incited by

,

Vittorio E liano the worthy brother of Romano

.
,

im itates Julius I in 5 59 Four years later

, ,

II 1 th e
Council of Tre t perm its the public t on of the
,
.

n a i
Tal mud but under close a surveillance by the 80

cen or that at first the Je ws refuse to profit by

,

the uthorization N until 5 7 does the Basle

a ot 1 8
dition app ar so expurgated that it m ight be
.

“
e e

read with profit e en by Christians But though

,
”
v

Pius VI in 566 and Clement VI II in 59 and

.
,

1 1 2

1 5 99 renew the decrees of prohibition in spite of

the Council the editions of the Talmud multiply
rapidly and the sixteenth century under the i fl
,

n u

ence of the Reformation sees Jewi h studies in

, ,

honor with Christia scholars who seek the

,

n in
st uction of Rabbis The m ost celebrated sc o ar
,

r h l
of the sixteenth century Reuchlin the impartial
.

is
the intre id champion of h Talmud
,

s a va n t, p t e .
 T HE TA L M U D 95

Among others there is Maxi mili n I physician a

’
S

Paul Riccio the first I believe to attempt a Latin

, ,

co mpil tion of the Talmud In the following cen

, , ,

tury works abound Above ll should be cited

.

those of the two B f who for m ore than

.

uxt o r s,

seventy years occupy in succession the chair of

Hebrew at Basle and publish Hebrew grammars
and lexicons translate Jewish authors of the m id
,

dle ages and instruct their contemporaries in R b

,

binic studies Next Latin translations of diverse

,

Tal m udic texts are attempted Constant l E m

.
,
’

pe

t anslates and annotates the treatises B b

.

reur r a a

K m m and M i dd h C
a a i the treatises M h ot o c c e us , a

h h and S
ot h d S h i y n the Mishna e ri n ; ure n us us ,

which had been transl ted before into S panish and

,

L tin by the Jew Jacob and his brother Isaac

a

Ab d en S elden publishes his learned studies

an a

on Th j w i h W m h Ci i l Y N l
.

e e s o a n, t e v ea r, a tu ra

L w a di
acco r h Hb w h
ng ib l to t e e re s, t e Tr u na s

Lightfoot issues his H b i d T lm di H e ra c a n a u c o u rs

S h i k d his R
c ar l L m h Hb oy a aw a o ng t e e rews ,
“
snatched fro m Rabbinic D arkness B l ; a rt o o c c i ,

finally his great Rabbinic lib ary In the eigh

“
r

h century we have a m ong others the works

, .

t ee n t
of Wa enseil D anz S h gg Rheinfeld Egger
,

g c oet en ,

But though these authors in various respects de

, , , .

serve commendation the greater pa t of them r

write under the influence of religious prejudice or

,

the narrowest fanaticism and wittingly or unwit

tingly sacrific truth to party pirit Often reli
,

e S

gio s passion is openly displayed and has the

.

fran knes announce itself in the very titles

,

s to .
96 T HE T A L M U D

Wagenseil the learned translator of S gives o ta , us

his Fi D f S
,

ery h S
a rts o d H i a ta n, o r, t e ecret a n o rr

b B k f h j
le oo s o i j t Ch i
e d h
ew s a
g a ns t es us r st an t e
Ch i i
r st an R lig i and later his Ch i i D
e o n, , r st an en un

i i
c at on of h Bl p h m
t i fe h j w ias j e es o t e e s a a ns t
g es us

Ch i r st D anz the author of R bbi i m E pl i d a n s x a ne

publishes Th j l
.
, ,

h h e Sw d
ew s s a in wi t t ei r o w n or

E isen m enger j d m U m h
,

h C mp
u a is
’
, n as ea , o r t e o lete
A f
cco u n t o h C m i Bt ph mei E a lu d n es , las e es , rro rs , a n

F bl
a f es h oj w H tve such
e studies einspired
s a

solely by ardent and malignant fanaticism the

.
,

rights of citizenship in the Republic of Letters ?

,

The science of our day owes to itself the duty f o

study ing the Talm ud impartially It will judge

worthy of its attention this monument of a religion
.

and a civilization whose influence has not been

void in the world and whatever its absolute v lue a

m y be adjudged to be science will understand it

, ,

and study its formation and development It will

, ,

demand of the Talmud instruction or at least i

.

'

formation al most as v ried the subjects coming

,

a as

within the compass of cience The historian will

,

address him s lf to it for light upon the histo y of

.

e r

the early centuries of the Christian era and of the

centuries i m mediately preceding it and though not
seeking in it precise data which it cannot furnish
,
‘

he will be sure to find a faithful picture of the b

, ,

liefs and ideas of the Jewish nation of its moral

and spiritual life The naturalist will ask of it
,

numerous questions concerning the sciences phys

.

ical natural or m edical H it ever occurred to

,

as

any one to co mpile if not the fau a at least the

, , .

, n ,
 T HE TA LMUD

flora of the Tal mud that i of the Pal stine and s, e

Babylonia contemporary with the E mpire ? It

,

were easy with it as a basis to furni h a second edi s

tion of Pliny s N H Ce tainly as valuable

’
a tu ra l i s to ry , r

as the first The lawyer will question it on the

history of its jurisprudence will investigate
.

whether and by what interm diaries Roman

,

h o w, e

and Persian customs influenced it and it will

,

law

be a curious study to co mpare the re ults that

,

two diff erent ivilization directed by opposite C s,

principles have reached in the j i and the us c v ile

The thologist will dive into

,

j us Ta lm udi cu m m y
l gends and by a wise application of the
.

its e

comparative m th d term ine the history of Mi

, ,

e o d, e

dras h i cm yth logy The philologi t will dev te

o s o

hi m lf to the language that abrupt rough lan

.

se —
guage by m an of which the Tal m d eem to
,

e s u s s

pl a e itself in heaping ob curiti of form

,

e s up s es

over th se of the thought and he will be sure to

o

m ake m ore than happy find says the

,

o ne F o r,
uthor of the H f the
.

“
a i L i s to ry o th e S em i t c an
g ua
g es ,

le ical sp li tion and gramm tic analy is of the

x o a a s

Talm udic l nguage acc rdi g to m thod of

a o n the e s

m d rn philology re m ain b m de That

,

o e to e a

lan uage fil a hi tu in hi t ry of S em itic

, .

g ls a s th e s o

idiom Final y the phil ph r will d m and of

s
”
l o so e e

the Talm ud the expl nati n of Jud is m d

.
,

a o a an the
hi tory of Je i h i titution and the Talm u i
s w s ns s, as d c

b k o r the co pletest xpr ion th r of

oo s ff e m e ess e e and

at h nd ll the com p n nt l m nt a
,

as h e h as a a o e e e e s,

s cru ulou ly i will giv m law of the

p s an a s s e hi th e
devel pm ent of the Je ish relig on
o w i .
OUTLINES OFJ EWISHH
ISTORY .

Fromthe Returnfrom Babylon to the Present Time,

1890 .

Wi th Th ree M aps , a Fro n ti sp i e c e an d Ch ro n o lo gi cal Tables

BY L A D Y M A G NU S .

R I ED LANDER
‘

3 3 m m HT 11 . F , PH D . .

OP I NI O NS O F T HE P R E S S .

Th e en ti re wo rk i s o ne o f g reat i n terest ; i t i s wri tten wi th m o derati o n ,

a n d y et w i th a fi n e e n t h us i as m f o r th e g rea t rac e wh i c h i s set bef o re t h e

rea de r s m i n d — A tla n tic Mo nthly
’
.

We do ub t wh eth er t h ere i s i n t h e E ngli s la n g uage a b etter sk etc o f h h

J ewi s h h i sto ry Th e J e wi s h Pub li c a t i o n S o c i e ty i s to b e co n gra tula ted
.

o n t h e suc cess f ul o p en i n g o f i ts career S uc h a m o vem en t, sp a us pi

b egun , deserves t h e h eart suppo rt o f t h e pu b li c Nati o n ( New y
.

—
$ i
o"
l
or

Of un i versal hi Philadelp hi a Ledger

sto ri cal
i n te res t —
—
.

Co m p resses m uc h i n si m p le lan guag e Balti more S un .

h
T o ug h f ull o f sy m pa th y f o r h er o wn o le, i t i s n o t wi t o ut a si n
p h
gu la r va lue f o r re a de rs wh o se reli gi o us elIef di ff ers f ro m t h at o f t h e
—
pe ‘

au th o r New York Ti mes

. .

On e o f th e clea rest a n d mo st co m pact wo r s o f i ts class pro du ce i n

—
k d
d
mo ern ti m es New York S un .

Th e J ewi sh Pub li c ati o n So c i ety o f A m eri ca h as n o t o n l c o n f erre a y d

f a vo r u po n a ll o un g He b re ws , b u t a lso upo n a ll Gen ti les wh o desi re to
see t h e J e w as 0 a p pea rs to h i m se lf Bosto n Herald .
— .

We k n o w o f n o s i n gle vo lum e h i sto ry wh i c h gi ves a b etter i dea o f th e

-

re m a rk a b le p a rt p la yed b y th e J ews i n a n c i en t a n d m o dern i s to ry h .

S an F ra ncisco Chro n i cle

—
.

A su c ci n c t, well wri t te n h i sto r o f a wo n derful race

-
Bufialo Couri er y '
.

— d
Th e b est h a n b o o k o f J ewi s h i sto r t at readers o f an y c lass c a n
fin d New York Herald
-
h y h
—
.

A c o n ven i en t a n d at trac ti ve h an bo o o f ewi sh h i s to ry Clc vela n d d -

k J .

Pla i n D ealer .

k
—
h
Th e wo r i s an adm i rab le o n e an d as a m a n ual o f J ewi sh i sto ry i t
.

m ay b e co m m ended to pe rso ns o f every rac e a n d c reed Phila delp h i a

i t w uld b di m lt t fi d th k th i ubj t '

A lt g t h b
—A m i ( Ph i l d lph i )
ero e o e cu o n an o er oo on s s ec
t i i g
co n a n n som u h i f m ti c n or a on er c a n a e a .

L dy M g
a b ki lu b l
a n us ddi ti —t th t h u f li t
’
oo s a va a e a on o e s o re -
o se o era
tu th t w
re l dy h
a b t th J w
e a re a Ch l t (S Nw
a ve a ou e e s a r es o n . e s .

W h uld li k t th i v lum i th li b y f v y h
St t —
e s o e o se e o l i n th s o e n e ra r o e er sc o e
a e A lb yA g an r us .

A ucci ct h lp f ul po t a y l f J wi h hi to y
s n , e Bodo n Post r r a o e s s r .
-
.

S o und i n C lo th . Pric e , po st pald, Li b rary Edi ti o n .

75 c e nts . S c h o o l Edi tio n .

 TH
INK AND TH
ANK .

A Tale f o r th e Yo un g , Narrati n g i n R o m a n ti c Fo rm th e
Bo yh o o d o f S i r M o s es M o n te fio re .

WITH SI " ILLUSTR A TI O N8 .

BY S A M UEL W . C OOP E R .

OPI NIONS OF T HE PR E S S .

A ra p i c an d i n teres ti ng sto ry f ull o f i n c i e n t an d advem ure, wi t d h

g h
,

an “ m i ra b le sp i ri t a tt en di ng i t c o nso n a n t wi th t h e k i n dly a n d s wee t ,

t h o u g h c o u ra geo u s a n d e n e rg eti c te m p er o f th e di sti n g ui s h ed p h i la n
—
th ro pi s t A meri ca n ( Ph i la delp h i a) .

TH I NK A ND THA NK i s a m o st u sef ul co rrec ti ve to rac e j

re udi ec It
k
.

E ng li s h m an —
i s a lso deep ly i n te res ti n g a s a b i o gr a p h i c a l s e tch o f a
Ph ila delp hi a Ledger .
i sti n g ui sh ed

A fine bo o k f o r bo y sof a n y class to rea d —Publi c Op i n io n

It wi ll h a ve esp ec i al i nterest f o r th e bo ys o f h i s ra c e b ut a ll sc h o o l
—
fi
.

bo ys ca n well a ti o rd re a d i t a n d pro t b y i t A tba n y Even i ng J o urna l

‘

to

y a n d well —New York S un

. .

To l d si m p l

—
. .

A e ce e
n x ll n t s to ry f o r c h i ld ren Indi anap olis J o urna l
—
. .

Th e o ld as well as th e yo ung ma y lea rn a lesso n f ro m it . J wi h

e s

It i s a t h ri lli n g sto r y ex ceedi n gly well to ld —A meri ca n Israelite .

Th e bo o k
i s wri tte n i n a p la i n , si m ple
— st yle, a nd i s well a da p te df a
Bunday sc h o o l li b ra ri es J ewis h Sp ecta to r
-
. .

k
It i s o n e o f th e very f ew bo o s i n t h e E n li s h la n g ua ge w i c h c a n b e h
d
place i n t h e h a n ds o f a J ewi s h b o y wi th t e assura n ce o f a ro us i n g a n d
—
g
mai n ta i n i ng h i s i n terest Hebrew J o urnal .

—D et
.

In ten d df e or th e yo un g , b ut m ay well b e rea d by th ei r c ldera roi t

Bri g t a nd a tt rac ti ve readi n g —Phila delp hia Press

h .

THINK A ND T HA NK wi ll lease bo y s , a n d i t wi ll b e f o un d po pular

y
i n S unda sc h o o l li bra ri es
-
. ew York era td .

y
Th e s to r i s a bea u ti f ul o n e , a n d g i ves a c lear i n si g h t i n to th e c i rc um
sta n ces, th e tra i n i n g a n d t h e m o t i ves t h a t a ve i m pu lse a n d en e rg y to
t h e li f e wo rk o f t h e gre a t p h i la n th m p i st
-
a nsas Ci ty Ti mes . .

We sh o uld b e gla d to k n o w t h a t t h i s li ttle bo o h as a la rge c i rc ula ti o n k

am o n Ge n t i les a s we ll as a m o n g t h e
”
c h o se n p eo p le I t h as n o t ra c e
g .

o f re li gi o us b i go t ry a b o ut i t , a n d i ts p e rusa l c a n no t b u t se rve t o m a k e
C ri sti a n an d J ew b ette r n o wn to eac h o men Ph ila delp h ra Telegrap h
h k — .

Bo und i n Olo th . Pric e, po stpaid, 5 00 .

 RAB BI AN D PRIEST .

A STO RY .

BY MILTONGOLDSMITH .

O P I NI O NS O F T HE P R E S S .

h
Th e a ut o r h as a tte m p te to ep i c a d d
ec s o s an d prac t f i th f ully th u t m
ti ces o f th e R uss i a n p eo p le a n d go vern m en t i n co n n ec ti o n wi t th e h
J e wi sh po pu la t i o n o f t h a t c o un tr y
T h e bo o i s a s tro n g a n d well wri t k
—
.

te n s to ry . d
We rea a n d suff er wi t h th e sufl erers Public Op i ni o n ‘

A lth o ug h add ress e d to J ews, w i t h a n a p pea l to t h em to s ee k f ree

do m a nd p ea c e i n A m eri ca , i t o ug h t to b e read b y h um a n e p eo p le o f a ll
raw h
M r Go lds m i t i s a m as te r o f E ng li sh , a n d h i s
—Phil d lp hi
a n d reli gi o ns . .

y
pure st le i s o n e o f th e real p leas ures o f th e sto ry a e a Bunc

Th e b o o k h as th e m eri t o f be i n g well wri tte n i s , hi g hly en te rta i n i n g ,

an d i t ca n n o t fa i l to pro ve o f i n teres t to a ll wh o m a y wa n t to ac ua i n t q
t h emse lves i n t h e m a tte r o f t h e c o n di ti o n o f a ff ai rs t a t h as recen tl h y
been a tt rac ti n g u n i ve rsa l a t te n ti o n . —S an F ra ncisco Call .

RA BBI a rm Pa lm h as g en ui n e wo rt h , an d i s e n ti tle d to a ra n k

am o n g th e —
f o rem o s t o f i ts clu e Mi nneap oli s Trib une .

Th e wri ter tells h i s y f ro m J ewi s h dpo i tells i t

—St
sto r th e sta n n t, a n d

well . . Lo uis Rep ubli c .

Th e d esc ri p t i o n s o f li f e i n R umia are vi vi d a n d add g rea t l y to th e

c h arm o f th e b o o k —BuJ alo
. Co urier .

A ver th rilli ng sto rm a la rm

y — (S News
y Russi a —
. .

Ve ry li k e th e h o rri d ta les t h
a t co m e f ro m unh ap p L ew

Th e si tua ti o ns are drama ti c ; th e di alo gu e i s sp i ri ted —J wi h M e s a

A hi sto ry o f pass i n g even ts i n an i n teresti ng f o rm — wi h

Je s n ae-gs .

y y reeder in i ts
R a na : AN Paras r wi ll a ppea l to th e s m path y o f ever
—
'
D

to uch i ng si m m i ci ty and truth m1ness J ewish Sp ecta to r . .

Bo und In Olo tll . "100 . Po st ps ld. -

O
l e
SOME J EWISHWOMEN .

—B Y

HE NR Y Z IR ND OR F

OP INIONS OF T HE PR E S S :

Mo ra l p uri t y n o b ili t y o f so ul self sac rifice

deep a fiecti o n an d devoti o n ,-
‘

h
, , ,

so rro w a n d h a pp i n ess a ll e n te r i n to t ese b i o gra phi es . a n d th e i n terest

f elt i n th ei r rnsa l i s ad e t o b y t h e wa rm t dd
and sy m a t h wh i c h th e h
au th o r dis
p y s a nd b h i y y
s c ult ure d an d vi go ro us s ty e o t wri ti ng P .

Ph ila delp hi a Record .

His metho ds are a t o nce a si m li fica ti o n a n d ex pansi o n o f J cse ph ns a n d

'
lm u g
t o ld, i th u l presen
t gg g
h
é at f
i o n t th e vi rtues , a n r rt
a
—
n r
q uen e ces o r ch a rs c rs so m et es egen da ry 8 0n e a diiy
J
rea L New
-
or : "World .

Th e li ves h ere
so me cases —Pub : O . "
ven a re i n te res ti n g i n a ll ca ses and a re t h ri lli ng i n
i
p i nio n
h—
Th e vo lum e i s o ne o f un i vers al i s to ri c i n t erest , and i s a po rtra a l o f y
y
th e earl t ri a ls o f J ewis wo m en Bosto n Herald
h .

h
Th o ug t h e c h apters a re bri e f th e a re c learly th e res ult o f deep a n d
h h
.

t h o ro ug h resea rc h t a t g i ves th e m est vo lume an i sto ri ca l a n d c ri t i ca l

va lue — Phila delp hia Ti mes .

d
It i s an a lto geth er cre i ta ble u n de rta k i n t at th e prese n t a uth o r h as h
h t to so wa re wi n Bi b li c a l d
gg
b ro i n g a c lu e t h e si l o uette of
-

— h
f e ma 0 c a ra cter a n et th e ba c kg ro u n d o f th ose a nci en t to ri c ti m a .

Mi nneap o lis Trib une .

Hen ry Zi rn do rf ran s i gh as a studen t, th i n er an d wri ter, a n d t i s

k h k h
li t tle b o o kwi ll g o f a r to en co urag e th e stud o f Hebre w li tera ture y .

D enver R ep ubli can .

k
Th e bo o i s g rac ef ully w ri tten , a n d h as ma n y stro n g to uc h es o f c a r h
ac teri z a ti o n s Tbledo Blade
. .

d
Th e s ketc h es a re base u po n ava ila ble i sto r a n d are wri tten i n clea r
— h y
n a rra ti ve s t y le Galvesto n News .

H y d —
en r Zi rn do rf h a s o ne a p i ece o f wo rk o f m uch li tera ry ex ce llen ce
i n Se rra J a wran a rs a w bi Lo ui s Po st Di sp a tch
W .
-
.

It i s a n a tt rac ti ve bo o k i n appearan ce an d f ull o f c uri o us bi o g raph i ca l

resea rch — Balti more S un .

h
Th e wri te r s o w s c a ref ul resea rc h a n d c o ns c i en ti o us n ess i n m a k i n g
hh j
h i s narra ves h i sto i
t i ll 1 i " i n g i vi n g to ea c
£ ?t “f
ero i n e h er us t
v
r c
y
a
c na

Bo und i n Clo th, Ornamental, Gi lt To p . Pric e, po stp aid ,

 H ISTOYO
R F T E J EWS H .

PROFE S S OR H . GRA ET Z .

Vo l . I. F ro m th e E Pe r i o d t o t h
a r li e s t e D e a th o f Si m o n th e

M a ccab e e ( 13 5 B 0 E ) . . s .

Vo l . II. F r o m t h e R e i g n o f Hy r c a n u s t o t h e C o m p le ti o n o f t h e
B a b y l o n i a n T a l m u d ( 5 00 O .

Vo l I II
. . F r o m t h e C o m p l e t i o n o f t h e B a b y l o n i a n T a lm u d t o

t h e Ba n i s h m e n t o f t h e J e w s f r o m E n g la n d ( 1 29 0
C .

Vo l IV F ro m R i s e o f t h e K a b b a la (1 27 0 C E ) t o t h e P e r
th e . .

H
. .

m a n en S
t e t t l e m e n t o f t h e M a r r a n o s i n o lla n d ( 1 6 1 8

Vo l . V . F ro m th e C h m i e ln i c k i P e r s e c u ti o n i n P o la n d ( 1 6 4 8
C E ) to
. . t h e Pr e s e n t T i m e .

OPINIONS OF THE PRES S .

Pro f esso r Gra etz ’

s Hi sto ry i s u n i versally accep te d as a c o n sc i en ti o us

a n d reli a b le c o n tri b u t i o n to reli g i o us li tera tu re —Phi l d lp h i a e a Teleg rap h .

A si de f ro m h i s va lue as h i sto ri a n , h e m a k es h i s pa ges c h a rm i n g b y

a

a llth e li ttle si de li g h ts -
a n d i llus t ra ti o n s wh i c o n ly co m e a t t h e b ec h k
o f g en i u s Ch i cago I n ter
.
— Ocea n .

Th e wri ter, wh o i s c o n si d eredb y f a r th e greate st o f J ewi s h h i s to ri a n s,

i s th e p i o n ee r i n h i s fiel d o f w o rk —
h i s to r y wi th o ut th eo lo g y o r p o lem i cs .

Hi s m o n u m en ta l wo rk p ro mi ses to b e th e st a n da rd b y w h i ch
a ll o th er J ewi sh h i s to ri es a re to b e m eas u re b y ews f o r m a n y y ea rs to d J
co m e —Balti more A meri ca n .

Wh e n ever j
t h e su b ec t c o n stra i n s th e au th o r to di sc u ss t h e Ch ri sti an
reli gi o n , h e is a n i m a te d by a s p i ri t n o t un wo rth y of t h e p h i lo so p h i c a n d
h i g h m i n ded h ero
-
of Lessi n g s
’
Na th a n th e Wi se — . New Yo rk S u n .

It i s a n e x h a us ti ve a n d sc h o larl y wo rk , f o r w h i c h th e stu den t o f h is

to ry h as reaso n to b e d evo u tly th a n k f u l . I t wi ll b e w elco m e d
a lso f o r th e wri ter ’
s ex c ellen t st y le and f o r th e a lm o s t g o ss i p y w ay i n
h
wh i c h e turn s as i de f ro m th e ser i o u s n a rra ti ve t o i llu m i n e h i s p ag es
wi th i llustra ti ve desc ri p ti o n s o f li f e a n d s c e n e ry —
D etro i t F ree Pr ess . .

On e o f t h e stri ki n g f ea tures o f th e co m p i la ti o n i s i ts s u c ci n c tn ess a n d

ra p i di t y o f n a rra ti ve , wh i le a t th e s am e ti m e n ec ess a r etai l i s n o t yd
sac ri fic ed .
—llli nneap o li s Tri bun e .

W h a tever c o n tro versi es t h e wo rk m ay a wa k en , of i ts no ble scho la rsh ip

th ere c a n b e no q ues ti o n — Ri c hmo n d D i sp a tch .

If o ne d esi res to s tu d y th e f th e J ewi s h p eo p le u n der t h e

h is to ry o

di rec ti o n o f a sc h o lar a n d p le as a n t wri te r wh o i s i n s m pa th y w i th h i s y

j
su b ec t b ec aus e h e i s h i m se lf a J ew , h e s h o uld reso rt to th e vo lum es o f
Gw en —R eview o f R evi ews (New Yo rk ) .

Bo und i n C lo th
.

. Pric e , po stpaid, $ 3 per vo lume .

 S A BBATH H OURS
—
.

—
r r ro u c r f r s .

By LIEBM A N A DLE R .

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS .

Ra bb i A dler was a m an o f stro n g a n d f ertile mi n d an d his serm o n s

—
,

a re em i n en tl rea able y d
S unda y S cho o l fl utes .

As o ne turn s f ro m se rm o n to sermo n , h e ga t ers a wea lt o f p recept , h h

wh i c h , d
i f h e wo ul p rac ti ce, h e wo u l m a e bo t h d
i mself a n d o th e rs k h
h a pp i er . We m i gh t q u o te f ro m e ver y pa ge so m e n o ble uttera n ce o r
s weet t h o ug ht w ll we o rth y o f th e c h h h
eri s i ng b y ei t er J ew o r C ri sti a n h .

Th e to p i cs i sc usse d d
are i n th e m os t i nsta n ces p rac ti ca l i n th ei r
n ature All are i nstructi ve, an d passag es o f rare elo q uen ce are o f f ra
—8
.

qu en t o cc urren ce a» Fra nci sco Gi ll .

Th e serm o ns a re si m p le a n d care f u l s tu di es , so m eti m es o f d o c tri n e,

b ut m o re o ft en o f tea c h i n g and p recept —Chi cago fl utes.

He co m b i n e d sc h o la rl y a tta i n m en t wi th p rac ti c al ex peri en ce , a n d

th ese se rm o ns co ver a wi d e ra n g e o f s ub ec t j
So me o f t em are si ng u h
—I
.

larly m o d ern i n to ne ndi a nap o li s News .

T e hy are mo d ern sermo n s, d ea li n g wi th th e pro blems of

th e da y , an d
co n vey th e i n terp reta ti o n wh i c h t ese p ro b lems s h h o uld recei ve i n th e
lig t o f th e Old Tes tamen t i s to ry —
h Bosto n Hera ld h . .

h h
W ile t i s bo o k i s no t wi t o ut i n terest i n th o u h co mm un i ti es wh ere
th ere i s n o sc a rc i t y of reli gi o us t each i n g and i n fl uen c e , i t can n o t f a i l to
y
b e parti c ularl so i n th o se co m muni ti es w h ere h
t ere i s b ut li ttle J ewi sh
teach i ng —
Balti more A mer i can .

h h
Th e serm o ns are t o ug tf ul a n d earn est i n to n e an d ra w ma n f o rc i d y
b le a n d p erti n en t lesso ns fro m th e Old Tes tam en t reco r a S ym c use d —
Hera ld .

Th ey are sa tura te d wi th Bi b l e lo re , b u t ever y i n c i den t ta ken f ro m t h e

Old Tes ta m en t i s m ade to i llust ra te so m e t rut h i n mo d ern li f e —San

T hye are c a l m an d co nservati ve, ble i n t ei r essen ti al a p pli ca h

d
m ea n i n g to th e m o ern reli g i o us n ee s o f Gen ti le as well a s J ew In d
—
.

s t y le th ey are emi n en tly c lea r an d di rec t Revi ew "Revi ew (Ne w Yo rk ) .

Ab le , f o rci b le , helpf ul th o ug h ts u p o n th em es mos t essen t ia l to th e

p ros p eri t y o f th e f amily, so ci et y an d th e state —M ite O
p i ni on

Bo und In Clo th . Price , po stpaid,

 OLD
E UROPE AN J E WRIE S
By DA VID PHILIPS ON,

OPINIONS OF THE PRES S

A go o d p urp o se is served i n th i s u n p reten di n g li ttle b o o k

wh i c h c o n ta i ns an am o u n t a n d ki d o f
n i n f o rma t i o n t h at i t wo uld b e
di ffi ult t
c o fin d els ewh ere wi th o u t g reat la b o r . Th e au th
’
o r s sub ec t j is
th e Gh et to , or J ewi s h qu art er in E u ro pe an c i ti es —Li tera ry Wo r ld
(Bo sto n ) .

It i s i n teresti n g to see th e f o u n da ti o n of so m uch

ficti o n th a t i s fa m i li a r to us —to g o as th e au th o r h ere h as g o n e i n one

—B lti m
,

of h i s t ri ps a b ro a d , i n to th e re m ai n s o f t h e o ld J ewri es . a o rc S un .

Hi s bo o k i s a c a ref ul s tudy li mi ted to t h e o ffici a l Gh et to .

—Ci n ci nna ti
Co mmerci al Gaz ette -
.

O u t o f th e
- - -
way i n f o rm a ti o n , gra tef ul to th e delver i n a n ti qui ti es ,

f o rm s th e s ta p le o f a wo r k on t h e h i sto ri c Gh etto s o f E u ro p e .
—M il
wa ukee S enti n el .

He tells t h e sto r y o f th e Gh e tt o s c a lm ly , s ym p a th e ti cally an d c o n

sc i en ti o us ly , a n d d
h i s de uc ti o n s a re i n h a rm o n y wi t h th o se o f a ll o th er

i n telli g en t a nd f ai r -
mi n d dm e en —Ri ch mo nd D isp atch .

A stri k i n g study of th e results o f a s ystem t h a t h as left i ts m ar k u p o n

th e J e ws o f a ll c o u n tr i es —Sa n F ranc isco Chro n i cle .

He h as c a ref ully go n e o ver all p ub li sh ed a c co un ts an d m ade di sc ri m i

n a ti n g use o f th e p u bli c a ti o ns , bo th rec en t a n d o l er, o n d h is sub j ec t , in

Ge rm a n , Fren c h and E n g li sh .
—R ff orm A dvocate ( Ch i ca g o ) .

Bo und In C lo th Pri c e , Po stpa id, $ I 2S .

J E WIS H LITE RATURE

OTHER ESSAYS
By G U S T A V K A R PE LE S

OPINIONS OF T HE PR E S S

Th ere i s a ver y si gni fica nt sen se i n whi ch i t i s i m po ss i ble really to u n der .

stan d t h e Bi b le u n less o n e k n o ws so m ethi n g o f t h e wo rki n g o f t h e J ewi s h

m i n d i n le tt ers s i nce i t was wri tten On e can h ea rtily co m m end t h i s li t tle
vo lum e to wo ple wh o want th i s i n f o rm ati o n
.

Tu m “ —
I L L IA M S , Boo k W
Th e ess a ys h av e th e ch arm o f
—I d p an attra c ti ve st yle, co mb i ne wi th d a sub ea .

of g reat an d vari ed i n te res t n e endent .

— A W r y i n f o r m i ng revi ew o f th e e nti re ro u nd o f J ewi s h i ntellec tua l acti vi ty .

S unday S cho o l Ti me s .

J
I ts grea t m eri t , f ro m th e no n ewi sh s ta n dpo i n t , i s th at i t loo k s a t ci vi liz a
-

t i o n a n d h i s t o ry a n d li te ratu re f ro m a n e w po i n t o f v i e w ; i t Ope n s u n s u s
p ec te d v i s t as ,
r ev ea ls a w eal th o f f a ct a n d o f o pi n i o n befo re u n k n o wn .

P ubli c O p i n i on .

Th e au th o r sh o ws i n eve ch ap ter t h e dev o ted lo ve f o r J uda i s m wh i c h

m t d t h wo rk , an d w ch ve h i m e t h u i m n d ti f o r th e
—
pro p e e g a s as a pa
. en ce
th o ro u gh research a n d stu dy evi n ced D en ver

A s p len di d an d elo q uen t reci ta l o f

—Phi la delp hi a Record
th e glo ri es of Jewi sh reli gi o n , ph iloso
ph y an d s o n g .

Th e res ult o f great research by a car ef ul, p ai n s ta ki n g w h o le s —A lba ny

Th e r ea der q
wh o i s un ac u ai n ted wi th th e li terar y li f e o f th e h i gh es t c i rcles
o f J ewi s h so ci ety will h ave h i s ey e
s o pen ed to th i n gs o f whi c h , p er h aps , h e
—
h as n ever dream ed New Orleans Pic ayune .

Fo r po pular , y et sch o larl trea tm en t, a n d t h e var i ed ch a rac ter o f i ts

y“

—
”
th em es , Dr Gusta v Karpeles
. J ewis h Li te ra t ure a n d o t h er E ss a y s is an
a lm o s t i deal v o lum e f o r a J ewi sh Pub li ca ti o n S o c i ety to i ss ue J ewi s h M es
sen g er ( N ew Y o r k ) .

All ofth e ease

l ri ti ci sm f o r wh i o
sh o w
th ei r
t h at th o ro n
au t h o r i s n o t — er u di ti o n di scern m en t a nd
clea r
J ewi s h Emc e e» "( Philadelp hi a ) .

Bo und In Olo th . Pri c e, Po stpaid. $ l 25 .

 R
eadings andR
ecitations

J EWISH HOMES AND SCHOOLS

C OM PIL E D BY

IS A BE L E . C OHEN

OPINIONS o r T H PR E S S .

It wo ul d be diffi c ult to na m e a si milar co llecti o n as di gni fid e as h

t is .

To m a n y th e revelati o n o f th e ex ten t to h h
w ic En glis h li t era tu re is
i n deb te d to th e Heb rew Bi ble f or i ts them es a n d i m ages wi ll co m e as a

Th ere i s a ri c h f un d o f li tera tu re to fro m i n ma i ng

ch oo se k a selec ti o n

of th e ki n d f o r th e Old Tes ta m en t and t h e sto ri es o f th e o ld J e wi s h

—bo th
,

wri ters h ma n y th emes to

a ve f urn i s h ed o ur po ets E ngli s h an d

A m eri can —f ro m Bro wni ng , Lo ng f ello w, W i tti er an d A l h d i ch

r , to E d wi n

On e wh o rea ds th ese selec ti o n s wi ll fin d t h erei n th e co m m e of J uda

i sm , and th e m o re t h at i ts i nspi rati o n a nd t h e treasures o f i ts o wn li tera

h
t ure are t us m a e d a cc essi ble to J ew and n o n -
J ew ali ke , th e stro n ger

wi ll b e th e h
o o ks o f st eel b y wh i ch i t wi ll c lasp th e a ff ec ti o n o f i ts
—
f o llo wers J ewis h South (Ri c m o n ) h d .

h
Th e co m p i ler h as , wi t ra re tas te, selecte fro m E nglis li tera ture th e d h
h
m as terpi eces o f so n g a n d t o ugh t, wri tten u n der th e i ns pi ra ti o n an d as
para p h rases o f Bib li cal poetr y
To t ese ave been a e
. h h
En gli sh dd d
h
versi o n s o f so m e o f t h e c o i cest gem s f ro m th e di va n o f ewi sh po ets J .

d d
Th i s bo o k sh o ul b e f o u n i n ever J ewi sy hh
o m e i t s h o ul find i ts way d
i n to e ver yJ
ewi s h Sa bb a t h h
Sc o o l ; f o r n o n e wi ll lay i t asi e wi th o ut
-
d
f eeli n g th at a reli gi o n , whi hcld i co u n to n e suc h so n gs a nd i n spi re suc h
bar d s, h as ever y clai m u po n th e i n telli g en t re veren ce o f t h ose i n i ts

Bo und In Clo th , Pric e , Po stpai d, $ l 25 .

Half Mo ro cc o , $I 75
.
 J ew is h Life in the Mi ddle A ges

OPINIONS OF T HE PR E S S

Th e research i n vo lved i n th i s p i ece of wo rk must h a ve been p a ti en t

a nd pro f o u n d; n everth eless th e a uth o r p resen ts h is results in a n a ttra c t

i ve man n er —Nati o n .

Th e au th o r s stu
'
dy of th e Gh etto reveals m a n y f ac ts J ews a n d C h ri s

ti an s do no t kno w —New York Times

. .

Co n tai n s a vast am o un t o f i nteresti n g i n f o rm ati o n —New York S un .

Th is i s a bo o k wh i ch wi ll b e rea d wi th i n terest by a large publi c , an d

can n o t f a i l to b e o f great h elp to th e studen t . It i s a valuable c o n tri b u

ti o n to J ewi sh li tera tu re . It i s , i n deed, a n e xc ellen t a n d co m p lete

p i c ture of m edi aava l J ewi s h li fe th at t h e a uth o r h as d ra wn f o r na .

mv . Da K Ko n t n
. .
, A meri ca n Hebrew ( New Yo rk ) .

We k no w o f n o si n gle wo rk wh i c h i mp a rts so m uch i n f o rm a ti o n i n t h i s

field —J wi h M
e s essenger ( New Yo rk ) .

Th e bo o k i s i n deed f asc i n a ti n g , a n d we kno w o f no wo rk mo re ap t to

serve as a m ag n et th a t wi ll lead o ur yo ung m ph to rea dm o re o f J ewi s h

hi sto r y th a n th i s c h arm i n g b o o k —Meno ra h Mo nthly .

Th e wh o le sc a le o f m edi mval li f e as i t was am o ng th e J ews is

re veale d wi th a n a c c urac y wh i ch o nl y th e pati e n t res earc h es o f a stu

den t an d a sc h o la r ca n bri ng to th e s urfa c e .

—A meri ca n J ewess .

Bo un d i n C lo t h . Pri ce , Po s t pa i d, $ r 7 5 . .
 o
St ri es and . Legen ds o f th e Russi an J ews

It sh o uld be rem em b ered th a t t h e tellers of th e ta les c ur ren t in

Russ i an J ewr y a re studen t s of th e Talm u d, a ccusto me dt o y

th e h p erb o le

c h a ra c teri st i c o f m uch of th e u n i qu e li tera ture t o wh i c h th ey d evo te

th ei r li ves . It i s no t to o h az a rdo us to say th a t i n po i n t of i n ven ti ven ess

th ey ca n v i e h
wi t th e A ra bi a n Nights ’
E nterta i n men ts , and i n i dea li t y and

m o r a l eleva ti o n th e y f ar surpass t hem

Th ese ta les of f ac t, f o lk lo re and ficti o n m ay ser ve to o pen a w i n do w of

th e g rea t dun geo n wh erei n at leas t h alf o f sca tt ere d Isra el s ur

f ers , wo r
sh i ps , a n d dream s —E xtract f ro m A utho r
’
s Pref ace .

BOUND IN C LOT H . PRIC E , POS TPA ID ,