A TRE A T ISE

H Y D R O S T A T IC S

A LFR E D GE OR G E G R E E N H ILL ,

PR O FES S O R O F M AT H E M AT IC S IN T H E A R T ILL E R Y C O LL E G E , W O O L W IC H ‘

fionhon
M A C M IL L A N AND 00 .

AN D NEW Y OR K .

1 894 .

[A l l fi g h ts re s e rv e d j
 P R E FA C E .

TH E aim o f the present T reatise on H ydros t atics is to

develop t he subj ect f rom the ou tset by means f illus o

t t i o n s o f existing problems chosen in general on as

ra ,

large a scale as possible and car ied out to their

,
r

numerical resul ts ; in this way it is hope d tha t t he

studen t will acquire a real working knowledge f the o

subject while a t the same t ime the book will prove

,

use f l to the prac t ical engineer

u .

It is very important in H ydrostatics that the units

employed should be kept cons t antly in V iew ; and f or

this reason t he co d d n t t i
n e nse proposed by M
o a on .

H ospitalier at t he International C ongress o f E l t i ec r

cian s o f 1 8 9 1 has been adop t ed In this notation the

.

f ull length expression f so many

o pou nds per square
inch or kilogrammes per square centimetre is abb
”
re

i t e d t o lb / in or k g / cm ; and so on f o o t her physical

v a
2 g
r

quantities .

Th e gravitation nit o f f orce has been universally

u

employed except in a f w problems o f cosmopo l itan

, e
v i R
P E F CE A .

interest in whi h the va iation f gravity becomes

, c r o

perceptible .

In accordance with mode n ideas f mathemati al r o c

instr ction a f ree

u is made f the symbols and
,
u se o

operations f the C alculus where the t eatment re q ui es

o ,
r r

it although an alternative demo st ation by elementary

,
n r

metho ds is occa ionally s bmitted ; be a se as it has s u c u ,

well been said it is easie to learn the D i fferential

'

“
,
r

C alcul s than to i ll w a demonstration which attempts

'

u o o

to avoid its u se .
”

Pa ticular attention h been given t the a ppli a

r as o c

tions f the subject in N aval Ar hitecture and the

o c ,

T w f
r ti n of
n s ct cth I ti t t
oi o n fsN v l A h i t t e ns u o a a rc ec s

have been ansa ked f appropriate illustrations

r c or .

Th diagrams which have been drawn by M A G

e ,
r. . .

Hadcock late R oyal Artillery are intended to represent

, ,

a ately to scale the objects described N attempt

cc u r . o

has been ma de to rival the beauti f ul shaded figures f o

the French treatises f fear f obs u ing essential ,

or o c r

p rinci p les .

A type f uni f orm size has been employed through

o

out although adding considerably to the bulk it is

: ,

hoped that this uni f ormity will prove acceptable to

the eyes f the readers and co nterbalance the dis
o ,
u

advantage f the extra size f the book o o .

 C ON T E N T S .

C HAPT ER I.

THE F UND A ME N T A L P R I N C I PL E S ,

C HAPT ER II .

H YD R OS T A T IC T H RU S T ,

C HAPT ER III .

A RC H IM E DE s
’
P A ND B U O Y A NCY
R IN C IPLE .

EXP E R I ME T A L D ETE R M IN A T I O N OF S E CI F IC G RA I T Y BY
N P V

THE H BA L A NC E A ND H YD R OMETE R
Y DROS T A T IC ,

H A PT ER IV
C .

HE E Q UILIB R IU M A ND S T A BILI T Y OF A S H I O R FL O A T IN P G

B O DY ,

C HAPT ER V .

E Q UILIB R IU M OF FL O A T IN B O DI ES OF
G R E UL A R
G O M
F R ,

A ND OF B O DI ES PA R T LY S U O R TE D PP .

OSCILL A T I O N OF FL O A T IN B O DI ES
G ,

C HAPT ER VI .

"
E Q UILI R IU M OF L I Q UID S IN A B E N T T UB E
B .

THE T H E R MOMETE R BA R OMETE R A ND S I H O N

, ,
P ,

vii
 CON TE N TS .

HA PT ER C V II .

P N E U M A T ICS — TR E G A SEO U S LA W S ,

C HAPT ER V III .

P N E U M A T IC M A C H IN ES ,

C HAPT ER IX .

T HE T E NS I O N OF V e s s E Ls —
C A ILL A R I T Y
P ,

CHAPT ER X .

PR ESS U R E OP L QI UID IN M O IN V SSE LS

V G E ,

C HAPT ER XI .

H Y RA ULICS
D ,

C HAPT ER X II .

G EN E RA L EQ UA T I ON S or EQ UILIB R IU M ,

C HAPT ER X III .

ME H C A NIC A L T H E OR Y OF H EA T ,

A PPE N D Ix — T A BL ES ,

IN DE X,

E RR AT A .

P 1 70,
. li ne 9 fr om t h bott m d
e o , re a fO
’
/
a a, t h en
’
f O is t h ed pt h
e Of

a v e ss e l of bo x fo m
r ,
p p o d homog
su o se e ne us a n d o f a, w hi h wi ll fl t
c oa at

th e d r aft a .

P 4 36 ,
. l as t li n e , an d
p 4 37,
.
“
li ne 7, rea dP si n
 H Y D R OS T A T IC S .

C H APTE R I .

T HE FU N D AM E N TA L PRIN C IP E S L .

1 . In tr odu cti on .

H YD R OSTA T I C S is the S cience of t he E qu ilibriu m of

Fluids and o f t he associa t ed M echanical Problems
,
.

T h e name is derive d f rom the compound G reek word

Odp fi meaning t he S cience
o cr r a ruc
' '

,
of the
Sta t ics o f W a t er ; thus H ydrosta t ics is the S cience which
treat s of t he E quilibriu m of Wa t er t he t ypical liq id , u ,

and t hence generally f all Fluids ‘

o .

T h e S cience o f H ydros t atics is considered t o origina t e

with Archimedes 2 5 0) in his work II p l Ox y w e ov
‘
eu
'
u,

now lost but preserved in the La t in version o f G uillau me

,

de M oe be k r D c i t s qn w v e h n n tn i n h u mtdo f
r

and recen t ly t ransla t ed in t o French by A drien Legrand ,

/ méde ,
“
Le tr a tte de s fl d h i
’
A
'

corp s o t ta n t s r c
f
1 891 .

rchimedes discovered t he me t hod o f de t ermining t he

A
density and purity f me tals by weighing them in wa t er
o ,

and ext ended t he same principles t o t he conditions f o

equilibriu m of a ship or other floa t ing body .

G H
. . A
2 H IS T ORI L IIVTROD UC TION .

le xandria and his pupil H e e

C te s ibi u s, of A ,
r

the au thor f a trea tise on Pneumatics are considered the

o ,

inven t ors f the siphon and f orcing pump Vit vius may
o ru

be consul ted f o these and other machines known t o the

r

R omans ; while the leading principles f the flow o f o

water a required in practical hydrauli cs are given by

s

F on t i
r in his work 16 a q n c du cti bus u l ns Rom e
n us ( c
r
'

co mme n ta r i u s (A D . .

Th e writings f Pliny (lib x xx c vi ) prove tha t

o . . . .

the R omans were acquainted with the hyd os tatical r

principle tha t water will rise in a pipe to the he ight

o f its source and that lead pipes must then be employed
, ,

stone or brick condui t s no t being su fficiently watertight

but being ignorant f the method o f casting iron pipes o

strong enough to stand a cons iderable pressure or he ad

o f wa te r their large aqueduc t s were ca rrie d on the level
, ,

while leaden pipes were used only fo the dis t ribu tion f r o

the water specimens f which pipes have recently be en

,
o

discovered at B ath A long de tailed edic t o f A ugus t us.

concerning the wa ter works f V n af m is given in o e ru

M ommsen s Co p u In i p t i o n u m L ttn u m vol 1 0

’
r s s cr
'
a ur ,
.
,

part i ; and allusions to the mode f w ate r supply are

. o

f ound in H orace and Ovid

P i i vi i
ur or
q t d i t m p pl m b m
n c s a ua en r u e re u u ,

Q ua m q ufe p e r pro n u m t re p ida t cu m mu r m u re ri v u m

(H o ra ce Ep z st I
'

,
. . x .
)
Cr o
u r e mica t a lt e ,

N on a li t er q u am cu m v i t ia t o fis t l pl m bo
u a u

S c i n di t u r (Ovi d Me tamorp h oses iv

”
.
.
, ,

great advance in the T heory o f H ydraulics was

A
made by T orricelli also the inven to r o f the
ba ometer who firs t enunciated the tr e theory o f the
r , u
 S
H I TOR ICAL I N TR OD UC TION .
3

velocity and f orm Of a j e t o f water as deduced from ,

the experiments f G alileo and himsel f with t he orna

o

men t al wat erworks o f t he gardens o f the D uke o f

T uscany ; repea t e d la t er in 1 68 4 by M a i e tt in t he r e

garde n s of Versailles .

In t he writings o f S t evinus o f B ruges (c 1 600) w e

fin d many f unda m
.

en t al t heorems of our science clearly

enuncia t ed and e x plaine d bu t th e modern e x act T heory
of H ydrostatics is generally held t o originate with
Pascal in his t wo t reatises T a i te de l eq u i lt b ,
r
' ’ ’
re

d s l i q eu s and T a tte de l a p e sa n te d l a mass e dc

’
e u r r ur e

l a i ; in which t he f un damen t al principles are first

’
r

clearly enunciated and illus t ra t ed n d t he true t heory ,

a

and use of the barometer o f T orricelli is explained .

Th e elas t ic proper t ies o f a gas were inves t igated by

B oyle and M i e t t abou t 1 660 and subsequently com
ar e, ,

p l t d by
e e C harles and G a
y L ussac and now t he f unda
ment al principles f t he equilibrium f fluids being
O o

clea ly enuncia t ed and es t ablished t he analysis w

r ,
as

carried on and completed by N ew t on C o t es B ernoulli , , ,

d Al e mbe t and o t her mathematicians o f the 1 8 t h

’
r ,

cen t ury ; while the applica t ions f s t eam i n t he 1 9 t h o

c en t ury has been the cause f the crea t ion o f t he subjec t

O

o f T hermodynamics firs t placed on a sound basis by

,

Joule s experimen t s in which t he relations are investi

’

gat ed be t ween the hea t e x pended and t he work produced

by means f t he t ran f orma t ions of a fluid me dium
o s .

H ydrosta t ics is a subjec t which growing originally ,

out of a number of isola t ed practical problems satisfies ,

the requiremen t s f perf ect accuracy in its applica t ion

o

to the largest and smalles t phenome a o f the behaviour n

o f fluids ; and at the same t ime deligh t s the pure t heoris t

4
. TH E DIFFE RE N T S TA TE S (IF IIA T TE R .

by the simplicity o f the logic with which the f unda

mental theo ems may be established and by t he elegance
r ,

of i t mathematical operations ; so that the subject may

s

be considered as the E uclidean Pure G eometry f the o

M echanical S ciences .

M on t cl a H i st i e de M th en w t i q u e t iii f rom
’ ’

u s o r s a
'
s, . .
,

which the preceding historical details are chiefly derived ,

may be consulted f a more elaborate account f the or o

work o f the pioneers in this subjec t o f Hydrostatics and

H ydraulics .

2 . Th e D ifie ren t S ta te s of M a tte r or S u bs ta n ce .

L UID as the name implies is a substa nce which

A F , ,

fl o w or is capable f flowing ; wa t er and air are the two

s, O

fl ids most universally distributed over the sur face o f

u

the E arth .

A ll substances in N ature f all into the t wo classes f o

S OL ID S and FL UID S ; a S olid substance (the land f o r

insta nce ) as contrasted with a Fluid being a subs tan ce

, ,

which does not flow o f i t sel f ,

.

FL UID S are again s bdivided into two classes LI Q UID S

u ,

and G A S E S f which water and air are the chie f

,
o

e xamples .

A LI Q UID is a fluid which is incompressible or nearly ,

so that is it does not sensibly change in volume with

,

variations f pressure o .

A G A S is a fluid which is compressible and changes in ,

volume with change f pressure o .

Liquids again can be p oured f rom one ves sel into

another and can be kep t in open vessels ; but gases t end
,

to di ff use themsel ves and must be preserved in closed ,

vesse l s .
 TH E DIFFE RE N T S TA TE S OF M A T TE R .
5

Th e dis t inguishing charac t eris t ics o f t he t hree Ki n d s

o f S u bs t ances or S tates Of M a tt er t he S OL ID LI Q UID and , , ,

G A S are summarized as f ollows in Lodge s M e ch a n i cs

’

, ,

p 1 50
. :

A S OL ID has bo t h size and shape

A LI Q UID has size bu t not shape ,

A G A S has nei t her size nor shape .

3 . Th e Ch a ng e s f
o S ta te f
o M a tte r .

By changes f temperature (and f pressure combined )

o o

a subs t ance can be made to pass f rom one o f these

sta t es t o another ; thus by gradually increasing the ,

temperature a solid piece o f IC E can be melted in t o the

,

liquid sta t e as WAT ER and the water again can be ,

evapora t ed in t o t he gaseous s t ate as ST E AM .

A gain by raising t he t emperature su fficien t ly a metal

, ,

in the solid state can be mel t ed d liquefied and poured an ,

in t o a mould t o assu me any required f orm which will be ,

re tained when t he me t al is cooled and soli dified again ;

while the gaseous sta te o f metals is discerned by t he
spectroscope in t he a t mosphere o f t he S n u .

T hus mercury is a m etal which is liquid a t ordinary

temperatures and remains liquid be t ween abou t 4 0 C
,
°
.

and 3 5 7 C t he mel t ing or f reezing poin t being 4 0 C

°
.
°
.
,

and t he vapo rizing or boiling point being 3 5 7 C

u
°
.

C onversely a combination f increased pressure and

,
o

o f lowered tempera t ure will i f carried f enough reduce ar

a gas t o a liquid and af t erwa ds to the solid state

,
r .

T his f ac t originally the onjecture o f natural p h i l os o

,
c

p h has
e rs , f late years
o with t he improved apparatus of,

C il l t t and Pic t et been verified experime tally with

a e e ,
n

air oxygen ni t rogen and even hydrogen the l ast o f th

, , , ,
e

gases to succumb to lique fac t ion and solidificatio n .

6 TI] E DIFFE RE N T S TA TE S OF M A T TE E .

In Professor D ewar s lecture at the R oyal Institu t ion ’

,

J une 1 8 9 2 liq id air and o x ygen were handed round in

,
u

wine glasses lique faction in this case being produced by

,

extreme cold about 1 9 2 C ,

°
.

A l l three state s f matter o f the same subs t ance are

O

simultaneously observable in a bu rning candle the solid

state in the unmelted w a f the candle the liquid state x o ,

in the mel ted wa around the wick and the g seous sta te
x ,
a

in the flame .

A lthough the three states are quite distinct the change ,

f rom one t o the other is no t qui t e abrupt but gradual , ,

during which process the substance partakes f the o

qualities o f both f the adjac ent sta tes a fo instance

o , s r

the asphal te pavement in hot weather ; metals and glass

become plastic near th melting point and steam is e ,

S a t urated with wate r at the boiling point .

4 P l a ti ci ty a n d Vi co i ty
. s s s .

A ll solid substa nces are f ound to be plastic more or

less at all t emperatures as e x emplified by the phenomena ,

o f punching shearing and the fl o w

,
f metals inves tigated
,
o ,

experimentally by T resca (vide fig but what dis .

t i g i h e the p l a t i
n u s s li d f rom the v i co u fl u i d is that
s c so s s

the pl stic solid requires a certain magnitude f tress

a o S

(shear) to make it flow while the viscous fluid requires a

certain length o f t ime f any hearing tress however or S S ,

small to permane ntly displac e the parts to an appreciable

,

extent (K Pearson Th e E l ti l R es h e f B e
. .
, as ca ea rc s o a rr
’

d S ai t V na n t p
e n e ,
.

A ccording to M axwell (Th e ry of H t p When o ea , .

a continuous alte ration o f f orm is only produ ced by

stresses exceeding a certain value the substance is called ,

a solid however sof t (plastic ) it may be

, .
 DE FINITION OF A FL UID .
7

When the very smallest s tress i f con t inued lo g ,

n

enough will cause a cons t an t ly increasing cha ge o f

,
n

f orm t he body mus t be regarded as a viscous fluid how

, ,

ever hard i t may be .

”

M alle t in his Co n s t u cti o n of A t i l l e y 1 8 5 6 p 1 2 2

, r r r , , .
,

and M axwell (Th e o y of H e a t chap XXI ) illus t ra t e t his

r ,
. .

di fference be t ween a sof t solid and a hard liqui d by a

jelly and a block o f pi t ch ; also by the e x perimen t f o

placing a candle and a stick of sealing wa on t wo S p x u

ports ; a f ter a considerable t ime t he sealing w ax will be

f ound bent bu t the candle remains straight a t or dinary
, ,

temperatures .

A quicksand behaves like a fl uid and in Opposi t ion t o , ,

t he process o f mel t ing d f oun ding metals i t requires an ,

t o be artificially solidified in tunnelling operations ; this

is now a ffec t ed ei t her by a Free z ing Process in w hich ,

pipes con t aining freezing mi x t ures are pushed in t o the

quicksan d or else by t he inj ec t ion f pow dered cement
,
-

or lime grou t ing which soli difies in combina t ion wi t h t he

-

sand .

5 We are now prepare d t o give in a ma t hema t ical

.

f orni

Th e D efin i ti on o f a Fl u i d .

A F L UID is a subs t ance which yields con t inual ly t o

the slightes t tangential s t ress in i t s interior tha t is it :

can be very easily divided along any plane (given plenty

f t ime i f t he fluid is viscous )
”
o ,

C orollary I t f ollows t hat when th e fluid is at res t

.
, ,

the tangential stress in any plane in its interior mus t

vanish and th e st ess mu st be en ti re ly n orma l to th e
, r

p l a n e t his is t he mechanical a x iom which is t he f o n da

—
u

t ion o f the M athema t ical T heory o f H ydrosta t ics .

8 TH E S TRE SS IN A S UB S TA NCE .

Th e T heorems f H ydrostatics are thus t rue f o all

o r

stagnant fluids however viscous they may be ; it is only

,

when we come to H yd dyn mi s the S cience of the ro a c ,

M otion f Fluids that the e ffect o f viscosi t y will make

“

o ,

itsel f f elt and modi f y th phenomena ; unless W begin

, e e

by postula t ing p e f ct fl ids tha t is fluids devoid o f

r e u , ,

viscosity .

6 S tre ss
. .

We have used the word S T RE S S in the De finition o f a

Fluid above ; a s t ress is defined as composed o f two
equal and opposi t e balancing f orces ac t ing be t ween t wo ,

bodies or two parts f the same body O .

T hese two f orces constitute the A ction and R eaction “

f N ewton s T hird Law f M otion which accco di n g to

’
O o ,
r

this law are equal and opposite ( M axwell M a t t .

”

,
er

an d M ti o p o n, .

Th S tress between two parts Of a body is either i ) f

e . o

the nature o f a PU LL or T E N S I ON tending to prevent ,

separation f the parts or (ii ) o f the nat ure f a T H R U ST

o , . o

or PRE SS U RE t ending to prevent approach or (i ii ) f the

, , o

nature f a S H E AR I NG S TRE SS tending to prevent the

o ,

parts f rom sliding on each other .

In a S olid S bstance all three kinds o f S tress can e x ist

u ,

but in a Fluid a t rest the stres s can only be a normal

T hrust or Pressure ; a te n sional stre s woul d overcome s

the cohesion of the fluid particles .

N evertheless a column f mercury man y times t he o ,

barome t ric heig ht may be supported in a vertical tube

,

by i ts adhesion to the top o f the t ube in which case the ,

hydrostatic pressure is negative above the barometric

height or the mercury is in a state o f tension ; and
,

M Worthington has measured e x perimentally in ethyl

r
.
 TH E PR E SS URE IN A FL UID .
9

alcohol enclosed in a glass vessel a t ension up to 1 7

a t mospheres or 2 5 5 po nds per s q uare inch (Ph i l
,
u . .

Tr a n s ,
Th e S tress across a dividing plane in a S olid can be
resolved in t o two components one perpendicular t o t he ,

plane f the na t ure f a t ension or pressure and t h e

,
o o ,

other component t angential t o the plane ; and i t is th is

tangen t ial stress which is absen t in a Fluid at res t .

7 Th M s
. e m n t f Fl i d P e
e a u re e e
o u r ssu r .

If we consider a fl id at rest on one si de u f any o

imaginary dividing plane the fluid is in e q uilibrium ,

under t he f orces acting upon i t and o f t he tress across S

the plane which is of the na t ure f a TH R U ST

,
o

perpendicular t o t he plane .

D efinition Th e PRE SS U RE (p i o n ) a t any poin t o f re ss

the plane is the in t ensity o f the T hrus t estimated per

unit o f area of the plane .

T hus i f a thrus t o f P pounds is uni f ormly dis t ribu t ed

over a plane area o f A square f ee t as on t he horizontal ,

bo t tom f t he sea or f any reservoir t he press re a t any

O O ,
u

point of the plane is P/A pounds per square f oot (but ,

P/ 1 4 4 A pounds per square inch ) .

If the t hrus t P is not uni f ormly distribu t ed over t he

area A as f o ins t ance on the ver t ical or inclined f ace f
,
r o

a wall o f a reservoir the n P/ A represen t s t h e a v e ag e

.
‘

pressure over the area in pounds per square f oo t ; and

,

the a ct a l pressure at any poin t is the ave age pressure

u r

over a small area enclosing the poin t .

T hus i f AP pounds denotes the thrus t on a small plane

area AA square f ee t enclosing the point the pressure ,

there is the limit o f AP/ AA ( dP/ dA in the notation z

,

of the D i fferential C alc lus ) pounds per square f oot

u .
10 NITS
U OF M E A S URE M E N T
8 . Un i ts f
o Le n g th , We i g h t , an d Fo rce .

As we are dealing with a S tatical subject w shall ,

e

employ the statical gravita tion unit o f f orce which is ,

gene ally defined as the A ttrac t ion of the E arth on the

r

U nit f W eight ; but more strictly it is the tension o f the

o

plumb line when supporting the U ni t of Weight thus ,

allowing f the discount in the A ttraction f the Ea rth

or o

due to its rotation .

T h e B ritish U nit o f Weigh t is t he Pound defined by ,

A t f Parliament so that our nit f f orce is the f orce

c o , u o

which is equal to the tension f a thread or plumb line o

supporting a Pound Weight ; and w e shall call this f orce

the FOR C E o r A PO U N D .

W ith a f oot as U nit f Length our pressures will be o ,

me sured in p u d p q
a foot ; this may be written
o n s er s u ar e

as lb per Cl f oot or D or f t or a l b/ ft ,
'

,
z
, s
2
.

Th Metric U nit
e f Length and Weight are the M etre
s o

and K ilogramme or the C entimetre and the G ramme ,

and with these uni t s pressure will be given in ki lo ,

gra m me p sq u a
s me t
er or g a mm p e q u e re re , r es r s ar

ce n ti me tr e .

According to the Ac t f Parliament 8 th A ug st 1 8 78 o , u , ,

S chedule III .
,

1 f oo t 3 04 7 9 4 5 c tim 304 7 9 4 metres ; en s

‘

1 met e r f eet inches ;

1 pound 4 5 3 5 9 2 65 grammes 4 5 3 5 9 2 05 kg ;
‘

1 kilog amme r 1h 1 5 4 3 2 3 4 8 7 grains .

T here f ore a pressure o f one l b/ f t is equivalent t o 2

a pre sure f 4 5 3 6
s o kilogrammes per x

square metre and a pressure o f one k g/m i s 2

equivalen t to a pressure of
2 2 04 6 x 1b/ ft 2
.
12 TH E S A FE T Y VA L VE .

hen if the pressure f the fluid on the seat o f the

T o

valve is p lb / in and the orifice is d inches i diame ter

2
,
n ,

the thr st on the valve is i wdzp lb ; so that taking

u ,

moments about the f ulcr m A o f the lever A B

u ,

i d
l A O = W A E or T A B
'

w p x x x ,

when the valve is on the point f li f ting o .

ometimes the valve is held down by a weight (fig 2 )

S
or by a spiral spring superposed directly without the
,

intervention o f a lever in fig 3 the f orm use d in

as .
,

steamers and hydraulic machinery .

Th danger f the sticking f the valve in the sea t is

e o o

obviated in Ram b tt m saf ety valve (fig

s o o
’
sconsisting .

of two equal conical valves held down by a bar and a ,

spring midway between them ; then one or the other

valve or both valves will open when the thrust f the
, , o

fl id on it is hal f the pull f the spri g

u o n .
 TH E S A FE T Y VAL VE .
13

W here the pressure of a flui d is exer t ed over a circular

area or pis t on i t is o ft en convenient t o es t imate the
,

pressure in pounds per circular inch wri t ten as l b/ O in , ,

or l b/ O ; and many pressure gauges a tt ached t o hy draulic

”

machinery are gradua t ed in this manner ; a pressure f o

p lb / in
2
being i ]? or 78 5n41 l b/ O in"
9 .

T hen the t hrust on a circular rea d inches in diame t er a

is ob ta ined by mul t ip lying t his pressure in l b/ O by

Fi g . 2 . Fi g . 3 . Fi g . 4 .

I t is importan t in steam boilers that t he area of escape

f rom t he saf e t y valve should be su fficiently large so as ,

t o allow t he s t eam t o escape as f as t as it is generated ;

according t o a rule given by Rankine t he area o f the
valve in i n should be 00 06 t imes t he number o f lb o f
2

water evaporated per hour .

If t he orifice f t he sa f ety valve is d ins diame t er

o

a t the t op and conical t he semi ve tical angle o f th e

,
-
r

conical plug being then a li f t f ins o f the valve will

a, o a
c
14. TH E P E S S R UR E G A UGE .

give an annular area of internal diameter d 2x tan ins a ,

and the e f ore f a ea we; tan (d tan ) i

r o r a
—
cc a n
2
.

B t i f we consider the valve

u a flat disc f d ins as ,
o

diame t er a li f t f a: ins will give wdx i n area f escape

, o
2
o

sideways .

1 0 Th P e ss r Ga u g e
. e r u e .

T measure pressures continually withou t blowi g ff

o n o

at the S afety Valve the simplest and mos t e fficient

,

instru ment B ourdon s Pressure G auge (fig ’

.

Fi g . 5 .

T his consis ts essentially f a tube A B ben t in t oo ,

arc o f a circle closed at one end A and communicating

, ,

at the other end B with the vessel containi ng the flui d

whose pre sure is to be measured
s .

T h e cross section f the tube AB is fla tt ened or

o

elliptical the longe diamete standing at right angles

, r r

to the plane of the tube A B thus , o .

 TH E P E S S R UR E GA UGE .
15

Th e working of the ins trumen t depends upon t he

principle discovered accidentally by i t s inventor M
,
.

B ourdon (P o c I 0 E XL
r . . t ha t as the p essure
. .
, ,
r

in t he in terior increases and tends to make t he ellip t ic

cross section more circular t he t ube A B t en ds t o uncurl ,

in t o an arc of smaller curva ture and grea t er radius ; and

the elas t icity o f t he t ube A B brings i t back again to its
original shape as the pressure is removed .

T h e n d B bei ng fixed t he mo t ion o f t he f ee end A is

e ,
r

communica t ed by a lever and rack t o a poin t er on a

dial gradua t ed empirically by the applica t ion f known
,
o

t es t pressures .

B y making t he t ube A B o f very t hin metal and the ,

cross section a very flatt ened ellipse or double segment ,

t he ins trumen t ca be employed t o register sligh t varia

n

t ions o f pressure such as t hose o f the a t mosphere ; it is

,

then called B ourdon s A neroid B arometer ’

.

B t when required f o regis t ering s t eam pressures

u r ,

reaching p t o 1 5 0 or 2 00 lb/ in the tube is made

u
2
,

thicker ; and when employed f o measuring hydraulic r

pressures f 7 5 0 to 1 000 lb/ in or even in some cases to

o
2
,

5 or 1 0 t o / i nst he t ube A B m ust be made o f steel

n
z
, ,

caref ully bored out f rom a solid circular bar and af ter ,

wards flatt ened in t o the ellip t ical cross sectio n and ben t ,

in t o a circular a e r .

Pressures in ar t illery due t o g npowder reach up t o u

or lb / in and more say up to 2 0 t n /i ;

2
, , o s n
z

or from abou t to atmospheres or k g/ cm ; ,

2

s ch high pressures require t o be measured by special

u

ins t rumen t s called c u h ga u g depending on ther s er e s,

amoun t o f crushing of small copper cy l inders by the

pressure .
16 T HE E Q UA LIT Y OF FL UID PRE S S UR E
11 . P essu r i n l l di recti o n s
Th e E q u a l i ty of Fl u i d r e a .

W may now repeat the efinition f a Fluid given in

e D o

M axwell s Th o y f H t chap V
’
e r o ea ,
. .

D fin i t i o n of Fl i d e a u .

A fluid is a body the contiguous par ts o f which ,

when at rest act on one another with a pressure which

,

is perpendicular to the plane in t er face which separa t es

those parts .
”

From t he definition o f a Fluid we deduce the important

T H E OR E M T h e pressures in any two directions at a
“
.

poin t f a fluid are equal

o .
”

L t the p lane o f the paper be t hat o f the two given

e

direc tions and draw an isosceles t riangle whose sides are

,

per pendicular to the two given directions respectively ,

and consider the equilibrium f a small trian gular prism o

o f fluid o f which the triangle is the cross section (fig

,

Le t P Q be the thrusts perpendicular t o the sides and

,

R that perpendicular to the base T hen since t hese three .

f orces are in equilibrium and since R makes equal an gles ,

with P and Q t here fore P and Q mus t be equal

,
.

B t the f aces on which P and Q act are also equal ;

u

there fore the pressures or thrusts per unit area on th ese , ,

f aces are equal which was to be proved , .

G enerally f any l e n triangle a bc t h thrusts or

or sca c , e

f orces P Q R acting through the middle points f the

, , o

sides and perpendicular to the sides are in e q uilibrium i f

proportional to their respective si des so that the pressure ,

is the same on each f ace and a simil ar proo f will ho l d i f

a tetrahe dron or polyhedron f fluid is taken o .

If we consider the equilibrium f any portion o f the o

fl id enclosed in a polyhedron when the pressure f the

u o

fl id is uni f o m we are led to the theorem in S tati cs tha t

u r ,
 IN ALL DIRE C TIONS .
17

Forces acting all inwards or all outwards t hro gh the u

cen t res of gravity of the f aces f a polyhedron each p o o ,

r

po tional to and perpendicular to t he f ace on which it

r

acts are in equilib ium

,
r .
”

Fi g . 6 . Fi g . 7 .

12 . Th e Tr a n s mi ss i bi l i ty o f Fl u i d P re s s u re . Th e
P
H ydra u l i c r ess .

A y addi t ional pressure applied t o the flu id Will i f

n ,

the fl id is an incompressible liquid be t ansmitted

u ,
r

equally t o every point f t h e liq id this principle o f o u :

the T n mi i bi l i ty f P ss e
ra s ss was enunciated by o re ur

Pascal (E q i li b des l i q u
u
-
re and applied by him
—
ue rs ,

to the invention f o

Th H yd li c P e ra u re s s

T his machine consis t s essentially f two communicating o

cylinders filled wi t h liquid and closed by pis t o s (fig

, ,
n .

then i f a thrus t P lb is applied t o one pis t on of area B ,

sq are feet it will be bal nced by t he thrust W lb applied

u ,
a

to the o ther piston f a ea A square f ee t ch that o r su

P7B = W/ A ,

the pressure of t he liquid being supposed ni f orm and u

eq al to P/B or W/ A l b/ f t ; and by making the ratio f

u ,
2 “

A /B su fficiently large the mechanical advan t age W/ P ,

can be increase d to any desired amount .

O H . . B
18 TH E H YDRA UL IC PRE S S .

Th edi fficulty f keeping the pistons tight against the

o

leakage f the liquid prevented the pra tical application

o c

f Pasc l s invention ntil B amah (in 1 79 6) replaced

’
o a ,
u r

the pistons by plungers (fig 8 ) and made a water tight .

-

joint by his invention f the cupped collar 0 0 pressed o ,

in t o U shape in cross section f rom an annular sheet f o

leather which e fl t ll y prevents the escape f the water

,
'

e c ua o .

Th applied t hrust P can be applied directly or by

e ,

a lever to the plunger of a f o p u mp provided with a

,
r ce ,

stu ffing box the inven t ion of S i S am el M orland 1 675

,
r u ,

and then repeated strokes o f the pump wi l l cause the

thrust W exerted by the head o f the ram to act through
any re q uired distance .

In some portable f orms required fo ins tance fo punch ,

r r

ing or rail bending the pressure is produced and kept up

,

by a plunger P which advances on a screw threa d .

Fo testing gauges M essrs S cha ff er and B d b g

r . u en er

employ an instrument consisting f a small ram working o

in a horizontal barrel f ull f water the t averse f the o ,

r o

ram being e ffected by i t revolution in a screw Th s . e

gau g e to be tested or graduated and the standard gauge

are attached to the ba el and each registers the pressure rr

o f the water T h machine can even be used f

. e te sting or

vacu um gauges by turning the ram the reverse way ,

so as to diminish the pressure f the water below the o

atmospheric pressure .

Th H yd ostatic B ellows was devised by Pascal as a

e r

mere lecture experiment to illustra t e his P inciple f the r o

T ransmissibility f Pressure ; the large cylinder in fig 7

o .

is e placed by leather f stened to W as in bellows while

r a , ,

the small cylinder is p rolonged upwards by a pipe to a

ce tain vertic l height ; and the thrust P is p roduced by
r a
20 E NE R G Y D UE TO P E SS R URE .

13 . P i n ip l of Vi t l V l oci ti
Th e r c e r ua e es .

Pasca l s Principle of the T a n s mi s i bi l i ty of P essu

’

r s r re

was ap plied by him to veri fy the Principle of Virtual

Velocities in the case o f an incompressible liquid thus ,

showing that a liquid can be made t o take the place of a

complicated syste m of levers in transmi tt ing and multi ,

plying thrust a .

Fo taking a closed vessel filled with incompressible

r ,

liquid and fitted with cylin drical o p enings closed by

,

pistons o f are as A B C f t ; t hen i f the pisto ns move

, , , ,
3
‘

inwards through distances b c fee t r spec tively the a, , ,

e ,

con dition that the volume f li q uid is unchanged requires o

that 0 ,

some o f the quantities b being positive and some a, , c,

negative .

B t if P Q
u denote the t hrust in lb on the pis tons
, , ,

then P/ A Q/ B R/ C
the uni f orm pressure in l b/ f t of the liquid 2
,

and theref ore

-
0,
a verification of the Principle of Virtual Velocities .

14 . P
Th e E n e rgy of Li q u i d d u e to r e ss u r e .

W have supposed the fluid employed to be i n co m

e

pressible liquid f i f a compressible g had been used

: or as

to tran mit power part f the energy would be used up

s , o

in compressing the gas i f used t o transmit power ; so ,

that a gas would behave like a machine composed f o

elastic levers .

B t with an incompressible liqu id the energy is entirely

u

due to the pressure ; and i f the pressure is p lb/ f t the z

,

energy of the liquid is p f t l b per c bic f oo t (or p f t -

u
 TH E H YDR OS TA TIC P A RAD OX .
21

As a prac t ica l illustra t ion f Pascal s Principle applied o

’

t o a closed vessel d a number f pistons t he H ydraulic

an o ,

Power C ompany of London supply water in mains f o r

the purpose o f li f t s and domes t ic mo t ors a t a pressure o f ,

75 0 1b / in or 1 08 000 l b/ f t
2
,
equivalen t t o an ar t ificial 2
,

head o f 1 7 2 8 ft i f a cubic f oo t f wa t er is t aken as

,
o

weighing 1 000 oz or 6 2 5 lb .

T his gives an energy o f 1 7 2 8 f t l b per lb o f wa t er or -

f t l b per gallon o f 1 0 1b so t ha t i f wa t er a t t his

-

pressure is used a t the ra t e o f 2 gallons per minu t e it ,

f urnishes energy a t the ra t e o f f t l b per minu t e —

,

say one horse power of -

f t l b per minute allowing -

f o f ric t ion in the pipe es t ima t ed a t a veloci t y o f 5 f/

r ,
s .

With a consump t ion of 4 million gallons or ,

cubic f ee t per 2 4 hours t his gives ,

10
x 6 91 2 x 10
ft l b
-
per
hours equivalent to nea ly 1 5 00 H P
24 ,
r . .

1 5 Th e H yd o ta ti c P r d x
. r s a a o .

T h e f ac t tha t a t hrus t o f P lb exer t ed on a pis t on o f

area A ft fi tt ing in t o a vessel filled with incompressible
z
,

liqui d produces a pressure p = P/A l b/ft t hro gho t the

,
2
u u

liquid and an energy o f

p f t l b/ f t or p v f t l b in 7) f t
-
3
,
-
3

was considered para dox ical by ea ly writers on H y dro r

s tat ics ; and numerous ex perimen t s similar in principle ,

t o t he H ydraulic Press were devised to e x hibi t t his ,

se called H YD R OST AT IC PA R AD OX (H
-
R B oyle H yd o on . .
,
r

s ta ti ca l
p a r a dox es ma de ou t o f n ew e x e ri
p me n ts f o r th e ,

mos t p a rt p h ysi ca l and at t he presen t

a n d e a s y,

time t he K eeley M o t or in A me ica is a paradoxical r

ins trumen t devised wi t h t he in t ention o f u t ili z ing t he

,

hyd os tat ic energy o f pressure

r .
22 TH E A COUM ULA TOR .

But this hydrosta t ic energy is unavailable f o con r

ti
nu e d use unless replenished as f as t as it is used as by
,
,

the f orce pump with the Hyd raulic Press or unless

the energy is stored up by the AC C U M U LAT OR (figs 9 .
,

which consists f a vertical pis t on or ram B loaded with

o ,

weigh t s W so a to p roduce the requisi t e pressure p

s .

IV

Fig . 9 . Fig . 10 .

T hen f t l b o f energy are s t ored up in the A ccu mu

-

la t or when the ram is raise d so as t o displace 1) f t les s 3

o f wa t er ; that is i f the ram is raise d r/ A f t where A

, ,

is the cross section f the ram in ft o

2
.

In fig 1 0 M r T we dde l l f orm o f A ccumulator the area

’
.
,
. s ,

A must be taken t he hori z on tal cross sec t ion o f the

as

shoulder at DD .

T h e A ccumula t or thus acts as the flywheel o f Hydraulic

Power ; so that an engine working con tinually an d s t or
ing up unused energy in the A ccum lator can replace a u

larger engine workin g only occas ionally .

 TH E H YDRA ULIO PR E SS ’
. 23

16 . T h e A pp l i ca ti on s
f o P th e
r ess Hydra u l i c .

H ydraulic Power is now sed t o a great exten t on u

steamers f hoisting s t eering and working t he guns ;

, or , ,

an A ccumula t or however cannot well be carried afloat on ,

accoun t of its grea t weight On land Hydraulic Power .

is ex t ensively used f o cranes and li f ts ; also on a large

r

scale to replace s t eam hammers f f orging steel by steady or

squeezing in t o shape when a t hrus t up t o 4 000 t ons is

,

requ ired and on canals f o locks

, r .

Fi g . I2 .

On a small scale the H ydraulic Press use f ul when

applied t o jacks f or li ft ing (fig 1 1 ) or pulling (fig
, as. .

manu f ac t ured by T a gye o f B irmingham ; one grea t

n s

advantage f t he machine being tha t t he mo t ion in

o

either direc t ion can be so easily con t rolled T h B ramah . e

collar in these presses is seen t o be replaced by a c pped u

piece f lea t her pressed in t o shape from a circular shee t

o , .
 24 THE H YDRA ULIC R ES S
P .

An application to a certain f orm of weighing machine

(D k h
ucm ) may be
a mentioned
’
s here consisting f a com ,
o

bination f a B ourdon G a ge and o f a smal l Hydraulic

o u

P ess s sp ended f om the chain f a c ane (fig

r , u r o r .

T h pressure o f the water in the Press is ead ff on

e r o

the B ourd on G auge graduated so as to show the weight ,

of the body suspended f rom the ram f the Press o .

Fig . l3 . Fi g . I4 .

In fig 8 the Hydraulic Press shown as employed f

. or

making elongated rifle bullets or lead pipe ; a cylindrical

wire or tube o f lead in a semi mol t en s t ate is squeezed ,
-
,

ou t through the hole in the fixed plunger D which fills

up t he cavity in the ram f the H ydraulic Press as the o ,

ram rises ; the lengt h f wire or pipe f orme d will be to o

the length f the stroke f the ram as the cross se c t ion

o o

o f the lead cavity to the cross section f t he wire or pipe o .

T h hyd ostatic pressure in the molten lead is intensi

e r

fi d over the pressure in the wate

e f the Press in the r o

ratio f the cross section f the ram to the cross section

o o

W the lead cavity .

 Pressure Intensi fying A pparat us f o o t her purposes r ,

such as rivetting and pressing cotton applied in a similar ,

manner to the H yd a lic Press is described by R H r u ,

. .

T weddell in the P I t M h E n gi n 1 8 72 1 8 78
r os . ns . ec . ee r s, ,
.

F or a general descrip t ion of the applications o f

H ydraulic Power and o f t he H ydraulic Press the reader ,

is re ferred t o the treatises on H yd a li M a ch i n y by r u c er

Pro f R obinson and M F C olyer

. r
. . .

17 . Th e A ma ga t Ga u g e .

In this gauge (fig 1 4 ) devised f measuring great . or

pressures t he principle is t he reverse o f t he H ydraulic

,

Press or Pressure In t ensi fying A ppara t us in the A m g t

,
a a

G auge (m a n omet e d p i t n s l i b e ) unequal pressures

r s o r s

act on unequal areas producing equal thrus t s so that ,

a pressure p (l b/i ) acting over an area n

2
3
1 0l i is a i
7r
2
n
2

measu ed by a bal ancing pressure q ac t ing over an area

r

A = Z D ; and then p a = gA or
7F
2
,

(N a tu r e , 2 1 Fe b 1 8 9 0 ; Ch a l l en g er S ci e n tific R ep orts
,

on th e Comp r e ssi bi li ty of Wa te r ,
by Pro ait f P G T
,
) . . . .

T o allow f o t he fric t ion in t his gauge or generally

r ,

in a H ydraulic Press suppose t he collar is h inches high

, ,

and t ha t is t he coe fficient of friction between the leather

a
,

and the me tal ; t hen f a pressure of q lb/ in t he t otal or

2

normal thrust be t ween t he leather and the metal is Dh q 7r ,

and the fric t ional resistan e to mo t ion is c

m q pounds
D h r .

T his ga ge migh t be use f ully employed either t o t est

u

or even to replace t he C rusher gauges sed in artille y u r

for mea uring powder pressures ; a mechanical fit of the

s

pistons if made long and provided with cannelures is

, ,

f ound t o o ffer a su fficient f rictional resis t ance to t he

leakage f the fluid so that cupped leather or packing
o ,

may be dispensed with .

26 E XA M PL E S .

E xa mp l es .

(1 ) \Vh at must be the diame ter f a saf ety valve the o ,

weight at the end f the lever being 60 lb and its

o ,

distance f rom the f ulcru m 3 0 in the weigh t f the ,

o

lever 7 lb and its at 1 6 in f rom the f ulcrum ,

the w eight of the valve 3 lb and i ts at 3 in

f rom the f ulcrum f the valve to blow ff at
, or o
2 ?
70 1b/ in
Find also the leverage o f the weigh t t o allow
t h s team to blow o ff at 5 0 1b/ in 2
e .

(2 ) In a hydraulic press a thrust of 2 0 lb i applied a t s

the end f a lever at 6 ft f rom the fulcrum ac t u

o ,

ating the plunger o f the f orce pu mp which moves -

in a line 1 ft from the f ulcrum ; the plu ger is n

in diameter 1 in n d the ram is 1 0 in ; find the

a

thrust in tons e xer ted by the ram .

(3 ) T h plunger o f a f orce pump is 1 0 in (8 2) diameter

e ,

the length o f the s t roke is 4 2 in an d the

pressure f the wate r ac ted upon is 5 0 lb/ in

o
2
.

Find the number f f t l b and f t to s f work o - -

n o

performed in each stroke .

(4 ) The ram of a hydraulic accumulator is 1 0 ins in

diame ter de termine the load in tons requisite f
, or

a pre sure f 700 lb/ in

s o
2
.

Find the fall in the ram in 1 minute i f water is ,

not being supplied and the water is working an

,

eng ine f 9 H P
o . .

(5 ) G ive ske tches and describe the construction o f a

hydraulic crane E stimate the volume o f ram
.

necessary i f a weight o f 5 t ons is to be li fted

2 0 f t the water pressure being 7 00 1b/ i
, and n
2

e fficiency f m achine t
o .
28 TH E R
F EE S UR FA CE
is drawn ho izontally and per pendicular to A B
If A C r ,

a similar proo f shows that the pressures a t A and C are

qual ; as also i f A C is drawn in any hori z ontal direction ;
and there fore the pressure is the same at all points in the
horizontal plane A B C ; or in other words
Th su faces f equal pressure in a fluid at res t
e r o

under gravity are horizontal planes .

”

” a
Fig . I5 . Fi g . I6 .

19 . If the fluid is a liquid it can have a f ree su rface

, ,

without di ffusing i t sel f as a g a wou l d ; and this free , s

surf ace being a sur face of z ero pressure or more generally

,

o f uni f orm atmospheric pressure will also be a sur f ce f ,

a o

equal pressure and there fore a hori z ontal plane

, .

H ence the
T H E OR E M Th e f ree surf ace f a liquid at rest un der
:
“
o

gravity is a horizontal plane .

”

T h theorem can be proved e x perimentally with great

e

accuracy by noticing that the image by fl e i in the re x on

sur face f the liquid f a plumb line is straight with the

o o

line i tsel f and not broken ; and this proves that the sur
,

f ace is perpendicular to the vert ical or plumb line which ,

is the definition o f the horizontal plane ; also by the

accuracy experienced in the e f the mercurial horizon us o

in Astronomy and S urveying .

S uppose it was possible f o the f ree surf ace to be r

changed into a di fferent f orm f example in t o a series or

 IS A HORIZ ON TA L PL ANE .
29

of waves at res t like t he hills and dales o f dry land or

, ,

the sur f ace o f t he M de G lace in S wi t zerl nd

er a .

An inclined plane P Q (fig 1 6) could t hen be drawn .

,

cutting off t he top f a wave and the s t ress across P Q

o ,

being normal f rom the defini t ion o f a fluid t he plane P Q ,

behaves like a smooth plane and t he top f t he wave ,

o

would begin to slide down P Q and equilibriu m would be ,

destroyed .

T hus t he waves could no t be a t res t bu t would move , ,

as we see realized in na t ure .

T hese are matters o f common observa t ion as dis ,

t i n g i h i g charac t eris t ics be t ween a solid and a liquid ;

u s n

as f o instance between lan d and wa t er Th sur face f

r . e o

the land has hi l ls and valleys bu t the sur f ace f water is

.
, o

a horizontal plane A road or railway has inclines but a

.
,

canal is a level road and locks are required f o a change

, r

Of level .

2 0 W have supposed in the p eceding that no di t i

. e r s r

b ted f orces such as those due to gravity are acting

u , ,

throughou t the fluid ; and thus t he pressure in the fluid will

be uni f orm and the same in all directions ; and to prove
,

this theorem we may conside the equilibrium o f any r

fini t e portion o f the flu id in the f orm of a prism te t ra

, ,

h d
e ro n , or polyhedron .

W hen distribu t ed f orces gravity f o instance act ,

r ,

throughou t the fluid the pressure will no t be uni f orm

,

but will vary from one point to another .

Y e t t he same theorem t ha t the pressure of a fluid is

the same in all directions about a point can still be ”

es tablished in exactly the same man er by t aking a n ,

prism or tet ahedron and making it indefinitely small ;

r

then the dist ibuted f orces which are propor t ional t o the
r ,
30 TH E DIS TR IB UT ION OF P E S S R UR E
weight or volume f the contained fl id are indefinitely
o u ,

small compared with the thr sts on the faces which are u ,

proportional to the are s f the faces and may there f ore

a o ,

be neglected ; and the proof there f ore proceeds as bef ore .

In dete rmining the pressure at any point f a fl id at o u

rest the preceding theorem shows us that w e need deter

,

mine it in one direction only say in the horizontal or ,

vertical direction when the fluid is at rest under gravity ;

and this we shall now p oceed to investigate r .

2 1 T H E OR E M
. Th e pressure in a homogeneous liquid
.

at rest under gravity increases uni f ormly with the depth .

L t p denote the pressure in l b/ f t at any point o f a

e o ,
g
,

horizontal plane and p the pressure a t the horizontal

,

plane 2 feet lower down in the liquid ; and le t denote i t)

the weight in lb f a cubic foo t f the li q uid ; then

o o i t)

meas ures the d n i ty or h i n

e s f the li q uid eav es s o .

D aw any ve tical cylin der standing on a b se f A

r r a o

s q ua e f eet and onsider the e q uilibrium of the liquid

r , c

filling the part f this cylin der cut ff by the two ho i

o o r

zo n t l planes (fig
a the liquid is ac ted upon by a
.

vertical downward thr st p A l b on its upper end by the

u
o ,

vertical downward f orce s lb f i t gravity by a

-
o s ,

vertical pward thrust p A lb on the lower end ; and by

u

the thrust f the li q id on the vertical sur face f the

o u o

cylinder .

T his last f o c contributes nothing to the support o f

r e

the liquid ; so that resolving vertically ,

p A PoA s ,

p pO wz ,

which gives the pressu e at any point and prov e s that it

r ,

increases uni f ormly with the depth .

 IN A HOM OGE N E OUS LI Q UID .
1

,
I If 2 is the depth belo w the f ree sur f ace then p
ft , 0

denotes the atmospheric pressu e on the s r face ; and i f r u

t his atmospheric pressure is absent then ,

p
z wa
ob tained as befo e f rom the consideration o f the equi
r

libriu m o f a cylinder o f liquid with zero pressure at the

upper d en .

Fig . 17 . Fi g . I8 .

To veri fy this experimentally take a glass cylinder , ,

with the lower edge ground smooth and greased and a ,

me tal di c f given weight and thickness and o f t he same

s o

diame t er as the cylinder placed on the bo tt om f the , o

cylinder so as to fit watertight and held in pos i t ion by ,

means f a thread (fig

o .

O submerging the cylinder ver t ically in liquid it will

n

be f ound that the th ead may be le f t slack and t h e m

,

r etal
disc will be s uppo ted by the pressure f the liquid
r o ,

when the depth f the bottom o f the disc is t o the thick

o

ness f the disc in a ratio equal to or greater t han the

o

density o f the disc to the density f the liquid ; or o

algebraically i f denotes t he density o f the liquid w

,
is ,
’

of the metal disc and a the thickness o f the di c

, s ,

w aA s or / '
f/ ,
e u el a
f
.
32 P RE S S URE IN A LI Q UID .

e ffect f the atmospheric pressure will not sensibly

Th e o

modi f y the result provided the thickness o f t he glass is

,

inconsiderable ; however in the general case with atmo , ,

spheric pre sure p and A denoting the area o f the d i sc

s o, ,

B and C the ex ternal an d in ternal hori z on tal sections o f

t he gl ss cylinder then
a ,

aA z )A
'

w (p0 + w po
-
Iu z
- '
wa )(A B) -

p OC ,

reducing when , A =B ,
to
’
w aA s + p o(A C) .

In the words o f one f B oyle s Hydrostatical Para do x es o

’

a solid body ponderous as any yet known (that is 2 0

as

times denser than water such as gol d or platin m ) , u ,

though near the top f the water can be supported by o ,

the upwa d thrust f the wa ter

r o .
”

(C o te s H y l o t t i c l n d P u ma ti ca l Le ctu res p
, c r s a a a ne ,
.

If we suppose the atmospheric P is the pres ure due t o 0

s

an incre ase f depth h in the liquid then

o ,

P0 wh ,
and z) p w h
(
so that now the pressure in the liquid is the same as i f
the f ree surface f z ero pressu re wa at a height f h f ee t
o s o

above the h ori z ntal plane where the pr ssure

o e

= u h
po .

Again p migh t be the pressure due to liqui d

o
of depth
h
’
and density w so that '

wh
’ ’
7
1 0 ,

and p wh
’ '
wz .

also f any number o f superincumbent fluids

So or

which do not mix ; their surfaces f separation must be o

hori z ontal planes f instance with air or steam on water

, or ,

water on mercury and oil on water etc , , .

 TH E H E A D OF A L IQ UID . 33
l
22 . Th e H e a d of Wa te r or Li q u id .

]
pressure wz a t a dep t h z f t in liqu id is calle d t he
Th e
p sfs e d e t o a h ea d o f z fee t of t he liquid
re ur u .

1 T hus a hea d o f 2: f ee t o f wa t er o f densi t y or heaviness ,

w l b/ f t produces a pressure o f wz l b/ f t or wz z 1 4 4 l b/ i n
f 3 2 -
z
,

and a head o f 2 inches o f wa t er produces a pressure o f

and on t he average w 62 4 ,
: .

In roun d nu mbers a cubic f oot of wa t er weighs 1 000

oz and t hen w
,
:

In t he M e t ric Sys t em t aking a cubic me tre o f wa t er as ,

weighing a t onne of 1 000 kilogrammes or a cubic deci ,

me t re as weighing a kilogramme or a cubic cen t ime t re ,

as weighing a gramme a head o f z me t res of wa t er gives ,

a pressure of z t onnes per square me t re (t/ m ) or 1 000 z 2

kg/ m or z / 1 0 k g/ cm or 1 00 z grammes per square cen t i

z
,
2
,

me t re and a hea d of z cen t ime t res o f wa t er gives

a pressure o f z g /c m ; t hus a grea t simplifica t ion i n prac
‘

tical calcula t ions is in t roduced by t he M e t ric S ys t em o f

U ni t s .

T h e pressure o f t he a t mosphere as measure d by t he ,

barome t er was t aken in § 8 as abou t 1 4 3 lb/ in or 2 1 1 2

,
-
2
,

pounds (say 1 9 cw t or nearly a t on ) per square f oo t ; ,

wi t h M e t ric U ni t s t he a t mosphere was t aken as one

kg/ cm or 1 0 t / m ) ; n d an a t mosphere is t hus d e in
z
,
z
a u ,

round nu mbers t o a head of 3 0 inches or 76 cen t ime t res

,

o f mercury o f specific gravi t y , a hea d o f 1 0 me t res

or 3 3 t o 3 4 f ee t of wa t er ; or a head f f ee t or o

5 miles or 8 5 00 me t res o f homogeneous air o f normal

,

density occupying abou t 1 2 5 f t t o t he lb or 7 5 4 cm t o

,
3
,
3

the g or 0 75 4 m to the kg
,
3
.

A y discrepancy in t hese resul ts is due t o t aking the

n

neares t round nu mber in each sys t em of uni t s .

a n .
e
34 TH E C O
’
RNIS H P UMPIN G E NG INE .

Regnaul t worked wi th a stan dard barometric i he mi bl y

7 6 cm of mercury and we may ca ll t his pressure duh
,
S S is
hea d o f 76 cm o f mercury a R gn a u l t a w p tn s h e e ; bd ? 9
e r
1 ‘

is more convenien t to take 7 5 cm thus a head o f 3 00 i >

o f mercury in a t ube up the E i ffel T ower gives a pressure

, ,

o f 4 00 a t mospheres .

T h e density o f sea water is generally taken as 64 l b/ ft “

,

so tha t an a t mosphere f 1 4 g lb/ i n is equivalen t to a

o
2

he ad of 33 f t of se a wa ter ; t hus a diver a t a dep th in

the sea f 2 7§ fa t homs or 1 65 f t e x periences a press ure
o

o f 5 a t m o spheres over the atmospheric pre s sure in all a ,

pressure o f 6 atmospheres or 8 8 1b/ i n 2

.

In the previous discussions o f the Hydraulic Pre ss an d

M achines working by t h e T ran smission f Pressure we o

supposed the pres ure uni f orm and neglec te d t he varia

s

tions d e to gravity and di fference o f level ; bu t t hese

u

varia t ions are so slight compared wi t h the grea t pre ss ures

employed as to be prac t ica lly insensible .

T hus a pre sure f 7 5 0 1b / in is du e to a head o f 1 72 8

s o
2

f ee t f wa t er compared w ith which an al teration o f 1 0

o ,

fee t or even 1 00 feet i insensible

, , s .

2 3 Th e Co rn i h P u mp i n g E n g i n e
. s .

S uppose M lb added t o W n fi g 7 t he equilibrium

18 i ,

is des t roye d the pis ton A will descen d say 9; f ee t an d

: ,

the p i sto n B will be raised 3] f ee t such t hat ,

A w= B y ;
and now the pressure u nder the pis ton A w ill be come
(M W)/A l b/f t ,
“

while under the pis to n B i t will still be P/ B l b/ f t ; and f

the di fference be t ween t hose pressures being due to a head

o f w+ y f ee t o f t he liquid ,

W)/ A
 36 T HE COM M O N S URFA CE OF T WO LI Q UIDS .

Coming to more recent times the principle that ,

liquids maintain their level was doubted by our

engineers when they epor t ed a di fference o f level o f
r

f ee t be t ween the M edi te rranean and the R d S e e a,

as making the S uez C anal impracticable (Comp te . s

R e n du s 1 8 5 8 ; B r i ti sh A s s oci a ti o n
,

Th e statements that a i uid maintains its Level

“
Lq
but that a S olid does not maintain its Level may be
“ ”

taken as the f undamenta l disti guishing characteristi s n c

of a Li q uid and a S olid ; it is proved e x perimentally

by noticing tha t the isolated portions f the f ree su rf ac e o

of a homogeneous liquid filling a number f communi ,

o

cating vessels of arbitrary shape all f orm por t ions f t he , o

same horizontal p lane .

T h principle is employed not only in the design f

e o

waterworks but also in the theory f levelling i t

, o n s ru

ments and f the ga ge glass f a boiler

,
o u o .

2 5 T H E OR EM
. T h common sur face f two liquids o f
.
“
e o

di fferent densities which do not mix is a horizontal plane

, , ,

when at est under g avity

r r .
”

Fi g . 19 .

D raw any horizon t al planes A B CD in the u pper and ,

lower liquids z f ee t apart and d a w vertical lines A C B D r ,

cu t ting the surf ace o f separation f the li q uids in P and o

Q; and let A P = B Q y ; so that (fig 1 9 )

= at , .

P O= z —
x, QD = z
y
-
.
 A
S T B ILIT Y OF E Q UILIB RI UM . 37

Le t w deno t e t he densi t y or heaviness of the upper

liqui d w of t he lower T hen p denoting t he pressure
,
'
.
o

a t t he level A B and p a t t he level CD by consi dering ‘

t he equilibriu m f small ertical prisms or cylin ders on o v

A C and B D as axes
’
,
’

p
—
p0 woe w (z )
as ,

p
so tha t by sub t rac t ion
, ,

(
’
w f

N o w, since by supposi t ion w— w

’
is no t z ero theref ore ,

y or y
= ; —
ce =0 , £c

and this proves t hat P and Q are in t he same level at E ,

and F and generally t hat t he common surface E F is a

horizon t al plane .

26 . Th e S ta bil i ty f
o E qui l i bri u m o
f S up e r i n cu mbe n t
Li qu i ds .

If a nu mber of liqui ds o f di fferent densities such as ,

mercury wa t er and oil are poured in t o a vessel t hey

, , , ,

will come t o res t with their common surfaces horizontal

planes and t he s t ability o f t he equilibrium requ ires that
t h densities f the liq ids should increase as w e go down
e o u .

Fo suppose a portion o f t wo liquids t o be isolated in

r

a thin uni f orm endless t ube AP CD QB E F representing ’

,

t he original level sur f ace f se para t ion ; and suppose P o

and Q t he sur f aces o f separation when t he liquid in the

tube is sligh t ly displaced an d kep t in this posi t ion by a ,

s topcock S C in CD or A B . . .

S upposing t he pressures a t A and B equal t he pressure ,

a t C will exceed t he pressure a t D by

= é) ;
'
wx + W ( w) — w y — W
'

( y) (W W ) (y—
'
z — z — — f

so that i f w w is positive the liqu id in A CB B will t end

'
’
—
,

to re t urn t o its original posi t ion o f rest when t he s t opcock

38 LE VE L S UR FA CE S OF E Q UA L DE NS IT Y .

s o is opened and the equilibrium is there f ore s table ;

.
,

w is negative
’
v ic a if w
e v e rs —
.

Various experime nts have been devised f o illustrating r

the ins ta bility o f t he equilibrium o f two liquids when ,

the upper liquid has the greater density ; fo ins tan ce by r ,

taking a tumbler f ll f wa ter closed by a card and u o , ,

inverting it over a tumbler f ull o f wine so as t o fit ,

accurately ; when the card is removed or slightly di s

placed so as to allow a communicat ion between the t wo

liquids the wine will gradually rise into the u pper
,

tumbler and displace the denser water ; the card may

even be replaced by a handkerchie f or a piece of gauze .

Ice again is less dense than water and rests in stable

equilibrium on the sur face ; but i f water is run on the
surface of the ice th e hori z on tal plane f orm be comes
,

unst ble and the i ce becomes bent into waves

a , .

B y the application o f heat varia t ions o f density are

produced in a liquid wh ich destroy t he equilibrium n d , a

set up con e ti c r n t ; v c een exemplified in t he

ve ur e s as s

G ul f S tream and in boilers and kettles ; also in t he

,

winds and particula ly the Tra de Winds

,
r .

If however t he heat is propagate d uni f ormly in a

downward vertical direction the alteration of density ,

does not in terf ere with the stable e q uilibriu m o f the

liquid provi ded the li q uid e x pan ds with a rise o f tem
,

p t as is generally t he ca se
e ra u re , .

When the density f a fluid varies continually t he o ,

above arguments show tha t the flui d comes to res t under

gravi t y so that the density incre ases in the downward
vert ica l direc t ion (exemplified in the air by the denser
layers of f g ) and so thato ,

the sur faces f equal de ns i ty are hori z on ta l plan e s

o .
 GE NE RA L E XE R CIS E S . 9

G EN E R AL E X E R C IS E S ON C H APT E R 1 .

D efine a flui d a viscous fluid and explain h o w vis

, ,

c os i ty is measured .

Prove that in perfect fluid t he press re i s th e

a
'

same in all direc t ions about a point but in a ,

viscous flui d only w h en t he fluid is at rest .

S how how to distingu ish between a so ft solid

and a very viscous fluid and give examples o f
,

each .

From what property o f a fluid does it follow

tha t any portion o f it may be consi dere d soli d .

S how t hat a soli d whose faces are por t ions o f spheres

is the only one possessi g the proper ty that i f
n ,

immersed in n y fluid whatever th e resultant

a ,

pressure on each face red uces to a si n gle force .

A hollow co n e whose axis is vertical and base down

,

wards is filled wi th equal volu mes o f t wo liquids

, ,

whose densities are in the ratio of 3 1 ; prove

'

that t he pressure a t a point in the base is (3

t imes as grea t as when the vessel is filled with
t he lighter liquid .

A vertical right circular cylin der contains portions o f

any number o f fluids tha t do not mi x ; show tha t
in equilibriu m the fluids arrange themselv es in
horizontal s t rata and that the densi ty cannot
diminish on descending into the fluid .

Further show t ha t o f all arrangements o f t he

,

fl uids in hori z ontal strata geometrically possible

, ,

the one actually taken by nature corresponds to

the minimu m average pressure on the surface o f
the con t aining vessel .
40 OE NE RA L E XE R CIS E S .

Water is poured into a vertical cylinder whose ,

weight is equ al to that of the wa t r which it will e

cont in and whose centre f g avity is at th e

a ,
o r

middle point of its a x is .

Find the position f the centre o f gravity f the

o o

cyli nder and water when the water has risen to

a given height within it ; show that the whole
distance traversed by the centre f gravi ty while o

the cylinder is being filled is to the height of the

cylinder as 3 2 J 2 l and that when in its
—
z

lowes t position it is in the sur face f the water o .

If mercury is poured into the water find when ,

the o f the wa te r an d mercury is in i ts lowes t

position .

A large metallic shell which is spheric l and o f s mall a

uni form thickness is qui te full f water o .

A small circular part f the shell is cut out at

o

some dis tance below the top f the sphere and o ,

provide d with a hinge at the highest poin t o f the

aperture .

G iven W and W the weights o f the shell and the

'

wa te r conta ined in it ; prove that the water will

no t escape unless the ce ntre o f the apert ure an d
,

t he t op f the shell subten ds at the cen t re o f the

o

shell an angle greater than

 C H APTE R 1 1 .

HYD ROSTAT C T HRU S T I .

27 . us a pply immediately the mechanical A xiom

Le t
or C orollary o f 5 derive d f rom t he D efinition of a Fl id
,
u ,

“
Th S tress on any plane in a Fluid a t res t is a N ormal
e

Press re t o t he solu t ion o f an impor t an t H ydrostatical

u ,
”

Q uestion t he de t ermina t ion o f t he

,

Th r u s t o f Wa t er ag a i n s t a R es e rv o i r Wa l l .

Firs t suppose t he wall o f t he reservoir a mason y dam

,
r

with a ver t ical f ace A B represen t ing the eleva t ion o f the
,

f ace in a plane perpendicular t o i t s leng t h (fig and .

draw any plane B C through B the f oo t o f t he f ace A B to

mee t in 0 t he surf ace f t he water A C (which we have
o

shown t o be a horizon tal plane) .

C onsider t he eq ilibriu m o f the water in A B C ; and

u ,

merely to fix t he ideas i t is convenien t t o suppose this

,

wat er solidifie d or f ro z en ; we shall o f t en make use o f

this sup p osi t ion hereaf t er .

Th f orces maintaining the equilibriu m o f A B C are

e

t he f orce W o f i t s weigh t acting ver t ically downwards ,

the t hrust P o f the wall ac t ing horizon t ally and t he ,

t hrus t R o f t he wa t er on t he plane B 0 at t ing pe pe ,

r n

di c l a to B 0
u r .
42 H YD ROS TA TIC TE R US T

hen denoting the angle

T ,
AB C by 9 , and resolving
parallel to the plane B C ,

P s in 6 = W cos 0 or P ,
: W co t 6 .

We no t ice that i f t hen that the P = W so ,

thr s t P on the wall is given by the weight o f the

u

isosceles prism A B C .

N w if A B = h the depth o f the water in f ee t then

o , ,

A C = h t an 6 ; and i f i denotes the length o f the wall and ,

w the weigh t in lb o f a cubic f oo t f water or the liquid o ,

then W Q i l tan 9 u t
?
,

so that P 5 0 10 4.

an e x pression independen t o f 9 i t shoul d be , as .

Th average pressure on A B is
e the pres;
sure in l b/ f t at dep t h Qh fee t
2
.

B t the pressure at any point o f A B being proportional

u

to the depth as represente d by th ordina te o f the straight

, e

line A b the thr st P on A B is no t uni f ormly di s tribu te d

,
u

over A B ; bu t the distribu t ion f thrust P as represen ted o ,

by the pressure p is uni formly varied s represen te d by

, ,
a

t he ordina te o f A b ; the thru st P being represen te d by

the area A B b .

R esolving vertica lly to determine R ,

R sin 9 W l wl h tan 9 :
‘
l
,

or R l wl h sec 6 "

also i f the vertical through G the centre f gravity o f , o

A B C meets B C in K t hen K will be the point of applica

, ,

t ion f the resul ta nt t hrus t R ; and CK

o

T here f ore also H is the point o f applica t ion f the o

thrus t P on A B when HK is hori z ontal and there f ore

, ,

A H = § A B ; the three f orces P R W which main tai n , ,

the equilibrium o f A B C meeting in K .

44 T HR US T ON A RE S E R VOIR D AM .

T his is a ve y importan t problem in prac t ical E ngineer

r

ing with the high reservoir walls in exis t ence or course

o f cons t ruction such as the Vyrnwy dam o f t he Li ver
,

pool Water Works in N orth Wales 1 2 0 fee t high or the , ,

projecte d Q uaker B ri dge Dam o f the N w York Wa te r e

W orks t o be made 2 60 f eet high

, .

T h height f these dams is reckoned f rom the f o un da

e o

t ion which is carried down through the alluvial soil to

,

the solid rock ; it is assumed in t he design f the dam o

that the alluvial soil is porous so tha t the wate r pressure ,

is propagated through it .

2 9 N ow if the vertical wall A B in fig 2 0 is con

. .

tin n e d down to the rock f oundation at 0 an e x tra depth ,

B O = a f ee t then the hy dros ta tic thrust on t he par t B O

,

under ground being the di fference f the thrus ts on A O

, o

and A B will be given by ,

—
h 2
} l a
f
l
- -
ah );
so that the avera e pressure over B C is the g
M i a Hi )-
,

pressure at the depth f the can f B 0 o . o .

A gain by taking moment round A the momen ts f

, s ,
o

the thrusts on A B and A C being awl / and 1 .

3

we find that the resul ta nt thrust on B 0 will act at a

depth below A given by ,

(a h )
’ -
3

1(a+ ) é h m
’

2 ;
h "
5
a ;
and there f ore at a height above B
3 6L2
7,
- -
k
f cl l h 2 - -
. a + 3h
§ a +h dt -

In earthwork dams a wall o f puddled clay must be

carri ed down to t he rock f oun da t ion to prevent percol a ,

tion of wa ter ; bu t t he great danger to avoid in an earth

work dam is wa ter r nning over the cres t ; the wate r u
 THE O R Y OF E A RTH PR E SS Ul tE .

cuts a channel which increases in si z e and saws t he dam '

in t wo as a t t he C onemaugh d m f ailure which caused

, a ,

the J h n t ow n floo d in A merica ; t his dam was s trong and

o s

safe enough t ill t he wa t er was allowed t o overflow t he

crest .

*
30 . Th e Th eo ry o f E a rth P res su re .

ubs t ances in a finely divided pulverised or granular

S , ,

s ta te such as sand loose earth grain meal or a mass o f

, , , , ,

p h i er
c l granules large or small such as lead sho t or
a , ,

cannon balls i mita t e t o a cer t ain ex t en t t he behaviour f

,
o

liquids and require t o be res t rained by walls ; and it is

,

impor tan t t o determine t he thrus t which may be expect ed

t o be e x er t ed on a re t aining wall ; t he usual procedure
is as f ollows .

S u ppose A B (fig 2 1 ) is an end eleva t ion f a ver t ical

. o

wall which supports a mass f the loose subs t ance filled

, o ,

up t o the level A C f t he t op o f the wall ; and drawing o

any plane B C t hrough the f oo t of the wall consider t he ,

equilibriu m o f A B C supposed solidified , .

Th wall A B being supposed smooth the t hrus t P on

e ,

it will be horizon t al and supposing t he wall A B t o yield

ever so li t tle hori z on t ally the prism A B C will slip on ,

BC , d a s t ress R across B C will be called in t o p l ay

an ,

which now will no t be normal t o B C bu t will mak e an ,

angle suppose wi t h t he normal in t he direc t ion re sis t ing

,
6 , ,

motion .

T his angle t he limi t ing angl e of f ric t ion is t aken t o

6, ,

be the great es t angle of slope o f t he loose subs t ance a t

which it will s tand when heaped up i t is also called t he
n g l e of e o s e o f t he subs t ance
a p r .

* A ti lr w hi h m y b om i tt d t
c es c fi t a di g m k d
e e a a rs re a n a re ar e

w it h t ik
an as e r s
46 T HE OR Y OF E A R TH P RE S S UR E .

D enoting the angle A B C by O and by W the weigh t in ,

lb of the prism A B C f length l then o ,

W= u l h tan 0 ’ 2
,

w denoti g the heaviness f the substance ; and resolving

n o

perpendicular to R ,

P W co t(9 + ) e

{ml / ta n 9 co t(6 + )
2
i L e

wl h
sin 2
-
e
l
e

wlh 2
2 sin e
é 1
e

di fferent directions o f the pla e B C or di fferent

Fo r n ,

values o f 0 P will be great st when

,
e

l or 0 = i § ; and then , 7r
-
e

m
was l +
1 f
mus t
“

P : an ai w ts ) .

si n e

his is the grea t est thrust the wall can on this theory
T
be called upon t o suppor t supposing the loose subs tance ,

to crack and sli de along a plan e B C through the f oo t f o

the wall ; and it is the same as the hy dros ta t ic thrust of

a liquid of heaviness w ta (1 n
2
7r

If the f ric t ion o f the ver t ical wall A B is taken into

ac coun t the theory is more complica ted
, .

F a subs t ance like ice in which we may suppose the

or ,

planes of cleavage per fec tly smooth = 0 ; so tha t the , e

comple te hydrosta t ic thrust will be restored i f ice f ro en ,

z

up to the level A C c acks along planes o f cleavage ; as

,
r ,

for i n stance in a gl acier ,

.

‘
31 . S u r ch arg e d R e ta i n i n g Wa ll s .

uppose t he substance is retained by a parallel vertical

S
wal l D E f less height than the level A C and that t he
, o ,
 RE TA I I N NG ’
WALLS AND RE VE TH E N TS .
47

surface is sloped down t o D in t he plane FD calle d t he ,

t a l s ; t he wall D E is t hen said t o be u ch

u g d t o t he s r ar e

heigh t of A CF above D ; and t he slope of FD to the a

hori z on canno t excee d t he angle f repose

6,
'

o .

T o de t ermine t he horizon t al t hrus t Q on DE suppose ,

the wall D E t o yield ho izon t ally a sligh t dis tance a d

r ,
n

in consequence t he sub st ance t o crack along a plane of

cleavage E M or E N making an a gle 6 wi t h t h e ver t ical
,
n

wall D E .

Fig . 21 .

We suppose tha t t he prism ma t erial DE M or D E N Fof

begins t o slide down t he plane E M or E N ; and t hen as

bef ore i f W denotes the weigh t in lb o f t he ma t erial in
,

the prism , Q =

If t he plane E M mee t s t he t alus DE in M and we pu t ,

DE t hen
a,
n 9 cos Si a
,

cos (6 + ) a

sin 9 cos cos (6 + ) a e

cos (9 + ) sin (9 + ) a e

i 6 cos S n 6
reducing 9 ( + e)

ul a
2
h 1
“

if the slope of t he t alus is t he an gle of repose or ,

43 THR UST OF A G RA NULA R S UB S TA NCE .

As 9increases from zero the t hrust Q also increases ,

f rom zero and when O+ = 1l or the plane E M is e 7r,

parallel to the talus D F ,

Q i wl a fi
cos e ,
2

the same as iquid o f density w 0 0 8

f or l 2
6 .

B t this implies tha t t he wall DE is surcharged t o an

u

infinite height ; but i f surcharged to a finite height b ,

then when the plane f cleavage E N mee ts the horizon tal

o

level su rface in N ,

W : wl { l (a + b) ta n 6
.
2
l b co t a }
g
,

and correspondi g value f Q will become a maximum

th e n o

f o a value f 0 depending not only on

r o but also on t he 6,

ratio o f b to a T h e de t ermination o f this ma x imum value

.

must be de ferred but now it is important to no t ice t ha t

P and Q are no t equal t he di fference be t ween them being
,

taken up by the fric t ional resis tance o f the ground B E .

‘
32 . Th e Th r u s t du e to an A gg reg a ti on o
f Cyl i n dri ca l
Pa r t i cl es o r
of Sp h e ru l e s .

A exact T heory
n arth Pres ure can be constr c ted
of E s u

i f w suppose the substance which is held up by a retain

e

ing wall to be composed f individual particles or atoms o

o f cylind ical form such

r canisters pipes barrels or
, as , , ,

cylindrical projectiles regularly stacked ; or else to be

,

composed o f sphe les such lead shot billiard balls

ru ,
as , ,

or spherica l shot and shell piled in regular order as , ,

common f ormerly in f or ts and arsenals .

It will be necessary to begin by supposing tha t the

lowest layer o f cylinders or spheres is imbedded in the
gro nd ; as otherwise a wedging action takes place due
u ,

to the slightest variation f level and the problem is to a o ,

certain extent indeterminate a in the preced i ng article ,

s

on E arth Pressure .
 A GGR E G A TION OF C YLINDE R S .
49

Now in the case o f cylindrical bodies regularly packed ,

as close as possible (fig t he slope o f the t alus D F

.

is and i f E N is d awn thro gh E t he f oot o f t he

r u

retaining w all DE parallel to the t alus D F t he t hr s t , u

bet w een the cylinders across t he plane E N will also

-

make an angle o f 60 wi t h t he horizon ; so that consider

°

ing the equilibrium o f D E N F of weight W the thrust Q , ,

on the retaining wall DE is g i ven by

Q W cot

Fi g . 22 .

so if w deno t es the
Al ,
app a r e n t heaviness of the sub
stance measured i l b/ft
,
n
3
,

W § wl (h
:
2
b )co t 60
2 °

so that
the same as the hyd ostatic thrust f l iq id f heaviness
r o u , o

on the po tion D E f a ve tical wall f which the

r o r , o

top edge D is subme ged to a depth b in the liqu d

r i .

If t he cylindrical particles are f diame t er d 3

"

d o ,
an

composed f solid metal f density p then since the

o o ,

t iang lar prism f ormed by the axes f three adjacent

r u o

cylinde s is f c oss section i J 3 d f which only the

r o r
2
, o

area § d is occ pied by solid metal the e f o e

7r
2
u , r r

ap d =
w 3 wd or 2 2

so that p l + b) )
—
a
~
a ,

the same as f li q id f densi t y W

or
u/ p u o —
1l
o

D
 50 T HR US T OF A G GR E GA TION '

Now suppose the cylinders in the lowest laye are i m

, r

bedded in the ground and regularly separa t ed so as to be

,

at a distance a; f rom axis to a x is ; the slope f the a o

talus D E is given by
cos l m/ d a ,

and Q W cot l b) c t a a
2
a o
2
a

but now w the pp a n t heaviness f the substance is

,
a re o ,

w § d
e n by
7r 7:
o iv
b
p d m cos 4 z
n 2s (1 a s1 a

C OS a
so that =l
pl 3 + 1
)
m s vr
2
06
s
g
a

the same f liquid f density

as or o

C OS 0 ad
t WP —
— 1
2 7r
“
71 p
sin (d
4 3
a
2

When w > l J 3 vertical planes f con tact come into

c ,
o

e x istence and alternate vertical columns descen d so tha t ,

QU
/p fin d/x .

Th ethrust Q will become very large when t he cylinders

are nearl y in square order .

T h thrust Q is theoretically infinite when the cylinders

e

are in square order but this arrangemen t being unstable ,

a seismic rearrangement takes place and the original tri ,

angular orde is regained except that the talus now

r ,

appears stepped .

S uppose the wall A B or D E t yield h ori z ontally a o

slight distance ; the cylinders in A B C or D E N F will roll

and wedge down along planes f cleavage B C o E N o r .

Th e lowest layer f cylinders being imbedded no f urthe

o , r

motion is possible but i f they were f ree to roll sideways ,

a molecula rearrangement would t ake place and the

r ,

cylinders would appear wedged against the walls A B and

D E in close order except along two planes f cleavage
, o .
52 TH E US T E XE R TE D B Y AN
denotes the density real or apparen t of a
If p , , s i m
spherule while w denotes the apparent density of
,
be
aggregation of a large nu mber o f spherules we shall fi l e ,
‘

"
71
that 3J 2
p

we suppose the horizontal layers in square

Fo r i f
order and we t ake a volume consisting f a very large
,
o

number 71 o f spheres standing on a square base whose

3
,

side is of length m l then the height will be i J a an d

, ,

the volume l J Zn h F; while the volume occupie d by t he

‘

n spheres will be fi wn d ; an d there f ore

3 s "

w 7r

So also i f the hori zontal layers are in tri angular or der ,

the length f the volume being ml the breadth will be

o ,

t l u d and
, the height § J Gn d ; so that the volume will -

be { J 2n l a be f ore
3
c
3
, s .

When the number o f spheres is limite d the e ffec t o f ,

the irregularity f the arran g ement on the outside o f the

o

volume makes i t sel f felt .

T hus 1 000 s pheres each one inch in diame ter can be, ,

p acked in cubical order in a cubica l bo x the interior o f ,

which is 1 0 inches long each way ; bu t other arrangements

are possible by which a larger n u mber f spheres can be o

packed i the box the discovery f these arrangements is

n o

lef t as an exe cise f the student (C m S p

r or . os os , e .

T his problem f the packing f spheres is known f old

o o o

as that f the thirsty intelligent raven ; the sto ry is

o
“ ”

given by Pliny Plutarch and fE l i a ; it is quoted by Mr

, , n .

W Walton in the Q J l l vol ix p 7 9 in the f ollowing

. . . i , . .
, .
,

f orm as due to Leslie E llis

 A GGR EGA TION OF S P HE RE S .
53

thirs t y raven fl ew t o a pi tcher an d f ound t here was

53A
s
p h t e in
e i t bu
r t so near t he bo tt om t ha t he could no t
is ach it S eeing however plen t y o f equal spherical
z .

pebbles near t he place he cas t t hem one by one in t o t he ,

pitcher and thus by degrees raised the wa t er up t o t he

,

ve y br im and sat isfied his t hirs t Prove t hat the volume

r .

f t he wa t er m st have been to t ha t of t he pi t cher in a

o u

rat io f oto or more

—
7r .
”

If t he lea d sho t were mel t e d t he densi t y would become ,

changed from w t o p and t he hydros t a t ic t hrus t w ould ,

be increase d in t he ratio of to f t he same 7: or

apparen t h ad of t he subs t ancee .

H ere again in a subs t ance composed o f spherules a

, ,

complica t ed s t a t e of wedging ac t ion would t ake place i f

t h e lowest s t ra t u m o f spheres were no t imbedded but ,

were f ree t o roll on a smoo t h horizon t al floor especially ,

i f t he walls were t o yield sligh t ly .

(Osborne R eynolds On th e D i l a ta n y of M di a com c e

p s ed f R i gi d P a rti cl e i n C n ta t
o o Phil M g s o c . . a ,

De c 1 88 5
. .

R ankine ,
S t a bi l i ty o f Loose E a r th Phil . Tran s 1 8 67 ,
.

Wov e n Wi re , S eg r eg a ti on ,
an d Sp h e r i ca l P a cki n g .

ngineering J uneE ,

Various si mple illustra t ions o f t he t hrus t o f spheres ,

leading t o elegant s t a t ical t heorems of t he applica t ion

o f t he Principle o f Vir t ual Veloci t ies can be cons t ruc t ed ,

wi t h billiard balls of given diame t er d placed in open

, ,

canisters of various diame t ers D so t ha t the spheres ,

arra ge t hemselves in hori z on t al layers (i ) D 2 d singly ;

n .
,

ii
( ) 2.d < D < d (1 + in se ts o f t w o and t w o ; or
(iii ) d (l + % J 3 ) D d (l
. t hree n d one or (iv ) a .

d (1 / 2) D f our an d one e t c
N , .
54 T HR US T ON A L OOK G A TE .

34 . Th e Th ru s t ock Ga t on a L e .

We have f ound that the thrus t o f water o f densi t y ,

w lb/ f t and o f dep t h h f eet on a recta gular lock ga te o f

3
, ,
n

bread t h l f eet is gw lh lb and that it may be supposed

f 2
,

to act as a single concen t rat e d fo c at a height h f rom r e

l
Tf

the bottom o f the water

Fig . 23 .

Now ifthere is water o f depth h on the other side f '

o

the gate (fi g and consequently a thrus t gwl h lb

.
’
2

acting at a height gh f rom the bottom ; and i f the lock

’

gate is supported at A and 0 th e top and bo t tom and , ,

that P and Q are the hori z onta l reactions at these points ,

then taking momen t s abo t A and O pu t ting 0A = u , a,

51 005 Mi fiwl h l h fywl (h h )

’ ' ’
Pa 2
.
2 3 3

m
,

Qa t i nt/L
2
01 h ul l/
,
2
gi ll )

l wa uh If ) fiwl fli
' ? ? 3
M)3
,

which determines P and Q .

Th e caisson employed at the mouth f a dry dock has o

generally the cross section of the righ t hand f fig 2 3 o ,

but the horizontal thrus t of the water will be t he same ,

as well as the reac t ions of the suppor ts .

R epresenting in fig 2 4 the plan o f a pair o f lock ga t es

.
,

with water f depth h f ee t keeping them shut t hen the

o ,

figure shows that the th st between the lock gates and r u

 E XA MPLE S OF H YD R OS TA TIC T HR US T 55

the t hrus t f each ga t e on i t hinge post will be the

o s

same ; and de o t ing this thrus t by R

n ,

2 R sin l wl h a g
2
,

i n lh
z
R '
c o s e c (1 .

is the breadth f t he lock then b = 2 l cos

B ut if b o , a ;
and the ef ore
r

R % w bh cosec % wbh co e c 2
2
se c a a
f 2
s a .

Fi g . 24 .

S ome reservoir dams are curved in pla f ins t ance n, or ,

the B ear Valley D m in C ali f ornia ; a b utting thrust

a

thereby is se t up in the dam as in a pair f lock ga t es ,

o .

*
E a a mp l e s
f
.

(1 ) H avi n g given the height f a rec t angular reve t men t o ,

find i t s t hickness so tha t it shall j ust balance the

maximum thrus t of a bank f earth f the same o o

height the natural s1 pe o f t he earth being given

,
0 ,

as also the ratio s s of the specific gravities f

’
: ,
o

the wall and bank .

R eq ired t he t hickness o f t he reve t men t that

u

shal l give a s t ability double t hat d e t o simple equi u

libri m tha t is such t ha t t he momen t o f resis t

u : ,

ance f t he wall shall be double tha t f the bank

o o .

()
2 An embankmen t o f t riangular section A B C suppor t s
the pressure of wa t er on t he side A B ; find the
condition o f its no t being over t urned about t he
angle C when the wat er reaches to A the ver t ex ,
 E X A M PL E S OF TH R US T
of the triangle and show that when the area f
: ,
o

the t iangle is red ced to the minim m consistent

r u u

with stability f a given depth o f water or ,

t an B
Js z

tan C 5 35 6 J g u es
a
g 9
l s

where i the specific gravity f the embankment

s s o .

Prove also that the coe fficient o f f iction between r

the embankment and the ground mus t exceed

co t C } .

T h e retaining wall f a reservoir is composed f hori

o o

z on t al courses .

S how how to find the point f applica t ion f the o o

resultant stress between successive cou es ; and rs

prove tha t the locus of t his point (called the li n e

of i t
r es s a n ) when cethe,
wall is f rectangular sec o

tion is a parabola with horizontal axis and verte x

,

at the middle f the top o f the wall

o .

If <
1 is)the angle f f riction between theoblocks ,

find a f ormula f the greatest height th e wall can

or

have withou t the blocks sliding ; als ofind a formula

f o the g ea t est height it can have if the centre f
r r o

stress is nowhere to lie in the outer l / n o f the

breadth o f the wall .

Prove that in a t rapezoidal retaining wall the line f o

resistance is a hyperbola with a horizontal a ymp ,

s

tote t twice the height above the t op of the wa l l

a

o f the line f in t ersec t ion f the f aces o f t he wall

o o .

Th embankment o f a reservoir is composed o f

e

thin horizontal rough slabs o f stone f specific o

gravity and coe fficient f f riction is p Th t 0 p

8 o . e

o f t he embankment is f eet wide the f ace in a ,

contact with the water is vertical and h feet deep , .

 OF WA TE R A N !) E A R TH .
57

Show t ha t t he slope of the outer side t o th e

vertical must be grea t er than t he larger o f the
angles
2
1 2a 1 9a 3a
tan 1

M3 h
and tan 1

6 8 4h ?
> 2h
0

At the f oo t of a long smoo t h vertical wall fine sand ,

is heaped so as to f orm a long prism wi t h a ver t ical ,

f ace res t ing agains t the wall a horizon t al f ace ,

esting on t he rough ground and a slant f ace

r ,

inclined at angle 4 5 to t he horizon t his angle °

being t he limi t ing angle f fric t ion f t he sand o or .

Prove t ha t the pressure on t he wall is t o t he

ver t ical pressure on the ground as 1 t o 8 .

Prove t hat i f the dis tribu t ed weigh t on t he f o da un

tions of a building is p l b/ ft the f oundations must 2

,

be sunk t o a depth in f eet , ,

1 m 2

( sin ) w
s
p e
(} 7r
4
t an
10 1 + e

in earth of densi t y l b/ ft and angle of repose

i v
3
6 .

se t f equal smooth cyl inders t ied together by

o ,

a fine t hread in a bundle whose cross section is an

equila t eral triangle lies on a ho izon t al plane
,
r .

Prove t ha t i f W be t he to t al weigh t of th e bundle

,

an d n t he number f cylinders in a side o f t he

o

triangle the t ension of the thread cannot be less

,

than
or J 3(l T7
‘

according as n is an even or an odd nu mber ; and

that t hese values will occur when t here is no
thrus t be t ween the cylinders in any horizontal
row above the lowest .
58 TH E US T OF A LI Q UID
(8 ) even number f equal smooth spheres o f diame ter
An o

res t in s ta ble equilibrium in a vertical cylinder

r

f radius
o r .

D e termine the thrust exerted by any sphere .

A number n o f equal smooth spheres (billiard balls )

ach ef weight W and radius
o are placed within r

a hollow vertical (or inclined ) cylinder of radius a ,

less than 2 open at bot h ends and resting on a

r,

horizon tal plane Prove that the upsetting co uple .

due to the thrust o f the spheres is

(n 1 )(a ) W or n (a r ) W — r ,
—
,

a n is odd or even ; and that the least value

s f o

the weight W o f the cylinder in order that it may’

not upse t is given by

a W= ( n l ) (a ) W or n (a )W
— — r ,
— r

(1 0) Prove that i f a triangular pile o f f our equal spheres

,

is held close together on a horizontal t able by a

triangular f ame the thrust on a side f the f rame
r ,
o

is 2 f the whole weight o f the spheres

o .

35 . Th r u s t o f a Li q u i d u n de r Gra v i ty a
g a i n st a n
y
Pl an ef ce S ur a .

W have already investiga t e d in § 2 7 t he t hrust on

e

the plane rectang lar area whose elevation is B C by u ,

considering the ver t ica l componen t f the thrust as o

balanci g the weigh t of the superincumben t liqui d and

n

a similar method f procedure will determine the thrust

o

when B C is any plane a e a (fig r .

F consider the equilibrium o f the liquid super

or

incumbent B C which is bounded by t he cylindrical

ou ,

sur face B c described by vertical lines through the

,

pe imet r o f B C cutting th h orizontal surface in b

r e , e e .
60 CE N TRE OF P E S SR UR E .

36 T. his theorem will still hold when the plane B C is

vertical although the pre eding demonstration fails
,
c .

B t by projecting the inclined plane B C on any ver t ica l

u

plane By by t h ho izontal lines B B Cy E K per

:
e r , , s, r,

p end i c l a uto the plane

r By ( g fi and by resolving .

perpendicular to the plane By f the equilibrium f the or o

liq id in B ByC then w e fi d that the thrust on By is

u , n

equal to the component f the thrust R on B C p p n o er e

di c l a to the plane By
u r .

T his proves that t h e avera e pressure over By is t he g

pre sure at the

s f By ; also t ha t t he resul t an t
e, o

thrust on By must act through the projection o f K on x,

By so that is the C n tr of P
, x u e f By e e re s s r o .

3 7 H aving f ound G the (LG

. f the superincu mbent ,
. o

liquid the thrust B w ill act throu g h K the point where

, ,

the vertical l i through G meets the plane B C ; this

ne

point K which is at double the depth f G is called the

, o ,

C ENT R E o r PR E SS U R E o f the plane area B C ; and we are

led t o this
D E FIN IT ION “
T h C E N T R E o r PR ES S U R E o f a Plane
. e

A rea is the point a t which the t hrus t f the Liquid in o

contact with it may be supposed to act as a single

concen t rated Force .
”

T h e above me t hod gives a simple geometrical con

s truction f o determ ining the C P (C entre o f Pressure )
r . .

o f a Plane A rea in contact with liquid at rest under

gravity by means f which we may prove the following
,
o

T heorems or E xamples
(l ) Th e o f a rectangle or parallelogram A B CD with ,

one side A B in the sur f ace f the liquid is a t o ,

t wo thirds f the depth f the opposite side CD

-
o o .

T his f ollows f rom t he fact tha t the C G o f the super . .

 OF A P LA NE ARE A .
61

incumben t triangular prism whose c oss sec t ion is A C r c

lies in a vertical line GK at a dis tance f rom A t wo t hirds -

o f t he distance o f t he ver t ical line C c .

()2 Th e C
. P. o f a triangle A B C with t he ver t e x A in t he
surface and t he base B C horizon t al is at a depth
three quar t ers f t he depth f B C
-
o o .

T his f ollows because th e C G o f the superincu mben t . .

pyramid A B c lies in a ver t ical line GK at a dis tance

from A t hree quar t ers -
f the distance o f t he ver t ical
o

plane B c .

( 3 ) T h e C
. P.o f a triangle A B C with t he base B C in the
sur face and t he verte x A submerged is at a dep t h
one hal f o f t he dep t h f A ; because the C G of o . .

t he superincu mben t te t ahedron whose opposi t e r

edges are A a B C lies in a vertical plane midway

,

be t ween these e dges .

(4 ) T o determine the C P o f a triangle A B C with A in . .

the sur f ace and B C at depths g z , , .

Produce B C t o meet t he sur face in D so tha t A D is ,

the line o f in t ersec t ion of the plane f t he triangle with o

the sur face f t he liquid

o .

C onsider ng the t riangle A B C as the di fference between

i

the t riangles A B D and A OB w know by (3) that the , e

depths of the C P o f these triangles are 5g and 5

. .
’
s 2 .

B t the depths o f their C G are fig and so that the ’

u . . s

thrus ts of t he liquid on the triangles are

w % g A A B D and w §
. A A CD z ,

and the moments f the thrusts abo t A l ) (supposing f

o u or

an instant the plane of A B C vertical ) a re

w % g A A B D and
.
2
.

A A BD g
while A A CD
 62 CE N TR E OF P RE S S UR E
T here f ore denot ing the depth
,
of the C P . . of AB C by z
2
w _ 3g
. . A AB D — w . AA( D
w A A B I) — i c A A CD
3
.
-

3 y . . 3 .

(5 ) general case f a triangle A B C completely sub

Th e o

merged wi th the corners A B C a t depths as g

, , , , , 2 .

Produce B C as be fore t o meet th e sur face in D an d ,

consider the triangle A B C as the difl e n ce o f the tri '

er

angles A B D and A CD the a e as f which are in the ,

r o

ratio o f B D t o CD or y to 2 while t h e dep ths o f their ,

C G
. .are 3(r + g ) and 3
’
s a
-

T here f ore 5 denoting t he depth o f the C P o f A B C

,
. .
,

w s wa m/ 1 M ) “T
2 2

am ) m an i
2
yH’ ”
i
”

ii
”
-

iv .

mg (
a cr
z
xz z) ?

w w ze z )
3
z + yz + z x + 513 3)

the general f ormula including all the preceding cases

, .

T h e f orm f the las t result shows t hat t he C P coincides

o . .

with that f three equal small areas in the plane f t he

o o

triangle placed at the middle poin t s o f the sides ; so t hat

,

the t i l i n e coordinate s of the C P are

r ar . .

1 A 2 w+ v +e 1 A w+ 2 y + z 1 A r+ y+ 2 z
__
2 w 2 6 90 + 2 c w+ g + z
 C F A TWD M WL E 63

Th e depth of the C G . . of the t riangle AB C being

the C P . . is belo w the C G . . a t a dep t h
1 7

a
2
+g +
2
z
z —
gz
— e cc my
x+g +z
( y)
—
2/
1

w+ y +
We have supposed tha t the surf ace f the liquid a o

surf ace f zero pressure but i f t he atmos pheric pressure is

o ,

taken in t o account supposed equivalent t o a head f H ,

o

f eet f t he liquid then

o g z mus t be increased by H , cc, , , 2

in t he last f ormula and now ,

3 3 33 :

a + g + z + 3H
2 2
w +g
w+ g + z + 3 H
so tha t t he C P . . is raised thereby a ver t ical dis t ance

w+ g + z

oc +
g + z + 3H
2 2 2
a +g +z g z ex ag
H
+ 3H )
2
(
a
3 —
g
-
z )( c
c -
z/ —l e
j
-

d(d + H )
if ddenotes t he dep t h f t he C G f A B C o . . o .

Fo instance i f t he side B C is in t he sur f ace t he C P

r , , . .

is raised by the addition f the a t mosphe ic pressure o r

one quar t er the

-
HM .
(harmonic mean ) o f d and H .
64 . GE NE RA L D E TE RM] NA TION OF

38 find analytically the position o f t he C P f a

. To . . o

plane area f A square f ee t bounded by any closed curve

o ,

when placed in a vertica l plane with G t he C G of the , . .

area at a depth h f ee t in liquid (when It is called the

,

m n d p th o f t he
ea a ) we divide up the area A into
e a re ,

small elemen t s AA and denote by z the ver t ica l depth ,

of an element below the centre f gravity G and by z the o ,

depth below G f the centre f pressure K o o .

T hen w denoting the heaviness o f the liquid t he t hrust

, ,

R on the area A is given by

R Eel (h + Z ) AA
/ 2011 1 1 ,

as be fore ; and Ez A A = O beca use G is the C C o f the a ea , . . r ,

the symbol 2 denoting summation over the area A .

Again taking momen t s about the hori z ontal line Gy

,

through G since the momen t o f the thrust R acting

,

through the cen tre f pressure is equal to the moment f o o

the separate thrusts on the elemen ts o f the area there f ore ,

R5 2 70
01 . z ) AA z
2
2 0 2 2 13 1 1 ,

since w is constant and Ez AA (l ; and there fore the ,

moment f the resultant thrust about Gg is constant

o .

A lso 2 AA is calle d the m m n t of i n r ti o f the area

3
2
o e e a

A about the a x is Gy ; and putting

Ak g
,

then I in feet is called the d i u s f g y a ti n o f the area

t ra o r o

A about C y and A l is the moment f inertia in bi ga ud

,
:
2
o ,

ra ti f t
o ee

T hen RE= w A k
and there fore l /I or t
d
t,

so that keeping Gg ho izontal and lowering the plane -

r ,

area A in the liquid then I and 5 are inversely propor ,

t

ti l the C P thus tending ultimately t

on a ,
. coin iden e
. o c c

with G at infinite depth .

 CE NTR E OF P E SS R URE .
65

Th e distance HK o f t he C P K f rom G meas red . . e, u

parallel t o Gg and deno t ed by g will be given by

, ,

R g= g s n A ,

since being the C

E g AA = O G , the area A . G of. .

Th quantity E n A is called the p o d ct of i

e ti a r u n er

o f the area A abou t the lines G

y and Ge and is deno t ed ,

by D ; bu t considerations f symmetry will in general

o

enable us t o dispense with t he considera t ion f D o .

Fi g . 26 .

studen t o f D ynamics will no t ice t hat the C P

Th e . .

o f the area A coincides with the c n t e o o s i l l ti o n or

f e r c a ,

the en t of p e cu s i on f the area wi t h respect t o t he

c re r s o ,
"

hori z on t al axis 0 0 in which the sur f ace is cu t by t he

’

plane f the area A also that it coincides wi t h t he C G f

o . . o

the lamina bounded by the perimeter f A loaded so t ha t o ,

the superficial density is proportional t o the dep t h below

the free s r face f t he liquid
u o .

A bullet striking at the C P (cent e f percussion K .

) . r o

o f a target f ormed o f rigid sheet metal f uni f orm t hick o

ness bounded by t he perimeter f the area A will ca use

, o ,
G H . .
E
66
'
(JE N ? RE 01 1
1
R
P E SS URE
the target to begin otating about the a x is r and i f
suspended from the axis there will be no impulsive
action on the a x is ; so that 0 0 is called the xi of ’
a s

s
p o n ta n e o u o tat i o n wi t h respect to the C P K
s r . . .

A f terwards the target will swing about 0 0 like a

'

plummet at L suspended f rom O by a thread so as

,
’

to hang at the level o f K .

R eturni n g to the plane area A in the liquid as we ,

t rn the area about the a x is

u the position f K in the o

plane will not alter ; even when coincident with the sur
f ace f ,
the evanescent superi n cumbent film f li q u id
or o

will vary in thickness as the distance f rom

T h e e ffec t o f t aking into account the atmospheric
pressure on the sur face f the liquid is e q uivalent to o

supposing that the plane area A is sunk without ro tation

in t h liquid so that G is submerge d to an additional
e ,

depth It the head f li q uid e q ivalent to the atmospheri

,
o u c

pressure ; h now becomes changed to h + H but I and D , t

2

remain constant so that

2
12 D
h + 11
’

K II g D
a onstant
c
HG A lt ” ,

so that K will describe a straigh t line through G in the

plane f A o .

4 0 B t i f the area A is turned about G in its w n

. u o

plane K will describe a curve in the plane o f A

, .

S uppose the plane turned through the an g le 0 then ,

th new depth f the element AA is h + g sin 9 + cos 9 ;

e o z

so that 37 E denoting the coordinate s f the new C P with

, o . .

respect to the old a x es Gg G fi x ed in the area A , z, ,

 E Y1 l VPLL IS
‘ '

68 4 A

In fig 2 7 the position o f the C P of some simple figures

. . .

is indicated whence k f the area about a horizon tal

,
’z
or

axis through i t C G can be in ferred and v ic s . .

,
e v e rs a .

A d awn in fig 2 7 GK
s r OG in the rec t angle or
.
,
z
l g
‘

parallelog am h mg a pair of sides horizontal ; and

r , as

GK U G in the triangles having one side horizon t al

-
‘
-

1 K , ,

and in the circle or ellipse .

T hence w in f er that about a le i ta l a x is through G ,

i Oi z on ,

(height ) o the pa allelogram ;

f 1 2
r r

k fo the triangle
’
~
r

L“
n (h e i g h t ) f t h e circle or ellipse 2
or .

Th e m o f an area (Ie n o g/
co ) is the name given r ? , fl (cu

to the limited region within which the C P must lie i f . .

’

the area is completely immersed ; the boundary of the

core is there fore the locus o f the C P with respec t to . .
’
s

water lines which touch the boundary f the area o .

T hus the core o f a circle or ellipse is a concentric circle

or similar ellip e f one q uarter the size s o -
.

Th e o f water l i passing through a fixed point ne s

lie in a straight line the a t ipo l r f the point ; and , n a o

there f ore the core f a t riangle is a simila triangle f o r o

one quarter the si ze and the core of a parallelogram is

-

another parallelogram the dia onals f which are t he g o

middle third parts f the median lines o .

E x a mp l es .
’

(1 ) A parallelogram is immersed in a fluid with one side

in the sur face ; show how to draw a line from one
extremity f this side divi ding the parallelogram
o ,

into two parts on which the pre sures are equal ,

’

s .

*
Fo r o v i
c n f f
e n e nce th mp l l t i g to C t
o re e re n ce e e xa es re a n e n re

of Pre ss u re oll t d h ; b t t h t d t i om m d d t
a re c ec e e re u e s u en s re c en e a a

firs t rea d i g t o t t m p t o ly f w f t h i m p l o
n a e
y (1 ) t
n a e o e s e n e s , sa o
 R
CE N TR E OF P E S S URE .
69

A cubical bo x filled wi t h water is closed by a lid

withou t weight which can t urn freely about one
edge of the cube ; and a string is t ied symme t i r

cally round the box in a plane which bisec t s the

e dge S how tha t i f the lid is a ver t ical plane
.
,
in

with t his edge uppermos t the tension f t he s t ring

, o

is one t hird o f t he weight o f t he wa ter

-
.

t riangle is wholly immersed in a liqui d with i t s

base in the surf ace Prove t ha t a horizon t al
.

straigh t line drawn t hrough the cen tre o f pressure

o f t he triangle divides i t into t wo por t ions on

which the t hrus t s are eq al u .

A mill race f t riangular cross section is close d by a

-
o

sluice gate which is suppor t ed at the three corners

-
,

o f the t riangle ; find wha t f raction f t he pressure o

on i t is suppor t ed a t each corner .

Wa t er is flowing along a di t ch f rec t angular section

o .

A horizon t al bar is placed across t he di t ch and ,

t he wa t er s t opped by a board fit t ing the di t ch

and leaning against t he bar H w high must t he
. o

water rise to f orce a passage by upsetting the

boar d over the bar ?
S how t ha t t he cen t re o f press re o f a square or u

parallelogram immersed wi t h one angular poin t

in the sur face and one diagonal horizontal lies in
the o ther diagonal and is at a depth equal t o J
o f the dep t h o f i t s lowes t point .

S how t ha t t he dep t h f t he centre o f pressure f

o o

a rhombus to t ally immersed with one diagonal

ver t ical and its centre at a depth h is
where a is the length of the vertical diagonal .
70 E XAM PLE S 0 1
'

(8 ) A parallelogram w hose plane is verti al and centre c ,

at a depth h below the surf ace is totally im mersed ,

in a homogeneous fl id S how that if and b u .

,
a

be the lengths f the projections f its sides

o o 0 11

a vertical line then the depth f its cen tre f

,
o o

pressure will be
h
(9 ) A cube is tota lly immersed in liquid with one
diagonal vertical and one angle in t he sur face ;
show that the dep ths f the centres f pre sures o o s

f its faces are 7 and

o f the depth f the
1 3, o o

lowest point .

(1 0) A square is j ust immersed in liquid wi t h one corner

in the surf ace and a si de inclined a t an angl
0 to the vertical ; prove that the dis tances o f the
centre o f pre su e f rom the two sides of the s q uare
s r

which meet in the surf ace are respec t ively

4 sin 9 + 3 cos 0
(L 4 c G+ 3 i 9 a. os s 11

si n 9 + cos 0 sin 9 + 9
“

(i 6 c os

where is the length f a side

a o .

( )
1 1 Prove that the depth f the centre f pressure f a o o o

trapezium immersed in water with the side in a

the sur f ac e and the parallel side I at a depth

, ) ,

0 below the sur f ace is ,

a + 3b c '
'

a + 2b 2

(1 2 ) A lamina in the shape f a quadrila te ral A B CD has o

’

the side CD in the surface and the sides A D B C , ,

vertical and f lengths [3 respectively

o a, .

Prove that the depth f the centre f pressure is o o

_
B + a 18 + a 6 + 6
4 4 3 2 2 3
1 a 1 0
—

su e 2 a
z
+ as + s
2
 CE N TRE OF P E SS R URE .
71

If a q adrilat eral area be en t irely immersed in

u

wa t er and B y 6 be the depths f i t s f our

, a , , ,
o

corners and h the dep t h f its centre of gravi t y

, o ,

show tha t the dep t h of its cen t re f pressure is o

A ssuming that an y quad ilateral is dynamically r

equivalen t t o i x particles + 1 a t each corner I

s ,
—

at the in t ersec t ion of t he diagonals n d + 9 a t , a

the C G find the dep t h f the centre f pressure

. .
, o o

in t erms o f the depths o f t he corners a d o f the n

in t ersec t ion o f th e diagonals .

If a plane regular pen t agon is immersed so tha t

one side is horizontal and t he opposite ver t ex at
double t he depth f t ha t side prove that the o ,

depth f the cen t re of pressure f the pen t agon is

o o

— 48 ,

where is the dep t h f the lo west ver t ex

a o .

If the area be a egular pen t agon with one side in

r

the s r f ace and t he plane vertical then the ver t ical

u ,

line through the centre f pressure termina t ed at o ,

the sur face is divided by the centre o f t he polygon

,

in the ratio
2 + sin 1 8 + sin
°

A regular hexagon is immersed in a fl uid so t ha t its

plane is vertical and its highes t side in t he sur face
f the fluid ; show tha t t he depth f the cen t re
o o

f pressure below the s r f ace is

o where a u

is the length f a side f the hexagon ; so tha t t he

o o

depth f the C P is to the dep t h f the C G as

o . . o . .

2 3 to 1 8 .
72 CEN TR E OF P E SS R URE .

Show that the cen t re f pressure f a regula o

“

o r

polygon o f n sides wholly imme sed in a uni f orm

,
r

liquid and in a vertical plane is vertically below

, ,

the centre and at a distance

,

+ cos
where h is the depth f the centre and r is the o

radius f the circumscribing circle

o .

A elliptic lamina i s j ust immersed in a homogeneous

n

liquid the major axis being vertical ; prove that

, ,

i f the eccentricity be i t h e centre f pressure will ,

o

coincide with the lower f ocus .

A triangular area is immersed in liquid with one

side in the sur face the ellipse o f largest possible
area is insc ibed in it ; show that the depth of the
r

centre f p ressure o f the remainder f the t iangle

o o r

18 3 5 71 '

363 31 1 2 7.
the depth f its lowest point
of o .

A rectangle is immersed in n fl ids f densities u o

p 2 p 3
, p , p ; the top
,
f the rectangle
u being o

in the sur face f the firs t fluid and the area

o ,

immersed in each fl id being the same show that u

the depth f the centre f pressu e f t h rectangle

o o r o e

3n + l (L

sai l s
where a is the depth of the lower side .

D educe the position o f the centre o f pressure f o

the rectangle when the density f the liquid varies o

continuously the depth as .

Prove that the depth f the cen t re f pres ure of o o s

a parallelogram two of whose sides are horizontal

and at depths b respectively below the surface
a,
 VE R TICA L COM PONE N T OF T HR US T .
73

of a liquid whose densi ty varies as the dep t h below

the sur face is ,

+ a 6+ a b + b
3 2 2 3
3 a

ab 6
2 2
43 a

If t he centre gravity G is fixed and the cen t res

of ,

of pressure when a given line in the area is

,

horizon t al and vertical are respectively K K ; , 1, 2

then when the line is inclined at an angle 6 t o

,

the horizontal t he centre o f pressure is at K

, ,

where GK mee t s l i l in so t hat '

K D cos 9 = K D sin 9
I 2 ,

GR GD (co 6 sin s

41 . Co mp on e n t Ve rti ca l Th r u st o f a Li q u i d u n de r

Gra v i ty ag a i n st fa ce
an
y Cu r v e d S u r .

S uppose B C is a portion a curved sur face f of ,

or

instance a plate on the bottom of cistern boiler or

,
-

a , ,

ship ; consi de ing as be fore the equilibrium f the supe

r o r

incumbent liquid B c by resolving ti l ly then the yer ca ,

co mp on e n t v e r ti ca l th ru s t on B C is e
q u a l to th e we i g h t of
th e psu e r i n cu mben t l i q u i d B c , a n d a cts v e r ti ca l l y

u p wa r ds or down w a rds th r o u gh th e (I G .

f
o th e su
p er

i n cu mben t l i q u i d .

In fig 28, B Crepresents a portion o f a curved vessel

.

containing the liquid and the vertical component f the

, o

thrust on B C is downwards .

B t suppose as in fig 2 9 that B C is a portion o f the

u , .
,

c ved bottom o f a shi p ; then the vertical thrust on B C

ur

is up wa ds ; and now the supe incumbent liquid mus t be

r r

taken as the fictitious q antity required to fill p the u u

cylinder B c to the level h e f the water o tside o u .

 74 VE R TICA L C OM PONE N T OF TIIR US T

also if B C is the underside or fli t f

So arched so o an

b idge ; in a flood the upwa d hyd ostatic thrust f the

r r r o

water may be su fficient to blow p the bridge especially u ,

i f the para pet is solid and the oad is walled to prevent r

flooding .

Fi g . 28 . Fi g . 29 . Fig 3 0 .

It might hap pen in fi g 3 0 th t B C was part f a ,

as .
,
a o

curved s rface like the m f a warshi p such that the

u ra o ,

ve tical thrust f the li q uid on it w a partly upwards and

r o s

p tly downwards ; in this case it will be ne essary to

ar c

cut p B C into two part by the line D E E along which

u s ,

the tangent planes to the su face B C e vertical and r ar ,

then to determine the downwa d vertica l thrust on D CE F r ,

and the upwa d ve t i al thr st on D B E E sepa ately by

r r c u r ,

the precedin g methods .

42 . Th e Hydr os ta ti c Th r u s t i n a M ou l d .

onsider exam le the upward and do wnward th ust

C fo r p r
'

on the two parts f a mould use d in casting an obj ect o

like a bell (fig .

T h bell metal being poured in it to the level a f the

e -
o

t O p f the mould the u p ward thr st on the u pper hal f o f

o ,
u

the mo ld tending to li ft it and to allow the metal to

u ,

esca pe is equal to the wei g ht f m etal which would

. o

o u py the volume B A C b and to ounteract this p

cc ca ,
c u

ward thrust the mould must b f stened down or weigh t ed e a ,

down with cor esponding weights r .

76 UP WA RD VE R TICA L THR US T
Th e f ailure f the C oney Island S tand Pipe in D ecem
o ,

b
e r, 1 8 8 6 affords an illustr tion f the magnitu de f the
,
a o o

upwa d verti al thrust f wa t er

r c o .

T his was a cistern 2 5 0 fee t high 1 6 feet in diameter ,

f
or the first 70 feet from the ground and diminishing to ,

a diame t er f 8 feet f the u pper 1 60 feet by a shoul der

o or ,

in the form f a frustu m f cone 2 0 feet high

o o a .

From the given dimensions it will h found that the ,

e

resul t nt u pward thrust on the shoulder w over 700

a as

tons which acting on the lower cylindrical bo dy w s

,
a

su fficient to overcome the weight f metal 2 00 tons and o , ,

leave an up ward force f 5 00 tons to rupture the seam on

o

the g roun d .

A leaky tap a ffords another illustration here the ten

sion o f the screw in t h e base f the plug which keeps the o ,

plug in place is practically equal to the thrust of the wa ter

,

at the pressure in the pipe on an annular area the di ffer ,

ence f the cross section f the conic l plug at the ends

o s o a .

A anoth e r illustration f a
s called Pa rad ox sup
o so- ,

pose shi p is floated into a dry dock which the shi p

a

nearly fits (fig on readmitting the water a very

.
,

smal l quantity will su ffice to float the shi p however

large the quantity f water to be admit t ed b ing smaller
, o e

the closer the shi p fits the dock .

B t suppose a ship or barge to settle down as the ti de

u

falls on a so ft mudbank (fig it is o fte n found to.

happen that the mud will fit so tigh t against the vessel s ’

bottom that when the tide rises gain the water cannot a

penetrate ; and now the vessel loses nearly all buoyancy ,

and will not rise with the tide unless ca re is taken to ,

sway the vessel from side to side so as to readmit the ,

wat r underneath the bottom

e .
 ON A OUR VE I) S URFA CE .
77

his appa ent V iolation f Archimedes Prin iple 4 4 )

T r o
’
c

can be illustrat ed experimen t ally by means f a flat based o

body say a cylinder or cone of wood greased so as to

, ,

adhe e watertight to the bo t tom o f a vessel into which

r ,

qui ksilver water is poured as shown in fig 3 2 ; it will

c or ,
.

now be found that the body will remain in contact with

the bottom even after the weight of water displaced
,

exceeds the weigh t f the wood o .

(C otes H yd o t ti ca l m d P n u ma ti ca l L t e
, r s a c e e c u r s,

p 15 ;
.

Fig . 32 . Fi g . 33 .

For t he same eason a serious rarises with d anger

submarine boats i f they are allowed to take the g ound
,
r

under wa t er unless they are provided with pistons or

,

plunge s to give extra buoyancy and to act as stirrers f

r , o

the mud It is reported that one f the caissons f the

. o o

Forth B ridge failed to rise with the tide from insu fficient ,

buoyancy to ove come the adhesion f the mud and sand

1 o

in which it had become imbedde d .

O the other hand a tunnel such as the H udson R iver

n ,

T un n el or t he B lackwall T unnel driven through mud

, ,

and sil t is buoyed up by the surrounding s mi fi i d sub

, e u

stance with a force equal to the weight f the substance o

cut out and the tunnel should therefore be weighted so

,

as to balance this buoyancy i order to counterac t its ,

n

distorting and c b ki n g ffe t ro s s re a e c .

78 1 1 5 CA L S
-
' ’
A
V SE S .

43Pa l V. s ca
’
s a se s .

A ex p erimental method invented by Pascal

n f ill , , o us

t t i g the preceding p rin i ples

ra n onsists in taking a c c

number f vessels f di ffe ent shape but all standing

o o r ,
on

eq al ho izont l bases in (i ) (ii ) (iii ) (iv) fig 3 4

u r a , as , , , ,
. .

When filled with the same liquid t o the same hei g ht I t,

the thrust the b se B C is found experimentally to be the

0 11 a

same namely the weight f superincumbent liquid con

, o

t a i n d in a vertica l cylinder standing on the same base

e .

In (i) the vessel being a verti al cylinder the thrust P

, c ,

on the base is equal to the weight f the liquid ; and the o

r esultant thrust f the liqui d on the cylinde is zero o r .

In (ii ) the vessel enla ges and in (iii ) the vessel con
,
r ,

tra ts but the thrust the base is the same in eac h a e

c , 0 11 c s

a in (
s i ) ; so that the resultant thrust f the liq id on the o u

curved su f ace is the di fferen e between W the weight f

r c o

the li q uid d P the thrust the base and ac ts verti

an on ,

c ally ; it a ts vertically downwa ds and is equal to W P

c r -

in (ii) bu t vertically u pwards d is equal to P W in (iii )

, an .

In (iv ) the vessel is a slant cylinder or pipe and the

, ,

weight o f liquid is the same as in (i ) and equal to P the ,

thrust on the base and now the resultant thrust on the

c urved sur face is a ou ple f moment fiPh tan i f is c , o a, a

the inclination f the a x is f the cylinder to the vertical

o o

t his is seen from the conside ation f the e q uilib rium f r o o

the liquid in (iv ) .

Th hyd os t tic thrust on a piece f straight pipe

e r a o ,

s lanting at an angle to the vertic l cut off by two a a ,

horizontal planes at a vertical distance h is there fore

e q uivalent to a couple f moment J Wh tan i f W o . ; a,

denotes the weight f li q ui d in the p pe between t hese o i

two horizontal planes .

 1 H E LE VE L
' '
IN COM M UNICA TING VE S S E Li S
'
.
79

Asimilar theorem holds f the thrust exerted by or

spheres in a verti al or inclined cylinder c .

(iii ) (iv )
Fi g . 34 .

44 A Li q u i d i n Commu n i ca ti n g Ve s s e l s ma i n ta i n s
.

i ts Le ve l .

ommunication can be established by pipes between

C
the vessels and the equilibrium will not be disturbed i f
, ,

the vertical dep t h f the liquid is th e same in each vessel

o

but i f the depths are o igi ally di ff e ent t hen when the
r n r ,

communica t ion is made liquid will flow from one vessel ,

to the other till it stands at the same level in each that

,

is till the free sur faces are in the same horizontal plane .

T his principle f 2 4 that L iquids i n C ommunica t i n g

o

Vessels maintain their Level is employed in the design

o f water works ; it is also seen exemplified in the case o f
the Ocean but isolated bodies f water like the C aspian o ,

S the D ead S e or la ge inland lakes not in direct

e a, a, r ,

communication with the Ocea can have di ffe ent l evels n, r .

T hus from su veys it is f ound that the C aspian is about

r

8 3 fe et below mean sea level and the D ead S abou t

.

, ea

1 300 feet below mean sea level ; while the A ral S f d e a, e

by the Oxus is 1 5 6 feet above sea level and the G reat

, ,

S alt Lake in N A me ica is 4 2 00 feet above sea level

. r .
80 HORIZ ON TA L THR US T ON A C UR VE !) S UR FA CE .

Bythis it is meant that if free communication was

established with the Ocean this nu mber f feet would be ,
o

the hange in the depth

c .

A great part f H olland is below mean sea level and

o ,

would be cove ed by sea wate i f the banks d dykes

r r an

we e to give w y
r a .

45 . C omp o n e n t H o ri z o n ta l Th r u s t o
f a Li q u i d un de r
Gr a v i ty a g a i n s t an y Cu r v e d S u r f
a ce .

P oject the curved su fa e B C on any ve ti al plane

r r c r c

3 7 pe pendi lar to the given direction (figs 2 5 2 8 2 9 )

1
r cu .
, ,

by ho izontal lines round B C ; and onsider the q il i

r c e u

b i m f the li q id eal
r u o fictitious con t ained in B ByC
u ,
r or ,
,

B y resolving per pendicula ly to B C we find that the r ,

component ho izont l thrust on B C in this direction is

r a

e q ual to the thrust on the plane area By whi h can be ,

c

fo nd by a preceding T heorem
u

H e e again i f the horizontal cylinder through the

r , ,

perimeter B C cuts the surface B C under consideration

fi
( g .we must d aw the cylinder formed by the tangent
r

planes f the sur face perpendicular to the vertical plane

o

By ,
touchin g along the curve E F and conside sepa a t ely r r

the horizontal thrust perpendicular to the plane By on

the two pmt io f the sur face B C into which it is
ns o

divided by the curve f contact E F o .

B t as the horizont l th usts are in opposite directio s

u a r n ,

we see that the resultant horizont l thrust on the surface a

is always the same as that on By the projection f B C o ,

however o ften the cylinder B CBy may interse t the c

c u ved sur fa e bounded by B C

r c .

T find the
o l t n t horizontal t h
re s u s t on B C w
a 1 u , e

must find the component horizontal thrust the di e in r c

tion pe pendicular to that fi st found

r r .
 A VE RA C E PR ESS UR E O VE R A S UR FA CE . 81

Corollary If the boundary f B C vanishes so that

. o ,

B C instead o f being a portio

,
is the whole sur face f a n, o

body immersed or pa tly immersed in liquid which is in

,
r ,

contact with the liquid then the horizontal thrust on B C,

is zero ; and t he resultant thrust i vertical and equal to s ,

the weight f the displaced liquid

o .

Fi g . 35 .

In other w ords A body plunged into liquid is buoyed

up by a force equal to the weight of the displaced liquid ,

acting ver tically u p wards through the C G o f this liq id . u .

”

T his C orollary is im p ortant as the first established

T heorem o f H ydrostatics and it is alled A r h i me de
’

,
c c s

P i nc ip l from the name f its discovere w shall

r e, o r e

return to this T heorem and its consequences in C hapter III .

4 6 Th e A. ag P e v a S u f ce
v er e r s s u re o er r a .

T find the v e g p e s
o over a cu ved surface B C
a ra e r s u re r ,

w must find the sum f all the thrusts on every element

e o

of B C and then divide by the area o f the s f ace ur .

N w i f S denotes the area f the curved sur face

o d o ,
an

AS f an element f t he sur face at a depth

o o at which 2 ,

the pressure is p
=w f
z ,

the liquid being homogeneous and at rest under gravity ,

then the sum f all the normal thrusts

o

S PAS : s AS = i e Ez AS = s f
,

if zde notes the depth f the C G f the surface S ; so that

o . . o

the ave ge p is w the p ressure at the depth f

ra i e ssu re e, o

the C G f the su face

. o r .

O H . .
82 WHOLE NOR MA L PR E S S UR E .

sum f all the normal thrusts on a surface is some

Th e o

times called the WH OLE N O R M AL PR E S S U R E on the sur ,

face but as it has no mechanical significance f a curved or

surface and employs the word p u e in the sense f r e ss r o

th u t we shall seldom employ this e x pression but

r s ,
e , us

the idea f A V E R AG E PR ES S U R E instead

o .

4 7 In the ase f a plane sur face the whole pressure

. c o ,

and the RE S U LT A NT T H R U ST are the same ; and w e find

as before (g, 3 5 ) that t h A V E R AG E PR E S S U R E is the pressure
e

at the C G f the plane area

. o .

F orinstance i f a rectangle or parallelog am A B CD

,
r ,

with one side A B in the surface f the liquid is to be o ,

divided p by ho izonta l straight lines in to n part on

u r s

which the hydrostati thrust is the same then if PQ isc ,

the th line f division belo w A B the thrust on A B PQ

r o ,

must be /n f the thrust on A B CD ; so that i f a} and h

r o ,

denote the depths f PQ and CD below A B d A B =

o ,
an a,

wa r r r a) ,
_
.

wa h :i i
fih
so that the depths o f the dividing lines below A B a as re

1 z
J 2 z
J 3 :

and from each other a re a s

1 :
J 2— 1 :
J 3
like the dynamical formula required fo the times o f f alling r

freely through equal verti al distances deduced f om c ,

r

Qg t or 8 :
2
,

S imila ly it ca
r be shown that fo dividing up a
n r

triangle A B C whose vertex A lies in the su face and

,
r

base B C is horizontal by horizontal lines into parts on ,

which the hydrostatic thrust is the same the formula is ,

84. E XA MPLES ON R ES UL T/ IN T

(8 ) A cylindrical tu mbler co taining water is filled p ,

n ,
u

with wine After a time hal f the wine is floating

.

on the top hal f the wate remains p e at the

,
r ur

bottom and the middle f the tumbler is occupied

,
o

by wine and wate completely mixed If the r .

weight f the wine be two thirds of that f t h

o -
o e

water and their densities be in the ratio f 1 1

,
o

to 1 2 prove that the whole normal pressure f

,
o

the pure wate on the urved su fa e of the r c r c

tumbler is equ l to the whole normal pressure f a o

the remainder f the liquid on the t mbler o u .

(9 ) E qual volumes f n fluids dis p osed in laye

o s in a re r

a vertic l ylinder the densities f the layers com

a c ,
o

m n c i g with the highest being a 1 2

e n n ; s : z

fi nd the average pressure on the ylinder and c ,

dedu e the corresponding ex pression f the case f

c or o

a fluid in which the density varies as the depth .

A lso if the n fluids be all mixed tog ether show

, ,

that the average pressure on the curved sur face f o

the cylinder will be increased in the atio r

3 2 +l n n .

( )
1 0 A ve s sel contains n di fferent flui ds resting in hori
z on tal layers and f densities P p p p e c o
1 » z, ,, re s

t i l y st rting from the highest fl id

ve , a A triangle u .

is held with its base in the up per surface of the

hi ghest flui d and with its verte x in the n t h fluid
, .

Prove that i f A be the area f the triangle and

,
o

h h l ,
h be the de pths f the verte x below the
g, ,, o

upper sur faces f the l t 2 d n th fluids o s ,

n ,

r espectively th e thrust on the t iangle is ,

r

A
1 71 h
p n
s

?
n
 HORIZ ON TA L AND VE R TICAL THR US T . 85

A cylindrical vessel on a horizontal circular base f o

radius a is filled to a height h with liquid f o

density w If w a sphere f radius 0 and

. ne o

density great er than w is sus pended by a thread

so that it is completely immerse d find the increase ,

of pressure on the base o f the vessel ; and how S

that the increase f the whole pressure on the o

curved surface f the vessel is

o
3
8 711
( )
00
h 2
’

3a 3a
Th e shape f the in t erior of a vessel is a double
o

one t he ends being open and the two portions

c , ,

being connec t ed by a minute aperture at t he

common ve tex It is placed with one circular
r .

i m fitting close upon a horizontal plane and is

r ,

filled w ith water ; fi d the whole pressure and n

the resultant thrust u pon it and prove that if , ,

the latter be zero the tio f the a x es f the two

,
ra o o

portions is 1 : 2 .

If the water is on the point o f escaping between

the ci cular rim and the plane when this ratio f
r o

the axes is prove that the weight f the o

vessel is t hree times the weight f the water o .

A circ lar disc moveable about its centre fi t accur

u s

ately into a vertical slit in the side o f a vessel

ontaining water so that hal f the disc is in
c ,

water and hal f in the air T h pressure f the . e o

wate 0 the immersed por t ion acts vertically

r 11

u pward through the centre f gravity f that o o

portion and will therefore tend to turn the dis c

abou t its cent e T his has been proposed as a

r .

Per petual Motion Point t t h falla y . ou e c .

86 E XA M PLE S ON R E S UL T A N T

( 4) D
1 etermine the direction and magnitude f the o
‘

re

l t t thr st on every foot length o f either hal f

su an u

into which a horizontal ci cula p ipe is divided by r r

a ve tic l diametral plane

r a ,

(i ) when the pipe is hal f full f wate o r,

(ii ) when it is completely filled under a g iven head .

D ete rmine also the resultant thrust on either

hal f f a s phere hemisphere or vertical cone filled
o , ,

with liquid and divided by a vertical diametral

,

plane .

(T h e of a semicircle is at a distance from the centre

4 /3 f the radius and f a hemisphere at a distance 3 f
7r o , o 4
o

the radius ; and the C o f a cone is at a distance from G .

the vertex Q f the hei g ht )

o .

(1 5 ) A closed cylin der whose base diamete is equal to,

r

its length is full f wate and ha gs freely from

,
o r, n

a point in i t upper i m ; p ve tha t the vertical

s r ro

and horizontal components f the resultant th u st o r

on its curved su face are each hal f the wei g ht f

r o

the water .

(1 6) When the resultant fluid thrust u pon any portion

f a closed sur face is known show how to fi nd the
o ,

resultant thr st upon the remainder u .

P ove that the resultant thrust on the curve d

r

surfa e f a cylinder comple tely sub me rged with

c o , ,

its axis at a given an g le 9 to the vertical is W i O , s n ,

and a ts at ri g ht angles to the a x is through its

c

middle point W denoting the weight f liquid

,
o

dis placed by the ylinder c .

Det rmine generally the resultant thrust on the

e

curved f ac f a body like a cask ompletely

su i e o ,
c

submerged .
 HORIZ ON TA L AND VE R TICA L THR US T . 87

P ove that the resultant thrust f t he liquid in a

r o

cylindrical pipe inclined at an angle to the

,
a

vertical contained between two pa allel planes

,
r ,

inclined at an angle 6 t o the horizon ,

(i ) on these plane ends is a force

W cos sec(6 ) a a ,

cutting the a x is o f the cylinder at a depth 2 h ;

(ii ) on the curved sur face is a force
W in O e c(O )
e s a ,

cutting the axis f the cylinder at right angles at

o

a distance h sin (9 ) co c 6 f om the C G f this

—
a se ,
r o

liquid ; W denoting the weight of liquid and h th e ,

dep t h o f its G G below the free sur f ce

. a .

When the planes are horizontal the resultant ,

thrust on the curved su faces reduces to a co ple r u

of moment Wh tan a

A vessel in the form f an oblique ci cular cylinder

o r

with a horizontal elli ptic base contains homo

g e ne ou s liqui d .

If its curved sur face is divided into two halves

by any p lane through its axis prove that the ,

resultant th ust u pon either hal f is equival ent to

r

a single force and a ouple the magnitude o f t he

c ,

former being independen t f the p ositi on o f t he o

dividing plane and the magnitude o f the latter

,

being zero f one position f the plane

or o .

Prove tha t the thrust on an open curved sur face ,

bounded by a plane curve and immersed in liqui d , ,

is the resulta t f a force pe pendicular t o the

n o r

plane f the base and o f a force represented by

o ,

the weight o f the liquid enclosed by the surface

acting through its centre f gravity o .
88 E XA M PLE S ON RE S UL TA N T

the curved edge is placed in onta t with a

If c c

r ough inclined p la e and the liquid in the i n ,

n

t i
e r or is exhausted find when the surfa e is on ,
c

the point f slip ping p the plane ; examining the

o u

cases f a cone and f a hemisphere

o o .

S how that the res l tant thrust on a hemis p heri al u c

surface f radius with its base inclined at an

o a,

angle 9 to the horizon and its centre at depth h is ,

a fo ce acting through t h c t at an inclination

r e
'

e n re

to the ve ti al r c

2
cot ( cot 9 37 cose 9) 1
a

1
c

edu e the position f the C P f the circ l r

D c o . . o u a

base .

T w closely fitting hemis phe es made f sheet metal

o r o

of small uni form thickness are hinged together at

a point on their rims and sus pended from the ,
a re

hinge their ims being g e sed so that they form

,
r r a

a water tight s phe i al shell ; this shell is w

-
r c no

filled w ith wate through a small ape t re near r r u

th ehinge P ove that the contact will not give

. r

w y i f t h weigh t f the shell exceed three times

a e o

the w eight f the water it contains o .

C al ulate the tension f a thre d tied round the

c o a

hemis phe es as the shell is gradually filled with

r

wate ; also when the hing e is lowermost

r .

A solid cone is j ust immersed with a generating line

in the sur face ; i f 9 is the inclination to the ver t i
ca l f the resultant th ust on the c rved sur face
o r u ,

and 2 the vertical angle f the cone prove that

a o ,

( i ) t O 3 sin cos
2
1 3 s n a an a a .
 HORIZ ON TA L AND VE R TICA L THR US T . 89

the thrust on the cu ved surface is horizontal

If r ,

prove that the magnitude f this thr st i equal o u s

to the weight f a hemisphere of the liq id f

o u o

radius equal to the radius f the base f the cone o o .

A cone whose ver t ical angle is 2 contains a weight

,
a,

W f liquid Prove that whe t he axis f the

o .
,
n o

cone makes an angle 6 with the vertical the whole ,

pressure on the c rved sur face is u

Wcos 6 cosec a .

A right circular cone whose verte x i C is t ff s cu o

obliquely so that the cu t ting plane is an elli pse

with maj o axis A B If it stands on i t base and
r . s

is surrounded with liquid to the level of its vertex ,

sho w that the whole pressure on th curved sur e

face bears to the resultant thrust the ratio

cos § (A B ) cos % (A + B ) — .

Prove that i f a right ci cula cone with an ellipti r r c

base is held unde w t er with its axis hori z ontal

r a ,

the average p essure over the curved sur face and

r

over the base is the same .

A closed igid vessel is fo med by hal f the sur face f

r r o

an ellipsoid cut ff by any central sec tion and by

o ,

the plane section itsel f T h vessel is j ust full f . e o

water and stands with its plane base on a ho i

,
r

t l table
z on a Prove that the esultant thrust
. r

on the cu ved sur face is a ve tical force equal to

r r

hal f the weight f t he water such that its line f

o ,
o

action cuts the plane base at a dis t ance % J( 5 ) i

z—
' 2

f rom the centre ; whe e is the semi diamete r r -

r

conj ugate to the base and a the perpendicula ,

r

f om the centre on the ho izontal tangent p lane

r r .
90 GE NE RA L E XE R CIS E S .

G EN E R A L E X E RC IS E S
H APT E R II ON C .

A re g ula pyramid rf hei g ht h has its sides ,

o ,
con

n t d together by hinges at the vertex but they

ec e ,

are otherwise f ee T h pyramid is inverted and r . e ,

the sides fit a c rately together so that the whole

c u ,

may contain li q uid T h e vessel thus formed is .

suspended f om a b k by e q ual threads atta hed

r oo c ,

o ne to t h middle f the base f each side If the

e o o .

hook and t h verte x be equidistant from the b se

e a

of the pyramid how that the sides will be forced ,

S

a part d the li q uid will escape i f its de pth e xceed

an

4h i whe e
s n a,
2
‘

is the a g le made with the

r a n

verti al by ea h side
c c .

A b x is made f ni form material in the f orm f a

o o u o

pyramid whose base is a egular polygon f n

, r o

si des and whose slant sides are equal isosceles

,

t iangles having a common ve tex ; each f these

r r o

t ia gles forms a lid which turns about a side f

r n o

the polygon as a hin g e its weight is W and its ,

'

plane makes with the vertical ang le B ; and an

when closed the box is wate tigh t It is filled r -

.

with a wei g ht W f wate and is place d on a o r,

horizontal table ; show that n W must be g eater '

r

than % W c 8 or else the wa te will es ape

cos e
z
, ,
r c .

A regular hexagonal pris m has its sides jointed and ,

is filled with fluid the ends being losed by ,

c

ve tical planes It is then held with one face

r .

ho izontal and a hole is made in this top face

r ,
.

S how that in the position f e q uilibrium the faces o

n ext the t p one will be inclined at an a gle

o n

cos to the horizon

-
1 1
,I .
92 GE NE RA L E XE R CIS E S .

(8 ) If a s q ua e is imme sed wholly in a li q uid find the

r r ,

C P ; and prove that the point is not changed if

. .

the s q are is turned round in its own plane

u .

H ence p ove that the C P is the same f r all . . or

pa allelog ams wholly imme se d described about

r r r ,

an ellipse at the e ds f a pai f conj gate n o r o u

di metersa .

P ove also that the C P f all pa allelograms

r . . o r

fo med by the points f conta ct is the same

r o .

(9 ) If a conve x polygon f sides is om pletely i m o n c

m d no si de being parallel to the su face ; and

e rs e , r

if x (c x l
be the depths f the verti es A
, 2, ” o c
I,

f w hich let A and A be the highest

o
I ,

and lowest ; d i f a be the inclinations

an
1 , a2 , a ,,

to the horizon f the sides A I A l A A ; o

Q ,
z
g, ,, 1

prove that the depth f the C P is o . .

wfi i n A cose
s o ca x in A1
c a nc s e
1 z
‘
s
z
co se c a c o s e c a
l

l
2 sr
l
si
f‘
n A ose 1
c c au e e ns e a
,
m2 s i n A zc o s e c a l c os e c a 2
3

(1 0 ) A plane re tang lar lamina is bent into the form f

c u o

r cylin d ical su face f which the transve se sec

r r ,
o r

tion is a re t ngula hype bola If it is now c a r r .

imme sed in w ter so that first the tra sverse

r a , ,
n ,

se ondly the conj gate axes f the hype boli

c ,
u o r c

se tions is in the sur face prove that the hori

c ,

t l thrust on any the same immerse d su fa e

zon a r c

will be the same in the two cases .

 C HAPTER III .

I
AR C H M E DE S
’
PRI N C I PLE A N D B UOY ANC Y .

I
E XPE R M E NT AL D ETE RM N A T ON OF S PE C F C I I I I
I
G RAV T Y , B Y T HE H YDROS T A T C BA LAN C E I
A ND H Y DROM ETER .

48 principle of Archimedes which w es t ablished

. Th e as

as a C orollary in 4 5 f the last C hapter is so important

o

in Hydrostatics that it is advisable to restate it in a more

general form and to give an independent proo f
,
.

A rch i m d s P i n cip l
’
e e r e .

A body wholly or partially immersed in a Fluid or

Fluids (not necessa rily a single liquid ) at rest under ,

gravity is buoyed up by a force equal to t he weight f

, o

the displaced fluid acting ve tically upwa ds through t he

,
r r

centre of g avity f the displaced fl id

r o u .
”

To prove t his principle in the manner employed by ,

A r himedes we suppose the body removed and its pla e

c , ,
c

filled up with fl id arranged exactly as the fluid would

u ,

be when at res t ; and to fix the ideas w suppose this e

fl id soli dified frozen t his will not alter the thrust f

u or o

the surrounding fluid which will be exactly the same as

,

that which acted on the body .

93
94 A RCH IM E D E S ’
P RINCIPLE .

now this solidified fluid will emain in e q uilibrium

B ut r

of itsel f under two fo es the att a tion f gra v ity on its rc ,

r c o

weight and the th st f the s ounding liquid ; this ru o u rr

th ust must there fore balance the weight f the solidified

r o

fl id and act vertically upwards through the C G f the

u . . o

solidified fl id u .

T here fore also on t h ori g inal body the thrust f the e ,

o

sur o nding li q id will be equal to the weight of the dis

r u u

p la edcfluid d act ve ticallyanu p wards through i ts C G r . .

C OR F a body to float freely at rest in a fluid or

. or

fl ids the wei ght f the body and f the fluid it displaces
u ,
o o

must be e q u l and thei in the same vertical line

‘

a ,
r .

T h p in iple f A hi medes is there fore t ue not only

e r c o rc r

o f a body pa tly imme sed in liqui d like a sh i p but also

r r , ,

o f a body completely submerged in liquid like a fish , ,

diving bell or submarine boat or f a body floating in

,
o

i like a balloon
a r, and generally f a body immersed in o

two more fluids as a ship is strictly speaking partly

or , , ,

in i and partly in water

a r .

A mere in rease f atmos pheri p essure due to i n

c o c r ,

c re sed t mperature will produce uni form increase of

a e , a

pressure ; this will not alter the draft f a shi p u n less o

a ccompanied by an increase f density f the air when o o ,

less water and more air would be dis placed in equ librium i ,

and the dra ft f water would be diminished

o .

A gain a body floating in a liquid placed in the receiver

, ,

o f an air pump sinks slightly as the i is e x hausted

-
, a r .

Th th ust f the surro nding fluid on the body is

e r o u

c lled the b o yan y (French p

a u G erman a uft i e b)
c ou ss e e ,
’

and A rchimedes P inci ple asserts tha t the buoyancy is

’
r

e q ual to the weight f the displaced fluid and acts verti o ,

ca lly u p wards through its C G . .

96 DE NS IT Y A ND S PE C IFIC G RA VIT l
'

49 . D e n s i ty an d wcific Gra v i t y
Sy .

a homogeneous body has already been

T h e d e n s i ty of

defined as the wei g ht f the nit f volume o u o

With B ritish units the density is the weight in pounds

per cubi foot ; and with Met ic U nits the density is th
c r e

wei ght in g rammes p b i centimetre or kilo g rammes

e r cu c ,

per litre (cubic de imetre ) tonnes ( f 1 000 kg) per

c ,
or o

cubic met e r

i ty f a body is the
“
D E FIN IT IO N Th p ifi g . e s ec c ra v o

ratio f its density to the density f water or is the

o o

ratio f the weight f the body to the weight f an equal

o o o

volume f water o .

In the Metric S yste m a lit e f wate at or near its r o r,

maximu m density was ta ken as the unit o f weight

,

(p i d ) and called a kilogramme ; so that in this system

o s ,

the density and the s pecific gravity are the same .

N w i f denotes the metric den ity or s pecific gravity

o 8 s

of a substance the e q tion ,

ua

l V= 8 V (1 )
gives the weight W in grammes f a volume c ; or o
3

the weight W in tonnes f a volume V m (metres cube ) ; o

3

but the e q uation

W : 1 0008 V (2 )
g ives the weight W in kg f a volume V m o
"
.

W ith B ritish units the spe ific gravity and density c s

w (in l b/ ft ) are onnect d by the elation

3
c e r

w = Ds (3 )
whe e D denotes the weight in po n ds
r u of a cubic foot of

water ; so that the e q uation

W= Ds V ()
4
gives the weight W in lb f Vft o
8
of a substance who e s

s G (specifi
. . gravity ) is de oted by
c n s .
 DE NS IT Y OF WA TE R .
97

50 In rough nu merical c lcula t ions it is usual to take a

. a

cubic foot f water as weighing 1 000 o z or 62 5 lb ; so

o

that the equa t ion (2 ) g i ves the weight W i n oz o f V ft o f 3

a substance f S G 3 ; but in equation (4 ) we must put

o . .

D 62 5 .

A better average value is

D 62 4 ,
-

which is the density of water in , l b/ ft 3

,
a t a temperature
o f about 5 3 F ; while
°
.

D 62 4 2 5

is the maximum density water in at a tempera of ,

l b/ f t3,
ture o f about 4 C or 3 9 2 F °
.
°
.

A T able due to M e de l e e fi is printed in an A ppendix

'

,
n , ,

giving the density of wa t er at di fferent temperatures ; 8

denoting the density in g/ e m at the temperature tf C 3 ’

from which t he column o f D the density in l b/ ft w as ,

3
,

deduce d by multiplying by
,

while v deno t es the specific vol me in e m /g ; so that s u ,

3

and v are reciprocal .

5 1 T hese values o f s D and v re fer to pure distille d

.
, ,

wat er at s t andard atmospheric pressure

, .

B t water may contain solid matter i n suspension (as

u -

m d) or in solu t ion (as salt ) by which its density is

u , ,

increased .

T hus in mu ddy water D may rise to about 75 so that ,

a gallon of t his w ater will weigh about 1 2 lb as against ,

the gallon f 1 0 lb f pure dis t ille d water

o o .

In ordinary sea water we generally take ,

s = 1 02 5 ,
°

D = C4 ,
and therefore weighing 1 02 5 lb to the gallon ; but in t he
G
98 A VE RA GE A ND A C T UA L D E NS IT Y .

water of the Dead S e or of the G reat S alt Lake w a, ,

e

may take = 1 25 D = 78 s
°

, ,

so that a g allon f this water weighs 1 2 5 lbs

o .

Ice is lighte than water and consequently fo ms and

r ,
r

floats on the surface It is found that water in free z ing

.

expands about one twel fth that 1 2 ft f water forms ,

so
s
o

1 3 ft f ice ; we may thus take f

s
o ice or ,

8 9 23 ,
D : 58 .

It is this e x pansion f water i freezing which bursts

o n

the water pipes ; but the ruptures are not perceived till
the water thaws again .

C ast i on behaves in a similar manner on solidification

r ,

and thereby t kes a very clear im pression o f the mould ;

a

it is found that a piece o f cast iron i f thrown into a ,

vessel f t h molten metal will at first sink but after

o e , ,

wards float on the su f ce r a .

5 2 If the b dy is not homogeneous then W/ V will e

. o ,
r

present the v age density f the body ; and to measure

a er o

the actual density at any point we must find i t) the limit ,

of A W A V ( W V in the notation the i erential

/ d / d f D ff o

C alculus ) the quotient f A W the weigh t (in l b or g ) o f

o

a small volume A V (ft cm ) f the body enclosing the

3
or
3
o ,

point .

Th Weight W f a body c
e be determined with
o an

ext eme accura y by the balance but there is great

r c ,

practical di fficulty in measuring the volume V with any

p etence to equal accuracy ; so to determine t he average
r

density W/ V f a body an indirect process is adopted

o , ,

depe n ding on the use f the Hydrostatic B alance and the

o

Hy drome ter in conj unction with the Principle f A chi o r

medes .
1 00 DE TE RM INA TION OF S PE CIFIC G RA VIT Y
the crown will be found t be adulterated with silve in o r

the ratio f 9 parts by weight o f silver to 1 1 f gol d

o o .

In the experiment attributed by tradition to C harles II, .

,

o f dete mining the alteration in the weight o f a bu ket

r c

o f wat r in one f the scale pans f a balance due to

e o o ,

placing a fish in it the res lt will be di fferent according

,
u ,

as the bucket is only partially full f water or brim full o ,

.

If no water is spilt the altera t ion f weight is exactly ,

o

eq al to the weigh t f the body placed in the bucket

u o .

B t i f water flows over the brim on to the grou d the

u n ,

alteration in weigh t is equal to the weight f the body o

less the weight f this water whether the body floats

o ,

like a fish completely submerged or on the surface like ,

a dead fish or sinks to the bottom f the bucket like a

,
o

stone .

5 5 In using the Hydros t atic B alance to determine the

.

density o f a body which floats in water C otes suggests ,

the use o f a lever n d fulcrum under water (Hyd o a r

t t i ca l L c t
s a fig e but this method is not em
u res , .

ployed practi ally c .

Instead f this a sinke is atta hed to the body ; and

o ,
r c

now i f the body alone weighs W l b in air or vac o and i f u ,

the sinker weighs w l b in water while the body and ,

sinker together weigh W lb in water then the s o f

’

, . 3 o

the body is given by

W
W+ w W
°
’
—

A ste el yard is sometimes em ploye d in weighing bodies

-

in air and wate r so to determine t h e S G ; this fo m as . . r

o f instrument is known as Walker s s t eel yard hydro

’
-

static balan e c .
 B Y TH E H YDR OS TA TIC B A LANCE .
1 01

the body is soluble in wa t er (like soap sal t or

If , ,

sugar) then some other liquid whose S G is know m ust

, , . . n,

be employed such as benzine or turpentine or the body

,
.

may be varnished to prevent its dissolution .

56 T de t ermine the S G f a liquid by the Hy dro

. o . . o

stat ic B alance let metal weight f W lb be first

, a o

weighed in the liquid and a fterwards in pure dis t illed ,

water ; and le t W and W deno t e the weights in lb’ "

which equilibrate it in these two cases ; then W W is ’

the weight of liquid displace d and W W is the weight ,

”

o f water displaced by the weight W ; so that the S G f . . o

the liquid is
W W ’

W W
neglecting the buoyancy of the air on the weights W and ’

W in t he other scal e pan

”
.

5 7 In weighing a body i n air and in water we really

.
,

weigh it in t w fluids ; so that t o be accurat e denote by

o ,

M lb the true weight f the body (i n v a cu o) by p the o ,

S G . f the i and by B the S G o f the metal weights W

. o a r, . .

and W l b which equilibrate the body i n air and in water

’
,

the S G o f t h water being taken as unity then allowing

. e

fo t h buoyancy o f t he air which is Wp / B W p / B M p /

’
r e , , , s

on the weights W W M and f the b oy n cy M / f

,
'

, , or u a
‘

s o

the water on the weight M ,

W
( 1

W ’

< 1

<
W —
W
l

s o that NI p

the true weight of the body .

1 02 RRE C TION FOR B UOYANC Y OF
CO TH E AIR .

herefore W 8

i
)
T
W ’ ,

W 8
p
W W ,
l p
,

ins tead of as above s to whi h this ratio red ces c u

when we put p
=0 .

D enoti g by S this apparent S G obtained by putting

n . .

p
= 0 or by neglecting the density of the air t hen
, ,

5 ii i )

1 p ,

the ratio f the e x ess o f the absolute S G of the substa n ce

o c . .

and f water over the S G f the air ; and then

o . . o

s S p (1 S) ,

the correction on th apparent S G S to obtain the true

e . .

S G
.
when the S G p o f the air is taken into account
. s, . . .

A good average value to take f p is 0 0 0 1 23 or o

corresponding to a s pecifi volume of 1 3 ft to the lb c

3
.

5 8 W hen every re fi nement is introduced into th

. use e

o f the Hydrosta tic B alance the height f the barometer ,

o

h and the temperat e t must be observed in order tour ,

obtain the density f the air compared with its standard

o

density at standard temperature T and height f bar o e

meter H ; while the S G f the water must not be taken . . o

as unity but from the correspondi g value in M de l e e ff

, n en
’
s

T able
Again the value obtained f 8 will be the S G o f the or . .

body at temperature t so that the coe fficie t of cubical ,

n

expansion f the substance must be known to deduce from

o ,

this the S G f the body at the standard temperature T

. . o .

In the Metric S ystem the stan dard temperature is

0 C ; bu t as this temperature is not pleas ant to wor k
°
1 04 IM PE RIA L ST ANDARDS OF WE IGHT .

stones and a ton shall consist f twenty su h hundred

, o c

weights .

Fou hundred and eighty grains shall be an ounce

“
r

the foregoing weights e x ce p t the ounce troy shall

Al l
be deemed to be avoirdupois weights .

Fi rst S chedule Imperial S tandards T h imperial

. . e

sta ndard f determining the weight f the imperial

or o

standard pound is o f platinum the form being that f ,

o

a cylinder nearly inch in height and 1 1 5 inch in

diameter with a groove or channel round it whose
, ,

middle is about 03 4 inch below the t0 p f the cylinder o ,

f
or i n sertion of the points o f the ivory f ork by which
it is to be li fted ; the edges are care fully rounded off ,

and su h standard pound is marked P S 1 8 4 4 1 lb

c , . .
, .

S imilar precise language is used in defining the corre

s p nding Metric standard f weight the ki l g a mm de
e o ,
o r e s

ar ch i preserved at the Co nservatoi e d Arts e t

v es , r es

M é tiers Paris , .

T h e Weight f a body is the quantity which is

o

meas ured out against weigh t s such as oz weigh ts lb , ,

weights cwts e tc by the operation f W eighing in

, , ,
o

the scales f a correct B alan e every scientific pre

o c ,

cau tion f accuracy being t ken or a .

T o Weigh the body it is placed in one of the scales , ,

and is then equilibrated by ce rtain standard lumps f o

metal called Weights (French p o i ds G erman G wi h te ) ,

e c

stamped in this country as lb o z cwt tons tc ; and , , , , e .

in the M etric S ystem as grammes kilogrammes or , ,

tonnes and their subdivisions

, .

60 Where great accuracy is required an allowance

.
,

must be mad e by calculation fo the buoyan y f the r c o

 WE IGHT A ND B UO m OY OF
N TH E AIR . 1 05

air (5 or else the weighing should be performe d in

an e x hausted receiver (in vacuo in t he words f the A t ,
o c

o f Parliament ) .

T hus i f a pound o f f eathers cork or wood is weighed

, , ,

out i n air against a brass or iron lb weight and i f the ,

balance is placed in a receiver and the air e xhausted the ,

lighter substance being f g t volume and being more

, o x re a e r

buoyed up by the air will preponderate over the heavier ,

substance ; thus proving that the e called lighter sub s -

stance has t he greater weight (w e use the words l i gh te r

and h e i e as ap plied to a substance to mean f l s or
av r, ,
o e s

g ea
r t e density
r ) B t i f carbonic
. acid gas w
u int o as r

d c d into the receiver at atmospheric pressure the

u e ,

smaller denser body would preponderate .

T h is e x periment pe formed originally with B oyle s

’

,
r

s t ati c l b
a o cop ar s illus t rates the buoyancy d e to
e u

the air and proves that air has weight ; t his can also
,

be demonstrated directly by weighing a flask f metal o

that has been exhausted f air when on admit t ing the air o ,

the flask is found t o preponderate t o a definite amount ,

which is the weight f air which has entered the flask o .

Ai may also be forced in as in G alileo s experiment

’
r , ,

and the flask will preponderate still more ; but A ristotle s ’

ex periment f weighing a bladder when flaccid and

,
o

when full blown leads to no result as the bladder , ,

weighs exactly the same i f blown out to the atmospheric ,

pressure (C otes H ydrosta ti ca l Lectu

,
pp 1 4 5 re s, .
,

In balloon problems the buoyancy f the air is the o

ruling phenomenon ; and to measure the weight and

density f the air and f the lighter gas which fills the
o o

balloon is an opera t ion f great e x perimental di fficulty o ,

depen ding on indirect p rocesses .

1 06 C OPIE S OF IM PE RIA L ST ANDARDS .

61 In making an exa t co py f the p latinum standard

. c o

pound weight in a di fferent metal say brass a correction , ,

must be made f the buoyan y f the air or c o .

T hus i f B P p denote the S G f brass platinum and

’

, , . . s o , ,

of air the platinum standard pound will when weighed

,

in ai preponde ate over its true copy in bra s which

r r s ,

equilibrates it in vacuo by ,

e _ e ll
If I
7 000p 1
B
1
P)
)
) 01
‘

< -

If e q uilibrium is restored in i by adding a weight f a r o

90 grains f a metal f S G G (say gold ) to the brass

o o . .

weight then ,

w 1
(
T aking we find
B = 8 , G = 1 7 5 , P = 2 I 5 , p = 0 00 1 2 3 , ‘ ' '

w= 0 67 5 3 g ains
°

r
(of gold or
) cc = 0 grains ( f
67 5 9 ,
'

b rass ) ; and this di fferen e must be allowed f in the c a

t or

construction in air of a true brass co py f the imperial o

standard pound weight f platinu m o .

S imilar allowances f air buoyan y mus t b made or c e

in all accurate weighings ; however the ratio of the

apparent weights f bodies f the same substance o o

weighed by weights f one metal will be independent o

o f the density f the air and will there fore be a t ue

o ,
r

ratio in the process f do ble weighing

,
as o
“
u .
”

62 . Impe r i a l M e as u re s o f Cap a ci ty .

ccording to the W i gh t a n d M
A A t 1 8 78 1 5 e s e a s u re s c , , ,

Th uni t or s tandard measure f c p city f om which

e o a a r

all other measures f ca pacity as well as f liquids as fo

o ,
or r

dry goods shall be derived shall be the gallon contain

, ,

ing ten im perial standard poun ds weight f distilled o

water weighed in air against brass weights with the ,

l 08 A
E X M PLE S .

E x a mp l e s .

(1 ) P ove that an in h f rain over ac e weighs about

r c o an r

1 00 to s n .

(2 ) Find the weight f water in a lake whose area is o

5 acres and average depth 1 0 g feet and also the ,

number f gallons it contains supposing a cubic

o ,

foot f w ater to weigh 1 000 ounces and a gallon

o ,

to conta in 2 7 7 2 5 ubic in hes c c .

T aking the earth as a s phere whose girth is ,

kilometres or 3 60 60 nautical miles f 608 0 feet

,
x o ,

and f mean S G
o
prove that the weight is
. .

about 6 02 7 1 0 metric tonnes

'

x 5 9 3221
10 ,
or
'

x
21

B ritish t ons .

(4 ) S how how the mean transverse section f a piece of o

fine wi e may be dete m ined by weighing it first

r r

in vacuo and then in water .

If the wire is ten ya ds long fi d the greatest r ,

n

error in determining the mean transverse section

i f the weights are determined accurately to tenths
f a g ain
o d the weigh t f a u bi in h f water
r an o c c c o

is 2 5 2 5 g ains r .

(5 ) Investigate the con ditions f equili brium f a body o o

floating partially immersed in a fluid .

A n i on shell one ei g hth o f an in h thick floats

r -
c

hal f immersed in wa ter the specific gravity f ,

o

iron being 8 ; find the diame ter f the shell o .

(6 ) Prove that the calibre d in inches f an n bore gun , ,

o ,

is given by the relation

5 log ) »
n

given that n s pherical lead bullets f S G 1 1 4 ,

o . .
,

and diameter l inches weigh one poun d

c ,
.
 E XA M PLE S .
1 09

H ence prove tha t a 1 2 and 20 bore are 07 2 9

and 06 1 5 inches in calibre .

(7 ) Th e area of the base f a vessel with vertical sides o

containing water is 8 5 cm Find how much the 2

.

pressure at each poin t of the base is increased

i f 1 000 grammes f lead specific gravi t y are o ,

suspende d in the water by a thread .

G iven the S G 8 of ice and s f sea wa t er prove that

’

(8 ) . . o -
,

the volume and weight o f an iceberg o f which V ,

cubic feet is seen above the water is ,

) f t and
— 3s ) lb 3 -
.

()
9 A body floa t s in a fluid f S G s with as much f its o . . o

volume ou t o f the fluid as would be immersed in a

second fl id o f S G s i f it floated in that fluid
u . .
'

, .

Prove that the S G f the body is . . o

( )
1 0 Prove that in selling iron of S G 7 8 by weight in
,
. .
,

air f S G 001 2 8 wi t h a balance and sta dard

o . .
‘

, n

brass weights o f S G 8 4 what is sol d as . .

,

t ons f iron is really about 1 2 tons more

o .

(1 1 ) A piece o f copper of S G weighs 8 8 7 grains in . .

water d 9 1 0 grains in alcohol ; required the S G

an . .

o f the alcohol .

(1 2 ) T w cubic feet o f cork

o f S G 0 2 4 is kept below ,
o . .
4
,

water by a rope fastened t o the bottom Prove .

that the tension of the rope is 9 5 poun ds .

(1 3 ) Prove that if volumes A and B o f two di fl

, t
'

e re n

substances equilibrate in vacuo and volumes A ,

’

and B equilibrate when submerged in liquid t he

’

densities f the substances and o f the liquid are as

o
’ ’ ’
A B A A
’
B
’ ’
B
’

A A B B A B
1 10 TH E H YDR OME TE R .

( )
1 4 If t h the gold sup plied by H iero to the
e S G . . of

goldsmith was 1 9 and i f the S G f the crown as , . . o

deba ed w found to be 1 6 and the S G f the

s as ,
. . o

silve employed f this purpose was 1 1 ; then

r or

show that 3 3 par ts in 1 2 8 or rather more than ,

one fou th part by weight w silver

-
r , as .

(1 5 ) T h crowne used by the S tuart sovereigns which ,

was dest oyed in the seven t eenth century is said

r ,

to have been f pure gold (S G 1 9 2 ) and to have o . .

weighed 7 } lbs 1 .

H w much would i t have weighed in water ?

o

If it h ad been f alloy partly silver (S G 1 0 5 ) o , . .

and partly gold and h ad weighed 7 lbs in , 3 1

1
.

wa t er how much f ea h metal would it have

,
o c

contained 1
6 3 Th H yd om t
. e r e er .

F determining the density and S G

or f a liquid an . . o ,

instrument called a Hydrometer (French a eom é t ) is r

’

re

mpl ye d consis ti n g f a bulb and a uni form stem

o ,
o .

H ydrometers are f two kinds o

()i . the ommon or S i k c hydrometer o f variable es s

’

imme sio but fixed weight f deter mining the density

r n , or

o f a liquid (fig .

( ii ) the
. Fahrenheit or N icholson hy drometer f fixed ,
o

displacement or immersion b t o f variable weight which u ,

c a n be used f determining the density f a liquid or

or o ,

o f a small solid or to determine the weight f a smal l , o

solid (fig .

A these inst uments are usual ly small the inch and

s r ,

ounce are sed as B ritish units f length and weight

u o ,

b t better still the centimet e and g amme in questions

u r r

relating to their use ; and then densities will be given '

]12 C R AD UA TIO N OF TH E S TE M

Th e sensibility f the instr ment as measured by

o u ,

the distan e bet w een the graduations is proportional to

c ,

a or V/ and there fore inve sely proportional to the

a, r

sectional area ; so that the longe and thinner the rod r

A O is made the greater its sensibility in indicating

,

di fferences f density ; but as such an instrument would

o

be inconveniently long the lower part of the rod is ,

replaced by the bulb B f equal volume and weight ,

o .

With equal in rements f density starting from w

c o , o

and A the grad uations on the s te m proceed in harmonic

,

p rogre s sion and become closer

,
together .

T g raduate the instrument geometrically we draw

o ,

the horizon tal and vertical lines A C and CE A C ,

re

presenting to scale the density w ; and now i f A R o

rep esents any greate r density w and w e dra w the

r ,

straight line OQR meeting CE in Q then the horizontal ,

line QM will cut the stem in the corre ponding g radua s

tion M the point t which the hyd ometer will sink

,
o r

in li q uid f density repr sented by A R

o 10 e .

F i f the verti al line RP and the ho izontal line M Q

or c r

meet in P then ,

AR A 0A
10
_ R
w, AC MQ 7
0 ?
so that GM M P 0 A A C or rect 0P = c t OC : .
, . re .
,

and P there fore lies on t h e hyperbola CPD .

Incidentally we notice that this construction gives the

g eometrical method f inserting a given number f har
o o

monic means between t w o given q uantities 0 A and 0L ,

.

6 5 T h e grea t est density which can be measured by

.

the common hydromete r is represente d by LD where L ,

is the lowest division on the stem j ust a bove the bulb ,

B ; and common hyd ome te rs are f t w kinds r o o

 OF T HE C OM M O N H YD R OM E TE R .
113

. heavy liquids (salts ) denser than water floating

(i ) fo r ,

i wa t er with A in the surface

n

(ii ) f light liquids (spirits ) less dense than water

. or ,

floa t ing in wa t er with L in the surface .

C . 18 Cl 1 8
1

Fi g . 36 .

uppose the readings f a common hydrometer are

S o

required f S G betwee 1 and s and that l deno t es

or . .
’
s n ,

the length f the stem A L ; then

o

1
= or s, ,

V l 8 —
d

accordi g as the hydrometer is required

n

spirits or as s is or 1 and then

,

V d l 1 8
’
l
’
a 8 1 l — 8

giving the ra tio of the volume of the bulb t o the volume

of the stem
.
.

G H . .
1 14 S IK E S S ’
HYDR OM E TE R .

hus the marine hy dromete or salinomete r is required

T r

to register S G ra gi g from 1 0 0 to 1 0 4 ; so that the

. .
’
s n n

volume f the bul b m ust be 2 5 times that f the stem

o o .

T h S G o f pure milk being 1 0 3 1 2 5 the Lactometer

e . .
,

requires a bulb f 3 2 times the volume f the stem o o .

66 S i kes H ydr ome te r

’
. s .

To increase the r nge f the instrument a series f a o ,

o

weights W W provided f known volumes

,, 2,
a re o ,

whi h can be fixed on the s t em below the bulb B or above

c , ,

at A this instrument is known as S i k hydrometer es s

’
.

It is convenient to make the volumes f these weights o

al l equal and to use the instrument with one f these

, o

weigh ts al ways at tached so that the to t al volume of the ,

hydromete may be supposed to in lude t h e volume f

r c o

the additional weigh t .

No w when a weight W is attached the density curve , ,

becomes a similar hyperbola having the same

asymptote s 0 A and OE ; and it is convenient f con or

ti nui t y f meas urement to choose W so that the initial

o
,

ordina t e A C f the new hy perbola is eq al to the final

,
o u

or di nate Ll ) f the former hyperbola ; the substitution

o

of the ne x t weight W giving the new density hyperbola 2

in which A C = LO and so on 2
—
, , .

T hen with GA = ,
AL=l u, ,

u. W+ W2 W+ W,
w n

a — l W W+ W,
so that the weights W W+ W, W+ W2 W+ W3 , , , ,

are in G P and also the densities 1 0 w 2

.
0 ,
, ,
0
2,

which the weigh ts must be changed .

In this w y S i k hydrometer is an instrument

a es s
’

ca p able f measuring densities over a consi derable range

o ,

obviating the necessity o f an inconveniently long stem .

116 NICHOLS ON S H YDR OM E TE R ’
.

69 . deter mine the weigh t say g f a small body

To , a: ,
o ,

the hydrometer is placed in a liquid and in the scale A ,

the weight W g is observe d which is equired to sink the

,
r

hydromete to M ; W is then removed and t h b dy

r
, ,
e . o

is placed in the upper scale A a d the additional weight ,

n

W g required to be added in A to bring the hy drometer

2

down to M is observed ; then

90 + W2 = W, ,

70 T o
. dete mine the S G f the body the liquid must
r . . o ,

be pure distilled water ; and the weight g having been a:

determined as above the body is placed in the lower cage ,

C (added by N icholson to Fahrenheit s hydro meter ) being

’

tied down i f it tends to float up ; and now the weight W g 3

is observed which placed in the upper scale A brings
,

the hy drometer down to M ; then

W W is the weight f the body in water
, 3
o ,

W W , 2
air ;
and there fore the S G 5 3) . . IS

71 . When
the density f the air is igorously taken o r

in t o ac ou t and we denote by U and V the volumes of

c n ,

air and water displaced by the hy drometer by D the ,

density f wat r and by B

o and p the 8 G f the
e ,
s, ,
'

a, . .
’
s o

body the weights the l i q id an d the air then

, ,
u ,
.

W+ W,
( 1
 THE S PE CIFIC G RA VIT Y B OT TLE .
117

T he e fore
r W
( , W2 )
< 1

“ l
( 15) -

(Wl WA
GQ —
;

where S denotes the apparent s G obtained by neglec t ing . .

the density o f the air ; so that i f the liq id employed is ,

u

water and 1, 0 :
,

8 S p (1 S) ,

as before with the Hydrostatic B alance

,

7 2 T h e principle f N icholson s hydrometer is em

’
. o

ployed in weighing a large body like an elephan t or a big

gun f wh ich no balance su fficiently large is available
,
or .

Th ebody to be weighed is placed in a barge an d when ,

all is quiet the water line is marked ; the body is then

,
-

removed and replaced by stones to bring the barge down

t o the same water line ; and then t he aggrega t e weight
-

o f the stones weighed separately is the weight of the

, ,

bo dy .

73 . Th e Sp ecific Gr a v i ty B ottl e .

his a smal glass bottle with an accurately fitting

T is l ,

stopper pierced with a fine hole so that the bottle can be ,

filled up accurately to t he same point ; it is also provided

with a brass weight intended t o be o f e x actly t he same
,

weigh t as the bottle when empty .

Th e instrument is used f de t ermining t he S G f a or . . o

liquid or of a small fragment f a solid substance

,
o .

T h e bottle is w eighed (1) empty (ii ) filled with pure ,

distilled wa t er (iii ) filled with the liquid or (iv ) with a

, ,
118 E XA M PL E S ON T H E T HE OR Y
small piece the solid in the water ; and su pposin g that
of

W W W W g are the observed weights then W W

,, 2, 3, 4 , 2 ,

m is the volume f the bottle ; thence w find

c
3
o e

P
W, w, W, _ W,
’ ’

513 +

giving p the S G f the liquid and the solid su pposing

, s, . .
’
s o ,

its weight is 90 g .

(S tewa t and G P ti a l P h y i c I p 1 3 1
r ee, rac c s s, .
, . .

G uthrie P cti l Ph y i p , ra ca s cs , .

E x a mp l e s .

( ) Th e
1 volume between two successive g radu tions on a

the stem f a hydrometer is W w t h p art f its

o
l
o

whole volume and it floats in distilled water with ,

2 0 divisions and in sea water with 4 6 above t h ,

-
e

surface ; prove that the S G f sea water is 1 0 2 7 . . o -

.

()
2 Prove that i f a common hydromete
,
sinks to the r

graduations b c in liquids whose S G e a, ,

. .
’
s ar s
,,
8
2,

while Fahrenheit s hydrometer requi es wei g hts ’

r

W W W in the upper cup to sink it in these

,, 2, 3

liquids to the ma k M ; then r

b— c c —
a a — b
+ +
8
2

Prove that if lengths a and b f the stem f a ommon o o c

hydromete are visible out f t w given liquids in

r o o

whi h the hydrome ter floats and a length out f

c , 0 o

a mixture f equal volumes f these liquids the

o o ,

ratio f the vol me f the hydrometer to th a ea

o u o e r

of the cross section f the stem is o

(a + b) c 2ab
1 20 DE NS IT Y OE MI T X URE S .

74 . Th e D e n s i t y an d S p e cific Gr a v i t y f
o M i xtu res
an d A l l oys .

eno t ing by W W W
D W (lb ) the weights f , , 2 , 3, n ,
o

volumes V V V V (ft ) f substances o f densities

, 2 ,
3 , ”
3
o

w ,,
w 10
3,
wh ch are m i x ed or mel t ed
,, i

together to form a substance f weight W volume V o , ,

and average density w W/ V ; then there bei g no loss :

,
n

of material ,

W= W, + W2 + W3 + W " .

If there is no change of volume ,

V : V, + V2 +
but sometimes t his eq ality does not subsist in u , c on

sequence f chemical action

o .

T hen since by definition

,

W= w V ,
W2 = w2 V2 f
, W n
=a m

there fore

V
and if there is no change of volume ,

n + n+ m +
EW
E WT
'

w
enoting by
D s
,,
s
,,
the S G s
. the ingredie n t
.
’
of

substa nces and by ,

s the S G. . of the mi x ture ; then since
D de oting the density (in 1b/ ft )
n
3
of wate r there fore
,

and if there is no change of volume ,

 T HE S A LI NOM E TE R . l 21

Sp ose f instance that equal volumes f the i n

, or ,
o

g re di e n s t are taken and the e is no chan g e o f volume ;

,
r

then
the A M (arithmeti mean ) o f the
. . c

B t if equal weights are t aken then

u , ,

m .

the H M .
(harmonic me n ) a of the
75 . Th e S a li n o me te r .

T his is an instrument consisting f a hydromete a d o r n

a the mometer employed at sea to determine the degree

r ,

o f saltness in the wate f t he boilers r o .

Th thermometer is equired as the reading f the

e r ,
o

hydrometer is always taken at a fixed tempera t ure -

2 00 F ; and t hen the gradua t ions

. f the hydrometer . o

sho w the percentage f salt in the water a little o f o ,

which is drawn o ff f om the boi l d allowed to cool

'

r e r, an

to 2 00 F ; at a lo w er temperature some f the salt

. o

might be thrown down .

T h e salinometer is graduated experimentally bec use ,

a

it is found that a mixture f salt and water varies o

capriciously in volume with the percentage f the salt o ,

and also with i t s quality .

B t i f we ass me that the sol tion

u f the salt in
u u o

the water c auses no addition f volume ; and also take o

standard sea wa t er as containing one 33 d part by -

r

weight o f solid substance so t hat 3 2 lb f fresh water ,

o

are mixed wit h 1 lb f salt or one gallon f pu e f esh o ,

o r r

wate weighing 1 0 1b mixed wi t h 5 oz o f salt ; then

r, is

water n times l t e reckoned as ontaining n 33 d

sa -
r is c -
r s

by weight of salt .
1 22 THE DE NS IT Y OF S A L T WA TE R .

On e this water there fore contains (3 3

ft 3
of by
weight f pure water f e q al volume and its S G is
o o u , . .

therefo e n ) ; and measured on the salinometer

r —

as a hydrometer f salts by a length as f the stem out o f or ,

o

the wate r,

33 V a m 71

33 — n Tf ac
c
’
V 33
so that the grad ations f in t egral increments f i each u or o t,

of which is called are equidistant .

T hus 0 on the salinometer rep esents pure water

°
r ,

10
°
e pr sen ts o dinary sea water 2 0 represents water
r e r ,
°

double as salt and so on , .

7 6 If one l b f salt dissolved in 3 2 l b f water made no

. o o

addition to the volume the S G would be ,

. .

while if the volume was the sum f the volumes o f the o

salt and water the S G f the mixture taking the S G f

, . . o , .
~ o

salt as 2 would be given by

,

66
1 0 1 5 48 .

65
the S G f sea water is found to be abou t 1 0 2 5 so
B ut . . o ,

that a certai contraction must take place n .

D enoting by V the volume in ft f 3 2 lb o f fresh water

,
3
o ,

V f 1 l b f salt and V o f 3 3 l b f sea water f S G

2
o o , o o . .

1 0 2 5 then ,

32 1
V1 V2
D 2D
’

V, + V2 5 33
’
V 5 28

V1 + V2
1 i ’
V 5 28
so that the pe centage r of diminution of volume is
nearly 1 per cent .
1 24 TH E D E NS IT Y OF S A L T WA TE R .

fe d from the sea and if the boilers were not pe iodically r

blown out the accumulation f sal t would make a strong

,
o

b ine solution having such a high boiling point that the

r , ,

furnaces would become red hot and collapse -

.

T prevent this a certain f r ction f the feed wate r

o , a o ,

say one n th must be b l own out ; and then the water in

,

the boiler as tested by the S alinometer will not be more

, ,

than n times salte than sea wa te r r .

F let or

number f lb f pu e water evaporated

a) : o o r ,

y brine blown out ,

in a given time then

w+ y= mbe o f lb f sea water f d in in this time
nu r o e , .

T aking the sea water as con taining one 33 d par t by -

r

weight f solid substa nce then

o ,

y / 33 weight in
n lb f solid matter blown out
: o ,

fe d in
an d when these e q ual the saltness f the water ina re ,
o

the boiler will remain stationary ; so that

y + y= n y
=
a (H m/ n o

T hus ,
if the S alinometer register n =g and
l/ 3017 y) »

or two thirds f the feed must be blown out the remain

-
o ,

ing one third being evaporated ; and now it is calculated

-

that 2 4 per cent f the heat is wasted by this blowing fl

. o o
'

(S ennett Th M i n E n gi n p ,
e ar e e, .

It is this loss f heat by blowing out and also the o ,

practical impossibility f carrying a high pressure with o

salt water which makes the modern system f surface

,
o

condensation pre ferable in spi t e f the ext a complica ,

o r
 TH E S PI IT R H YDR OM E TE R .
1 25

tion and expense ; as in this w ay high pressure steam

and the principle of compounding can be use d with gain ,

o f economy .

Where however steam navigation is carried over on

fresh water as on rivers or the l akes f N A merica

,
o . ,

a return is made to the old fashioned system f jet o

condensing the surface con denser not being worth the

,

extra trouble an d expense .

On the other han d w ere stea mers to ply on the D ead ,

Se a, the S alt Lake of U tah or Lake U mi a in Persia ,

ru ,

the sal t est piece f water in the world the system f o ,

o

surface conde nsa t ion wo ld be unavoidable u .

78 . Th e S p i ri t H ydr o me te r .

his is
T hydrometer pplied to light liqui ds
S ik e s s
’
a ,

employed in the excise f the proof o f spirits or .

T h e S G f absolute alcohol being taken as S and f

. . o ,
o

water as unity then a mix t ure containing y per cent by

, .

weight f alcohol would if the volume o f the mixture

o ,

was the sum o f the volumes o f the alcohol and water ,

have a S G 8 given by
. .
,

(y/ +
S 1 0 0 —
y) 8 1 00 ;
so that the o esponding graduation on c rr S ike s
’
s hydro
meter a would be given by
:

V— ax so y/ +
S 1 0 0 —
y
s0denoting the S G and y the percentage by weight f. .
0 o

alcohol o f the mi x ture in which the hydromete sinks to r

O with one o f the weights at tached

, .

ma (1 _S K
( yo y)
“

Th
V 1 00S + (1 -
S ) yo
so that equal g ad at i n of the cale give equal
i u o s s de c re
men t s in percentage by weight of alcohol .
1 26 TH E S PI I T R HYDR OME TE R .

B ut it is found experimentally that the volume

as

of the mixture is not the m f the volumes f the su o o

separate alcohol and water d that the density va ies ,

an r

in an irregula manner with the temperature the

r ,

graduations f S i k hyd ometer f s pirits have been

o es s
’
r or

determined by experiment at two or three standard

tempe atures and the indications re orded in a table
r ,
c .

H
( y d m t E
ro ncyc B itannica p 5 4 0 by W G arnett )
e e r, . r , .
,
. .

Proo f spirit defined by A t f Parliament 5 8 G III

, c o , . .
,

so that such spirit shall at 5 1 F weigh e x actly

“ °
.

f an equal measu e o f distil led water

”
o r ,

may be t ken as a mixture f 5 0 per cent by weight

a o .

of pure alcohol with 5 0 per cent by wei g ht o f pure .

distilled water ; more accurately 4 9 3 per cent by , .

weight or 5 7 0 9 per cent by volume of alcohol so that

,
.
,

the S G S f pure alcohol at 5 1 F is

. . o
°
.

49 3 5 70 9
73 0 8 ’

42 91
An aqueous spirit is said to be per ent over proof a; c .

when 1 00 volumes f this spi it dilute d with water o r

yields l 00 + :e volumes o f proo f spirit ; and it is said to

be a: per cent under proo f when it contains 1 00
.
—
a:

volumes f p roof spirit in 1 00 volumes

o .

L t 8 denote the S G o f an aq ueous S pirit weighing

e . .
,

1 00 g composed f a g f pure alcohol

,
f S G S and
o o , o . .
,

1 00 —
g f water
a o .

T hen 1 00/ s m is the volume f the aqueous spirit

c
3
o ,

/ S and 1 00 cm th e volumes f the constituent

— 3
a a o

alcohol and water ; so that as/ S and (1 00 ) are the —

a s

percentages by volume f alcohol and water re q uired fo o r

making this spirit or the volumes in cm f al ohol and,

8
o c

water req ired to make 1 00 cm f spirit

u
3
o .
1 28 S PE CIFIC VOL UM E OF M I X T URE S .

able in an A ppendix gives the roomag e f di fferent

A T o

kinds f ca go ; convenient a pproximate ules are given

o r r

by i() roomage in ft / t = 36 z 3
on - — s,

(ii ) heaviness in t / (y d) fi
3
g o ns ar s,

whe e denotes the S G f the substance

r 8 . . o .

8 0 G iven the weigh ts W W

. i lb or tons , , , , n ,

of volumes V V ft f substances
,,
f SV
2.
3
, o o . .

v
, ,
so that
v g,
f
an ,

v
,
= V
,/
W, ,
V,/ W, , W
t hen the average S V. . of the mixture is given by
v : V/ W ,

whe e r W :

the m su of the wei g h t s ; and gene ally al r so

V : V, +
the volumes u pposing t h ere is no hange
t h e su m of , s c of

volume ; and the n

V1 31: ‘

t V"
W, + W
.

,,

V, +
Vz / v 2 + E V/ v
W,v , + W2 0 2 + Z WQJ
w, + z w
h us f e xample atmos phe i air f S V 1 3 being a
T ,
or ,
r c o . .

me hanical mi x ture f oxygen f S V l l § and nitrogen

c o o . .

of i t follows from the a bo ve that in a given

q uantity f air the weigh t s f oxygen and nitrogen are
o o

as one to fou and the volumes as 7 to 3 2

r, .

F putting or =1 13 1 3 1 in the equations v

,
r

V, + V2
,

VI/ ”1 Vz/ v s
W, 1 V1 7
we find
W, V, 32
’

4
 TH E L A C T OM E TE R .
1 29

81ince the S V is the reciprocal f the density it

. S . . o ,

follows that the S V o f a mi x ture o f equal weights o f

. .

di fferent substances is the AM f the S v o f t he i n . o . .

’
e
“

g di t s ; and the S V o f a mi x ture f equal volumes

re en . . o

is the H M f the S V of the ing edients su pposing no

. o . .
’
s r ,

change f volume to take place

o .

In the common hydromete (fig 3 6 p t he hy per r .

, .

b l i c curves CP C P
o representing g aphically the
, , ,,
r

densities would become trans formed into straight lines

,

ra diating from t he centres 0 o f the hyperbolas , ,

giving the corresponding specific vo l umes or rari t ies .

8 2 Fo a lacto meter to gi e y t h e nu mber f gallons

. r v o

o f water to o e gallon o f milk or reci procally z t he

. n ,

number f gallons o f mil k to one gallon f wat er when a

o o ,

length so f the stem is show n above t he mixtur e then

o ,

denoting by S and 1 the S G of pure milk and pur e water . .

and by s the S G o f the mixtu e . . r ,

8 1
so that

B ut by

so that .

a nd th e c ves f
ur or y and z are equal hyperbolas .

1
1 30 GRA VIM E TRIC DE NSIT Y OF C UNPO WDE R .

83 . Th e G ra v i me tr i c D e n s i ty o
f Gu n p owde r .

rtille ists employ both the specifi gravity and the

A r c

spe ifi volume in measurin g the density f the powder

c c o

in the a t id g e f a g
c r r o un .

Th e g i m t i c d n i ty f the harge f powder is

ra v e r e s o c o

defined to be the r tio f i t weight to the weight f the a o s o

wate whi h would fill the hamber f the bore behind

r c c o

t h proj ectile in the gun

e .

T h G D (g avimetric density ) is there fore the S G

e . . r f . . o

the powder or powder gases when fired which fill this

, ,

powder chamber .

Th spe ific volume f the powde charge or its gases

e c o r , ,

is also given by the number f i occupied by a l b ; and o n

3

a lb f pure distilled water having a s pecific volume f

o o

2 77 3 i the G D is obt ined by dividing 2 7 7 3 by the

n
3
,
. . a

number f cubic inches allot te d to each l b f powder ;

o . o

this is equivalent to taking D 62 3 the density f wate r :

,
o

at about 68 F °
.

T hus a gun charge e x p essed by r

means 7 5 lb f P powder with 3 3 i f s pace per l b f

o
2 , n
3
o o

powde and a conse q ue t G D f

r, n . . o

(M ackinlay T e x t B o k of Gu n y 1 8 8 7 p ,
o n er , , .

A c ording t c3 2 3 3 the G D f a charge f lead shot

o , . . o o

will be
of the S G f lead ; and the G D f a charge f the new
. . o . . o o

c o dite powder omposed f cylindrical filaments will be

r .
,
c o ,

% 7rJ 3 0 9 067
of the S G
. . of the substance o f the co rdite .
1 32 GE NE RA L E XE R CIS E S ON

()
9 T h e S G gold being 1 9 2 5 and f coppe 8 9 what
. . of ,
o r ,

are the weights f copper and gold respectively in o

a ompound f these metals which weighs 8 00

c o

gr ins in air and 75 0 in water ?

a ,

( 0) A piece f gun metal w

1 ofound to weigh -
as

gr ins in air and 9 3 4 8 grains in water ; find the

a ,

proportions f co pper and f tin in 1 00 lb f the o o o

metal the S G f the copper being 8 78 8 n d f

, . . o a o

tin 72 9 1 .

(1 1 ) A body immersed in a liquid is balanced by a weight

P to which it is attached by a thread passing over
‘

a fixed p lley ; and when h l f i mm d is balanced

u a e rse ,

in the same manner by a weight 2 P Prove that .

the densities o f the body and liquid are as 3 to 2 .

(1 2 ) It is found on mixing 63 pints f sulphuric acid o ,

whose S G is 1 8 2 with 2 4 pin ts f water that 1

. .
,
o ,

pint is lost by their mutual penetration ; find the

S G o f the compound
. . .

(1 3 ) A piece f gold immersed in a cylinder o f water

o

causes it to rise a inches ; a piece of silver o f the

sa me weight ca uses i t to rise b inches ; and a
m ix ture o f gold and silver o f the same weight 0
inches ; prove that the gold and silver in the com
poun d are by weigh t as b c : c a — — .

(1 4 ) T h e S G of lead is 1 1 3 2 4 ; f cork is 0 2 4 ; o f fir is
. . o

0 4 5 ; de te mine h o w m u ch cork must be ad ded

r

to 60 lb f lead that the united bo dies may weigh

o

as much as an equal volume o f fir .

( ) h SG
T f pure gold and copper are 1 9 3 and 8 62 ;
’
1 5 e . . s o

required the S G f standard gold which is an . . o ,

alloy f 1 1 parts pure gold and one part copper

o .
 DE NS IT Y AN D S PE CIFIC G RA VIT Y .
1 33

If th e liquid employe d With N i ch ol on s HydrOme t e r ’ '

be water the subs tance a mi x t ure of two metals

.
,
‘

whose S G are 1 4 and 1 6 and the weights used

. .
’
s ,

are 1 6 oz 1 o z 2 o z ; find the qu antity of each

, ,

me tal in t h e mi x t ure .

S h o w that the uni t s may be chose n so t ha t t he

'

specific gravity and th e density o f a substance '

are i dentical .

A nugge t o f gol d mi x e d w i t h quar tz weighs

'

1 2 (1 0) ounces and h as a specific gravi ty ,

given tha t t he specific gravity of gold is 1 9 3 5 ,

and f quar tz is
o fin d the quanti ty f gold o

in the nugget .

Air i scomposed of o xygen and ni trogen mi x e d

together in volumes which are as 2 1 to 79 or -

by weights which are as 2 3 to 77 ; co mpare t he

densities o f t he gase s t

Ho w many gallons o f wat er mus t be mi x e d wi t h .

1 0 gallons o f mil k t o re d ce i t s S G from u . .

to
B ronze con t ains 9 1 per cen t by weight of copper .
,

6 f z inc an d 3 o f tin
o ,
A mass of bell me t al .
-

(consisti g o f copper and tin onl y) a d bronze

n n

f use d t oge t her is found to con ta in 8 8 per cen t o f .

copper 4 8 75 of z inc a d 7 1 2 5 of tin Fin d the

, ,
n .

proportion of copper an d t in in bell metal -

.

T w o fluids are mi x e d to gether : first by weigh t s in ,

the proportion o f their volume so f equal weights ;

secondly by volumes in the proportion of their
,

weights f equal volumes ; compare t he specific

o

gravities of the two mix tures .

1 34 GE NE RA L E XE R CIS E S ON

A mix ture of g old with n di fferent me tals contains

r per cen t o f gold and r . r per cent ,,
r
2,
r
3, ” .

of the other meta ls A fter repeated pro esses . c ,

by which p ortions of the other metals are taken

away the amount f gold remaining unaltered
,
o ,

the mi x ture contains pe cent f gold and 8 r . o

s ,,
s
, ,
per cent o f the other metals
s ,, . .

Find what percentage of each metal remains .

A quart vessel is filled with a sa turated solution f o

s lt A quart o f water is poured d p by dro p

a . ro

into the vessel causing the solution to overflo w , ,

but is poured in so slowly that it may be sup

posed to di ffuse quickly through the solution .

S how that a fter the operation the amount f salt o

le ft i n the solution in the vessel will be l / f s o

the original amou n t where e is the base o f the ,

N pe ri n logari thms
a a .

From a vessel full o f liqui d o f density p is removed

one n t h f the contents and it is fille d up with
-
o ,

liquid o f density If this operation is repeated

a
'

m tim es find the resulting density in the ves el

,
s .

D edu ce the density in a vessel f volume V o ,

originally filled with liquid o f density p a fter a ,

volume U o f li quid f density h drip ped into o a as

it by infinite simal drops .

T h e mi x tu re o f a gallon f A with W lb f B has a o

,
o

S G s . with W lb f B a S G with W lb o f B a
.
, , 2
o . . s
3

S G . find the S G of A and B

. . .
’
s .

Find the chan ce that a solid composed o f three

substanc e s whose densities are p p p will float ,, ,, g,

in a liquid f density p o
,
1 36 GE NE RA L E XE R CIS E S .

Show that the c fii i t f expansi on f a body oe c en o o

may be found as follows

Le t be the S G f the body a t zero temperature
s . . o

compared with water at its greatest density ; 1 + e ,,

1 + the olumes at temperatures t t of a unit

e
2
v
,, 2

vol ume at zero temperature ; 1 + E 1 + E the ,, 2

vol mes at t t f a unit volume f water at its

u
, , 2
o o

greatest density ; t o the weight f the body in a o

vacuum w w its a pparen t weights in wat er at

,, 2
tem peratures t t ; then ,, ,

e ,
E E (w
e2 very nearly
, 2
s
,
.

Prove that i f a hydrometer o f weight W sinks t o

,

cer tain marks on the stem in a liquid at tempera

tures t and t and t o the same marks in the
, ,,

liquid t zero temperature when weigh t s w and

a , ,

w are fixed at the top f the hydrometer the

2
o ,

coe ffi ients of cubical expression f the hydromete

c o r

and f the liquid a e respectively

o r

El f ”
?
W+ w2>
L i z and
w2 — w, “
wi l

D etermine the S V in cubic feet to the ton and the . .

,

density in lb per cubic foot o f lead shot cast iron ,

s pherical shot d cast iron spherical shells with ,

an

internal radius three quarters the ou t side radius -

,

given the S G o f lead as 1 1 4 and f cast iron

. .
, o

D ete mine also the S V or roomage f earthen

r . . o

ware pipes a d cylindrical barrels o f apparent

,
n ,

density p .
 CHAPTE R IV .

I I I
T HE E Q U L BR U M A N D S T AB L T Y OF A S H I I IP OR
FLOAT I NG B OD Y .

84 . S i mp l e B u oya n cy .

Th e Principle o f A rchimedes leads immediatel y as i n ,

g4 8 to the C onditions o f E quilibrium o f a body sup ported

,

freely in fluid like a fi h in w t er or a balloon in air or like

,
s a , ,

a shi p floating partly immersed in wa t er (fig 3 8 p .

, .

T h e body is in equ ilibrium unde two f orces ; r

()
.i its weigh t W a ti g vertically downwards through
c n

G the C G f the body ; a d

,
. . o n

(ii ) the buoyancy o f the flui d equal to the weight o f

.
,

the dis placed fluid and ac t ing vertical ly upwar ds ,

through B the C G f the displaced flui d ;

, . o

and f equilibrium these t wo forces mus t be equal and

or

directly opposed .

T h C onditi ons o f E quili bri u m o f a body floati n g l ike

e ,

a shi p on the surface f a liquid are there fore o ,

(i ) the weight f the bo dy mus t be less than th e

. o

weight o f the total vol ume f liqu id it can displace or o ,

else the body will sink to the bottom o f the liquid

ii
( ) the
. weigh t f liqui d wh ich the body displaces in
'

the position of equilibriu m is equal to th e weight W o f

the body ;
(iii ) the C G B f the displaced liq id and G f the
. . . o u o

body must lie in the same vertical line GB .

1 37
1 38 S IM PLE B UOYANC Y .

85 In a shi p the d aft f water is a me asure f the

. r o
“
o

displa ement and buoyan y f the water while the fre e

c c o ,

b a d or height o f the deck above the w ter line is a

o r , a ,

similar measure f the ese ve f buoyancy o f the r r o ,

or o

extra cargo which the ship can arry witho t sinking c u .

Th Plimsoll mark is now by Act f Parliament

e ,
o ,

painted on all B ritish ships ; it is a mark which must

not be submerged when the vessel is floating i a fresh n

water do k be fore putting to sea and the mark is fi x ed

c ,

at such a height as to give th vessel a reserve f e o

buoyancy f 2 5 per cen t f i ts total buoyancy

o . o .

T h e buoyancy f a pontoon or cask employed as a

o ,

support buoy is however generally sed to mean its

or ,
u

reserve f buoyancy or the additional weight required to

o ,

subme ge it r .

T hus the (reserve f) buoyancy o f a body a li fe b oy

o ,
u

for ins t an e o f weight W l b and (ap pare nt) S G and

c , . . s,

the re fore dis pla i n W/ lb f water is

c g s o ,

1
( ) 8
—
1 Wl b .

86 . When
a ship loses its reserve f buoyancy and is o ,

sunk in shallow wate it ca be raised by building a r, n

c is
a n
so on the deck so as to b ing the level o f the r

bulwarks above the sur fa e at low water c .

A l l lea ks and orifices below wate having been sto pped r

by divers the vessel is pumped out at l w water by

,
o

powerful stea m pumps ; and thereby so n ac q uires ffi o su

cient buoyancy to rise from the botto m f the sea so as o ,

to be moved into a dock f re pair ; in this m nner such or a

large vessels as the U to pia the A ustral d the Howe , ,

an

have been raise d .

1 40 T O S PE R IN NCH IMME RS ION .

87 D.enoting by A the h e a te l i n e are a (fl o tt i son )

“

r a

o f a ship in square feet tha t is the a ea o f the plane , ,

r

curve formed by the water line then an additional l e ad ,

o f P t ons properly placed (that is so that t h e C G o f ,

.

P is vertically over or under the C G f the wa t er line . . o

area) will cause the shi p to draw h feet more Water f ,

o

density D l b/ ft sup pose given by the equation

3
,

D A h = 2 2 4 0P .

Strictly speaking this supposes either that the shi p

is wa l l si ded meaning that th e sides f the ship in the
-

,
o

n eighbo rhood o f the wate r line form part o f a cylindrical

u

sur fac e ; or else that the mean water line area at the
mean dra ft is A ft ; and thus given P/h we can deter
2
, ,

mine A and vi e e sa,

c v r .

Fo a water w
r se take D = 64 so that the S V f sea
e , . . o

water is f t / t n ; and 3
o

Ah = 35 P ;
or i f h is given in inches ,

A h = 4 2 0P,
P A
h 420
’

and P/ h is the number f tons required to immerse the o

ship one inch .

T h s in a shi p loading 1 0 tons to the inch the water

u ,

line area is 4 2 00 f t and loading or consuming 3 00 tons

2

o f coal will change the draugh t 2 ft 6 in .

F a ship L ft long and B ft broad t the water line;

or a

A e LB ,

where is called the co fii ci t f fin n ess f the area

c e
‘
en o e o .

T h e following rules given by M W H White f c

a re r . . . or

the co fli ci t o f fineness and n = P/ h the number of tons

e en ,

per inch immersion (N av a l A h i te t e ) rc c ur

 TH E M E R C UR Y WE IGHING M A CHINE 141

1 ships with fine ends

. Fo r ,

2 F .ships o f ordinary for m

or

(including p b bl y t h e grea t maro a

j y
ori t f vessels ) o ,

3 F .ships o f grea t beam in

or

proportion to the length and ships ,

LB
W th blu ff ends
i ,
5 00

A M ercury Weighing Machine has been invented by

M R tter (In du st i e s 1 6 Oct 1 8 9 1 ) in which the body
r . u r ,
.
,

to be weighed is placed in a scale pan which is suspended

from a cylindrical pl nger immerse d in mercury and the u ,

weight is read off on graduations corresponding to th e

weight o f the e x tra quantity of mercury displaced .

T hus the S G o f mercury being 1 3 6 the vertical

. .
,

graduations will correspond to kilogram mes per centi

metre immersion i f the cross section of the plunger is
c m in area or 9 6 8 cm in diame t er
2
.
,

8 8 S uppose the ship s weigh t and displacement is W

’
.

tons n d t hat t he draft of water increases by h inches

,
a

as t he density o f the water diminishes fro m w to w ’

t e n / ft ; then the original displacement bei g V ft

s
3
n
3
,

W : wV W (V
'
l—
-

T z A h ),

the ship n o w ac t ing like the common hydrometer ; and

these t wo equations are su fficient to determine V d W an

when A w a d w are known , ,

n
’
.

O deno t ing the S V in ft / ton by v and 3

’
r . . s

Ah )W
’

(v
l ——
T z v .
142 SI NKA GE IN F E S R H WA TE R .

hus i f
T sea water and
v = 3 5 fo r esh , v
’
= 3 5 8 4 fo r fr
°

wate r , fi Ah W
and if n denotes the nu mbe f tons p inch immersion r o er ,

1 0 O8
°

W W
WU 4 2 0n
a pp roximately giving the sinkage in inches o f the shi p
,

in passin g from salt to fresh water .

F instance i f a shi p f 8 5 00 tons displa ement draws

or o c

2 5 f t f water at sea and i f the length on the water line

o ,
.

is 3 3 0 ft and the b eadth 65 ft the sinkage in passing in t o

r ,

f esh wa t er is a little over 5 inches and dra ft 2 5 ft 5 ins

r
,
.

8 9 Larg e vessels a
. now built in compartments separ re

a ted by t ansve se waterti g ht bulkheads so as to loc lise

r r ,
a

and est ict the e ffect f a leak or perfo ation

r r o r .

N o w i f one f these com partments is bi l g d and be omes

o e c

filled with water the loss f buoyancy i ft is the volume

,
o n
3

o f wate which has entered so that the sinkage in feet

r ,

loss o f buoyancy in ft 3

n t a t wa t er line area in fi
g
1 c

If the compar t ment is fitted with a watertight deck

below the water line the water line area o f the vessel ,

may be taken as unchanged and t h e sinkage will be ,

correspondingly diminished .

If the compartment is occupie d by cargo such as coal , ,

timber casks etc the volu me o f water which enters is

, ,
.
,

diminished by the volume f this argo so t hat the loss o c ,

o f buoyancy is that due to the u n occup i e d spa e in t he c

compa tment up to the new water line

r ,
.

T hus ac cording to
,
33 the unoccupied space is ,

1 1 h J 2 f the volume
— according as the— o

c argo in the compartment is composed o f equal cylindrical

or s pherical bodies such as ca ks or grain closely packed ,
s .
1 44 . TH E E NE R G Y OF IMME RSION
orce required to de press the body or the upward
Th e f ,

buoyancy f the liqui d is t hus a force f w V pounds

o o ,

as before in § 4 5 .

9 1 B t i f the body is only pa tially immerse d as at

. u r ,

first and is w depress ed ve tically through a small

,
no r

vertical dis tan e a: ft the liquid will rise verti al distances

c , c

on the side f the vessel and on the side o f the body

o , ,

and x +
Ba:
3
'

,
—
a 3
,
—
a 8
:

if B
a, enote the (average
d ) areas f the horizontal ross o c

sections f the body and f t h vessel made by the hori

o o e

z ontal p lanes f the s f ce f the liquid ; so tha t the

o ur a o

extra volume displaced will be

U_ Bze a

B J -

the of whi h will be raised through

c

Be: a n:
eet
f
5 § _a 01
5s:
B
,
5 0 —

an d the consequent gain of energy is

2

_a gw Um ft l b
f -
.
,

the same time the depr ession through

At a: ft of the
volume V alrea dy immersed will g ive a gain of energy
of w Vac ft l b so that the total gain f energy is
-
,
o

fi
2
w f
+ gw
g w (V+ 1 U ) ao f t l b -
.

average resistance f the liq id to the depression

Th e o u

o f the body is thus a force f w (V+ § U ) pounds the o ,

buoyancy of a volume f the liquid reducing as o

be fore fo an infinites imal depress ion to a force of w V

,
r ,

p ounds the buoyancy ,

f a volume V o f the liqui d o .
 OF A A N
FLO TI G B O DY . 1 45

92 . When cons t ant the bo dy n d the vessel

a an dB a re ,
a

a e cylindrica l
r a n d the prece ding expressions hol d f
,
or

finite values of the depression h .

T hus i f the bo dy is a ver t ical cylinder floating freely in

the liqui d the weight o f the cylinder and the buoyancy
,

o f the water is w V l b and t he work required t o depress

the cylin der vertically through cc ft i s the gain of energy
o f the liquid less t he loss o f energy o f t he b ody n d the ,
a

work is t here fore

s Uoc ft l b -
.

If t he cylinder is
height h and density w th e len gth
of
’

h w / w of the a x is is submerge d and h (w stan ds out

’

o f the liqui d ; to immerse the bo dy comple t ely it must ,

be pushe d down a ver t ical dis t ance as given by ,

B m w wh
'
—

3
1
a to

and t he work required is there fore

)
'

5 1 J i a h 2
ft l b -

w B
, .

93enerally a floating body will come to res t i n a

. G
posi t ion i n wh i ch the energy o f the sys t em is a mini mu m ;
‘ ‘

and the prece ding consi derations show tha t the distance
bet ween G the (LG of the body and B the C G of t h e
,
.
, , .

liquid displaced will then be a minimu m ; the distance

,

being a max i mum fo positions f uns ta ble equilibrium r o .

E x amp l e s
(1 ) At l o w water a gallon was found t weigh 1 0 l b o s,

and at high water t o w eigh l b ; and i t s

required 2 5 tons to bring a vessel at high water

down to the dra ght at l ow water ; prove that t h
u e

ship weighed 1 000 tons .

K
1 46 E XE RC IS E S IN S IM PLE B UOYA NC Y .

(2 ) A steamer loading 3 0 (2 5 ) tons to the inch in f esh r

wa ter is found after a 1 0 days voyage burning 60 ’

( )
5 2 tons f coal a d
o y to have risen
a 2 f
,
eet (2 5
inches ) in sea water at the end f the voyage ; o

prove that the original displacement f the steame o r

w as5 7 2 0 (5 000) tons taking a cubic foot f fresh

, o

wa ter as 62 5 pounds and of sea wa t er as 64

pound s
(3 ) A steamer in going from sa lt in t o f resh water i s

observed to sink two inches b t a fter burning 5 0 u

tons f coal t o rise one nch prove that the

o i

s te amer s displacement was 65 00 t ons supposing

‘ ’

the densities f sea and fresh water are as 65 to 64

o .

(4 ) A steamer f 5 000 tons displacement drawing 2 5 feet

o

o f water has to discharge 300 tons o f wa t er ballast

to les en the draft one foot to cross the bar
s ,

into a l i ver Prove that a fter burning 5 0 tons f

. o

coal in going p the river the steamer will be

u

drawing 2 4 2 ft in fresh wate r ; and now the

admission o f 2 9 3 tons f water ballas t will be o

su fficient to increase the draft one foot .

(5 ) A sphere f adius o ft n d weight W lb is let gently

r r a

down into a vertical cylinder o f radius R con ,

ta ining water f twice the density f the sp here

o o .

S h o w that the work done on th e wa te be fore t he r

sphere begins to float is

Wr(% ft l b
-
.

()
6 E x plain wh y it is that i f a man pu ts his hand and
arm into a bucket partly filled with wate potential r,

energy is impar ted to the water .

A phere f radius r is held j ust immersed in

S o

a cylind ical vessel f radius R con taining water

r o ,
148 TH E CE N TR E OF B UO YA N C 1
'

AND

94 . Th e Co n di ti on s o f S ta bi l i ty of a S h i p .

In addition to satisfying the conditions f equilibriu m o

of a floating body 4 5 4 8 8 4 ) it is necessary that a

, ,

ship should fulfil the further condition f t bi l i ty f o s a o

eq u i l i bri m souas n o t ,to capsi z e ; i f slightly disturbed

from the position o f eq ilibri m the fo ces called in t o u u ,
r

action must be such as tend to restore the ship to i ts

o iginal position
r .

Prac t ica l ly the s tability f a ship is investigated by o

inclining it ; weights are moved across the deck and the

angle o f heel thereby prod ed is observed and t hen e uc ,
c

an estimate f the stability can be formed

o .

Fig . 38 .

95 the total weight f the ship be W tons and let

. Le t o ,

it displace V ft f wa ter the 3

o n

W = w V or 2 2 4 0 W= D V , ,

where w denotes the density f the water in t / ft and o on s

3
,

D l b/ ft so tha t D = 2 2 4 0 w
u
3
,
.

N w s p p ose a weight o f P tons on boar d o iginally

o u ,
r

amidships is moved to one side f the deck a distance f

,
o , o

b ft ; and that the ship originally upright is observed to

, ,

heel throu gh an angle 0 (fig .

 TIIE M E T A CE NTR E OF A S HIP .
149

Th e the displaced wate called the cen tre f

C G
. . of r, o

bu ya n cy
o will move 0 a curve (or su face ) called 11 r

the c u rv e ( s u f ce ) of bu oya n cy fro m B to B such

or r a , 2,

that G B is vertical i n t he ne w position of equilibrium

2 2 ,

G being the n e w G G f the shi p when P tons is moved

2
. . o

from g to 9 so tha t the ship will move as i f the sur face

2,

o f buoyancy w s suppor t ed by a hori z ontal plane a .

A P is moved across th e deck from g to 9 a distance

s
2

of b ft so the C G ,of the body moves on a parallel line .

fro m G to G h that GG = bP/ W this follows bec ause

‘

su c
2 , 2

the moments o f P and W about Gg mus t be the same ;

and i f t he e w vertical B G cuts the old ver t ical B G in m
,
n
2 2 ,

Gm :

g b cot 6 , G2 m =
5 b cosec 9 .

ultimate posi t i on M f m f a small angle f heel

Th e o or o

is the point of ultimate intersection o f the normals at B

and at the consecutive point B on the cu ve of buoyancy 2
r ,

an d M is t he e fore t he centre f curvature f t he curve f

r o o o
‘

buoyancy at B ; the point M is called t h e me ta cent e r ,

and GM is called the me ta ce n t i c h ei gh t r .

In the diagram the ship is drawn f cle arness in one or

position and t he water line is displaced ; but th e page can

,

be turned so as to make the w water line horizontal ne .

9 6 F stability o f equilibrium the metace tre M must

. or n

be above G fo i f M were belo w G then on bringing P

,
r

back suddenly fro m 9 to g the forces acting on the ship 2 ,

would form a ouple tending to capsi z e the s h i p but i f

c

M is above G the forces would then form a couple con .

sisting f W acting ve tically downwards through G and

o r ,

W acting vertically upwards along B m t en ding to e -

2 , r

store the ship to the upright position .

 M E TA CE N 7 W] C HE IGHT .

an g le f heel O is measu ed either by a spirit level

Th e o r

or by the defle tion f a pendulum pl mme t c o or u .

If the ship is symmetrical and u p ight when P is r

ami dshi ps and if moving the weight P tons ac oss the

,
r

de k through 2 b ft causes the plummet to move through

c

2 f t when s s pended by a thread l ft long then

a u ,

m 9= fl ; n a
F5
Pb
so that W w e ek 2 6
W a 3 /
S
and s may b taken as the meta ent ic height GM Z e
”
c r .
M

J
,

T hus in H M S A chilles f 9 000 tons displacement o

I
.
. .
, ,

it w found tha t moving 20 tons a ross the de k a dis r

as c c ,

tance f 4 2 ft ca sed the bob f a pendulum 2 0 ft long to

o ,
u o

move th o gh 1 0 in hes r u c .

H ere W= 9 000 P = 2 0 b = 2 l ; d , , , (t —
i
‘
T g an

there fo e GM r ft A lso sin O= 0 0 2 08 3 6 1

: .
°

,
:
°

9 7 Th dis placement W tons or V ft is de t e mined

. e
3
r

by a ppro x imate calc lations f om the drawings f the u r o

ship as also the C B B ; while G is determined from the

,
.

weights f the di fferent pa ts f the structure and from

o r o ,

the dist ib tion f the cargo and ball st

r u o a .

If the weight P w hoisted vertically up the mast as

a distance h B and M would not change b t G would

, ,
u

as end to G th o gh a height G G = h P/ Wft

c
, ,
r u
,
.

Th me tacentric height would be corre pondingly di

e s

minished so that i f P is now moved along a yard on the

mast a dist nce b feet the shi p will heel through an
a ,

ang le such that

W GM 9= W G1 M
'

Pb : . sin . si n

and to p oduce the o iginal angle f heel 9 P re q ires

r r o ,
u to
be moved th oug h a less dis tan e b such tha t
r c
’

b b = h sin 6
’
—
.
152 lVE D GE S OF E M E RS ION AND 1 MME RS ION .

99 . As t he ship heels through an angle

the water 9 ,
an d

line changes from LL to L L§ (fig a ce tain volume ’

2
. r

U o f water may be sup p osed removed fro m the wedge

shaped volume L FLg ca lled the w dg of me si on to ’
, e e e r ,

the volume LFL c l l d the w dge f i mm i n so as 2 , ,

a e e o e rs o ,

to form t he new volume f di pl e me n t LJ n

’

o s ac .

If b b denote the C G f the wedges f eme sion and

’
s o o r
, , 2
. .

immersion B E is parallel to b b ; d i f B Y
, are the
2 , 2
an ,

projections f B B b b on the new water

o
2, , 2

B B 2 = b, b2 . U/ V, U/ V .

Wenotice that when 6 is evanescent the line b b , , 2

coales ces with the water line LL ; and there fore the ’

t ngent to the curve o f buoyancy at B being the

a ,

ultima te direc t ion f the line B B is parallel to the o 2,

water line LL a theo em due to B ouguer ’

,
r .

If the C G f the ship is at G and GZ is drawn per

. . o ,

pe d i c
n l to B
u arm the moment in f t tons f the couple
z ,
-
o

tending to restore the ship to the upri ght posi t ion is

W . GZ = W(B Y— B G s i n 9)

W
(% c 02
,
— BG sin 6)
—
w(U . V . B G sin
A t wood s formula (Ph i l
’
. Tr a n s ,

urves are now drawn f ships by naval archite ts

C or c ,

called o s v es f t bi l i ty which exhibit g aphically

cr s cu r o s a ,
r

th value of the righting moment W GZ f a given

e . or

inclination 6 say an angle of ,

or and f or

di fferent dra ft s of water o f the ship and displacements

W or V ; the volumes U f the wedges o f immersion and o

emersion are calculated and the corresponding values f o

also the values f B G and thence GZ is known f an o ,

or

assumed positio f G n o .
 S TAB / LIT Y OF A S UB MA RINE VE S S E L .
1 53

1 00 .In the case o f a body floating comple tely sub

merged like a fish submarine boat or Whitehead t orpedo
, , , ,

the b oyancy always acts vertically upwar ds t hro gh B

u u ,

the o f the di s pl c e d l i q i d ; or the G B is a fi x ed point

a u .

in the body .

In the position f stable equilibrium B must be above

o ,

G ; a n d if displaced through an angle 9 the righting

’

moment will be
W GB sin 6 . .

When t he water line area is very small as is the case ,

of a d or hy drometer then B M is small so t ha t t he

ro , ,

body behaves as i f comple tely submerged and requires ,

ballasti n g to bring G below B .

S tabili ty is secured wi th greater facility by increase f o

beam the water line area ; a caisson as in fig 2 3 p 5 4

on , ,
.
,

or a yacht f similar cross sec t ion would req ire con

o ,
u

si d abl e ballast fo stability

er r .

In a body of revol tion (fig 4 5 p 1 9 0) such as a cork

u .
, .
,

a circular pontoon a cigar ship a spherical buoy or a

, , ,

hydrometer floating wi t h its spherical bulb partially

immersed the curves f buoyancy are circular so l ong as
, o

n o break in the circular cross section meets the water

line the metacentre M lies in the ax is or centre and the ,

equilibrium is stable i n the position in wh ich G i ti s ver

cally below M the ighting moment at any in cli nation

r

6 being
W GM sin 6 . .

1 0 1 T o determine t he metacentre theoretically we sup

.
,

pose t he angle 6 through which t he ship heels t o be small ,

so that the G B moves from B to the adj acent point B on

.
2
the curve of buoyan cy B B without al t eration o f the 2,

displacement V .
154 TH E ORE T ICA L DE TE RM ] NA TION
Th e es ltan t buoyancy f W tons acting vertically
r u o

up wa ds through B in the displaced position is equi

r
2

valent to an equal buoyancy W acting upwards through

B and a co ple f moment W B Y (fig
, u and this
o . .

couple is due to the u pward buoyancy through b f 2

o

the wedge f immersion LFL and an equal do wnward

o
Z,
fo ce thro gh b due to the loss o f buoyancy f the
r u
,,
o

wedge f eme sion L FLQ

o r
’
.

S uppose the ship tu ns about an axis t hrough F per r

p di l
en t o the pla e f the pa per ; then denoting by y
c u ar n o ,

the dist nce of an element AA f the water line a A

a o are

from this a x is f ro tation the element f volume f either

o , o o

wedge is ultimately
y tan 6 AA . .

T h e equality f the wedges f immersion and emersion

o o

lea ds on dropping the factor tan 6 to the condition

, ,

E yAA 0,
so that the a x is f rotation passes through the C G f the
o . o

water line area which we may denote by F ,

.

Th ighting couple o f the wedges f immersion and

e r o

emersion will be
Ewy tan 6 A A y = w tan OEy AA .
Q

w tan 9 A 1 ft tons —
. 9
2
,
-
,

“
where A h denotes the moment f ine tia in ft (biq d
2
o r ua

rati feet ) f the water line area A about t he xis f

o o a o

rotation 38 ) so that
W . B Y= w t an
B ut W= w V ,

and B Y B M sin 6 ultimately :

,

so that finally with cos 6 1

,
sin 6 = tan 6
,
:
,
or ,

=
B M A k / V,
2

the radius of curvature of the curve of buoyancy at B .

1 56 A
S T B ILIT Y OF A WA L L —
SI E D D VE S SE L .

1 03 the vessel is wall sided from the up ight to

. If r

an angle f heel 9 then p to this limit the curve f

o ,
u o

flotation reduces to a point F and the volume U f the o

wedges f emersion and immersion will be given by

o

U co t
the perpendiculars from b b on the
If b, e , b, e , be , ,, ,

u pright wate plane A then be fore (fig 3 8 p

r , , as .
, .

i
g fi
f

g
a
i -
t“ 9 , NB, -
wn 9 = BM ta n 9 ,

so that the subnormal N m is constant and equal to B M ;

and the curve f buoyan y B B is a parabola (fig 4 4 p 1 9 0)
o c
,
.
, .

of which B M is the semi latus rectum and there fore - -

M m = B N = é N B tan 9 gB M tan 9 ,
:
2
.

N w i f GZ is the arm o f the righting couple W GZ

o .
,

GZ = Gm sin 9 (GM + 4B M tan 9 ) sin 9 2

.

T h sur face o f buoyan y is n w given accurate ly by

e c o

the equation o f 1 07 and is there fore a p a b l o i d ,

ra o .

F instance i f a cylinder whose c oss section is the

or , ,
r

wate r line area A floa t s up ight immersed to a depth h ,

r

i liquid V= A h and
n , ,

22 y
2
z ?

2+
-

h let
is the e q uation of the surface f buoyancy a parabolo id o , .

1 04 F di ff erent dist ribution f the same weight on

. or o

board the displacement V f the shi p remains constan t ;

, o

and d awing all the di fferen t water planes f the shi p

r o

for cons tant displacement V (i s en ) these planes all o ca r es ,

tou h a e tain su face F fi x ed in the ship alled the u

c c r r ,
c s r

f of fl o tati on and the ship moves as i f this surface

a ce ,

rolls and slides on the plane s r face f the wate u o r

.

W have j ust proved (5 1 01 ) that t h line o f inter

e e

section f any two such consecu t ive water planes passes

o
 C UR VE S or FL OT A TION A N D B UbY 1 N OK .
-

1 57

th ough the C G of the water line area so tha t F t h

r . .
, ,
e

point o f contact o f a water plane with the sur fa ce f o

flotation is the C G f the cor esponding water line area

,
. . o r .

We have also proved t hat the tangent line f th e curve o

o f buoyancy is parallel to the corresponding wa t er plane ;

a d there fore the tangent plane o f the su fa ce of b o y
n r u

a n cy B is parallel to the corresponding water plane and ,

the normal line is perpendicular .

1 0 5 C onsequen t ly the body can floa t in equilibrium

’

wherever the normal t o the surface o f buoyancy passes

through G th o f the bo dy with this normal vertical
e ,

and therefore t he determinatio n of th positions o f equi e

librium depends n the geometrical proble m f drawing o o

normals from G to the sur face f buoyancy B o .

A gradually contracting liquid sphere with centre

'

at G is employed as an illustra t ion by R e e ch (J de

,
.
.

l e ol e p ol yte ch n i q u e , t h e fre e sur face o f the

’ ’

sphere cutting the sur face B in a series f spherical o

contour lines like those on the E arth

, ,
.

Th positions of equilibrium correspond (i ) when

e . un

stable to the top of a hill on B ; (ii ) stable to t he bottom

’

o f a lake ; (i i i ) stable unstable to a pass o r bar -

and th e conditions f equilibrium are the same as i f the o

surface B wa placed on a m oth horizontal pla ne

'

s s o

1 06 Fi g 2 6 p 65 may be taken to represent the

. .
, .
,

general horizontal water line area o f a shi p and now an

inclining couple due to moving a weight on board will
, ,
-

heel the shi p abou t an axis perpendicula to the plane r

o f the couple only when this axis is a p i n ci p a l x i s

,
r a

o f the mome n t l l l i p se f the wa t er line a ea A at

a e o r

its
1 58 I NCLINING C O PL E U .

Fo rlet the area A tu n th o gh a small angle 9 about r r u

the line Gy ; th en b b the C G f the wedges f emer

, , , . .
’
s o o

sion and immersion being the C P with espect to Gy f

, . .
’
s r o

the two pa ts into which the area A is divided by Gy

r ,

will according to the methods f 3 8 4 0 lie in the line

,
o -
,

0 GK ; and there fore the vertical p l ane f the inclining o

couple is parallel to 0 G the diameter conj gate to Gy ,

u

with es pect to the momental ellipse ; and 0 G Gy at

r
‘

,
a re

righ t angles only whe they the p incipal axes f the

n a re -
r o

momen tal ellipse f the water l ine area

o .

T h varyi ng directions f the inclining cou ple may be

e o

p od
r ced by swinging a weight
u f P tons suspended o

f om a crane round in a circle f radius b about G as

r o ,

centre suppose (fig 2 6 p as f instance in a fl t

.
, .
, or ,
oa

ing der i k crane required f li fting a d transporting

r c , or n

g reat weights .

When the weight P is over K the inclining couple ,

o f Pb ft tons will turn the water plane A about Gy

-

through a small angle 9 given by ,

sin 9 = Pb/wA 1 2
15 ,

a slope of one in wA l / Pb z
c .

If the weight P was lowered on to the vessel from

a crane on shore and deposited over G the (SG f the
, , . . o

water line a ea A the vessel wo ld sink bodily witho t

r ,
u u

heeling a distan e P/ inches n denotin g the numbe f

c n ,
r o

tons per inch o f imme sion r .

B t i f the weight P w deposited over K th e l '

u as , e v ss e

would be dep essed and inclined ; and the resultant e ffe t

r c

will be equivalent to a heel through the same an gle 9

abo t u the ti p l f the point K wi t h es pect to
an -
o ar o r

the momental elli pse .

1 60 C UR VE S OF S TA TIC L A
It was in the preceding ma ner from mechanic l and n ,
a

hyd ostatical considerations in conne x ion with N aval

r

A chitectu e that D pin (A p p l i c ti on de Ge me t i

’ ’
r r ,
u a s o r e,

was led to the discove y f these geometrical r o

theorems which now go by his name

, .

C Th surface of buoyancy is thus necessarily a

or . e

s
yn l ti c or rounded surface ; but the surface f fl o ta
c as o

tion F may change from being syn cl as ti c to a n ti cla sti c

01 saddle shaped in parts especially where the water

°
-

plane cuts the edge f th e de k of a ship or other edge o c ,

of a floating body as illustrated in fig 3 9 , . .

Fi g . 39 .

his fig T . 39 is copied by permission from Mr

.
°

W . H .

White s C ’
ou r s e f
o S tu d y a t th e R N . Co l l ege ,

(Tra n s I .and represents the cross section

of an actual vessel with the co respondin g sections f ,
r o

the surfaces f flotation and buoyancy represented by

o ,

the curves FF and B B and also the curve M M f meta , o

centri evol tes f the curve B B

c u o .

A cus p occ s on the curve o f flota tion FF in con

ur

sequence f the imme sion f the edge f the deck

o r o o .
 A ND D YNA M ICA L A
S T B ILIT Y . 1 61

1 09 . Cu rv e s f
o S ta ti ca l an d D yn a mi ca l S ta bi l i ty .

In these curves d awn ,

r in in fig 4 0 for the vessel
.

fig 39 the abscissa represents the angle f inclination

.
,
o

in degrees while the o dinate in the cu v f ta ti c l

,
r r e o s a

sta bi li ty represen t s the arm GZ f the corresponding right o

ing couple at this particular displacement (fig and .

the ordinate in t he cu e of dyn mi c l s t bi l i ty re

rv a a a

presents the wo k i n ft tons required to heel the vessel

r -

slowly over from the ve tical to the inclined position r .

Fi g . 4 0 .

Since the work done by a co s tant couple is the pro n

duct of the couple and f the circular measure f t he o o

angle through which it works the ordinate f the curve f ,

o o

dynamical stability will be proportione d t o the area f o

the curve f statical stability bounded by the final o

o r

di n t at the corresponding inclination

a e .

C onversely the tangent f the in lina t ion f the curve o c o

of dynamical stability is proportiona l to the ordinate f o

statical stability .

In a vessel o f circular cross section as in fig 4 5 p 1 9 0 , .

, .
,

the metacentre is a fi x ed point and the ordinates f the , o

curves o f statical a d dynamical stability are there fore

n

proportional to the sine and versed sine o f the abscissa ,

re presenting the inclination

O H
. . L
1 62 POL AR C UR VE S OF S T B IL IT A Y .

1 1 0 Mr M
. . ac farlane
ray suggests the use f p l G o o ar

f
cu r v e s o
s t bi l i ty(T a
a n I N A the p olar cu ver s . . . .
,
r

of statical stability will w be the curve desc ibed by no r

Z in the shi p (fig while the polar c rve of dynamical

. u

stability will be t h p d l f the curve f buoyancy B B e e a o o ,

with res pect to G or the locus f the feet f pe pendicula s

,
o o r r

drawn from G to the tangents f the curve B B o

,

B y a well known theo em f the D i ff erenti l C alculus

-
r o a ,

dp dp z
'

GZ =
d9
’

if 9denotes the inclination f the ship in radians ( f o o

or 5 7 3 deg ees ) and p denotes the length f the p p

r , o er en

di l ZB from G on the tangent at B

c u ar,
, , f the curve f 2
o o

buoyancy .

T hus W(dp /d 9) is the righting mome t in ft tons and n -

,

cl 9 W(Pz “

Pl l
is the dynami al stability in ft tons or work done in
c -

heeling the ship f om the first t o the second position ; so

r

that as in § 9 3 the di fference f energy in the two posi

, , o

tions is equal to the di fference f vertical distances o

between G and B in the t wo positions multiplied by the

weight W .

R eckoned from the uprigh t posi t ion the dynamical ,

stability in ft tons -

W(ZB GB ) W(B Y GB ve s
,

r
, 2

Moseley s fo mula (P h i l T n
’
r 1 8 5 0) . ra s ,

If the position f G is changed say to B a distance o , ,

B G = suppose then the righting moment and dynamical

a ,

stability are chan g ed to

W(GZ + GB sin 9 ) and W(ZB GB cos 9 ) ,

so that the polar curves f stability with respect to t he o

1 64 1 N
I ITI L A D YNAM ICA L '
A
S T B ILIT Y .

111 . small angular dis pl ement f the ship about

A ny ac o

an axis through F the C G f the water line area may be . . o

resolved into component angular displacements 9 and 9 , 1 2

suppose about the p incipal a x es o f t h momental ellipse

,
r e

o f the wate r line area A .

Repl ing sin 9 and sin 9 by their ircular measure 9

ac
1 2
c
1

and 9 the correspon ding righting ouples can be written

2,
c

W(P h ) 9 and ”0 h ) 0 l
—
1
7
3
2
—
2

ft tons where p p denote the pri ncipal rad

-
, l ,
f c rvature
2
u o u

o f the sur face f buoyancy and h is the distance between

o ,

the and the G B f the ship . o .

Fig . 41 .

work done by a gradually increasing couple is the

Th e
product f the average value of the couple and f the
o o

circular me sure f the angle th rough which it works ; and

a o

therefore the work done in heeling the ship is in ft tons ,

-
,

W
§ {(p 1
 LE CLE R T S T
’
HE ORE M .
1 65

Lecl e r t s Th e or e ms
’
112 . .

simple relation connecting the radius of curvature

A r,

of the transverse curve o f buoyancy wi t h the radius of ,

r
,,

curva t ure f t he corresponding parallel cu ve f flotatio n

o r
“

o ,

has been discovere d by M E mile Le l t . c er

Le t B B denote the C B f a ship in two consecutive

’
s o
1 2
. .
,

incline d positions when the displacement is V so that , ,

B B is a small arc f the curve f buoyancy ; a d let

I 2
o o n

1 l 7 be th e corresponding parallel arc f the curve of o

flotation (fig .

Produce E B E B to mee t in 0 and let the normalsl l , 2 2

at B B to the curve f buoyancy inte rsect in M and

1 , 2
o
1,

the normals at P F to the curve f flotation in tersec t I, 2

o

in 0 ; so that B M E 0 become ultimately r and

1 l l , 1 1
r
l
.

T hen since by D upin s T heorems the normals at B

’

, , 1

a n d F are parallel and al so a t B

1
and F the e fore , 2 2 ,
r

B IM I B IB 2 OB I
n .
o ms or;

and there fore M lies in the straight line 0 0 5 1 1

N ow suppose the displacement f the ship is changed o

from V to V é A V and V+ % A V; n d that i n consequence a

B changes to o and 3 B to b and [3 F to f and

1 1 1 1» 2 2 2, 1 1

F to f and 15 a d M to i n and M
2 2
( 2, n
1 1 r

Th increment A V which changes the displacemen t

e

from V % A V to V+ % A V may be suppose d concen t rated

a t F so that
1,

(V “
V )18 1 F1 ,

bl fil AV
’
V

since B may be t aken as the middle point of b fi

1 l l
.
l 66 LE CLE R T S T
’
HE OR E M .

similarity f the small arcs b b

Th e oF F shows l z, 1 2

as be fo e that m M also lie on 0 0 ; so that drawi g

r
1 ,
1 1 ,
n

m m M D pa allel to OF w may denote mn the incre

l , r
I,
e
l ,

ment in r due to the increment A V in V by Ar ; and ,

A? ”
M y] AV
therefore __
4
7
1
r DG B1 7
A
r1 r V
A ;
first ex pression f
Le c l e rt
’
s or r
l
.

A lso since ,
= I V Where I d enotes A 1 there fore in
r ,
0
2
,

the notation f the D i fferential C alculus

o ,

I l I al l
()
o
r1 +V
V ZV 17
Z fl V
Le c l e rtsecond expression f
’
s or

S imilar expressions connect the rad u f curvature f o o

the longitudinal cu ves f buoyan y nd flotation f a r o c a o

ship ; and the formulas may be e x tended to the successive

evolute s f these curves f buoyancy and flotation by
o o

di ffe entiating with respect to 9 keeping V

r t t ,
co n s an .

As a simple verification the student may apply Le l t

’
c er s

theorems to the case o f a cylindrica l pontoon a spherical ,

buoy or any body f revolution floating horizontal l y

, o , .

W notice that an inc ease f displacemen t A V causes

e r o

the Q B B to move towards F through a distan e

.
1 1
c

(3 )
and causes the metacent e M to move towards 0 through r
1 1

a distance n y A V
( / )V M 0 o
l , 1 1

so that a small increase f the load or f the d aft will o o r

cause the metacentre to rise or fall in the ship according

as the metacentre lies below or above the cent e f cu va r o r

ture f the cu ve f flotati o

o r o n .
1 68 A
S T B ILIT Y OF A S HIP
the ship heels through a small angle o f A9 adians
If r

at the displacement V so that the C B is hanged f om , . c r

B to B and i f GZ is the pe pendicular f om G on the

1 2 ,
2
r r

new ve ti al M E and H the co responding point on

r c
I 2 ,
’
r

the onsecutive cross curve f st bility the ultimately

c o a ,
n, ,

EH
’
GZ oz —

FH oz
tan M o z AO , ,
l 1 ,

a theorem which will be found useful in inte pol ating r

cross curves f st bility between calculated curves f

o a or

given inclinations .

Fig . 42 .

1 14 stability f a ship must always be secured at

. Th e o

th smallest draft when the hold is empty and again

e ,

at the load dra f t down to the Plimsoll mark .

Th fi st condition must be the care o f the n aval

e r

ar hitect f stability at launching and during fitting

c ,
or

out ; but the second co dition o f stability at load draft n

depends on the manner f stowage of the c rgo o a .

D enote by G B M the C G the C B and the metacen t e

, , . .
, . .
,
r

f the ship at load dra ft LL and by G B Ill the

'
o , 1, 1

corres ponding points at light dra ft L Li I .

 WITH V A R IA TION OF DRA FT .
1 69

A line is drawn at 4 5 to t he vertical either FF °

, ,

through F or K F through the keel K ; so that the

,
’

hori z ontal ordinates f t hese lines represent either the o

freeboard belo w the load line LL or t h e draft f water

’

,
o

above the keel K (fig .

A vertical l ine is drawn thro gh F where L Li cuts u

, l

FF ; a d now G B M are trans ferred horizontally on

,
n
,, ,, ,

to this vertical in this way three curves are obtaine d f or

di ffere t loads and draft the curve GG f C G B B of

n ,
.

,
o .
’
s, ,

and M M the curve f metacentres ,,

“
o .

C urves KD and H E are also draw representing n,

displ ace me n t i n tons or ft and tons per i ch imme sion ; 3

n r

also the curve C G represe ting in the same manner the

,
n

position f the centre f curvature f the curve of

o o o

flotation .

T he n from § 1 1 2 i f th e water li e cha ges slightly t o

, ,
n n

L LQ by a slight diminution A V f the displacemen t

Q , d o ,
an

by the decrease o f draft B b or M m (fig , ,

.

bB A
tan B B b B FB -
—
2 —

b V 2 1 1 1,
.

mM 2 __A
‘

t an M 2M1 m _ — M I OI
M1m V
Q 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
,

theorems by means of which the t angents t o the curves

B B and MM can be drawn
, , .

W e notice that the tangen t to the curve f metacentres o

MM is horizontal where the curve GO crosses it

, ,
.

1 1 5 Within the limits in which the ship is

. wall
sided the curve C C coalesces with the inclined line FF
,
” ' ’
, ,
.

A lso if w pu t V/A = as with the hydrome t er

e a,

so that a is the dep t h of the vessel f box form and of o

eq al displacement and i f the inclined line FF cuts the

u
,

bottom o f this vessel in 0 then the straigh t line N O , ,

1 70 S T B ILIT A Y OF A S HIP
whe e FN = § a will be the curve f C B f this box
r ,
o . .
’
s o

shaped vessel ; a d the pa allel straight line Fh will be

n r

the curve f h the C G o f the vol mes f emersion

or , . .
’
s u o .

If B goes to B and N to N f a cha ge o f dra ft a

, ,
or n ,

(V V Bh .
,

(V V Nh ;
.

and there fore

(V V BN .
,

so that the curve B B is a hyperbol a with , , ON and the

ver tical OJ through 0 as asympto tes .

Al so
(V V BM .
z Ak z
,

so that
(V VN M .
,

and there fore the curve f metacentres M M is als o a o

,

hyperbola with the same as ymp to tes ON and OJ

, .

F homogeneous cargo with a level sur face like ore

or ,

or grain the curve GG f C G will also be a hype bola

, ,
o . .
’
s r ,

with the vertical OJ f one asym ptote and a sloping or ,

line f r the other asymptote the position o f which de

o ,

pends o the S G of the cargo

u . . s .

F i f the sur face o f the cargo a t displacement V cuts

or

the vertical GF in f and we take a point 0 in FG such ,

’

that F0 = f O then F0 is the d a ft f water f a

'
s .
'

,
’
r o o

vessel of box form s ppose d homogeneous and f S G ,

u o . . s .

T h e curve o f C G o f these homogeneous box shaped

’
. . s -

vessels f di fferent dra fts will be a st aight line D D

or r
,,

passing through D the middle point f f 0 and inclined o

'

at an angle tan 2 to the vertical and as before

-
1
3 , ,

(V V GD .
,

so that the curve GG, is a hy perbola with ,

OJ and DD ,
f
or asym pt otes .
1 72 A
S T B ILIT Y OF A S HIP
B ut if the stifin es f the vessel measured by W GM
s o , .
,

is to remain the same then 1 1 3 ) 9 must coincide with

,

O and in the case f a wall sided vessel O and F coin

, o -
,

cide and g must the e fore lie in the mean water line
, r .

T hus f instance i f P denotes the tons f coal bu nt

, or , o r

by a steamer on a voyage and i f the f the coal in , o

the coal bunkers is below the mean water line at a

depth equal to the metacentric height the metacentric ,

height will remain the same ; but if the f the coal o

is in the mean water line the sti ffness f the s teamer ,

o

will remain unchanged and no water ballas t need be ,

let in to preserve stability .

F example i f a stea mer co n sumes

or ,
tons o f coal
in crossing the A tlantic and draws 4 ft less f water , o

at the end f the voyage then to p e a metacen t ic

o ,
re s rv e r

hei ght f 2 ft the o f the coal should be in the water

,
o

line f light draft (J N icholso T

o . . n, ra n s .

1 1 7 If the change of dr f t from LL to L L is due

’ ’
a
, ,
.

to sa iling from fresh wate r f density w (t / ft ) t o sea o on s

3

water o f density w and i f the metacentre changes from

,,

M to AI then P
W= w V= w V , I,

w] V B IM 1
w V, BM

K_
while BB, =
V, w

the points B and ,

M, being brought back to the vertical
B GM

T here fore MM , B , M, BM BB,

 VAl t LAZYZUV OI" 11 RMLF7 1
'

171 77 1 1 73

or the height o f the me tacentre above the mean water

line bM = M M w/ (w w) ; , ,
-

thus the metacentre rises or falls in going into sea water ,

accor ding as it is above or belo w the water line where ,

the shi p is wall side d -

.

S imilar considerations a ffect t he s t ability o f the H y dro

meter .

C onsidering that F the f the water line area o f o

a ship is not in general vertically over G the o f the

v essel in the v ertical longitudi al plane a sligh t altera

,
n ,

tion f trim is generally observed as a vessel passes f rom

o

fresh to salt water ; and also when a ship heels over .

S ince the i ncrease of de n sity Aw is small compared

with w in going from fresh into salt water the change ,

o f draft and displacement is small and w e may ,

employ L l e t T heorem fo determining the change

ec r
’
s r

MM ,
f metacentric height without the restric t ion o f
o , .

supposing that the ship is wall sided -

.

T h de c
e se f displacemen t A V in V will cause M to
re a o

move awa y from O to M so t hat ,,

M M I, AV Aw
MG V w
and the metacentre thus rises or falls in going from fresh
into salt water according as M is above or below
, and
G is in the water line f a wall sided ship or -
.

S also i f a sma l l quantity P f cargo whose

o , . is o ,

at g is removed f om the ship G moves to G away from

,
r ,
,

80 ath t
as , W AV MM L
9
MC
’
P V
and t here fore
G,M , — GM = GG, — M c)
1 74 ST A B IL IT Y OF A VE S S E L

1 18 . S ta bil i ty of a Ve sse l wi th Li q u i d Ca rg o .

We have supposed the cargo P to be solid but i f it is

liq id and f ee to roll about as f instan e petroleum
u r , , or c ,

carried in bulk a considerable reduction may ensue in

,

metacentric height and s tability ; also in well decked -

steamers it is necessa y to investigate the alte ation of r r

stability caused by shi pping a wave whi h fills the well c .

If the vessel heels t hrough a small angle 9 the original ,

righting couple f the outside w ater o

w A k sin 9 W B M sin 9 ft tons 2 : .

,
-
,

is diminished by the upsetting cou ple f the liquid cargo o ,

f density w su ppose
'
o ,

w A k sin 9 = P bm sin 9 ft tons

' ’ '
2 -
, ,

where m is the centre o f curvat re f the cu ve bl de u o r )

2

sc ibed by b the
r f the liquid cargo and A k is the
o ,
' ’
2

moment f inertia f the free surface f this liquid

o o o .

T h new metace n t re M will there fore lie below M at

e

a distance
f bm P A h w AI
' ’
2 ’ ’
c
’
2

W W V
’
W
119 xamining this question closer w notice that the
. E e

forces acting on the vessel when heeled through a small

angle are (fig 4 3 ) .

(i ) W the buoyancy f the outside water acting

.
,
o ,

vertically upwards through M ;

ii
( ) P the
. weight f
,
the li q uid cargo acting down o ,

wards through m
iii
( ) W P t
. he remaining
— weigh t ,
f t he vessel acting o ,

ver tically downwards through H the f the rigid ,

o

pa t f the vessel ; and

r o

GH
1 76 ST A B ILIT Y OF A VE S S E L

hus f a re tangular tank

T or c of b eadth
r 6 ft ,
filled with
P t ns f liquid to a depth f
o o o 0 ft ,

bm =

and the metacentric height is

l 2

12 W c

less than it would be i f the liquid were solidified or ,

cont ined in a confined space whi h it fills com pletely

a ,
c .

A longitudinal bulkhead will reduce the loss f meta o

centri height to one quarter f this value (G H Little

c -
o . . .
,

Th M ri n e T a n p o r t of P t o le u m
e a r s e r ,

It is thus im por tant that no wate should be f ee to r r

roll about in the hol d or in the boilers or tanks in all , ,

the previous inclining methods f determining p i or ex er

men t lly the metacentric height f a essel

a o v .

When a floating vessel a bottle caniste hydro , ,

r, or

meter is ballasted by mercury or other liquid or by

, ,

cylindri al or spherical shot which are f ree to roll about

c ,

the bottom the investigation f the stability proceeds in

, o

the same m nner a .

1 21 In calculatio ns o f the stability f a tumbler

. o ,

kettle or other vessel with a rounded base containing

, ,

l iquid the base may h represented by the surface f

, e o

buoyancy B
I t is proved in treatises on S tatics that i f the surface
B re ting on the highest point o f a fixed conve x sur face
,
s ,

is rolled through a small arc B B the vertical at B cu t s ,, ,

t h e no mal to the su face at B in a point 0 Where B 0 is

r r ,

ultimately hal f the harmonic mean of the radii f curva o

ture B M B M f the arcs BB on the surface B and on

,
’
o
,

the fi x ed conve x surface .

 CO NTA INING LI Q UID . 1 77

Fo r ultima t ely the angles B M B B M B are B B /B M ,,

’

, , ,

/B M radians ; an d their s m the angle B OB is

’
BB, u , ,,

B E, / B O ra dians ; n d there fore a

I 1 1

In the position f e q uilibriu m f the body the point o o

G the o f the soli d part W P collected at H and of

’
—
,

the liquid par t P collected a t m mus t lie in the common ,

normal ve t ically over B and the equilibrium will be

r ,

stable i f G is below 0 ’
.

More generall y i f the common normal at B o f the ,

surfaces makes an angle q! with the vertical a s i milar ) ,

argument shows that the ve tical at the consecutive point r

f contac t B cuts t he line B G in a poi nt Q w here

’
o
, ,

B Q B O cos 95 1 ,

that is w here the vertical is cut by the circl e on B 0 as

,

diameter (called the ci rcl f i nfl e i on s) ; so t h at t h e

'

e o ct

position f equilibriu m will be stable in whi h t he bo dy

.

o c

an d its liquid contents rests with G vertically over B

’
,

i f G lies inside the circle f i fl e i provided always

’
o n x on s

that slipping does not take place between the surfaces .

1 2 2 When a t i p p g basin is filled with water to a

. ln

certain ex t ent t h e eq i librium will sometimes be noticed

, u

to become u stable n .

We may suppose the interior sur face spherical w ith ,

centre m ; then i f 0 denotes the ax s abou t w hich the 1

basin turns G the and W t h weight of t h e basin

,
e

and P the weigh t f water when the equilibrium becomes

o

uns t able ; t hen as W acts vertically dow n wards through

G and P through m t aking moments about 0 , ,

P Om W 0 G or P W OG/ Om
.
:
.
: .
,

M
1 78 HE E LING E FFE C T

giving P the maximum weight f water the basin will o

contain without capsi zing .

A the weight f water P always acts through m we

s o ,

can suppose P concentrated into a spherical nucleus at

m in considering the stability f the equilibrium o .

E x actly the same reasoning would hold i f the water

w as replaced by a spherical ball o f the same weigh t
If a body moveable about a fixed point contains a
number o f spherical cavi t ies partly filled with liquid the ,

position of equilibrium is deter mi ned by making the

o f the body and o f the liquids e ach concentra t ed in a
, ,

spherica l nucleus about the ce ntre of its spherical cavity ,

l i e in the vertical line through the fixed point ; and a

similar co n struction would hold i f the liquids were e r

plac e d by spherical balls f the same weight o .

A crow d o f people on a deck holding themselves p u

r igh t to preserve their footing when the vessel heels

over or a man standing up in a boat woul d ac t
,
if ,
as

their weight w as concentrated in t h soles f their fee t e o .

C onversely whe n a number f bodies are free to swing

,
o

about fi x ed poin t s f suspension as fo instance men in

o , , r ,

their hammocks the weight f each body must be sup

,
o

posed concentra ted at the point o f suspension in inves ti

gating the sta bility f the vessel o .

1 2 3 Th e working o f the screw propeller h as a tendency

.

to heel a steamer ; with a right handed screw propeller -

going ahead the reaction f the water on the propeller

,
o

will use the vessel to heel to port and the angle f

ca ,
o

heel 9 is easily calculated knowing GM the metacentric ,

height in feet W the displacement in tons I the indi

, ,

ca t e d H P f the engines and R the nu mber f revolutions

. . o ,
o

per minute .
1 80 I N TE R CHANGE OF B UOYA N C Y

press f sail h a similar e ffe t in a sailing ship

Th e o as c ,

not only in incli ning it but also in altering the trim so as ,

to bury the stem d raise the ste m ; to counteract this an

e ffect it is found advantageous to make the m asts rake

a ft (S i E dward J Reed Th e S t bi l i ty of S h i p ;
. r .
, a s

W H White N na l A h i t t
. .
) , a rc e c u re .

1 24 . Th e In te r ch a n g e o
f B u o ya n c y an d R e s e rv e o f
B u oya n cy .

Pro f E lgar has pointed out (Ti mes l st S ept

.
, ,

that i f a homogeneous body f S G s floats in water in o . .

any position with LL as the water line the same body ’

ca n float inve ted with the same water line LL provided r

’

the is changed to 1 t he buoyancy and reserve f — 8, o

buoyancy being interchanged and that the righting

moments on the two bodies equal or the metacentric a re ,

heights are to 1 in the t w cases as s — s o .

F i f G denotes the f the body and B B t h

’
or o , ,
e

f the two volumes V V into which t h body is

’ ’
0 R . s o ,
e

d ivided by the plane LL then B GB is a st aight line

’ ’

,
r ,

and the moments f the vol mes V V about G are equal o u , .

B t the volumes V and V e as the S 0 and 1 ’ ’

u ar . . s s — s,

or as the weights W and W ; and the e fore the moments ’

r

o f the weights f the dis pla ed water about G are eq al o c u .

A lso if M M denote the metacentres in a position f

’

, ,
o

e q ilibrium then M M lie in the vertical str ight line

u , ,
’
a

B GB ; and
’

V BM V EM
’ ’ ’
A1 3 : .
:
,

V BG
’
B G ;
’
.

V GM V GM
’ ’
:
.
.
,

GM V W ’
'

’
l — s
_
GM V
’
W 8
 A ND RE S E R VE OF B UOYANC Y . 1 81

T hus the stability f a vessel f deep draft and o o

small f eeboard is similar to that f a vessel o f small

r o

dra ft and high freeboard such as a light draft steamer ,

f
or shallow wate s or a hay barge r ,
.

Again to determine whe t her a regular tetrahedron can

,

float in water with one e dge j us t o tside the su face con u r ,

sider n equal tetrahed on o f smal l den sity floating with

a r
“

an edge j ust subme ged ; this position of equilibriu m is r

evidently unstable and there fore the equilibrium f th e

,
o

first tetrahedron also unstable 1s .

T hese considerations are f great use in obviating the o

necessity f the e x amina tion f the stabi lity f a fl t

o re o o oa

ing body when inve t ed the conditions o f stability be ng r ,

1

t h e same in the two cases ; as f instance with a body ,

or ,

bounded by a plane and a spherical sur face when thel/ ,

plane is subme ged ; f a hemisphere o f S 0 3 the meta

r or

t i c height
ce n i thus (1 is
3
a

T h su face f flotation F
e r the same while the sur
o 1s ,

faces f b oyancy B d B e similar with respect to

-
’
o u an ar

G as t he centre f similitude as also the evolu t es f

o ,
o

sectio ns f B d B made by planes through G

o an
'
’
.

1 2 5 M ore gene rally i f a homogeneous body of weight

; ,

W and density can float in two liquids f densities p

a ,
o

and p with displacement V and V in thes e l i quids

’

,
s
’

and LE L in their plane f separation t h body can

’
o ,
e

float inverted with the same plane of flotation LFL i f ’

its weight and density changed to W and where a re

’
o

W= (V+ cr

W=o ’

V _p _G
so that G p
V
.

,
— —
o p
'

p O
1 82 ST A B IL IT Y IN HE TE R OGE NE OUS LI Q UID .

conditio n s f stability are the same in the two

Th e o

cases ; f i f turned th ough a small a gle 9 about an

or r n

axis through F in the plane LL the wedges f emersion ’

,
o

and immersion must be taken as f densities p p and o

’
—

p
—
p ; so that
’
the righting ouple is in each case c ,

(p —
p )
'
A k 8 10 O
2 : W . CY : W ’
. C Y,
' ’

i f C Y, C Y
’ ’
are th e arms of the righting couples ; and
there fore
W . CM : W’

where C C now denote the 0 B f the t wo liquids di

,
’
. .
’
s o s

pla ed i the two positions and M M the metacentres

c n , ,
’
.

G enerally i f a body f weight W is flo ting in equi

,
o a

lib ium in a numbe r of li q ui ds so that C is the G B of

r ,
.

all the displaced liquids and if the bo dy is turned ,

t hrough a small angle 9 w shall find in the same ,

e

manner that the righ ting couple f the liquid o

W CM sin 9 Z Ap A k i 9 .
:
z
s n ,

where Ap denot s the change f density in crossing a e o

plane LL f separatio f two liquids

’

o n o .

Th caissons employed in t h onstruction o f the

e e c

foundations f a b idge f instance the ylind rical

o r ,
or ,
c

c aissons f the Forth bridge must be considered as i m

o ,

m d in i water and the mud or quicksand at the

e rs e a r, ,

bottom f the wat r ; and the correspon ding cal ulations

o e c

must be made f the stability f the equilibrium during

or o

the whole process f sinking the caisson o .

When the density varies continuously in air , as ,

2 and A must be replaced by f and d the symbols of the ,

Integral C al culus ; but at a horizontal plane section A

whe e the density suddenly changes from p to p the
r
’

righting moment must be increased by the t erm

(p p )A k i
'
z
s n e .
1 84 E XE R CIS E S ON S T A B ILIT Y
Tr ace t h curves f buoyancy n d f prometa
e o a o

centres f a raft or li fe boat su p po ted by two

o -
,
r

parallel circular p ontoons hal f imme sed in water ,

r .

()
5 It w as found that filling the boats s spended on each ,
u

side f a vessel f 5 000 tons displacement alter

o o ,

na e t l y with 6 tons o f water caused the vessel to

h el so that the bob f a pendulum 6 ft long moved
e o

through 3 inches G iven that the distance between .

the centre l i e f the boats w 4 0 ft prove that

’

n s o as ,

the meta centric height was 1 1 5 2 ft .

()
6 A vessel f 60 00o ton s displac emen t heels over under
sail th gh angle f sho w that its meta
'

ro u an o

cent i c height i b t 2 feet assuming that the

r s a ou

com p onent f the wind pressure perpendicular

o

to the keel is a fo ce e q ual to 2 6 tons acting at a r

point 2 5 feet above the de k the f the ship c , o

and rgo being 1 5 feet below the deck

ca .

7
() In a ca go
r carrying -
vessel the position f whose ,
o

is known show how the new position o f the

,

due to a portio n f the cargo shi fting may be o ,

found . 0

A ve sel o f 4 000 tons dis pl acement when fully

s ,

laden with coals has a metacentric height f 2 5 ft,

o

S uppose 1 00 to ns f the coal to be shi fted so o

that i t moves 1 8 feet transve sely and 4 , feet

s r ,

ve tically ; what would be the angle f the vessel

r o

i f upri g ht be fore the coal shi fted ?

(8 ) A ship is 2 2 0 feet long has a longitudinal meta ,

centri height f 2 5 2 fee t and a displacement f

c o , o

1 9 5 0 tons If a weight f 2 0 tons (already on

. o

boa d ) were shi fted longitudin lly through 60

r a

feet what would be the change f trim

,
o
 OF FL O TI A NG D
B O IE S . 1 85

()
9 A shi p is floating at a dra ft f 1 8 ft forwar d and o ,

2 0 f t aft when the following weigh t s are placed

,

on board in the positions named

Wt . i n t on s . D i s tan c e f ro m of wat e r p l an e i n fe e t .

10
be fore
30
70
abaft :
30
What will be the new draft forwar d and aft the ,

“
moment to ch ange t rim one inch being 700 .
”

foot tons the t ons per inch being 30 “ “

-
:
,

1 0) A brid g e f boats s pports a plane rigid roadway A B

o u

in a horizontal position When a small moveable .

load is placed at G the bridge is dep essed u ni ‘

formly when the load is placed a t a point C the

end A is unaltered in level when at D the end B
is unaltered in level and when at P the point Q
o f the roadway is unal tered in level .

Prove tha t A G GC = B G GD = P G GQ ; . .

and that the deflection produced at a point B by

a load at P is equal to t h d fl cti p oduced at eo e e on r

P by the same load at R .

( )
1 1 If a plane rigid ra ft is supported in a horizon t al
positi on b y a number o f floating bodies a weigh t ,

placed on the a ft ve rtically over the centre f

r o

inertia f t he pl anes f flotation will sink the raft

o o

ver t ically while a weigh t placed anywhere else

,

wil l cause the raft to turn about an ax is , the

antipolar f the we ight with espect to the mo
o r

mental elli pse f the pl e f flotation o an

‘

s o .

C omp are this with the theory o f a table resting

on a numbe f elastic su pports r o .
1 86 E XE R CIS E S ON S T B IL IT YA
Find the dynamical stability in foot tons at 3 0 o f -
°

a rectangular pontoon 1 00 ft x 2 0 ft x 1 0 ft d a ft r ,

having a G M of 2 ft . .

Th e curve f stati al stability f a vessel is a seg

o c o

ment f a ci cle f radius twice the ordinate f

o r o o

maximum sta tical stability which is 2 5 00 tons ,

feet ; estimate the total dynamical stability f the o

vessel the angle f vanishing stability being

, o

The c urve f st bility f a v essel is a common para

o a o

bola the angle f vanishing stability is

,
and o

the ma x imum moment f stability 4 000 ft ton o -

s

Prove that the statical and dynamical stabilities

at 3 0 are 3 9 1 8 and 1 2 8 3 ft tons
°
-
.

A cylind ical vessel with a fla t bottom is free to

r

turn about a ho izontal axis through i ts r

Pr ve t hat i f a little molten metal be poured in

o ,

the vertical position is unstable ; that it does not

become stable until the depth f t he metal e x ceeds o

c -
J cwhere is t he radius f the cylinder
2 —
a
2
, a o ,

and c the height f the centre f gravity above o o

the base ; and that it is again unstable when the

depth exceeds —
a
2

D etermine the weight w hich must be fi x ed to

the bo t tom f the vessel so as to make the equi
o

lib ium st ble at first

r a .

A canister co taining wate floats i n a liquid with r n ,

its a x is ve tical Prove that its stability f

r . or

an g lar dis placements will be unaffecte d i f a

u

certain weight f water is removed and a spherical o

ball f eq al weigh t is plac ed in the cylin de so as

o u r

to float in the water partial l y immersed even ,

though the ball touch the cylinder .

1 88 E XE R CIS E S ON S TA B I LIT Y .

A cup whose outside sur face is a paraboloid f o

revol tion f lat s rectum l d whose thickness

u o u -
,
an

measu ed horizontally is the same at every point

r

and very small compa ed with l has a i cula rim r ,

c r r

at a heigh t h above the ve tex and rests on the r ,

highest point f a sphere f radius ro o .

If water h now poured in until its su face cuts

e r

the axis f the p at a distance % h from the

o cu ,

verte x and i f the weight f wate be four times

, o r

that f the cup the equilib ium will be stable i f

o ,
r ,

P ove that i f a thin conical vessel f ve tical a gle

r o r n

and weight W whose

‘

2 a is at a distance h ,

f om the vertex is resting u p i g ht in a ho izontal

r ,
r r

circular hole f adi s 0 it will become unstable

o r u ,

when a weight P f li q id is p o ed into it to o u ur

a depth cc so as to make ,

iiP 2 (P + W) cot + Wh
az positive
c a 0 0 8 01
2
.

A cylindrical vessel floating p right i neutral ,

u n

equilib ium will really be stable i f the adius f

r ,
r o

curvature at the water line f th e verti al oss o c cr

section greater than the normal cut ff by the

18 o

medial plane .

Prove that the meta ent i hei ght given by c r c

(P/ W) b c se 9 o c

9 4) be made o ect to the second o rd e f

ca n c rr r or

the shi p when P is removed by adding to it 1 1 2 )

, ,

( / W)
P “ [
r
t I :

where denote s the adius f the curve f fl t

-

r r o o o a
, ,

tion and c the heigh t f P above the wa te r line

,
o .
 C HAPTE R V .

I I I I I
E QU L B R U M OF FLOA T N G B OD E S OF RE G ULA R
FORM A ND OF B OD I E S PARTLY SUPPORT ED .

OSC I LLAT I ON S OF FLOAT I NG B OD I E S .

1 26Th e E q u i l i bri u m of a fl oa ti n g Cyl i n de r, Con e

.
,

P a ra bo l o i d E l l i p s o i d, Hyp e r bo l o i d, e tc
, .

When
the body has the shape o f one of these regular
mathematical fo ms the curves of flotation F and of its
r ,

ev olute C f buoyancy B and f the p o me t ce n t e M or

‘

,
o ,
o r a r s ,

the metacentric evolu t e can be determined by various

,

theorems in t roducing interesting geometrical applica

tions f the properties of these curves and surfaces
o .

Fo a prismatic or cyl i d i c l b dy like a log floa t ing

‘

r n r a o ,

ho izontally in water the various sur faces are cylin d ical

r , r

and we need only consider their curves f cross section o .

If the section is an elli pse these curves o f flo tation and,

o f buoyancy are also ellipses ; and the dete mination f r o

the position f eq ilibriu m wil l depend on t he p oblem o f

o u r

drawi g normals from the

n o f t h e body to the ellipse

o f buoyancy or tangents t o its metacentric evolute ; and

,

two or four normals or tangents can be d aw n accordin g r

as the lies outside or inside this evolute .

If the sides f the log in th o neighbourho od o f the e

water line parallel planes the curve f flotation

a re , o

reduces to a point nd the c ve f buoyancy becomes a

,
a ur o

parab ola
1 90 C UR VE S OF B UO YA NC Y
If the submerged portion o f the log is triangular or ,

mo e generally i f the log is polygonal or i f the sides in

r

the neighbourhood f the water line are inte secting planes

o r ,

the urves f flotation and f buoyancy are similar hyper

c o o

bolas f which the cross section f these planes are the

o o

asymptotes .

Fig 4 4 . . Fi g . 4 5 .

When the cross section of the log is rectangular o r

triangul ar the curves of flotation and o f buoyancy are

,

composed f parabolic and hyperboli arcs interesting

o c ,

figu es f wh ich by M essrs White and J ohn will be

r o , .
,

found in the Tr n s In st N a v a l A rch i te cts March 1 8 7 1

a . .
, ,

also by M D ym d I . a 1 884 ar , .

If the outside shape f the body is an ellipsoid or othero

q uadric surface the according to well known theorems

,
n -

the surfaces f flota t ion and buoyancy are similar oax ial
o c

su faces ; j ust as in the sphere from which the ellipsoid

r ,

may be produced by homogeneous s t rain .

If the sur face f the body is a quadric cone the sur

o ,

faces f flotation and o f buoyan y will be portions f

o c o

hyperboloids of two sheets a ymptotic to the cone , s .

1 92 C UR VE S OF B UOYANC Y
B u t i f b /h 2 2
g b/ h , ,J fi, the log will float upright
in any li q uid .

In a log f square vertical se tion b = h ; so that it

o c

canno t float with faces horizontal and vertical i f ,

When the cross section of the ylin der is a ci cle

c r of

radius a, i 4 0) 2
10 = a
2

and this cylinder ca not float up right n ,

if

H 1 1
,
—
5 ( g)
l —
Q .

B u t if h / a < J 2, this cylinder will always float up

right like a h g
,
un .

A an exercise the student may prove that the body

s ,

in fig 4 4 i f floating in t wo liquids f 8 0
.
,
and s will o
’
s 8
, ,,

be in s table equili b ium in the up ight position i f r r

1 (1 _8 — 8 )
2
>
2
h 9
2
09 1 -
8

If the body comes to rest when floati g in water with n

i ts axis at an inclination 9 then m must coin ide with G , c

B t the u ve B B being a parabola

u c r
,

H+ % tan 9 ;
2 2
G
Om : OB + B M + M m = gas - 2

and t here fore ,

if Om : 0G ,

h as 2 10 2
k tan 9
2 2
0.

hus f instance i f fig 4 4 represents the c oss section

T , or ,
. r

of a ectang lar log f breadth b and if E j ust eaches

r u o , r

the surface f the wate r in the position f equilib ium

o o r ,

w= IL— % b ta n 0 ,

— c os 29
” m

b 3 ta n 9 3 si n 29
 OF TH E HORIZ ONTA L C YLINDE R . 1 93

1 28 . Th e Cyl i n de r or P ri s m fl o a ti n g h ori z on ta l l y
,
.

N ow suppose that fig 4 4 represents the side elevatio n .

o f the same circ lar cylinder when floating with i t s a x is

u ,

horizon t al and let fig 4 5 represent the end ele v ation ;

,
.

so t hat PP = 2 y is the brea dth an d LL = h is t he leng th

’ ’

o f t he rectan gular water line area when the cylin der is ,

floating at the draft OF= x .

Th e centre C is the meta cen t re fo displacemen t s in r

t he plane o f fig 4 5 n d t he equilibrium is there fore

.
,
a

s table fo t hese displacemen ts

r .

B t fu displacements in the plane of fig 4 4 t he equi

or .
,

libriu m is s table i f M lies above G or i f ,

A 70 2 : V BM . > V BG . .

B ut A 10 2
2h y fih
z
,

an d by a well known theorem -

,

V BG . h
gy
3

an d there fore t he is stable i f equilibriu m

or h > 2 y .

T h e cyl i n der will there fore float like a cork w ith i t s , ,

a x is horizon t al i f its length I is grea t er than the bread t h

,
t

2 y o f the water line area ; but it will float like a h n g , u ,

with its a x is vertical i f ,

th e least val u e being J 2 wit h in t erme diat e

of a /h
dimensions the cylin der will float m an inclined position .

When a cylindrical canister of thin ma t erial whose ,

H is at a height OH = h fro m the bottom floating in ,

wate r when empty with a length 0 o f the axis immersed ,

is ballasted with liqui d of S G s t o a dep t h Of w a lengt h . .

,

OF= c + sac o f the a x is will become i mmersed ; and as in

fig 4 3 p 1 75 the system is eq ivalent to weights propor
.
, .
, u

t i o n l t o c sr an d
a concen t ra te d at H m an d M
, , , , .

O H . .
1 94 E Q UIL IB RI UM OF TH E C O E N
Th upright position f equilibrium will therefore be
e o

unstable or stable according as ,

c . OH + sw On t .

m 2

(g £)
0 s
ch (C 8x ) 0 83

2
ch 1 )I + gscc )
g— z
+ (s lAi
— — 0 c - -
sa

is positive or negative and 7 i f a circular cylinder 0

2
a
2
or ,

f a prismatic canister
or .

If as in
,
1 1 5 and fig 4 2 f the wall sided ship the .
,
or -
,

line f draft OF is d awn in fig 4 4 the curve of B

o r .
,

will be the straight line OB and the curve f me tacentre ,

o

M a hyperbola with OD and OB as asympto t es, .

T h curve f G f
e homogeneo s ca go will be a hyper
o or u r

bola reducing to a straigh t line OG i f the weight f the

, ,
o

vessel itsel f is insensible and hence a g aphical con r

struction can be made f the conditions f stability in or o

the prigh t position at di fferent draft

u .

T h e stability f a cylinder fl oating u pright in t wo or

o

more liquids 1 2 5 ) would be illus t rated by a cylind ical r

caisson f the Forth B idge floating partly in air partly

o r , ,

in water and partly in the mud or quicksand at the

,

bot tom of the water .

1 2 9 Th e C o n
. a n d th e T i n u l a
g P ri sm
e, r a r .

U nless otherwise s tated a homogeneous right circular ,

co ne on a circular base is intended when w speak of a e

cone ; d we denote the S G o f the cone by the altitude

a n . . s,

OD by h t he radius o f the base DE by a and the semi

, ,

vertical angle by a .

When the cone can evidently float with its axis

hori z ontal and on the surface f the water ; the 0 B B o . .
’
s

and B f the e q al immersed and unimmersed vol mes

’
o u u
1 96 E Q UILIB RI UM OF TH E C O E N
or the radius o f the wate r line circle is the geometric
mean f the segments of the axis f the cone made by the
o o

water line so that the s phe e describe d on the a x is OD r

as diame ter will cut the one in the circle f flotation LL c o

’

w hen the q i l i b i m in this posi t ion is neu t ral

e u 1 u .

Fig . 4 6 .

When i then 8 0 ai ; n ,
: 08 a
6

so that a right an gled cone cannot float in water with

-

its vertex downwards and axis permanen t ly vertical ,

unless its S G is g rea ter than é

. . s .

W in fer
e in 1 2 4 that the same condition s hold f
, as , or

the equilibrium and stability f the cone floati g invert d o ,

n e

with i t b e submerged i f the S G o f the cone is changed

s as , . .

to l 8 .

W hen 5 the one can float in both positions ; and

3 ,
c

the e q uilib ium is neutral i f

r
G
c oe a
 A ND T I N G RA ULA R PRIS M .
1 97

1 31 . We may also take fig . 46 t o represen t t he vertical

cross section of an isosceles triangular log , fl oating
hori z on tally ; and now
4
2
” f f/ a
2

5 gg g
6
BM t an
g
— z
, a,
a

so that M is found geometri cally as before and

OM gas sec 2
a.

T h e equilibri m is stable in th is position i f 90 > h 0 0

u
2
5 01 ,

as be f ore but n ow s = cc /h > cos 2 2 4

a .

If t he cross section f the log is an equilateral t rian gle

o

kw ; a d 8 >a
«
or 1 n
9
- -

fo the log to float with a face hori z on t al

r .

When 3 < or generally < cos

9
r 1r1
4
a,

this uprigh t position becomes unstable and the t riangular ,

cylinder floats with its base incl ined until at last n , a

edge reaches the water ; and then the pposite face must O

be vertical and ,

OLé/ OE = c os 2 (s = l fo the equilateral log )

’
s
:
a
»
,
r .

S o also t he vertical position f the cone becomes o

uns table when 8 < 0 and the cone lolls over the
6
08 a,

sur face o f buoyancy B B being a hyperboloid until the , ,

base E E t ouches the water when the edge OE o ppo i t

’

,
’
s e

to the point of contac t must evidently be vertical since ,

it is parallel to GB or D E , ,
.

1 3 2 If the cone is immersed with a generating line OE

.

hori z on tal the water line areas are parabolas the c 0 f

, , . .
’
s o .

which divi de the ax is o f the parabola in the ratio f 3 to o

2 so t ha t the locus of the 0 B f o di fferent immersions . .

’
s r
,

wi t h the generating line OE horizon tal is the straight ,

line E H where’

OH = % OE H E = %—OE , .
1 98 E Q UILIB R IUM OF TH E

his line E H will pass through G and be perpen dicular

T
'

to OE and the cone can therefore float with a generating

,

line horizontal i f ,

OH OE OG OD or .
: .
,

h =
2

so tha t the al titude is equal to the diameter of the base .

1 3 3 G enerally fo an inclined posi t ion o f the cone the

. r ,

a x is making a n angle 9 with the vertical OK t he vert e x ,

0 being submerged and the ba e E E ou t f the water

’

,
s o ,

then the water line area L L§ is an ellipse with centre F ,

and B lies on OF at a distance

2 ,
OB , OF
fi ,
the curves of flota tion and buoyancy being similar hyper
bolas with OE and OE f asympto t es
,
’
or .

It is rea dily proved that C the cen tre of curva t ure f ,,

o

th curve f flotation is the middle point of c w here

e o ,
c
’

L o Léo are at right angles to OL OLé

’

, ,
.
, , ,

N w i f we put OK = 7\h then

o ,

t an (9 — a );
sin 9 cos 9 sec (9 + ) sec (9 ) ; a —
a

FL §
, (X L ,
X L§ ) A h sin cos sec (9 + ) sec (9 )
,
-
a a a a .

If the line t hrough F perpendicular to the ax is meets ,

the cone in l and l the minor ax is o f the water line ’

ellipse L L§ is given by ,
os (9 + ) cos ( 9 ) c a
—
a
F ” F ’3
W
—
-
2
cos f 2
a

7\h sin J { e (9 ) (9 )} a s c a se c a

and there fore the volume f the cone OL L§ is o

,

V & t sin
: cos { e c(97 ) c (9
e )i f z
a a s a s a

If the buoyancy is equal to the weight o f the cone t h e ,

S G s f the cone is the ratio f the volume V t o % h tan

3 2
. . o o M a

or A cos {sec (9 s
) c(9 )}
3i 3
a a se a .
2 00 TH E PA RAB OL OID

1 34 . S imil ar hold f r the inclined pos

c o n s i de rat l o n s o

i t i o n s o f equilib i m f t h triangular log

r u o e .

When the angle E OE is a right angle we may take ’

fig 4 6 p 1 9 6 to represent the cross section of a square log

.
, .
, ,

who se centre is at D .

If the position o f equilibrium in which OD is upright

is stable so that M lies above D then gr e
, h where , s
Q
c a ,

h
r, while a = 2 h ; so that
2
s
2

8 1 _8 9g"
gi ving the limi ts f the S G f which a diagonal
o . . or of the
log is ver tical in a stable position o f equilibrium .

Fig . 47 .

P a a bol oi d a n d Pa a bol i Cyli nde

Th e r r c r .

In a parabolic cylinder floati g with its axis horizon tal n

the curves f flotation F and f buoyancy B are equal

o o

parabolas (fig 4 7) while in the paraboloid generated by

.

the revolution f the parabola about its axis OD the

o ,

surfaces of fl otation and buoya cy a equal paraboloids ; n re

also B M is equal to l the semi latus rectum and the ,

- -
,

equation connecting OF and y = FL is y = 2 l x

a :
2
.
 A ND PA RA B OLIC C YLIND E R . O1

By well known t heorems o f M ensuration t he area o f

-
,

the parabola L OL is ga y gau nt two thirds of the area

’
,
-

o f the circumscribing rectangle and its B divides OF ,

in the ra t io o f 3 to 2 so that OB = § OF ; while the,

volume o f the paraboloid LOL is ’

wy 2 = 7rl w2,
one hal f the volume f the circ mscribing cylinder d
-

,
o u ,
an

its B is situated so t ha t OB = § OF .

Th e equation o f the surface f buoyancy o f the para o

bo l o i d in t he general case when the cross sections are

,

ellip t ic is now acco ding to g 1 03

, ,
r ,

2 2
4 51: y z

h t fi kyz

at draft h since V= M k
, .

If 8 deno tes t he S G o f the body floa t in g pright in

. .
,
u

wa ter then fo the parabolic cylinder

,
r ,

3 (area E OE )
’

or w/ h = § s

while for the paraboloid ,

(volume E OE )
’
s

Then in the upright position of equilibrium of the

parabolic cylinder or paraboloid of S G s and G , . .
,

GM = B M + OB OG = l % OC(l
— or l sooa si ) ;— — —

1 3 1
so tha t
l 3 1 -
85 2 1 -
si

OF 5 83 3 81
< ’ ’

l 3 3 —
si 2 1 — s ‘i

are the conditions f stability in the upright posi t ion

or .

T his investigation o f the sta bility o f the paraboloid is

o ri ginally due to A rchimedes .
2 02 TH E E LLIPS OI D AND H YPE RB OL OID .

1 36 . When
the upright position becomes unstable the ,

body will 1 11 over until the line B G becomes vertical ;

0
,

and now N G = B M = l or ,

T his assumes that the base E E is ou t o f the wa t er ;

’

but when the base j ust touches the wa t er at E at the

inclination 9 so that L and E coin i de
, ,
c ,

1 1 tan
T D D F+ FT M1 t
5+ 0 11 °
9 s

DE DE J (2 1h )
and solving this quadratic in tan 9 ,

= 1
J l tan 9 J h
( ) i
or
2 ,

M G % Ztan 9 = h (1
= 2 _8 3 1 or i
)
g
;
this is the maximu m heigh t f the above the meta o

centre f the base to be out of the water in the inclined

or

position f eq ilibrium o u .

1 37 . T h e E l l i p so i d or H yp e rbol oi d .

may be made to serve f the elli pt ic or hyper

Fig 4 7 . or

bol i c cylinder or f the ellipsoi ds or hyperboloids

,
or

genera ted by revolvi ng an elli pse or hyp erbola about a

principal a x is OD ; but now the curves or surf ces of a

flotation F and buoyancy B are concentric similar and

similarly situated conics or quadric s r faces u .

A in fig 4 1 p 1 64 the lines B F pass through the

s .
,
.
, , ,

common entre also the lines C M through C the

c ,
as
, ,, ,

centre f curvature f the curve o f flotation and M the

o o , ,

metacentre or centre of curvature f the curve f buoy

,
o o

ancy thus affording illustrat ions f L cl e t theorem o e r

’
s .

When the submerged portion f a floati g body is a o n

t ihedral angle or t riangular pyramid the surfaces f

r ,
o

flo tation or buoyancy re ferred to the three edges as c , c

ordinate axes i readily seen to be given by the equation

,
s

3
x yz 0 .
2 04 E XE R CIS E S ON

E x a mp l e s .

(1 ) T wo equal uni form thin rods (or boards ) whose S G , . .

is are j oined t ogether at an angle 2 and

s, a,

immersed in wat e with the angle downwa ds r r .

Prove that the curves f buoyancy and flotation o

are parabolas ; and prove that the rods cannot

float with the line j oining their ends inclined to
the horizon unless sin , a
J GX)
—
.

e ermine which positions f equilib ium are

D t o r

s table .

A solid for med o f a cone and hemisphere w hich have

a common base floats totally imme sed in two r

liquids the cone being wholly in the lower and

,

the hemisphere in the upper liquid ; prove that

the equilib ium will be stable if the centre f
r o

gravity of the solid be above the common su face r

o f the two liquids .

A right ircular cone f S G

c whose base is an ellipse
o . . 8, ,

floa ts verte x downwards in w ater with the x

, ,
e

t mi t y of the shortest generator in the surface

re ,

and its base inclined at an angle 9 to the surface .

Prove that the lo gest generator is vertical andn ,

that i f is the semi ve tical a g le f the cone

, a
-
r n o ,

1 + tan 2 tan a

A righ t ci cular cone has a plane base in the form o f

r

an ellipse ; the cone floats with its longest gener

ating line hori z ontal ; i f 2 a be the ver t ical angle
o f the cone and 8 the angle between the p lane
, ,

ba e and the shortest generating line show that

s ,

cot 8 cot 4 cosec 4

,
a a .
 A N
FLO TI G B O IE S D .
2 05

A soli d in the shape of a double cone boun ded by

two equal circular ends floats in a liquid f twice o

its density with i t s a x is hori z ontal ; prove t ha t

the equilibrium is s table or unstable according as
the semi vertical angle is less or greater than
-

Prove that owing to the presence of air of S G p the

,
. .
,

me tacentre f a cone of S G s float ing upright and

o . .
,

verte x downwards in water will be brought ,

nearer t o the by
]/
2
a s ) + a p } 8 00 a p 8 ,

where h h denote the epth f the vertex with

a ,
a
,
d o

and without air .

A solid homogeneous cone o f height h and semi

vertical angle a floats with its axis vertical an d
verte x downwards in equal thickness f four o

homogeneous liquids whose densities counti ng ,

from the s r face are respectively p 2 p 3p 4 p so

u , , , , ,

that i t s vertex is a t a depth h from t he surface .

Prove that t h e ondition f stability is

c o

2 00h cos 1 7770 2

a .

A conical shell vertex downwards is filled to one

, ,

ninth of i ts depth with a fluid o f density p an d ’

t hen float s with one third f its a x is submerged i n

-
o

a fluid f density p ; find a relation betwee n p an d

o

p
’
in,
order that the equili brium may be neutral .

A frustum o f a right circular cone cut ff by a plane , o

bisecti n g the axis perpendicularly floa ts with its ,

smaller end in water and its ax is j ust h al f i m

mer ed Prove that t he S G is
e . a n d tha t the . .

equilibrium w ill be neutral i f the semi vertica l -

angle of the cone is tan "

1 J ET)?
63
2 06 E XE R CIS E S ON

A frustum of a cone floats with its a x is vertical in a

liquid f t wice i ts own density
o .

Prove that the equilibrium will be stable i f

(a — b) 2
2i (a
4
+b )
4
l b
2<

m— l
where m

h being the height f t he frustum and a an d b the o ,

radii f its endso .

A l so i f it floats with its ax is hori z on tal t he ,

equilibrium will be s table i f

(a + br< + b )
2 e
a
k .
2
a 4ab b
2

From a soli d hemisphere f radius a a portion i n ,

o ,

the shape o f a right cylinder of radius b and ,

height h coa x ial wit h the hemisphere and having

,

the centre o f its base at t he centre of the hemi

Sphere is remove d Into this portion is fitted a
, .

thin tube which e x actly fits it T h e solid is .

placed with its vertex downwards in a fluid and ,

a fluid f S G i poured into the t ube Find how

o . . s s .

much must be poured in in order that the equi ,

librium m y be neutral and if t he t ube be filled

a

to a heigh t 2h show tha t ,

‘
s a — 2b h 2 2

’ 4
s b

8 eing the S G f the solid

’
b . . o .

If a vessel be f thin material in the shape o f a o

paraboloid f revolution sho w tha t the equilibrium

o ,

will be al ways stable provided the density f the ,

o

fluid inside be great er than that w ithout ; the

weight f the vessel be ing negl ec ted
o .
2 08 E XE R CIS E S ON

angl s has weights P Q R whose sum is W

e , , , , ,

attached a t A B C respectively and floats in

, , , ,

a fluid with its base upwards d hori zontal t he an ,

vertex being at depth h Prove that .

4P
W 2m — 6m)c o t B cot C ,

with two similar expressio n s fo Q and B where r ,

h 4m r o A cos B cos C
2 2 2
c s ,

and r is the adius of the circle circumscribing

r

AB C .

(1 9 ) Prove that a prism whose section is the acute angle

triangle A B C cannot have three positions of equi
librium with the edge C alone immersed unless
the is in t erme diate to
b {( a— b) (a — b c )( c b— c

+b
2 2 — 2
a c

or 2 b 2a 2 2

( )
2 0 Prove tha t the isosceles triangular log o f 5 1 3 4 if o f ,

density n p can float at an inclination 9 in two

,

li q ui d f densities p and 2 p the upper liquid

s o ,

being f depth h with the b se n t imme sed

o a
, , a o r ,

provided
(1 + co 2
s 9 ){ (
n o 2 9 + cos
c 2
s ) {n (eos 2 9 +cos 2a
) a

(cos 2 9 cos
2 2
2 n 00 3 a

(2 1 ) Investiga t e the equilibrium and stability f finite or

displacements f the cone f E o p 1 8 8 con o x . .

,

taining liquid and resting in a circular hole ; or of

a wedge shaped prismatic vessel re ting on t w
-
s o

sm ooth parallel hori z ontal bars .

 FLO TI G B O IE SA N D .
2 09

(2 2 ) A t hin conical vessel inv er te d over wat er is

, ,

epressed by a weight attached to th e rim so as

d
to be completely submerged with a generating ,

line vertical and the e closed air on the point f n o

beginn ing to escape .

Pr ove tha t the ratio o f the weight f the cone o

t o t he weight of water it can hold is

%(cos 2 )? a

(2 3 ) Prove t ha t t he equilibrium f a homogeneous o

ellipsoid o f S G floating in w ater is stable i f

. .

t he leas t a x is is vertical stable uns table if the ,

-

mean ax is is vertical and unstable altoge t her i f,

the greatest ax is is vertical .

(2 4 ) A homogeneous ellipsoid floats in a liqui d with its

least a x is C OC vertical and a weight W of tha t
’

, ,

f the ellipsoid fi x ed at the upper e n d C such

o , ,

that the plane of flotation passes t hrough the

'

centre .

Prove that i f i t be turned abou t t he mean ax is

,

(0) through a fini te angle 9 the momen t o f the ,

couple which will keep it in tha t position will be

W{c a e co e cos 9 ) t } sin 9
2
s
2 2 -

where e is the eccentricity of the section

(2 5 ) A ligh t ellipsoi dal shell partly filled wi t h water i s

free to rotate round its cen t re which is fixed and ,

the shell when i its posi t ion o f s t able equilibrium

, n ,

is t urned through any angle .

Prove that the work necessary to e ffect t he dis

placement varies as a p where p is the pe pe , r n

di c l a from the centre f t he ellipsoid on the

u r o

t angent plane parallel to the new surface f the o

water and 2 a the longes t axis

, .

0
21 0 NUME RICA L CA LC ULA TIONS
1 4 0 S h i p Desi gn
. on a nd Ca l cu l a ti .

Th e drawings f the outside sur face o f a ship give the

o

equidis tant contour lines in (fig 4 8 ) .

(i ) the side elevation ( h

.
p l an ) s e er

(ii ) the end elevation (b dy p l n )

. o a

(iii ) the plan (h a lf b e adth p l n ) ;

.
-
r a

these curves an d planes may be supposed re f erred as in ,

S olid G eometry to the coordinate ax es Ow vertical in the

, ,

s te m Oz hori zontal along the k eel n d Oy perpendicular

, ,
a

to th e medial p lane .

10 OX O 6 6

Fig . 48 .

C onsi dering
that a ship is symmetrical with respect to
this medial plane a representa tion f one hal f of the ship
,
o

is sufi ci e n t .

Th ecurves and surfac es employe d here are not in

general such as tho e j ust investigate d which are given
s ,

by analytical conditions (cu rv e t su fa c s a n a l yti qu es) ; s e r e

bu t they are fair curves and sur faces drawn through

guiding poin ts and lines (cu rves e t su fa ce tap og a r s r

h
p qi u es ) so tha t in the d etermination f the correspond o

ing areas volumes ,

and momen ts f inertia
,
o ,

mechanical Planime te s must be employed or else the

r ,

me tho ds of A pproximate Q uadrature .

(Pollard t D d b t T h e o ri e d
e n av iu) e ou ,
’
a re .
21 2 NUM E R ICA L CA LC ULA TIONS
Th e other integrals required f finding th e momen ts or ,

first and second (moments o f inert ia ) and fo finding the ,

r

volumes and their moments being represented gra phically ,

by the areas f curves whose ordinates are § y y i y yz

o
2
,
z,
f’
,
z
,

A and A 90 can be evalua t ed in the same manner by

,

S impson s rule
’
.

S imilar calculations f determining V a performed or re

for plane sections perpendicular to t he keel Oz ( qu a e s r

sections) and used to check the former results ; som

, e

times also but rarely for plane sections parallel to the

, ,

medial plane acOz .

T hus f ,
instance i f t he half breadths f the water
or , o

plane o f a ve ssel are 3 1 2 4 1 3 9 1 45 1 43 1 3 4 , , , , , ,

116 ,
2 4 ft at an interval o f 1 6 ft the area o f the
, ,

hal f plane is 1 678 ft and the o f t he hal f area is 1 00

2
,

ft from one end and 4 ft from the middle line , .

S o also if the areas o f the water line sections reckoned

, ,

downw rds are 4 000 4 000 3 200 2 5 00 1 5 00 600 1 00 ft

a , , , , , , ,
2
,

at an interval o f 2 ft the displacement is 2 79 3 3 ft or ,

8

7 9 8 1 t ons and the O H is at a dep t h 3 9 8 ft below the

,
. .

load water section .

A additional e x ercises the studen t may work out t he

s

hal f area and its f hal f breadths or

(1 ) 1 4 3 3 4,9 5 7 5 0 4 0 2 5 f
,
t at in t ervals o
, f 3 0 f t , , , ,

(2 ) 5 , 6, 1 0, 1 2 4 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 5 , 1 2 4 1 2 3 , 1 1 , 8 , 5 ft ,
'

at intervals f 1 2 ft o .

(3 ) D e termine the displacement in tons and the posi

tion of the 0 B f the di fferent water planes 3 ft apart
. . or ,

at which the to ns per inch immersion e ar

2 7, 2 6, 2 4 8 ,
2 2 8 , 2 05 ,
1 75 ,
13 ;
the d isplacement below the lowest plane being 50 tons ,

with a 0 B 1 5 inches below this plane

. . .
 IN NA VAL A R CHITE C T URE .
213

Th e amina t ion Papers fo S cience S chools an d

Ex r

C lasses Part IV N a v a l A rch i te ctu e may be consul t e d

, .
,
r ,

fo additional exercises
r .

Various empirical rules have long been in e x istence fo r

giving the displacement or t on n age o f a vessel given the ,

length L b ea dth B a t t he water line and D the dep t h

,
r ,

or draft o f water (M oorsom Tran I N A vol ,

s . . . .
,
.

Th e simplest rule gives

L x B x D + 1 00 displacement in tons o f 1 00 ft 3
,

which is a fterwards m ultiplied by an arbitrary coefficient ,

ranging from 05 to 0 8 according t o the fineness of the ,

shape o f the vessel .

T h e ratio o f t he true displacement in ft to t he volume 3

LxB xD
of t he shaped vessel o f t he sa me dimensions is
box -

called the block coefficien t or coefficien t o f fineness

“ ”

thus f an ell ipsoi d hal f immersed t his coefficien t is

or

1 41 . Th e Co n di ti on s f
o E qu i li bri u m f
o a Fl oa ti n g
B ody p a rtl y supp or te d .

When a floating body is partly suppor ted f instance ,

or ,

a body suspended by a thread or fine w ire and weighed in

the hydrostatic balance a ballcock in a cistern a b ucket , ,

lowered by a rope into wa t er a boat partly ho isted up ,

by a rope a ship aground or on the lau n ching ways or

, ,

a divi g bell the body is in equilibriu m under three

n ,

parallel forces (i ) the weight (ii ) the upward buoyancy

: .
,
.
,

and (iii ) the t h rus t o f the support or pull f the rope

. o ,

which mus t also be vertical ; a d then the condi t ion s n

of equilibrium o f three paral l el f orces must be applied ,

generally by t a king moments abou t any poin t in t he

line o f the reac t ion of t he support .
21 4 A N
FL O TI G B O DY
If the body can move freely on an axis fixed at a
given inclination the resolved part of the weight and
,

buoyancy p rallel to this axis must be equal and there

a ,

f ore the weight and buoyancy must be equal as in a body ,

floating freely ; and in addition the moments f the , ,

o

wei g ht and buoyan y about the axis mus t be equal c .

S ometimes a body is pushed or held down or sinks to ,

the bot t om ; and when it is held co mpletely s bmerged u ,

as f insta nce a submarine mine a body floating up

, or , ,
or

against the under side f a sheet f ice the 0 B coincides o o , . .

w ith the centre f figu e f the body If the body

o r o .

weighs W lb a d i t s is the buoyancy is a force of

n s,

l V/ s pounds ; the reaction W/ s W o f the ice there fore

passes through a fixed poin t 0 in GB produced such that ,

OB W 8

BG W/ s W 1 — s
’

and the positions f equilibrium those in which the

o a re

norm l f om O to the su fa e f the body is vertical

a r r c o .

T hus an elliptic cylinde f SG floating horizontally r o . . s,

against the nder side f a sheet f ice or resting on the

u o o ,

bottom f the wate has four or two p ositions f equi

o r, o

librium acco ding as O lies inside or o tside the evolute

r u

o f the ellipse f cross sectiono

1 4 2 S uppose a vessel drawing a ft o f wa t er to take

.
, ,

the ground alo g the keel K and that the tide falls from
n ,

LL to a fall f so ft the buoyancy thus lost bein g

’
o ,

P tons (fig 4 2 p .
, .

If the vessel heels thro gh a small angle 9 an p u , u

setting couple P K h sin 9 ft tons is introd ced by -

u ,

which the metacent ic height GM as in 1 1 8 will be r , ,

diminished by (P/ W) K h ft .
216 FL O TI A NG BO DY
1 43 . When
a body is lowered into water by a rope ,

the point K must be taken as the point f attachment to o

the body ; f instance in lowering a bucket into wate r

or , ,

K will lie in the axis f the pivots f the handle say o o ,

at D in fig 4 4 p 1 9 0 .
, . .

S uppose the bucket is ylindrica l n d f height h from c ,

a o

the bottom to the pivots f the handle and that it would o ,

float upright in unstable eq ilibrium wi th a length b f u o

the a x is immersed and that D is at a height 0 above G

, .

Th b cket will begin to leave the upright position

e u

when a length f the axis i immersed such t hat W

a: o s ,

downwards th o gh G and the buoyancy W / b upwards

r u oe

through M have e q ual moments round D the tension ,

of the rope being W(l and there fore

2
x

w—
h N / (h z
2 bc
which gives the length f axis t f the water in the o ou o

position f neutral equilibrium ; a greater length out f

o o

wate will make the e q ilib ium stable and v i v

r ; u r ,
ce ersa

also f a circular bucket f radius a (g

or o

In a long thin cylinder like a spar lowered by one , ,

end w e may put = 0 ; and w b = sh i f 8 deno tes the

,
r no ,

f the spa ; also e = § h and then

o r ,

a —
h = h J (l —
s );
so that the vertical position is unstable and the spar will ,

assume an inclined position i f the verti al length out f c o

water is less than J (1 8 ) times the length f the spar —

o .

1 4 4 If the body in fig 4 4 is suppor ted or pushed

. .

down at any other point say at O E or E and comes to , , ,

’

rest at an inclination 9 to the vertical moments must be ,

 PA R TL Y S UPPOR TE D .
217

taken about t his point remembering tha t the weight ,

and buoyancy are propor tional to sh an d 90 t he weigh t ,

ac t ing t hrough G and the buoyancy t hrough m where ,

Om is given in 1 2 7 .

S imilar investigations will hold fo the other bodies r

shown in figs 4 6 a d 4 7 ; the reasoning is similar to tha t

. n

employed in 1 1 8 an d the point o f support may n o w ,

re place m the me t acentre of t he liqui d insi de

,
.

1 4 5 S uppose the cone in fig 4 6 is floati g in wa t er

. . n

of depth OK = 7\h with its verte x 0 t ouching the bottom

,

then i f the axis is incl ined at 9 to the vertical in the

position of equilibrium equating momen t s roun d 0 o f ,

the weight
W § DS 7rh t an a ,
= 3 2

acting downwards through G and of the buoyancy D V ,

o f the volume V o f the cone acting upwards

t hrough B ,
gives the equation
W % h sin 9 = D V i K F . .
,

s tan sin 9
2
a

N i 9 cos 9 sin cos { e (9 + )

‘ z
s n
(9 a a s c a se c

8 sec 9 cos g
{ ( + ) (9 )}
4 3
A c c s 9 se a o a a .

A = c a d the equilibriu m is apparently

4 z
If s os a , n

neutral i the upright position but really stable

n , .

If a generating line is vertical ,

9= and A = s ( 2 ) a,
4
se c a c o s
4
a

thus i f = 3 0 and
a then s 1 J 2
°

, .

1 4 6 If the body in fig 4 6 is pushed do w n at E the

’
. .
,

condition f equi l ibrium is ob t aine d by taking moments

o

about E '
n d as in § 1 2 4 the same condition o f equi
a , ,

li briu m holds fo the cone o f S G l s floating i n wa t er

r , . .
—
,

with its vert e x above the sur face and i ts base touching ,

the bottom at E ’
.
21 8 A N
FL O TI G B O Y D
Asan exercise the s t udent may prove that i f the cone
,

is pushed down at E till E is brought to the su face of

’ ’
r

the water ,

2 % 9
(
3 c os ) sin
( 9 cos a 4 cos 9 sin ) a a

) (sin 2 9 + 4 sin 2 ) a a .

S imilarly i f fig 4 6 p 1 9 6 represents a tria gula log

,
.
,
.
,
n r ,

touching the bottom f the wa t er at O with Ln K as o ,

the wate line w h l l find

r , e s a

1 0
sec 9 c { (9 + ) cos (9 ) } ;
8 se
2
a co s a a
2

and so on .

If the log is pivoted about a horizontal axis through G ,

then the inclined position f e q uilibrium will be stable i f o

B G and the e fore also F D is vertical or K F = h i 9

, ,
r
, , ,
s n .

If the axis lies in the sur face of the water ,

Xh = OK = § h 9 A= § cos 9 ; co s ,

and there fore (g 1 33)

9 cos (9
c0 3
2
) cos (9 ) cos 9 sin a a
2 2
a,

cos 9 3 sin 2 2
a .

S imilarly f o a cone r

9 2 sin c os a .

B t i f the angle 9 given by this equation

u not real 1s ,

the stable position o f equilibrium is ver t ical .

S also f
o the other bodies i f supported or submerged
or ,

by the tension f a rope or i f esting on the bottom as in

o ,
r ,

the case f a ship with a rounded bottom ashore on a

o ,

sandbank or convex rock .

In this case the point f application f the lost buoy o o

ancy P i the neighbourhood f the upright position f

n o o

the ship must be changed from the keel K to the point Q

where the vertical through the point f contact with the o

rock cu ts the circle of i fl e i s in the ship of t he two

n x on

s urfaces i contact
n
2 20 E XE R CIS E S ON FLO TI A NG

D a les .
i d (s D
%) a l 9 % a
2
.

or a g sin 9 ; = (s —
4
,a

and if i the level

s will fall
,
slightly below the axis F ;
the level will also fluctuate to a slight extent .

A simila investig ation will hold f

r a hemispherica l or

float .

Th e same principle has been employe d in some oil

lamps f maintaining a constant level f the oil in the
, or o

wick : as in H o k or Milner s oil lamp des ribed in

o e s
’ ’

,
c

Young s Le t u es on N a tu l Ph i l o p h y and De M
’

c r ra so ,
or

gan s B dg e t f P a do x p 1 4 9
'
u o ar e s, . .

E xa mp l e s .

(1 ) A uni form rod rests in a position inclined to the

vertical with hal f its length immersed in water
, ,

and can t urn about a point in it at a distance

equal to one sixth of the length of the d from the
-
ro

extremity below the water .

Prove that the f the rod is 0 1 2 5 o .

()
2 T hree uni form rods j oine d so as to form three sides ,

o f a square have one o f their free extremities

,

atta hed t o a hinge in the surface o f water and

c ,

rests in a vertical plane with h al f the opposite side

out f the fluid o .

Prove that the f the rods is 07 75 o .

(3 ) A B and B C are two rods hinged at B the former ,

being hea vier and the latter lighter than water .

T h two rods float i n water with the end A f reely

e

hinged at a fixed point in t he surface f the water o .

Prove that the f t he rod A B is equal to o

a b + 2 by
2
—
2y
ab
 D
B O I ES B A R TL Y S UPPORTE D .
221

where 2 a 2 b are t he lengths of the ro ds nd 2 y the

, ,
a

length o f the immerse d portion f the lighter od o r .

A hollo w me t al sphere o f radius 6 inches woul d floa t

freely in w ter with hal f its s r face immerse d
a u .

It is at tached rigidly by means of a weightless

rod t o a tap so that the distance of the centre
,

o f the sphere from the tap is 2 0 inches .

T h e water rises to a height o f one inch above

the centre f the sphere be fore the tap t urns and
o ,

the tap is then 1 1 inches above t he surface o f the

\v at er .

Fin d the couple necessary t o turn the tap .

A rectangular parallelepiped moveable abo t one e dge

, u

fi xed hori z ontally is partly immersed in water

, .

If i t can res t with another edge in the s u rface ,

and having one of i t s faces con t aining t he fi x e d

e dge bisec t ed by the liquid find the , o f the solid ;

and i f the section perpendicular t o the fixed edge

be a square prove t hat the
, o f the solid is 0 7 5 .

Prove that i f the body rests with hal f its volume

,

immersed and its faces equally inclined to the ver

tical the
,
is (brea dth by height) .

A square log rests with one edge immerse d in wa t er ,

and partly supporte d along t w parallel edges o

in the su face of the water a distance 0 apart

r , .

Prove that the inclina t ion 9 of a diagonal t o t he

vert ical in a positio n o f equilibr i um is given by
the equation
h 2
h
cos 2 9 = sec
where 8 denotes the and h t he si de of the
square cross section o f the log .
2 22 E XE R CIS E S ON FL OA TI NG
(7) A
- square log f density n p floats in t wo liq ids f
o u o

densities p and 2 p respectively ; n edge is fixed o e

in the sur face f sepa ation f the liquids abo t o r o ,

u

which the log is capable f rotating the whole o ,

o f it being immersed .

S how that i f 2 n > 3 the angle 9 which the , ,

side th ough the fixed axis whi h lies i the

r ,
c n

upper liquid makes with the horizon is given by ,

tan 9 + (3n 4 ) tan 9 + 3(n 2 ) 0

3
.

(8 ) A homogeneous log the cross section f which is a , o

regular he x agon A B CDE F can turn f eely about , r

a horizontal e dge at A which is in the surface

o f water If in the position o f e q uilibrium A B
.

lies above the water and hal f o f B C is immersed ,

prove that the o f the log is

it .

(9 ) A reg ular tetrahedron has one edge fixed in the

sur fac e o f water .

S how that it will be in eq ilibrium with the u

other edge inclined to the vertical at an angle

cosec 3 if the '

f the tet ahedron is

1
,
o r

0 2 9 4 3 75 .

( )
1 0 Prove that i f the bodies represented in figs 4 6 and
, .

4 7 floating in the
,
pright position are divided u ,

symmetrically by a vertical plane thro gh D O u

into t wo parts which are hinged t ogether at O , ,

the parts will not remain in contact unless

()
i in .the t iang lar prism cone (fig r u or .

w> h i sin 1 i s n a,
z
a 8
7?
or s t ,

ii
( ) in the
. parabolic cyli der or paraboloid n

(fig 7) i /
4. h l > 5 or h
% / l i s
‘
1 ‘

, s
'
2 24 . VE R TIC AL OS CILLA TIONS

1 48 . Th e Ve rti ca l Osci l l a ti on s f
o a Fl oa ti n g B ody .

When a ship displacing or W tons receives a

, V t
f 3
,

small vertical displacement f a: ft either p or down o

,
u ,

the cha ge in buoyancy tending to bring the ship back

n ,

to its original p osition f equilib ium is the weight f o r ,

o

asA ft f water w here A denotes the average water line

3
o ,

area in ft ; and this force is v A / V f the weight f the

2
. o o

shi p or a force of
,

WacA / V t ons .

T h e ship there fore pe rforms vertical (dippi g ) oscilla n

tions as i f s pporte d by a s pring f which the permanent

u ,
o

average vertical set is V/ A ft ; and there fore as proved ,

in treatises in Dynamics the ship will perform i mp l e , s

h a m o n i c vertical oscillations similar to the motion f

r , o

the piston in a vertical steam engine w hich will ,

synch onize wi t h t he sm ll oscillations of a simple pen

r a

d lum f length V/A ft or with the revolutions f a

u o , o

conical pe ndulum f the same heigh t V/ A ft o , .

T h p e ri o d f the pendulum is the name now given to

e o

the time in seconds o f a dou bl e oscillation f the simple o

pendulum or to the period of revolution of the conical

,

pendulum this is proved in treatises on Dynamics to be

2 7rs / (
l /e )
seconds f a pendulum whose height is l ft
or .

T his is there fore the period o f a comple te double

ver t ical oscillation o f the ship i f ,

l = V/ A .

We notice that the ratio f the corresponding horizontal o

ordinates in fig 4 2 of the curve K D o f displacement in

.

t ons and f the curve K E o f t ons per inch o f immersion

,
o

will give the length in i n ch e f the equivalent simple

,
s, o

pendulum f the ver t ical oscillations

or .
 OF A FLO TI G B O A N DY .
2 25

1 49It is assume d here however that the pressure o f

.

the water is a t any point that due to its h ea d (g and

that the changes o f p ressure due to the motion o f the
wa t er are le ft out f account o .

B t H ydrodynamical investiga t ions show that the

u

motion of the water may be al lowed f by addi g to the or n

ine tia W f the body a certai n fraction k W of th e

r o

inertia W f the water displaced provided that here

o

again the wave mo t ion on the surface is eglected n .

Fo instance in a ci cular cylinder floating hori z ontally

r ,
r

(fig 4 5 ) it is found that I 1 n d in a sphere that

. t :
,
a

so that the length of the equivalent sim ple pendulum is

in consequence changed to % V/ A a d sV/ A the preced n

ing theory is thus not very accurate .

T h hydrometer o f fig 3 6 p 1 1 3 i f taken as co n sisti g

e .
,
.
,
n

of a thin stem A L and a spherical bulb B would i f dis , ,

placed through a vertical distan e 0 an d let go perfo m c ,

r

ve tical oscillations of amplitude c on each side of its posi

r

tion of equilibrium which synchronize with an equivalent

,

simple pendulum of length

V/ or a a

on the first hydrostatical hypothesis ; bu t when the c o rre c

tion made f the inertia f the water d i splaced by the

1s or o

spherical bulb the length f the equivalent pendulu m

,
o 1s

64 ) ab+ t( 66 — l)
vertical osci l lations o f the ship may be pro
1 5 0 Th e .

d e d by dropping a weight of P tons already on board

uc ,

or by the vertical reci procation s of the engines .

A the weight is falling the ship will start vertical

s ,

oscillations of amplitu de and equivalent pendulum length

P V and P V
WA
P
2 26 VE R TICA L OS CILL A TIONS
When the weight is checked and brought to rest
again on the shi p the verti al os illations will not
,
c c

necessarily be stopped .

Th e F f the water line area G f the shi p

o , o ,

and there fo e also B f the water dis pl ced must lie

r o a ,

in th e same ve tical line and P also must be dropp ed

r ,

in this vertical line ; otherwise gular oscillations are an

g ene ate d
r .

1 5 1 When a body is floating in two flui ds as a ship

.
,

in water and air the additio al upward buoyancy f

,
n or

a downward displacement is (w where w and 00

w denote the de sities f the lower and upper fluids ;

’
n o

so that the length f the equivalent pendulum is

o

W
(w
M ore
generally f a body floating in a n mber f
,
or u o

supe in umbent fluids in whi h t h density increases

r c ,
c e

by Aw in passi g downwa ds across the plane f the area

n r o

A f section f the body the le gth f the e q uivalent

o o ,
n o

pe d lum is sho w n in the same manne to be

n u r

W
dw
fl dw
zl w
— -
dge

in the notation f the Integ al C al ulus when the body

o r c , ,

like a balloon in i is floating in stable e q uilibrium in a

a r,

fl id arra ged in horizontal st ata f varying density

u n r o .

T hus f example in the small ve tical oscillations f

,
or ,
r o

a cone floatin g u p ight and ve tex downwards with its

r r ,

axis hal f s bme ged in a liq id in wh ich the density

u r u

varies as the sq are root f the de pth the length f the

u o , o

e q uivalent pendulum is one seventh the height -

.
2 28 ANG ULA R OS CIL L TIO S A N
(v ) fo r
. a paraboloid floating upright in ano ther equal ,

paraboloid ,

W(l i) l ,

whe e h denotes the depth f the water and the i m

r o , a:

mer ed length f the a is f the floating paraboloid

e o x o .

1 5 3 In the ve tical oscillations

. f a ship as p r o ,
re re

sented in cross section in fig 4 2 p 1 68 the up ight posi .

,
.
,
r

tion becomes unstable f d augh ts f water at which the or r

‘

cu ve f metacent es M M dips below the level f G

r o r
,
o .

A t d aught LL the shi p will lose st bility as the

’
r a

d aught diminishes that is during the upper hal f f a

r ,
o

ve tical oscillation
r .

B t t draught L L the metacentre M descends f

’
u a or
, , ,

an increase f d aught and s tability is lost du ing the

o r ,
r

lower hal f f the vertical oscillation

o .

T hese consideratio s may help to ex p lain the well n

known liability f a sailing boat to capsize on the t p

o o

of a wave (W H White O th R l l i g f S i l i g S h i p
. .
, n e o n o a n s,

T rans .

1 54 . Th e A n g u l a r Osci l l a ti o n s o f a Fl oa ti n g B o dy .

treat the rolling oscillations f a shi p in an eleme t

To o n

ary manner it is assumed by aval architects that the

,
n

ship rolls about a fixed horizontal longitudinal axis

through the under the ri ghting influence f the o

buoyancy W tons acting verti ally upwards through the

,
c

0 B or the metacentre ; and then denoting by WK the 2

. .
,

e ffective moment f inertia in tons ft f the shi p abouto ,

-
2
,
o

this longitudinal axis the principles f elementary Rigid ,

o

D ynamics show that the len g th L f the equivalent o

sim ple pendulu m f small oscillations is given by or

L=K 2
/ GM .
 OF A FL O TI A NG BO DY 2 29

A similar ex pression gi ves the length o f t he equivale t n

pen dulum when the ship performs small pitching oscilla

tions abo t a transverse hori zontal ax is through G
u .

It can be proved by the In t egral C alculus tha t about

a hori z on t al ax is through G perpendicula to the plane of r

the paper (figs 4 4 to .

i
() K.
2
(b h )
T,
2 2

f a rectangular prism f breadth b and height h ;

or o

K f a cylinder ; or

iii
( ) K.
fi(
2
b ) as e
2

f an isosceles tria gul ar prism ;

or n

iv
( ) . f base ) fo a cone 2
or

( )v K.
2 pa abolic cylinder ; r

( )
v i K L,(di m t
—
o f a e er

fo a paraboloid
r

vii
( ) . f o a sphere etc r , .

(vii i ) K R 2 2

f
or any prisma t ic body about an xis through G p p a er en

di l
c u ar to its length ls being the radius f gyration f the
,
o o

cross section through G abou t this axis .

T h e readiest w y o f in ferring the value o f K fo a ship

a
2
r

is from the metacen t ric height GM and t he period f o

rolling T seconds suppose then on the precedi n g

,

hypothesis ,

K 2
7x,
whe e A deno t es the length o f the seconds pendulu m in ft
r

A 12 3 2 6 61 f t .

We can now calculate the angle f heel p oduced by o r

firing a broadside f example from guns firi ng 1 700 lb

or ,

p rojectiles with a veloci t y o f 1 600 f/ f rom a vessel f s, o

8 000 tons displacement whose metacentric height is 2 f t

,
230 AN G ULA R OS CILL A TIONS
and period f rolli g 2 0 se onds the axeso n c , of the guns
being 1 5 ft above the f the vessel o .

T h res lt is abo t 2 also °

e u u

K 2 = 1 00 GM A 64 7 2 2 f t z
K = 2 5 4 4 ft
'
‘

.
:
, .

When the pe iod f the waves becomes commensurable

r o

with the period f rolling there is a tendency f the o , or

oscillations to accumulate in ampli t ude .

1 5 5 When the ship rolls thro ugh a considerable angle

.
,

it is assumed that the dynamical stability or wo k ,

r

requi ed to heel the ship through a given angle 9 is the

r

same as that required to heel the vessel slowly and

steadily in other words the inertia f the surroundi g
: ,
o n

water is neglecte d .

N w ifo denotes the ext eme inclination f the shi p

a r o ,

and w the angular velo ity when inclined at an angle 9 c ,

the di fference f dynamical stabilities at in linations

o c a

and 9 is e q ual to the kinetic energy f the ship in o ,

ft tons i Ws
-
, /g ; whence the time f rolling
g
through o

any angle be in ferred by an integ ation or f ili g

ca n r , a n

that by a me hanical quad ature c r .

T hus f instance i f the curve f stati al stability in

,
or ,
o c

fig 4 0 p 1 61 is a curve f sines and thence the curve f

.
,
.
,
o , o

dynamical stability is a curve o f versed i ; and if the s n ce

angle f vanishing stability is 1 8 0/ n deg rees the dy

o ,

na mi l stability at an inclination 9 is
ca

W GM vers n 9 ft tons . .
-

and the rolling o f the shi p bet ween the extreme inclina
tions will synchroni z e with the finite oscillations f a
01 o

simple pendulum f length K / GM swinging through n o

2
,

times this angle ; and the omplete solution t here fore c

re q ui es the E l l i p ti F ncti on s
r c u .
2 32 ANG ULAR OS CILLA TIONS OF A S HIP A GR O UND .

line and vertical oscillations come also into existence ;

,

these ve tical oscillations can be allowed f by supposing

r or

the a is f s spension thro gh M to be supported on

x o u u

springs ; but in any case the comple t e solution f the o

oscillations f a ship leads into di fficulties

o .

reating the reaction o f the water as acting hydro

T
statically in the case f the shi p in 1 4 2 aground alo g o ,
n

the keel and heeled over to a position f equilib i m then o r u ,

f
or an additional sm all angular displacement 9 in which ,

GH denote the perp endicula s f om B G on

’ ’
B N
, ,
r r
,,

the new water plane the additional righting moment , ,

measu ed in ft f water multiplied into f eet due

r
3
o ,

(i ) to the wedges
. f immersion and emersion is o

Ah s in
’
z
9 ,

whe e A h denotes the moment of inertia in ft f

r
"
2
,
‘
, o

the plane f flotation about the axis through F

o
"

(ii ) to the movement

. o f B is V B N sin 9 ; , , ,
.

(iii ) to the movement

. f G is V G H sin 9 o .

T he V(K + GK ) denoting the m m t o f inertia in

'

2 2
n o en

q uinti feet ft about the keel the oscillations f the

c ,
5
, ,
o

shi p will synchronize with a pendulum f length o

V(K + GK ) 2 2

Ak ; V B ,N V GH
’f ’
. .

so that the denominator m ust be positive fo r the equi

librium to be stable .
 C H APTE R VI .

I I
E QU L B R U M OF L I I QU IDS IN A B E NT T U B E .

T HE T HERM OM ETER, B AROM ETER, AN D I

S PHON .

It has been proved i n

1 58 . that the common “

surface f two liquids which do not mi x is a horizontal

o

plane ; d in § 2 4 tha t the separate parts of the free

”
an
“

surface f a homogeneous liquid filling a numbe f com

o r o

m i cat i g vessels all form par t f one ho izontal plane

”
un n o r .

T his las t theo em no longer holds i f t w r or more o

liquids of di fferent dens i ties which do not mix are , ,

poured into the communicating vessels .

T illustrate this di fference take a bent t be A B

o , u

(fig 5 0.
) and pour into the branches two di fferent liquids ,

o f densities and p say mercury and water or oil and

a
'

, ,

water so that the upper f ee surfaces stand at H and K

,
r

and the plane surface f separation at the level A B o .

T hen i f p denotes the pressure f the atmos ph er e and o ,

h I t t he ver t ical heights o f H K above A B the p essure

, , ,
r

at A and B will be 2 1 ) p + h a d p + p l ; and these o

-
n o

pressures being e q ual 1 9 )

l = lc, h / h} = p / o ;
l

oI 01
‘ ‘

p
' ' '
- -

which proves the

T H E OR E M vertical heights f the col mns
“
Th . e o u of

two liquids above their common surface are inversely as

the densities .
”
2 34 EQ UILIB RI UM A ND A
S T B ILIT Y

uppose f exam ple that the wate s f the

159 . S , or , r o

M edite ranean and the D ead S

r were in comm ni ation ea u c

by a subterranean channel reaching to a depth h below ,

the su face f the D ead S and It below the su fa e f

r o e a, r c o

the Mediterranean .

T hen according to the da t a f

, 4 4 7 6 if the wate s o , , r

of the two se s balance in this channela ,

I
t a 50
=
ii p 1 02 5
~
IT
o — h = 1 30 0 ;
I
whence h = 7 2 o0 ,
h = 8 5 00 ,
ft .

Fig . 50 . Fig . SI . Fi g . 52 . Fig .

1 60 the S tability f the E quilibrium f the liqui ds

. Fo r o o

in the bent tube it is requisite that the denser liq id,

u

should oc upy the lower bend f the tube ; otherwise the

c o

lighter liquid wo ld be underneath the heavie li q id at

u r u

A and t h
,
e q uili brium would be unstable as shown
e ,

in 2 6 .

Th li q uid in the bend A B may be e p laced by any

e r

othe liquid and the equilibrium will still s bsist ; but it

r u

will be nstable i f the density f this liquid is less than

u o

the de sities and p f the two other liquids

n 0
'
o .
2 36 OS CIL L A TIONS OF TH E LI Q UID COL UMN .

Th ecolumn will now oscillate ; and as in § 1 4 8 the , ,

force on the col mn tending to bring it back t o its u

position f equilibriu m when displaced through a dis

o

ta nce being 2 p wae where denote the uni for m cross

a;
’

, (1 ) s

section f the tube the column will oscillate like a

o ,

pendulum f length o

1V k
’

p +p a + crh
l _
’ ’
2p w 2p
where W denotes the wei g ht 01 the liquids and a the °

length f the filament in the bend A B

o .

T hus i f

(P i ip i lib IL Prop X LI V ) r nc a, .
, . .

S up pose however tha t the branches f the tube are

, ,
o

not vertica l b t curved so that the incli ations to the

,
u ,
n

vertical at the points A B H K are 8 9 I , , , a, , , , () .

T hen to p sh the column through a small distance

u it

f om i t position f e q uilibrium by a piston at H will

r s o

requi e a thrust reaching from z ero to

r

M cos
il)
¢ + k cos 8 ) cos 8 + cos ) , ,
c
. a

w( cos +h cos 9) 1 —
’
cr . a c
c

{1 c p
1 ) os
) os l cos 9 } w : —
co s -
a c a
- -
a
'

a,

so that if the pist n is remove d the column will oscillate

,
o ,

like a pend lu m f length u o

W/ w
p cos —
p ) c o s B+ (
p
’
—
a ) c os cos 9
a +o
'

re d ci g f a homogeneous filament f length to

.

u n or ,
o c,

c
l
co; ¢ + s 9
.

co

S imilarly f the oscillations o f any number f liquids

or o

in a uni form bent tube ; but if the bore of the tube

changes as i n a marine barometer the problem is o m
, ,
c

plicated by the variations o f l ci tv in the tube ve o .

 H A RE S H YDR OM E TE R .
2 37

H ydrome te r
’
1 62 . e e s .

This is an application f the principle o f t he T heorem o

e f g 1 5 8 ; it consists f two ver t ical glass t ubes A H and o

B K dipping into vessels at A and B conta ining two

, ,

liquids whose densities and p are to be compared , o ,

(fig . T h e upper ends f the tubes are cemented o

into a receptacle 0 from which the air can be partially ,

exhaus t ed by an air pump or o ther means ; and t he

liquids now rise in A H and B K to heigh t s h a d 10 above n

their level at A and B which heights are inversely as ,

the densities or such that ,

h = p k or p / cr , o

A apparent ten si on draws up the liquid columns in

n

the tubes ; fo this reason any small pressure below

r

the atmospheric pressure is sometimes calle d a ten s i on ,

because the di fference between this pressure and that

of the atmosphere is a negative pressure or a tension ,

thus it is usual to speak f the t n si on f aqueous and o e o

other v pours ; but the word t ension is sometimes i m

a

properly applied to very high pressures such as those ,

due to the gases of fired gunpowder .

E x a mp l e s .

(1 ) T w o equal vertical cylinders o f height l stand i de by s

side and there is free communication between

th eir bases Q uantities f t w liquids f densities
. o o o

p p l
which
, 3
w ould fill lengths a and 0 respectively
of the cylinder are poured in and rest in stable, ,

equilibrium each liquid being ontinuous

,
c .

A given quan t ity f a liquid f density p o o

2,

intermed iate between p and p is poured slowly 1 3,

i to one f the cylin de s

n o r .
2 38 EXA M PLES GIV E Q UILIB R I UM

Findthe position f equilibrium noticing the o ,

di fferent cases which may occur ; d show that an

i f the liquid reaches the top o f both cylinde at rs

the same time either ,

(p i —
p al m — a —
p a c» l 01
“
(p l —
ps l c

(2 ) If two eq al vertical ylinders in communication at

u c

the base are pa tly filled with mercury and losed

r ,
c

by pistons which are allowed to descend slowly ,

p rove that air will not pass from one cylinder to

the other if the di fference f weights o f the pis o

tons is less than the weight f me u y ; and find o rc r

the position f equilib ium o r .

(3 ) A vessel in the for m f a cylinder with its axis verti

,
o

cal is partially filled with water Th lower part

, . e

f the vessel communicates with a reservoir f

o o

infinite extent ; and a body in the form of a ,

cylinder floats with its axis ve tical in the vessel

,
r , .

Fluid f less density than water is

o w slowly no

poured into the vessel .

Find the q uantity which must be poured in

be fore the floating cylinde begins to move r

when the density of the second fl id is greater u ,

and (ii ) less than that f the cylinder

. o .

(4 ) A small uni form tube is bent into the form f a circle o

whose plane is vertical and eq al volumes f two ,

u o

fluids whose densities p fill h al f the tube ; a re , a ,

show that the radius passing through the common

su face makes with the ver tic l an angle
r a

—
0
t an
‘
l p
;
p + ff
and find the period of a small oscillation .
24 0 E XA MPLE S .

AB C in the t wo positions prove that the weigh t

’
,

of liquid which has passed from one branch to the

other bea s to the weight o f the whole the ratio
r

“tan tan 8 ) tan y to l a ,

.

()
8 A fine tube bent into the form f an e l li pse is held o

with its plane vertic l and is filled with n liquids a ,

whose densities are p p p t ken in order l , 2 , " a

round the elliptic tube .

If 3 h7 the distances f the points

,
f
r" e o

of sepa ation f rom either focus prove tha t

r ,

7
1 01 0
9 2) T
APz -
P3 ) "
l
”
“(P 71 0
°

tate the corresponding theo em if the fl ids

S r , u

do not fill the tube ; and find the pe iod of a small r

oscillation .

(9 ) A ycloidal tube contains equal weights o f two

c

liquids occupying lengths and b ; i f it be placed

, a

with its ax is vertical p ove that t he heights f ,

r o

the free surfa es o f the fluids above the vertex f c o

the tube are as

(S ew b) to -
2

( )
1 0 A n uni form tube is bent into the f orm f a cycloid o ,

and held with its ve tex downwards and a x is r

vertical It is then pa tly filled with mercury

. r ,

S G .1 3 5 and chlo o fo m S G
.
,
S how that i f r r , . .

the volume f the chloroform be three times that o

of the mercury their common su face will be at ,

r

the lowest point f the t be o u .

(1 1 ) Prove that the finite oscillations f a filament f o o

liquid in a circular or ycloidal tube or a tube c ,

o f any shape can be compared w ith those of a ,

pa ti le at the middle point f t he filamen t

r c o .
 D ILA TA TION B Y HE A T .
24 1

1 63 . Di l a ta ti o nf o
and n e fii c i e n ts o E xp a n si .

Th usual formu l as and appro x imations em ployed in the

e

measurement f dilatation may be e x plained at this stage

o .

B y the application f heat liquids and solid bodies o ,

expan d in general by a fraction which is sensibly pro

,

portional to the rise of temperat u re .

If a homogeneous soli d body e x pands equally in all

directions so as to remain always similar to itsel f and if
, ,

corresponding lengths a e s and volumes become hange d ,

r a , c

from l A and V to l + Al A + AA and V+ A V then

, , , , ,

Al / l AA /A and A V/ V are called respectively the l i n e

, , ar

ex te n s i the e a l xp n si on d the cu bi ca l xp n si n
on ,
ar e a ,
an e a o

or di l a ta ti on .

S ince the bo dy is supposed to remain similar to itsel f ,

therefore
as
AA
;

bu t considering that Al / l is in general so small that i t s

square is insensible t o the number f decimals to which o

Al / l is given in the formulas we may p t ,

u

}
2s A
AA ! a .

A Z V
’
l

so that the areal and cubical e x pansions are respectiv ely

twice and t hrice the li near e x t ension .

A it is found e x perimentally that the linear areal

s , ,

and cubical e x pansions are se nsibly prop ortional to t he

incre se f temperature there fore Al / l AA /A and
a o 7 ,
-
r,
'
r,

A V/ V are sensibly co n stant ; denoting the m by A

1 , ,
u,

and and calling them the o fii ci en ts f l i n e a r exten

c, c e o

si on of e l and o f cu bi c a l e x a
, ar a
p i o
, n then ns ,

Q
2 42 C OE FFICIE NTS OF E XPANSION .

A li q uid has no permanence f sha pe so that its c o ,

o

e fficients f cubical ex pansion alone can be said to exist

o 0 .

Th e lengths areas and volumes at a tempe ature

, ,
r

1 degrees higher be calculated f om the fo mulas

c an r r

l 7 = l (l -
r ) ,
A T = A (1 + MT ) ’
VT :

In the notation of D ffthe i erential C al ulus c

« 1A c lV
A ’
at ; A ct H -
Vdr
and when these coe ffi cients a y sensibly v r ,

/
At z xa AA
0
1
fi st r,A V fi
v d .

0
r :

0
f .

T hus f mercury R egnault found

, or ,

where a = l og b = log 8 7 030

‘
l '
1
.

S imilarly the S V and v o f a substan e at the two ’

. . s v c
7

tem peratu es are conne ted by the formula

r c

W(l
and there fo e the densities P and
r
7 p by

as is so small that the s q uare

B ut c o f 07 is i n sensible ,

this may be writ ten

p” ,
p(l

cording to M d l f this last formula may be taken

Ac en e ee

as approximately correct f a li q uid ove a ve y large or r r

range f tempe ature : and he writes the fo mula

o r r

where 9 denotes t h b ol t t mp e t e when the e a s u e e ra u r

density is p and 9 denotes the absolu t e ri ti ca l 1 c

temperature defined by A ndrews as the highest tempe a

,
r

ture at which the substance can be li q uefied from the

gaseous state by pressure while a is a co stant n

which it is found by experiment can be p t equal to 2 u .

(P T M ain B i ti h A so i ti n R p rt 1 8 8 8 p
. .
,
r s s c a o e o , , .
244 TH E C B IC U A L E XPA NS ION OF M E R C UR Y .

modified form o f this appa atus shown in fig 5 3

A r ,
.
,

p 2 34 was employed by Regnault in this case t w ver

.
, o

tical tubes A A B B filled with mercury were connected

'

,
’

, ,

by a fine tube A B near the upper ends which tube could

’ ’

be accurately levelled and by an inte rupted tube AB at ,

r

the lower ends the tube A B risi g in the middle into

,
n

a bent glass tube H CK ; at C a pi p e communicated with

an air vessel by the p essure in which the level f the
,
r o

me c ry at H and K co ld be regulated
r u u .

D enoting by h and k the vertical heights f H and K o

above A and B and by h and k the vertical heights ,

’ ’

A A and B B as measured by the C athetometer ; by

’ ’

a the density f the mercury in A A maintained t o

’

,
a

the f eezing point ; by n the densi ty in B B maintained

r o ,
'

at temperature ; and by the density in the tube 7 a

,

H CK t the t emperature t ; then the p essure in the

a r

ho izonta l line A B being the same and the pressures

r
’ ’

at H and K being equal there fore ,

ah a ,h = a rk
'
k
'
— - - —
, c
y, .

tube A H CK B is easily maintained at the freezing

Th e
poin t so that = ; and now
, a
,
a

k
,
u,
“
'

0
I
52
"
’

h +k
’
v -
h —

In an other mo dification o f the apparatus made by

Regnault the lower tube A B w
,
made straight and as

accu ate ly levelled and the bent glass t be H CK

r was ,
u

inserted in the upper tube A B and now ’ ’

k
or with ,
0
'
 THE WE IG HT T HE RM OME TE R . 245

1 65 cubical e x pansion of mercury being thus

. Th e
know the expansion f any other soli d substance say
n, o ,

glass can be determined by means o f the We igh t Th e mo

,
r

m ter (fig 5 4 p
e .
, .

T his consists o f a glass vessel with a thin neck dipping , ,

into a saucer f mercury o .

B y alternate heating and cooling the vessel can be

filled with mercury ; d n w i f it con tains a weight P g an o

o f mercury at the freezing point and a weigh t of

p g ,

me cury is found to fl w out into the saucer at the t em

r o

p t
e ra u re and i f V V cm
r denote
, the vo l ume f th e , ,
r
3
o

vessel a t these temperatures ,

P =0 V '

, P

If denotes the cubical e x pansion of the mercury E of

e ,

the glass and i f denotes the ap p are n t cubical expansion

, 6

of t he mercury then ,

P V 1 + (T 6
” 6 — ’
P -

p o ,
v, 1 +E

=e — a

approximately negl ecting t he p oducts E ; so that the

,
r s

a a re n t cubical expansion f the me cury is the di ff er o r

pp
ence bet ween the absolu te cubical expansions o f t he
“

mercury and the glass ; whence E is known i f e and , e

are observed .

1 66 T h e cubical expansion o f any other me t al or solid

.

can be obtained by placing a piece of it f k nown weight ,

o

W g and density p or volume c

,
at the freezing point 3
,

inside such a weight thermometer and observing the ,

same phenomena as i t is heated (Jamin Cou d ,

rs e

Ph y i q e t IL)
s u , . .
 TH E TH E RM OM E TE R .

N o w if M g mer ury f de sity and volume U cm

of c ,
o n
'

a
3

at the ree ing poin t is required to fill up the vacant

f z ,

space in t he weight thermometer and i f K deno tes the ,

expansion f the metal and m g the weight f mercury

o o

which issues when the temperature is raised to ; then 7

the vol ume f the g lass cavity being al ways equal to the
o

volumes o f the mercury and the metal inside ,

V
( +
whence K is determined knowing E and ,
e .

1 67 Th Th mo me t
. e er er .

T h e W eight T hermometer j ust described is so called , ,

because it is employed in e x periments in the laboratory

f
or det rmining the temperat re
e u .

T h weigh t o f mercu y expelled when the temperature

e r

is raised from the freezing to the boiling point is observed ;

and now the per entage f this weight whi h is e x pelled
c o c

at any other tempe ature is taken as the measure of t hat

r

temperature in deg ees C entig ade

,
r r .

B t f
u general pu poses the ordinary thermometer is
or r

more convenient ; this consists f a glass b lb B and o u

a uni form stem S filled with mercury and i ts vapour

, ,

and he meti ally sealed (fig

r c .

Th freezing and boiling points a

e marked on the re

gl ss the fi st when the thermometer is placed in ice

a , r

and water and the se ond when it is held in steam from

, c

water boiling at a standa d baromet ic heigh t f about r r o

30 ins or 7 6 cm .

In the C entig ade or C elsius scale

r w universally ,
no

em ployed in scientific work these points are ma ked 0 ,

r

and 1 00 and the ste n between these points is divided

, r

into 1 00 e q ual degrees .

248 TH E G RAD UA T ION
enoting by c and C the coefficients f cubical
D o e xp an

sion f mercury and g lass per degree centigr ade

o ,

at the boiling point the volume f mercury becomes o

V(l cm 3
,

and it occupies a volume

(V+ U) (I 1 000 )
of the cavity in the glass so that
V(l + 1 000) V+ U )(I +
V ”
t 11 133; m w o -
f»

since the p od ct
r u of c and C is insensibl e ; or

U/ V : 1 00(c C) .

ulong and Petit found that

D
per degree C entig ade r ,

(or W 0 0 0 01 00 1 per
i
degree
n Fahrenheit ) , ,

while 0 t on the average there fore

: o

V/ U 64 7 5 .

1 69 sensibility f the the mometer as measured

. Th e o r ,

by the length o f a degree on the scale i increased as in ,

s

the Hydrometer (g 64 ) by making the bore f the stem o

small ; bu t now it is not always possible to keep the

bulb and stem at the same temperature .

S uppose then that the bulb is placed in a medium

o f which the temperature x is required ; and that the
reading f the stem is when the mercu y in the part
o 7 ,
r

o f the st m which is outside this medium extending over

e ,

n deg ees is maintained at a t em p erature t

’
r ,

T h apparent temperature
e must be increased by the 7

elongation which n degrees wo ld take on raising its u

t emperature f om t to x and there fore

’
r , ,

—
C )(x
whence x is found .
 OF TH E T HE RM OM E TE R .
249

1 70 . We
have tacitly assumed that the ra t io o f c to C
is con st nt at all temperatures which is very nearly true
a ,

and so f equal increments f temperature are defined

ar o

by the thermome t er as those in which th e mercury in

the gl ss expands by equal amounts
a .

B t when we compare very care fully thermometers

u

filled with alcohol wa t er or air slight discrepancies

, , ,

arise which require to be explained and corrected from

,

T hermo dynamic l principles a .

T hus it is found e x perimentall ythat wa t er dilates n i

an abnormal manne and has a max imum density at 4 C

r, ,

and that the volume V m at y other temperature C ,

c
3
an 7

o f V cm
4
t 4 C is given very accurately by t he formula
3
a

V7 : V4 { I + a (t a = 0 000008 ,
’

so that the coe ffi ient c of cubical expansion of wate is

r

2 a (t
c bi al expansion
Th e u c of glass being given as before , ,

by the formula
V7 : V0(l CT ) ,

the glass and water expand at the same ate w hen r

2 ( a 1 and C/ = 5 about a , .

A t hermometer made up f glass filled with water will o

thus be statio ary at a temperature o f abou t

n 0 .

S uppose this thermometer is graduat ed betw een the

freezing and boiling points in the same w y as the mer a

cury thermometer ; if x denote corresponding readings , 1

of t he water and mercury thermometer and i f w put , e

C =m then as be fore in 1 68
o , ,

<
1 + a (7
V? “
V
1 + 1 6a
V+
1 ool u+ mafl
” 9 2 1 6“
Vwo V (V+ l + 1 00ma ) ;
1 + 1 6a
25 0 THE HE R M OME TE R
T .

(1 + 1 00ma ) r(r m — l 6m a )
— 8 —
- -

(9 2 — m 1 6m a ) (1 + ma r) -

a (1 r(
-
1 00 —
7

(9 2 — m -
)
r

and the erro r T — x is a maximum when ,

mow + 2 72
-
1 00 .

T aking m = 5 we see that x is negative from 0 to a

,

little over 1 3 C .

A lcohol is used in the momete s equi ed f registe r r r r or r

ing low tempe ratures : but if an al ohol thermometer is c

graduated by omparison with a mercury thermometer

c ,

i ts degre es will not be f equal length but will become o ,

lo nge in ascending the scale

r .

A hollo w cop per pherical shell is floating j ust i m

S

m d in wa t er at 0 C
°
e rs e .

Prove tha t as the t empe ature rise s the shell will r

again be j ust immersed at a temperature 8 + 3 k/ a,

1 being the c p ffi i t f linear e x pansion o f co p per

1: o c en o ,

and the law f density f water bei g

o o n

= (i 4l i
p4 { 1 l
— —
p¢ a o

Prove also that the shell will be highest out f o

the wate at a tem perature hal f way between those

r -

f
or whi h it is j ust immersed
c .

A thermometer is plunged into a liquid and its rate ,

o f rising rfalling is proportional to the di fference

o

o f temperature between it and the liqui d show :

that i f x y 2 be th ee readings f t h thermo

, ,
r o e

meter t equal intervals f time the tr e

a o ,
u

temperature of the liquid is

— 2
xz y
x +z — 2
y
252 TH E S IP HON B A ROM E TE R .

Th eba ometer may also be const ucted though not so

r r ,

ea ily by filling with mercury the ben t tube closed at O

s ,

of fig 5 7 when it is in a nearly horizontal position ; an d

.

now when placed upright the di fference of level of the ,

mercury in the two br nches is as be fore about 30 ins a

or 7 6 cm ; this fo m is called a si p h on ba om t
r r e er .

Fig 5 6
. . Fig 5 7
. . Fig 5 8 . . Fig 5 9
. . Fi g 6 0
. .

Th e column A H o f mer ury in this ben t tube now c

balan ce s a column f air f which the containing tube is

o , o

a bsent ; so that as in fig 5 0 the e d 0 bei g close d and

,
.
,
n n

the s pace OH free o f air the column A H f mercury o f ,

o ,

height h and density bal ances a column o f air f a , ,

o

press ure p and density p reaching i f homogeneous to a ,

height k such that,

P kp 0 h

and h is then called the ba ome t i c h i gh t or h e igh t of th e r r e

me cu ry b ro me te and k is called the h e i gh t of th

r a r, e

h omoge n eou s tmosp h e e (d u ¢ ip = ap o

a sphere )
r r oa a a v ur .

T h pressure due t o the head h f mercury or k of air is

e o

thus the same

 B RITIS H AND M E T IC R UNITS .
25 3

1 72 gravitation measure f force is here employed

. Th e o

so that with B ritish units the poun d and the foot ,

or inch h and k are given in feet or in ches p in l b/ ft or

, ,
2

lb/ in and and p in l b/ ft or lb/ i n

2
, o
' 3 3
.

With M et ic units the kilog amme and the metre or

r ,
r ,

the gramme and the centimetre h and h are given in m ,

or cm a d p in k g/ m or g/ c m and p in kg/ m or
, a n
3 3
,
2

k g/ m or g/ m
c
2
e
z
.

T hus fro m t he numerical results o f

, 8 2 2 w may , ,
e

take as average results in B ritish units at a s t andard ,

temperature f 62 F o ,

= 1 4 lb in = 2 1 1 2 l b ft
/ /
2 2 z
p .
,

h = 3 0 ins = 2 5 ft l = 2 7 8 00 ft ; , c

so tha t k is about the height f M ount E verest the o ,

highest mountain on the E arth .

cr = x 62 4 8 4 8 6 4 l b/ ft 3,

p l b/ ft 3

With M etric units at about ,

1 5 C,
= m2 =
g/ m
g/
2
p 1 k c 1 0 00 e ,

h = 76 , h 8 4 00 ,cm : m
= 1 3 6, = 0 00 1 23 g/ cm3 °

a
j p .

1 73 reating t h e air as homogeneous f small varia

. T or

tio ns f height an as cent of x m s houl d make the column

o ,

of mercury fall y cm such that near the ground , , ,

x 0
'
I
t 8 4 00
"
1105
y l oop h 76
so that the mercury should fall about 1 mm fo every r

1 1 m ascended or 1 inch f every 9 00 ft ,

or .

T his w first verified by Pascal in 1 64 8 on the tower

as ,

o f S aint Jacques in Paris 3 0 m high on the t 0 p o f which , ,

the barometer was found to fall about 3 mm ; and with

a = l 3 6 this makes l / p = 8 00 about
'

, , .
25 4 TH E RE ADING OF TH E B AR OME TE R .

Th e f all in the barometer is smaller as the ai is more r

rarefied hence the appa ent increase of pressure with the r

height in a gas main the p essure in the lighter gas ,

r

diminishing more slowly than the p ressure f the i o a r .

1 7 4 T h B arometer in its simplest form f

. e scientific or

pur poses consists f a vertical tube f glass and a iste n

o o c r

( g 5 6) both s fficie tly large to eliminate the ca p illarity

fi . u n

e ffect and to enable the mercu y to move q uickly in r

res ponse to chan g es f atmosph e ic pressure o r .

T h verti al hei g ht h between the t w su faces f the

e c o r o

mercury at H and in the istern at AB is read by the c

C athetometer or else on a scale and ve nier

,
1 77 ) parallel r

t o the tube the scale being screwed down until the point
,

C at its lower end j ust tou hes the mercury in the cistern c ,

when the point and its imag e by e fl i in the surface r e x on

o f the mercury will be see in coincidence n .

Th ciste n scre w equi ed fo filling up the vacant

e r ,
r r r

spac es of the barometer with the me cury during t ans r r

port is sometimes turn ed to brin g the level A B in the

,

c istern to the point C ; b t this method is not considered u

desirable as the mer ury takes some time to resettle

,
c .

A y irregularity in the shape f the cistern o r tube

n o

doe s not n w a ffect the reading nor does the presence

o ,
"

o f d e or floating bodies on the mercu ry provided that

r ss ,

the free sur face can be observed .

B t it is im portant that the tube and the scale should

u

be verti al ; f if inclined at an angle to the vertical its

c or a ,

r eading would have to be red ced by the factor cos u a .

In S i S amuel M orland s di g a l ba om t (1 670)

r
’
a on r e er

the u pper end f t h tube is purposely bent over from

o e

the ve tical at an angle in a straight or spi al form

r a, r ,

so to m lti ply the travel f the mercury by

as u o se e a .
25 6 CO RRE C TION FOR TE M PE RA T URE .

Th eorrection l h is to be subtracted from the

c

apparent reading l to obta in the true corrected ba o r

metric height h ; this co rection connecting l and is r , 7 ,

g iven g a phi ally by hy pe bolic a cs f eq al correction

r c r r o u

in a diag am (A n n i d bu
r . de l on g i t de s ) u a re a re a u s
-

u .

B t if the scale is as in B ritish ba omete s graduated

u ,
r r ,

in inches and decimals which are t ue inches at a standard ,

r

t emperature T F then at any other tem peratu e t F i f

°
r ,

the eading is l
r ,

l {1 + B(t

B and y denoting the values f the coeffi cients b and o 0

when reduced from the C entigrade to the Fahrenheit

s le so that
ca ,

7 $0 .

T hen appro x imately

, ,

—
T ) — y(t

l h l (y '

B) t
< y
—
B
Th e c orre tion there fore vanishes when the tem p eratu e
c r

— _BT
B
it is subtractive fo r higher and additive fo r lower tem
e ra t u re s
p .

aking T
T 62 and the coe ff cients of cubical ex pansion
, i

f mercury c r y and f linear expansion o f brass b or B

'

o o ,
o ,

as given by
c = 0 000 1 8 0 1 8
‘
= 0 000 1 00 1
‘

, y ,

b 0 0 0001 8 7 8 , B 0 0 0 00 1 04 ,

then the correction vanishes when t = 2 8 3 F, a nd

subtra tive f higher tem peratures

c or .
 S TA NDA RDS OF LE NG T H .
25 7

1 76 . Te mp e ra tu re Correcti o n i n S tan da rds f

o Le n g th .

No t em perature correction is required in S tandards of

Weight but an accurate s cal e

,
ength has engraved upon of L
it the temperature at wh ich its indications are cor ect r .

T hus the B itish S tandard Yard is correc t at 62 F

°
r d ,
an

the French M et re des A rchives at 0 C ; and i f the brass °

scale of the barometer is engraved with t rue inches at

6 2 F or C and with true millimetres at 0 C then at
° °

, ,

the highe t emperature 6 2 F a scale millimetre division

r

has stretched by
(62 mm ,

0 31 2 (microns ) or 3 1 2 M (micromillimetres )
u.
,
r .

In scientific work the relation

1 m = 3 9 3 704 3 2 '

ins l in 2 5 3 9 9 77 (2 5 4 ) cm , ,

is generally employed ; but i f in accordance with the ,

A t o f Parliament 1 8 7 8
c we take ,

1 metre = 3 9 3 707 9 i inch 2 5 3 9 95 cm

°

n s, :
,

then at 62 F ,
°

the scale ins ;

and as the l elongates
, contracts uni formly with
s ca e or

the tempera t ure this w ill be t he in ariable relation con

, v

n ct i n
e
g the scale metres and inches ; thus
3 0 scale ins = 7 62 2 2 scale mm '

F ins t ance in fig 5 8 a simultaneous barometric

or , .
,

reading in the t w graduations gave o

ins and 74 8 70 mm , .

Now
29 4 8 2 s cale ins 7 4 9 0 6 scale mm .

7 4 8 7 0 scale m m = 74 8 70 scale ins °

so that the m m scale reads O0 1 4 ins or 03 6 m m below '

the inch scale and is there fore this distance too high i f
, ,

the i ch scale is correct ; but f this discrepancy 0 2 2 mm

n o ,
°

R
 TH E
'

25 8 l E RNIE R .

may be accounted f by the a ppe rance f the g aduation or a o r

f 3 0 ins at the level f 7 62 mm instead f 7 6 2 2 2 mm

o o ,
o .

(S t d an d f L n ar
g th P att d W hitney
s o C 1 8 8 7 e ,
r an o ,

Un i t e t e t l n C E G uillaume
’
s e a o s, . .
,

1 77 . Th e Ve rn i e r .

To make the scale eadi g l to f actions f a scale r n r o

division the V i is employed (fig 5 8 p

, e rn er .
,
.

T his consis t s f a sliding piece f metal the zero f

o o ,
o

which is brough t to the level f the t p f the mercury o 0 o

column ; and now i f the verni er is to read upwards to

one n t h f a scale division the length f vernier is made
o , o

equ l to n l scale divisions and it is then divided into

a —
,

n equal parts .

E ach scale division is there fo e greate th n a vernie r r a r

div ision by one n t h f a scale di v ision ; so that i f the

-
o

r-t h ve nier division coi

r ides with a scale divisio nc n,

the extra f a tional part f l is / f a s ale division ;

r c e r n o c

the numbe is called the l t o t f the ve nier

r r eas c un o r .

In fig 5 8 the l is shown t f l l size divided into

. s ca e o u

inches and twentieths f an inch on the gh t and into o ri

centimet es and millimetres on the le ft ; and 2 4 parts on

r

the right are taken and divided into 2 5 pa ts to form the r

right hand vernier while 1 9 parts on the left are divided

,

into 2 0 f the le ft hand vernier ; the verniers there fore

or

read to two thousandths f an inch fi thousandths

-
o ,
or ve -

of a centimetre and the reading f the ve niers is o r

2 9 4 8 2 inches 7 4 8 7 0 mm ,
or .

Th vernier might also be made to read downwards

e

to one t h f a s ale division by taking + 1 scale

n -
o c , n

divisions and dividing them into equal pa ts to form n r

the vernie ; and w each scale division i less than a

r no s

vernier division by one n th f a scale division o .

2 60 TH E l l E | T HE R C L
'

f
. A SS A N! )

hus i f denotes the cross section f the tube and B f

T a o o

the cistern and i f the float B descends a distance x while

the su f e H rises a distance y then the volume f the
r ac , ,
o

mercu y emaini g un han g ed

r r n c ,

8
i x a
s ,

and the change in baro me t r i c height

and x and y thus de pend on B/ which may change with a,

the shape and temperature f the tube o .

T h Marine B aromete is onstructe d on this system

e r c ,

and suspended from gimbals so as to hang vertically ; the

graduations f inches on the scale being shortened by
or

the factor B/ ( + B) ; and the intermediate portion f the

a o

tub A H is cont ac ted to a small bore so

e r to make ,
as

the oscillations f the mer u y sluggish and to prevent

o c r ,

the alled p mping due to the motion f the shi p

so- c u ,
”
o .

With a uni form bo e the oscillations f the mercuryr o

wo ld syn hronize with a pendulum f hal f the length f

u c o o

the merc ry col mnu u

1 8 0 In S i S amuel M orland s t l y d ba l n c
’
. r s ee ar or a e

baromete (1 67 0) the tube is suspe ded freely in the

r n

cis te n f om the arm f a balance (fig 5 9 p

r r and
o .
,
.

it is foun d necessary to co nterpoise not only the weight u

o f the tube less i ts buoyan y in t h

, istern but also c e c ,

the baromet ic column f mercury in the tube or its

r o ,

e q uivalent thr st f i on the top f the tube

u o a r o .

Measuring upwards f om the bottom f the cistern let r o ,

x cm denote the heigh t f the lower end f the tube y cm o o ,

the heigh t f the su rface f the me c y in the iste

o o r ur c rn ,

an d y + h m the height f the me c y in the tube

c o r ur ,

cor esponding to a ba ometric height h cm

r r .
 TH E S TE E L Y A RD B A R OME TE R .
2 61

eckoning pressure in cm f barometric height and

R o ,

weight in c m of me ury let the glass tube weigh M cm

3
rc ,
3

of mercury d contain c
an o f me cury when f ull
3
r .

T hen i f the internal length f the tube is l m and

,
o c ,

its internal cross section at the top is m the tube now a c

2
,

con tains V (x + l y h ) cm f mercury ; and there

— — — -
a
3
o

fore the equilibrium o f the tube f counterpoise d by a 1

weight of W m f mercury q c
3
o ,
re u 1 re s

W= M + h g + V_(w+ l —
y
—
h )a — h
( +y
ifB denotes in cm the e x tern al cross section f the lo wer
2
o

submerged par t f th e t ube o .

B t i f t he total q antity o f mer ury is U cm and the

u u c
3
,

cross section of the istern is y cm c

2
,

U = yy —
(y -
x ) B+ V —
m
( + l —
y
— h
)a ,

and there fore

W= M + U —
yy .

Wemay su ppose the counterpoise W to be onst nt c a ,

and then y is also constant so tha t the level f the , o

merc ry in the cistern does not change

u .

B t i f Ax denotes t h e change in x d e to a cha ge f

u u n o

Ah in h then f om (1 ) or
, ,
r

a Ah (a B) Ax 0,
Ax a
’
Ah a
—
B
and in this way a continuous magnified mecha ic l n a

register o f the fl ct ations f barometric height can be

u u o

obtained by a pen attached to the counterpoise t acing ,

r

a line on a uni forml yrevolving dr m u .

B y su fficiently increasing the length y x o f the sub —

merged part o f t h t b e the buoyancy f the mercury

e u , o

could be ma de su ffi iently large t o dispense with the c

2 62 TH E WA TE R AND C L YCE RINE B AR OME TE R .

c o nte poise and the tube wo ld now float f eely ; but

u r ,
u r

the stability would now requi e sepa ate attention r r .

1 8 1 A barometer consisti g f a column f mercury in

. n o o

a straight ve tical t be slightly conical in the bore was

r u , ,

sugges t ed by A m t on o ns

A the atmosphe ic pressu e increases the column o f

s r r

merc ry rises slightly in the t be and at the same time

u u ,

elongates so as to come to a new position f equilibrium

, o

but the instrument is not f practical utility as a shake o ,

is liable to pill out the merc ry S u .

W may notice he e that as the p ess e in the m

e r ,
r ur er

cury is g ea te th n the atmos phe ic pressure in th e

r r a r

cistern a c ack leak in the iste n i f below the level f

,
r or c r o

the mer ury will allo w the me c ry to escape till the

c r u

l evel is lowe ed belo w the a k ; but as the pressure in

r cr c

the t be is less than the atmos pheric pressure a crack

u ,

in the tube w ill a dmit the i and des t oy the col mn a r, r u .

It may h ppen that the i whi h ente ed will d ive

a a r c r r

the mer ury above t h leak to the t p f the tube th s

c e o o ,
u

fillin g p the T orricellian a m s pa e

u v cuu c .

If memb anes sed to cover these leaks they will

r are u ,

be f ound corres pon din g ly bulged outwards inwards or .

1 82 . Th e Wa te r an d Gl yc e r i n e B a r ome te r .

Ifthe merc y is e pla ed by some lighter li q ui d say

ur r c ,

wate gly e ine the height f the ba ometer and its

r or c r ,
o r

fl t ations are cor es p ondi gly in ease d in the ratio f

uc u r n cr ,
o

the S V f the li q id employed

. . o u .

A w te ba omete const u ted by P o f Daniell (Ph i l

a r r r, r c r . .

T s
ra n 1 8 3 2 ) stood fo merly in t h e hall
,
f the R oyal r o

S o iety and was a f terwards pla ed in the C rystal Palace ;

c ,
c

the mean height f the water column w o as

3 3 5 ft o 4 0 0 ins r .
2 64 H U YC E NS S B AR OM E TE R ’
.

and there fore

giving the fl t ation uc u of level ln the cistern which would ,

be rec rded by a fl at
o o w hile
1 l 1
A = A'f
1 .
—

1 +
1 )
the fluctuation o f the top f the baromet ic olumn o r c .

T hus f example i f the is tern is su fficiently large f

or ,
c or

l / A to be neglecte d and i f w t k then w e '

,
e a e o

shall find tha t the atio will make Ax = 6Ah

r
1

a bout so that the fluct ations f the top f t h e column

,
u o o

a re ma nified six times

g .

1 8 4 G eneral ly in a baromet ic column composed f n

. r o

superincumbent liquids f densities o

p p pz p
reckoned from the top ; if
x x ,,
2 ,

deno t e the hei g hts above the to p of the ciste n r of their

upper su faces and r ,

A1 A 2 , , A
the cross section f the col mn at these levels ; i f denotes
o u x

the de pth belo w the t p f the cist n f the f ee su f ace O o er o r r

o f the li q id f density P
u , d A the area f this free
o 71 » an o

surface then compared w ith a s t andard mercury ba o

, r

me t e f height h and density the cor es ponding fl

r, o a ,
r ue

tua ti ons of level are given by the elations r

A IAx 1 = A 2 Ax 2
a Ah

{
G
B
,
—

1
+
1 2)
this is le ft as an exe cise r .
 TH E WE IGHT OF TH E A TM OS PHE RE .
2 65

1 85 . Th e A n e ro i d B a rome te r .

T his is an application f the p inciple of B ourdon s o r

’

Pressure G auge described in 5 1 0 to the measurement f

, ,
o

small variations of e x t ernal a t mospheric p essure to make r

the instrument su fficiently sensitive the flattened curved

tube must n o w be made very th in but in other respects
the a rangement remains t he same
r .

T h e A ne oid B arometer is now more o fte n made with

r

a corrugated b x e x hausted of io ,
a r .

A B i f Hi sto i a l A c
r e nt f th e B a om te by
r c co u o r e r,

William E llis Q J M eteorological S ociety J uly 1 8 8 6

,
. .
, ,

may be consulted fo further details concerning the B aro

r

mete ; also the S mi th on i an M te o ol og i c l T bl s

r s e r a a e .

1 8 6 Th e . We i g h t of th e A tmosp h e re .

If the two branches f the bent tube in fig 5 0 p 2 3 4

o .
, .
,

are vertical and f the same uni form bore we notice that
o ,

the weight o f each liquid above the ho izontal plane f r o

separation A B is the same as in H are s Hydrometer ,

’

T hus i f the bore o f the siphon barometer (fig 5 7 p 2 5 2) is .

, .

uni form the weight f supe incumbent air in the up ward

,
o r

prolongation f the cistern as an imaginary vertical t ube

o

reaching to t he limit f the atmosphere will be p act i

o r

cally equal to the weigh t o f the me cu y in the column r r

AH consequently the weight f the atmosph e e is

“
o r
”

practically the same as that f an ocean f me cury cover o o r

ing the E a th f uni form depth h about 3 0 ins or 7 6 cm

r , o , .
,

the average ba o metr i c height and hence the name b o

r , ar

me t as measuring the weight f the air

e r, o .

T his weight is the same as that o f an ocean o f fresh

water about 3 4 ft or m deep or f sea water about ,
o

3 3 f t or 1 0 m deep .
2 66 TH E WE IGHT OF TH E A TM OS PHE RE .

Pro fesso D ewa remarks in his Royal Institution

r r

Lec t ure J une 1 8 9 2 that i f the E a th we e cooled down

, ,
r r

to about 2 00 C the atmosphere wo ld form a liquid

—
, u

ocean about 3 5 f t dee p f which about 7 ft at the top , o

would be oxygen .

T aking the atmospheric p essure as 1 kg / m there r c

g
,

will be about one kg f air per m f the E arth s su fa e o c

2
o
’
r c

with a quadrant f 1 0 cm a radius f cm the

o
9
,
or o ,

sur fa e f the E arth will be

c o

4 7r x 10 18
+ 1 7r
2 = 1 01 8 x 16 —Z
-
7r= 1018
x 0 111
2
;
and this number “ill be practically the number f kg o f o

air in the atmos phere .

M ore a c rately with an average b rometric height f

c u ,
a o

7 6 cm , d a densi t y f me cu y
an
g / e m the atmos o r r
"
,

p her ci p ressure is 1 0 3 36 k g/ m ; and the weight f the c

z
'

atmos phe e is bout 1 0 5 2 64 t

r a
15
x .

A cco d in g to C otes (p 9 4 ) this is the weight f a sphere

r . o

o f lead abo t 60 miles in diameter

u .

If R cm denotes the radius and p the mean density f o

the E arth ,

the wei g ht f th e E a th 4 p
o r , 71
“

x
t h weight o f t h e atmos phere
e 4 R / 3 h 7ra
' 2
t a
-

on p tting R 1 0 1
u : 1 36 p =5 5 9 —
a
"
:
,
’

1 8 7 A cal ulation is given in the T i te d l e q u i li b

’ ' ’
. c ra c re

de s l i q ue u r s e t (l e l a p e s a n te u r de l a m as s e de l
’
ai r,

B laise Pascal he takes the

1 65 3 ,
the ua rant f
90 of q d °
o

the me idian as 1 8 00 leagues a degree = 5 0 000 toises a

r , , ,

toise = 6 ft a f t f water = 62 livres and the mean heigh t

,
s
o ,

of the water ba omete as 3 1 Pa is feet ; and then e finds

r r r c

that the atmosphere weighs 1 0 8 2 8 4 livres 18

x .

M t asse ts (C mp t
a s ca r R en d 1 8 Jan 1 8 9 2 ) that
r o es us, .

allowing f the r v ature f the E arth and f a di bati

or cu o ,
or a c
2 68 IS OB ARIC LINE S .

the wise P and Q being the points on the lines A B

O r ,

and A C where the height f the ba omete is x then P Q o r r ,

is an isobar and the parallel isobar By through A is su h

,
c

that
PA B
L
)
sin A AB a — c

sin QA y A Q AC a —
b
’

AP a — x AQ
b a x
—

AB b AC
’
a — a —
c

1 89 .the gradient f the barometer e x ists over a

If o

sheet f water like an inland l ke then since the sur faces

o a ,

o f equal p ess re in the water are ho izontal planes

r u r

it follows that the free surface will no longer be horizon

tal b t will have an pposite g radient 1 3 6 times the
,
u O

gradient f the b romete 1 3 6 being the S G f me cury

o a r, . . o r .

T find the rise and fall f the water in the lake at any
o o

point we must draw the isobar through the C G f the . . o

surfa e f the lake ; and now the f ee s r face will be a

c o r u

plane p ssing thro gh this nodal isobar at the incline f

a u ,
o

the enlarged gradient o pposite to that f the barome t er ; o

f orin this way ac co ding to the t h eorem f 5 1 01 the

,
r o ,

to tal qua tity f water in the lake will be preserved

n o

un hanged
c .

T hus i f the gradient f the barometer is two hund edths o -

r

o f an in h p 1 5 miles the sur fa e f the water will have

c er ,
c o

an o pposing g adient f 2 7 2 hund edths ; so that in a

r o r

lake 1 8 0 miles in diameter this will amount to a rise at

one end and a fall at the other f 1 0 4 4 in o .

T h sheet f water over which there is a variation f

e o o

ba ometric pressu e must be f consi de able size like t h

r r o r ,
e

A me ican Lakes,f
r an app reciable rise and fall f the
or o

wate to be produced
r .
 E XA M PLE S '
. 2 69

O ver the Ocean i t is the variations of the gravity

gradient d to the perturbation f the Moon d S
ue o an un ,

which produce s ch marked ph enomena as the T ides

u ,

although insensible t o the most delicate plumb line ob -

e v at i
s r ; and w hen the tidal c rrent is constrained
on s u

in narro w waters the average g a dient f the s aat any

,
r o e

instant between two places may become easily perceptible ,

being the di fference f height f w ter above mean sea

o o a

level divided by the distance bet ween the places .

E x amp l e s .

(1 ) A straigh t pi pe 4 0 feet long 6 inches in diameter ,

closed at the top and full f ice is inverted in a o ,

barrel a yard i n diame t er G iven the specific .

gravity o f ice 0 9 and th e height f the water ,

o

baromete 30 feet show that when the ice melts

r, ,

the water will ise 2 inches in the barrel

r .

(2 ) A barometer has a dia l attached to it and i f the tube ,

we e cylindrical th e ma kings on the dial would

r r

be at equal distances but the small arm is really ,

a cone f smal l angle If

o be three con . a
p ,
a
q , a,

s c ti
e uangula r inte vals on the dial sho w tha t
ve r ,

“1 01 9 x
g 2
) “ ab
2
0
ar r ? ” d a ) “
i 2 ap a 9 a
"

r
01 651 » ‘

i
‘
ar )
Veri fy
this result when the tube is cylindrical .

From th e followi g data obtain the true reading

n ,

the barome t er being placed at a height f 2 0 feet o

above sea leve l B arometer reading 2 9 6 in ;

.
,

attache d thermomete 2 0 C ; ratio f area f sec r,

°
o o

tion f tube to section f cistern = 1 4 1

o o : .

C apillary a tion + 0 4 in ; fall in baromet ic

c r

height f h foot above sea level 0 0 1 in ;

o r e ac -

, co

efficien t f e x pansion of mercu y f 1 O 0 001 8

o r or
°
: .
2 70 E XA M PL E S .

When
the me c ry in the ciste n is at the zero f
r u r o

the scale sup posed ma ked on the tube t h mer

,
r , e

cury in the t be stands at 3 0 in u .

A thin weightless cylind ical shell f radius a closed r o ,

at the top st nds in a large basin whi h o tai ns

,
a c c n

adepth 1 f me u y the mercu y stands in the

) o rc r r

cylinder at the barometric height h P ove that . r ,

i f the cylinder be turned about a point in the rim

o f its base it will tend to return to its original
,

position so long as the inclination f the axis to o

the vertical is less than

-
l
2a

provided that no part f the rim has reach d the o e

level f the mercury in the basin and that the

o ,

mercury in the ylinder h not reached the top c as .

A very wide cylin drica l tube closed at the ppe ,

u r

end rests on the bottom f a flat dish f mercury

,
o o ,

with the air inside the t be partially exhausted ; u

find the con dition that it be not li fted p by u

b oyancy S how also that whe the tube is

u . n

bent ove f om the ve ti al it will tend to come

r r r c

back gain so lo g as the centre f g avity f the

a n o r o

tube together with the portion f the me c ry

,
o r u

above the o pen level in the dish less the me y ,

rc u r

below that level which is displaced by the tubes ,

does not fall out ide the point f sup port s o .

A ba o meter consists f a vertical tube closed at the

r o

t p the diameter f whi h changes at the middle

e ,
o c ,

so that the a ea f the transve se se tion f the r o r c o

u ppe po tion f the t be is A and that f the

r r o u o

lower po tion B r .
272 TH E S IP HON .

the stopco k the mer ury flow s through the tube A B C

c ,
c

from A to C in a ontinuous stream (fig c .

If the dens i ty p f the su ounding medium is take

o rr n

into account the pressu e f the liquid above the sto p

,
r o

valve exceeds the p ess re below the valve byr u

(
or

hus i f p
T the action f the siphon is reversed as
a, o , ,

f
or instance in trans ferring hydrogen by a siphon t be ;
, u

and now the siphon and the vessels at A and C must

be inverted and the fluid will be t ans ferred f om the
,
r r

lower to the up per level .

Fig 6 1 . Fig 6 2 .

ve tical height f the highest point B f the t be

Th e r o o u

above A m st t however exceed h the hei ght f the

u no , , , o

ba ometer ; otherwise as in A B C the mer y in the

r ,
’

,
cu r

b nch A B will subside t o the ba omet ic height A H

ra
’
r r ,

when the fi ge is removed from A and w when the

n r no ,

sto p o k in R C is opene d the me c y in the bran h

c c ,
r ur c

B C will s bside to the baromet ic height C H

' ’
u r .
 D YNA MICS OF TH E S IP HON .
2 73

his supposes that t he mercury colu mn divides where

T
the pressure vanishes o becomes nega t ive ; but if as in r ,

M r
. Worthington s e x periments we suppose that
’

the mercu y column can support a t ension of a certain

r

amount k suppose without breaking the siphon can

, o
-
, ,

still work so long as the height f B above B does

,
o
’

not e x ceed 70 .

1 9 1 In its dynamical action t he siphon may be assimi

.

lated to a chain coiled up at A and led over a pulley ,

at B so that the end hangs at C ; the p eponderating r

length z will se t the chain in motion so that the coil ,

at A will become gradually trans ferred into a coil at C .

If m m f chain have passed over in 75 seconds and the

c o ,

moving part A B C f length l cm su ppose has t hen

,
o ,

a quired a velo ity v c m/

c i f w denotes the weight
c s e c,

in g /c m f the chain and T g denotes the t i o n f the

o ,
e ns
'

chain at A the equation f motion is ,

o

wl d?)
wz
g dt
?
we
T
9
the momentum in second grammes generated per second ; -

(l
so that
fi
l:
2
v

and the chain there fore starts with an initial acceleration

g / l and tends to a t e mi n l velocity J (gz ) j ust like
z , r a ,

a body falling under gravity in a medium in which the

resistance varies as the square f the velo ity o c .

In the siphon there will be no loss f energy at A due o

to the continuous series o f im pacts so that we may ,

halve the above value of T ; and now the equation f o

motion in th e siphon becomes

G H O . S
2 74 S T A 1aTI NG T HE A C TION
d ?) 2
g
.

d?
, /

so that the terminal velocity in the si phon is J (29 2 ) .

B y integration f eq ation o u

7’ l
“
m l“ 1

s i
f
t / e ye

‘ Ki g z h
J (2 yz ) ta n h
i
é;
gz
—
i g v
—
av
2 = z (1
2 1) g
1 92 leak in the tu be A B C i f above the level f A
. A ,
o ,

will admit air and vitiate the action f the si phon

,
o ,

even t the extent f s to pping the flow i f the leak is

o o

su fficiently large ; b t li q uid will escape from a leak

u

in the tu be below the level f A o .

Th la ge siphons or s ta nd pi pes f waterwo ks are

e r o r

designed to rea h the altitude f the service reservoi s

c o r ,

so that the water in passing through may be cleared

o f air which tends to accum late in the mains
,
u .

In the distiller s si phon (fig 62 p 2 7 2 ) the a tion

’
.
, . c 13

s ta t ed by pening the stopcock S G closing the end 0

r O . .
,

with the hand and sucking the i out by the curved

,
a r

mouthpiece at C ; as soon as the spiri t passes the highest

’

point f the bend at B the action f the si phon com

o , o

m and it can b s topped and restar ted by losing

e n ce s , e c

and o pening the stopcock .

T h p eceding methods are not desirable with noxious

e r

li q uids such as acids which cannot be handled tasted

, , or

with impunity ; the si phon is then star ted by fi st r

closing the stopcock S G and fillin g the bran h B C . .

, c
27 6 S IP HONS ON A L AR GE S C LE A .

In the siphons f fig 6 1 the branch es are vertical ; and

o .

no w if b denote the lengths f the vertical branches

a, o ,

and the length f the horizontal part then in the

c o ,

criti al case
c

1 94employed f d awi g ff water ove an em

. As or r n O r

b k me t the si phon is shown in fig 63 ; f

an n ,
example . or ,

ove the reservoir dam f water works (fig

r or in O .

draining a f n O inundation e r .

(P In t C i i l E ngi n XX II ) r oc . s . v e e rs , .

A automati val ve opening inwards is placed at A

n c , ,

and a stop val v e at C .

Th si p ho is filled either th ough a f nnel by means

e n r u

of a hand pump or else by exhaustin g the air by an air

,

pump at B O Opening the stop valve C the water

. n ,

fl Ow thro gh the si phon ; and on closing the sto p valve

s u ,

the siphon remains filled f an indefinite time the valve or ,

at A preventing the return f the water in A B o .

In this as in all other cases the height f B above the

, ,
o

upper level o f the liquid must be kept below the head f o

liquid corresponding t o the atmosphe ic pressure r .

S ometimes the siphon is i n e t d as equired f v r e ,

r or

ca rryin g a water main ac oss the bed f a river ; and r o

n w there is no limitation
o f depth to its wo king o r .

A wa ter main or a pi pe line f conveying oil carried i

, or ,
n

an undulating line in the ground may be considered as a ,

se ies f e e t and inverted sipho s ; and on an eme

r o r c n r

geney the pipe may be carried over obstacle which is

,
an ,

higher than the supply source or h yd l i c g a di n t by rau r e

something under the tmo ph e i h d f the liquid a s r c ea o .

 T H E IN TE RMIT TE N T 91 1 7 1 0117
1 .
2 77

1 95 . siphon is shown in fig 64 ; the

An i n te rmi tte n t .

vessel is gradually fille d up t o the level o f B when the ,

action o f the siphon su ddenly commences a d the vessel is ,

n

rapidly emptied ; a d so the operation goes on periodically

n .

Fig . 63 . Fig . 64 .

T h e C up f o invented by H
T a n ta l u s , ero depends on ,

th is principle ; and i t is also used fo securing an inter r

mitt ent scouring fl w of wa t er T h e action f atu al

o . o n r

intermi t tent springs and geysers is ex plained in t his

manner ; and the underground fl w f certain rivers o o ,

such as th e M ole by subter anean inver t ed siphons

,
r .

E xa mp l es .

(1 ) If a vessel con t ains liquids o f various densities will ,

the action o f the siphon be impeded

T w o eq u al cylindrical pails f horizontal sec t ion o

A are placed one on the ground and t he other on

, ,

a s t and of h eight h the former is empty a d t he ,

n

lat ter con tains masses m m f two di ff erent 2

o

homogeneous liquids ; a fi e siphon tube f n o

negligible volume has its t w en ds at the bottoms o

o f the t w o pails and through it flows liquid until

equilibrium is a t tained a mass m o f de sity p

, 3
n

remaining in the upper pail ; prove that

m l + m2 — 2 m3 = A h p .
2 78 E XA M PLE S .

siphon tube with ve tical arms filled with mercury r ,

of S G
. . and closed at both ends is inserted into a
basin f wateo r .

When the stoppers are emoved e x amine what r ,

will ensue and prove the following results i f the

,

barometer is su fficiently high

(1 ) If b the whole le gth f the outside arm
,
n o ,

excee ds a the whole length o f the imme sed m

,
r ar ,

the mercury will fl ow ou t wards and the water

will follow it .

(2 ) If b the end
a f the imme
, sed tube o r

must be at a de p th belo w the free surface f the o

water exceeding
(Ct — b) 0‘

in order tha t the mercury may not flow back into

the basin .

T w equal cylinders side by side contain mercury

o ,

one quite full and open at the top t h other f ll , e u

to 2 0 in hes f om the top and closed the 2 0 inches

c r ,

being oc pied by air at the atmos pheric pressure

cu ,

which is 3 0 inches f the barometric column o .

If the two vessels are connected by a siphon

di pping into the t w li q uids prove tha t when the
o , ,

siphon is put in action 5 inches f me cu y will ,

o r r

flo w f om one f the cylinders into the other

r o .

What takes pla e w hen the leg f the siphonc o

which is in the closed cylinder is t long enough no

to reach the merc ry in that ylinder ? u c

2 80 TH E C A S E OUS LA WS
1 97 . Th e Ga se ou s La ws .

LAW
’
LAW I .
—
B o YL E s .

At constant temperature the pressure f a given O

quantity f a Gas is inversely p roportional to the volume

o ,

or directly to the density .

T his law w enunciated by B oyle in his D fe n ce of th e

as e

Doct i n e to u ch i n g th e S p ri n g a n d We i gh t of th A i i n
r e r

a n sw erto Li n u 1 662 ; abro d it is attribu ted to M ariotte

s, a ,

who did not however publish it till 1 67 6 .

T hus if p denotes the pressure and v the volume f o

unit quantity f the gas one gramme suppose and p de

o , ,

notes the density so that p ==l / v then ,

f
,

p = h p or pr =k , ,

where k depends only on the temperature so that on : ,

the (p v ) di agram an i s o th m a l is a hyperbola (fig

, ,
er .

along whi h the hy drosta tic energy p

c 1 4 ) is constant v .

Fo insta nce a gunner w h o can push with a f ce f P

r , ,
or o

pounds can under an atmospheric pressure f p l b/ i

, ,
o n
g
,

introduce an airtight sponge into a closed cannon d ins ,

in ca l ibre and l ins long in the bore a dis tance a ins , ,

given by
e P
P l ml p i wd p z
‘

:
z :

P —i— i wdq
.

l )

T hus i f P = 1 00 p = 1 5 d = 5 l = 1 2 0 w find that

, , , , ,
e

m= 3 0 4 2 '

II C H ARLi :s s o n G AY LU S S AO S LAW
LAW .
-
’
-
’
.

At constan t pressure the volume f the G as increases o

uni formly with the te mperature and at the same rate f , or

all gases .
”

C ombining this with B oyle s La w we find that the

’

prod u t f the pressure and volume f a given quantity f

c o o o
 OE B O LE Y A ND CHA RLE S .
28 1

any Ga increases uni formly wi t h the tempera t ure at t he

s

same rate ; so t hat we may wri t e

76 d r) ,
‘

where is a cons t an t coefficient o f expansion the same

a ,

fo al l gases
r .

On t he C entigra de scale f t empera t ure o

a 0 0 03 665 “

s is ;
and n o w put t ing k = R /
.

0 a

(t he height o f the homogenous a t mosphere at 0 C) .

where
and 9 is calle d the a bsol u te tempera t ure and 1 / the ,
—
a

a bs o l u te z ero ; t his is there fore 2 7 3 C or abou t 4 60 F ,

—
,

since 2 73 4 9 2 on the Fahrenheit scale

:
.

B t u 2 7 4 C or
-
4 61 F is sometimes taken as nea er
,
—
r

to the correct value of the absolute zero f temperature o .

At this absolute z ero the pressure o f a given quan t i t y

of gas would be zero wha t ever the volume , .

In an e x periment by R obins (N e w Pri n ci p l es of Gu n

n e y Prop V p 70) a gun barrel which would contain
r , . .
, .
,

about 8 00 g ains f water w raised to a white heat and

r o ,
as ,

plunged into water when i t was found that about 600 ,

grains of water had entered the barrel .

T his proves tha t the i le f t in t he barrel had be e n e x a r

p and ed to f our times its volume ; so that i f the water ,

was at 1 5 C or 2 8 8 absolute the temperature f the

°

, , o

white heat was about 1 1 5 2 absolu t e or 8 8 0 C or 1 5 5 2 F ,

°

,
°
.

1 9 8 T h e equation
.

p v R6 (A)
connecting p the pressu re 1) the volume and 9 the , ,

absolute t e mp e at e f a given quantity say one g is

r ui o , ,

calle d th Ch a cte ri sti c E q ti on f a P rf t G s

e ar ua o e ec a
28 2 TH E (VIA RA C TE Ii IS TIC S URFA C E ’
.

It may be illust ated geomet ically by the surface r r

shown in fig 65 in which the i s th mal along whi h

.
, o er s, c

9 is consta nt are hyperbolas while the i s m t i

,
v , o e r cs ,

constant and the i o b p onstant are straight lines

,
s a rs , c ,
.

T his mo del su face can be constructed f pieces f card

r o o

board as made by B ill f D armstadt

,
r o .

D enoting by P V 6 the pressure volume and temper , , ,

ature in any given initial state then (A) may be writ ten ,

9 6
embodying the Laws f B oyle and Charles in a fo m suit o r

able f calculation from e x periments

or .

Re gn ault f ound that at Paris a litre f dry air at 0 C o

and a ba ometric height 7 6 cm is 1 2 9 3 1 8 7 g ;

r so that
measuri g pressure in millimetres f mercury head w
n o , e

find f a g amme f air at Paris

,
or r o ,

P = 7 60 , p
=1 V
/ : 0 01 2931 87 ,

and
aking the density f mercury as 1 3 5 9 this makes th
T o ,
e

heigh t at Paris f the homogeneous atmosphere at 0 C

o

cm say 8 000 m , .

T h weight in g f V lit es f dry air at a temperatu e

e o r o r

TC and a pres ure f h mm f mercu y is there f e

s O o r o r

h 2 73
1 2 93 1 8 7 x x x V ,
7 60
a formula req ired in e x act wei g hings in allowing f the
u , or

buoyancy Of the air .

1 9 9 It must be noti ed that the gravitation measure

. c

of force is employed in these formulas so that in accurate ,

comparisons the local v lue f g must be allowed f a o or

.

T hus i f g changes to g in going from Paris to any

’

other locality G reenwich f instan ce the absolute pres

,
or ,
28 4 V A RIA TION OF C RA VIT Y .

u pose f ins t ance that g is doubled or halved as

S p ,
or , ,

might ap pear to be the case in a li ft or the cage f a , o

mine ; the pressure due to a given head f liq uid is o

doubled or halved but the head corresponding to a given

,

pre sure is halved or doubled and generally the pressure

s

due to a head h o f mercu y or k f air is proportional to r o

g ; but f a given
,
or pressure g h or 9 remains constant
7 , 6 .

T hese va iations are due to the employment f the

r o

gravi tation unit f force ; but as the variations on the

o

surface o f the E arth do not amount to 0 3 per cent they ,

are insensible in most practical problems .

Al l physica l measurements of force are primarily made

in gravita tion units from their convenience i t l l ig i , ,
n e

bil i t y and pre ision ; and these measurements can after

,
c

wards be converte d into absolute units by multi plying

by the local value f g when it is required to compare o ,

delicate measurements made in di fferent locali t ies .

2 00 With B itish units the foot and the pound

. r d , ,
an

with the Fahrenheit scale a ft f air at 5 5 F and a ,

3
o

ba ometric height f 3 0 ins equivalent to a pressure f

r o ,
o

1 4 § l b/ in o 2 1 1 2 l b/ ft is found to weigh about oz

2 2
r , ,

so that about 1 3 ft weigh one l b ; and there fore p utting

3
,

P=21 12 , V= IS ,

fo r one l b of air ;
then R/ a 5 33 x 4 92 ft .

Th ework required to ompress the air at constant c

tem pe rature from volume V to v is represen t ed by the

area f the hyperbolic isothermal
O

pv =PV
on the (p ) diagram cut ff by the abscissas
,
v ,
o V and r it
is the e fore by a well known fo mula
r ,
r

P V log V/ v,
 DA L T ON S ’
LA W .
285

expressed in f t l b if V is given in ft and P i

'

,
3
n l b/ t
f z
.

T hus i f a cubic yard o f atmospheric air is compressed

to a cubic foot ,

P 21 1 2 V 27 ,
:
,

and the wo k required is

r

2 1 1 2 x 2 7 x 10 0
'
9 7 ft l b -
.

201 .third law sometim e s calle d D alton s law is

A ,
’

added f a mi x ture f gases which do not act chemically

or o

on each other thus a t mospheric air is a mechanical mi x

t ure f oxygen and nitrogen
o .

’
LAW Il l —
D A LT ON S LA W .

pressure f m ch i c l mi x ture (not a chemical

i

Th e o a e an a

mixture ) o f gases all at t he same temperature in a close d

vessel is the sum f the separate pressures each gas woul d
o

have i f it alone was present in the vessel .

T his law again mus t be accepted as b ased upon e x p e i r

mental proo f .

G ranted D alton s l w B oyle s l w seen to follow

’ ’
a ,
a is

immediat ely f i f a pound f a gas is int o duced into

or o r

an ex hausted chamber and produces a certain pressure ,

the introduction o f a second pound o f the gas will by

D alton s law double the pressure a d will also double the
’
n

density a thi d pound f the gas will treble t h pressure

r o e

and density and so on ; so that the pressu e is propor

,
r

ti
o na l to the density .

T ake W W W I; 2) 110

lb or g f n perfect gases having pressures

,
o ,

P1 P2 , » Pm
when the volumes are U 71 O 1, 2, n,

and t he absolute temperatures are

9 1 s,
, ,
28 6 E XPE RIM E NTA L VE R IFIC A TION
all these gases are brought to the same volume
N ow i f
V and temperature 9 the w pressures ,
ne

5 73 2 i G7“,
1,

will be given by
a V Tu r n
n
sup pose .

6 O
Ifthese gases now mixed togethe mechanically in
are r

a closed vessel f volume V the pressure P f the mix

o , o

tu e will by Dalton s law be given by

r ,
’

so that PV an w e
"

+ “

e e1 e,
o r, i f P V/ O is denoted by S ,

If P1 p g p ,
denote the o,iginal density
n f each gas r o ,

and kl h i ,
t he head f each ga which produces its
,
O s

original pressure ; then

Rn e
I
t) n n
Pn W n W n

and i f p deno tes t h density and K the pressure head

e ,
-
of

the mi x ture ,

P PV
§ e
p
K kn
s_ -
z w and Rn _
é
,

Q
so that K =2k a
é / 2 W n.

Th e E xp e ri me n ta l Ve rifica ti o n f B o yl e La w
’
2 02 . o s .

B oyle took a bent tube with vertical branches

CA B E
(fig 66.p 2 9 5 )
,
and filled
. the ben d with merc y so that ur

it stood at t h same level A B in the t w branches the

e o
28 8 E XPE RIAIE N TA L VE RIFICA TION S
hese experiments were recorded by plotting the value
T
of p th e hydrostatic energy of a given quantity f
v, o

the gas co respon ding to values o f p ; and i f B oyle s

,
r
’

L w w
a accurately true the points plotted at constant
as ,

temperature should range themselves in a straight line

parallel to the axis f p ; this w a found to be pp i o s a ro x »

mately the case .

E x amined more closely the points were found f ,

or

great values f p to lie ve y nea ly in a st aigh t line

O ,
r r r

slightly inclined to the a x is f p indicating the law o ,

W = w+ h
or p(
’
v

so that the isothe mals on the (p i ) diagram are still r ,

'

hy perbolas and now b is c lled the co o l u m a -

v e .

A full account f the experiments upon which the o

G aseous Laws are based will be foun d in t w Reports o

to the B itish A ssociation 1 8 8 6 and 1 8 8 8 E xp i m n t l

r , , er e a

Kn owl dg of th e P p ti e f M tt wi th p t to
e e ro er s o a er res ec

Vo l u m P u T mp e, tu e a n d S p cifi H a t
r es s By
re , e e ra r ,
e c e .

P T M ain
. . .

B oyle s L w will be found to hold when the air in

’
a

0 A is expanded by drawing Off mercury in the bend ,

A B through a stop ock at the lowest poi n t ; and c

generally a convenie t mode f varying the level f K n o o

i by means f a large vessel f me cu y which ca be

s o o r r n

raised or lowe ed by winch and which communicates r a ,

by a flexible tube with the stopcock (fig 66 p .

,
.

2 04 T h L w f .rare faction f the air in CA can also

e a or o

be shown by the apparatus of fig 67 p 2 9 5 also devised .

,
.
,

by B oyle .

A cylindrical glass t be OA closed at O is partly u , ,

filled with mercury and sunk verti ally in a deep vessel

.
,
c
 Y
OF B O LE S LA W
’
.
28 9

of mer cury ; the poin t A is mar ked wh ere t h e mercury

stands at the same level insi de an d outside the tube and ,

now the air in 0A is at at mospheri c pressure .

On raising the tube vertically the pressure o f the air ,

i n OA will be diminis h ed and t he air will e x pand so ,

tha t the mercury will be drawn p to a level H such u ,

that the pressure Of t he air in OH is due w e head

h— A H or D H o f mercury i f CD is the true barometric ,

heigh t and it i fo n d e xperimentally that

s u

CH E B = OA CD
.
,

so t ha t B ov l e law is verified
’
s .

T h e same apparatus co ld be employe d t o compress t he

u

air by depressing the tube ; but now t he level H of th e “

mercury i side the tube 0A woul d be below the level Of

n

t h e mercury i nt h e vessel an d i t s position wo u ld be di tti

,

cult to observe excep t by the mark left by the liqui d in

,

rising in the tube unless transparent wa t er and glass

,

w e re e mpl oye d .

I t was in this way tha t C harles II won his wager that .

he woul d demonstrate the c ompression of ai r in a hollow

cane the R oyal S ociety bei g appointed re fere es (Ph i l
,
n .

T a n s Jan
r ,
the o t her story o f him con cerning a
.

fish in a bucke t Of water appears spurious as no record f ,

o

it is to be found .

If t he hollow c ane w a 2 1 in long closed at one s d , en ,

and dep ressed vertically in water till i t w as j u st s b u

merged the w at er would rise one i ch i n the cane i f the

‘

,
n ,

wa t er b arometer s tood at 4 00 ins ; or i f the cane was ,

44 i ns long and j us t submerged vertically t he wa t er

, ,

would rise 4 ins in the cane .

T h e principle is employed in the D eep S e a S ounding

Machine ; a t ube o f le n gt h a close d at the t op is lowered , ,

G H . . T
2 90 E XPE RIME NTA L ILL US TR A TION S

vertically in to the sea and the length y Of the inte ior

,
r

marked by the entrance f the water being measured t he

O ,

depth x reached by the lower end of the t be is given by u

the equation of the two expressions o f the pressure in

a t mospheres f the imprisoned air
o ,

H +x y a
’
H a —
y
where H deno tes t he height of the water barometer ; and

so tha t the depths corresponding to the graduations o f the

tube are the ordinates of a hyperbola which can be con ,

structed geometri c ally as in § 1 1 5 ; and the graduations

can be m ade uni form by giving a hyperbolic shape to
t he t ube .

2 05 A simple experimen tal illustration is described in

.

W i n h ol d s E xp eri men ta l Ph ysi cs ; in this the tube 0A

e
’

closed a t 0 is of fine uni form bore and contains a fil

, ,
a

men t A B Of mercury Of lengt h It suppose less than h the , ,

barometric height .

T h e tube may be sus pended fro m a fixed point at O ,

and now when held in the horizontal position the

, ,

pressure in 0 A is equal to the atmospheric pressure .

When the tube is hel d vertically upwards the air in ,

0 A is compressed by a head h + k f mercury and will o ,

there fore occupy a lengt h i f B oyle s Law is

’

true the original leng t h OA being denoted by a

, .

W hen the tube hangs verti ally downwards the air in

c ,

OA will e x pan d to a length a h / (h h ) ; and generally i f —

,

OP is the length f the air column when the tube makes

o

an angle 9 with the vertical the pressure in OP will be

,

due to a head h + k cos 6 o f mercury so that

OP ah / (h + h cos
29 2 TH E PIPE TTE .

column Will e x pand to a lengt h and the fraction r, of

mercury spilt is 1 (l given by

—

r { + ( r) c o s 9 }
h l —
(l
r= i(h sec sec O l ) + k sec O(k + h
O+ l ) + J {i (h — 2

l h sec 9 ) J {i (l h sec O) + h sec O(k + h

— — — 2

If c denotes the length o f the mercury filament in the

hori zon t al position when t he contained air is a t atmos
,

h ri c pressure
e
p ,

h (l or oh = h (h + h l ) -
.

When the tube hangs vertically downwards 00 9 1 ,

3 : —
,

and
l — c h} .

his can be illustrate d e x perimen tally with a tumbler

T
of height l filled with water to a depth 0 and closed by ,

a car d ; on ca re fully inverting the tumbler a certain ,

fraction o f the water will leak out so that the dep t h f , o

the wate r is reduce d to

1<h +0 ch } —
,

where h now denotes t h e height o f the water barometer .

T h e sa me p inciple ap plies to the pi p tte ; i f it is

r e

dippe d in to liquid to a depth c cm and a volume V e n ,

'

i
8

o f air is imprisoned by the finger while the area o f the ,

s rface Of the liqui d insi de is c m then on raising the

u a
2
,

pipett e out f th e liquid the surface will sink x cm given

o , ,

by the positive root of the eq ation u

h c+x V —

IL V+ a ll}
2 07 S a ys S te r e ome ter
’
. .

his instrument t he invention of a French o fficer S y

T ,
a ,

i s inten ded fo the measurement of the density Of gun

r

pow der and other substances which must no t be con ,

t ami n at e d with moisture or con t act with liqui ds .

 S A Y S S TE
’
RE OME TE R .
2 93

As t he action the ins t rumen t is an a pplica t ion f

of o

B oyle s L w the descrip t ion is introduce d here n d illus

’
a , ,
a

t at e d by re f erence t o the arrangemen t i n fig 66 p 2 9 5

r .
, . .

Th e stop cock is replace d by a three way cock w hich

- -
,

can es tablish communication between t he branches A O

and B K be t ween ei ther branch and the reservoir of
,

mercury or between all three

, .

T WO fi x ed marks are m ade on the t ube A O at A and H -

,

suppose and t he mercury filling A H is drawn ff into the

,
o

reser oir and weighed an d thence the volume U cm f

v , ,
3
,
o

A H is in f erred .

Th e mercury is now brought t o the same level at A and

B in the t wo branche s and i n the reservoir and a globe , ,

is sc e w d on a t 0 so tha t the air in A O and t he globe is

1 e ,

a t atmospheric p e e 1 ss u r .

T h e reservo r s now r aised till t he level o f the mercury

i i

in the branches rises t o H and K ; a d n o w deno t ing the n

vertical heigh t E X by k and th e volume of the globe , ,

reaching t o H by c then by B oyle s Law

,
3
,
’

V —l U h Hc
— V h
V h H k
which de t ermines V .

T h e globe is now unscrewed and a known weight W g ,

o f the substance whose volu me x cm n d densi t y W x is

3
, / a .
\

required is place d in i t ; the globe is again screwe d on

, ,

and the Operatio n is repea t ed .

N o w i f k is the di fference f level of the mercury in t he

’
o

t w o branches when the level i the branch A O rises to H n ,

V— x h x h h
-

77 115 75
"
”
U k
an increase of pressure t ends to make the gunpowder
As
absorb air the process may be reverse d by s t ti ng w i th
,
ar
29 4 GRAPH IC AL RE PR E S E N TA TIONS

t he level the mercury in the two bran ches at H and

of ,

drawing ff mercury by lowe ing the reservoir till the

o r

mercury stands at th e level f A i A O o

'

n .

2 08 G p h i c l R p s n t ti on of B o yl s La w
’
. ra a e re e a s e .

Putting OA a OH = x OK y K L OO = 0 0 = h , ,
:
,
:
l 2 ,

in fig 66 then according to B oyle s La w

.
,
’

OH H L = OA 0 0 or. .
2,

a relation of the second degree in x and f the first in y o .

D escribe a circle on A O as diameter cut t ing t he hori 2 ,

zon t l line through 0 in Q

a .

N w i f the level f K is given take C the middle point

o o ,

of K0 and with centre C and radius CQ describe a circle

2,

cu tting the outside line 0A in H and H ; then the point ’

H i n OA will be the corresponding level f the mercury o .

F OO = K L and there fore OC = CL o OE = H L ;

’
or r
2 , ,

and
T h e other point H is such that t he a r which occupies
’
1

a length 0 A f the t be at atmospheric pressure or under

o u ,

a head 0 0 o f mercury w ill occu py a length OH under a

2 ,
’

head LH or OH f me cury ’
o r .

T determine K geometr i cally when H is given take

o ,

OH the third p roportional to OH and OQ and mark ff

’

,
o

H K equal to H 0
’

2
.

2 09 T h geometrical method f 1 1 4 may be employed

. e o

to give a graphical representa tion Of the relative levels of

H and K in the branches f the tube in fig 66 and f the o .
,
o

relative heigh ts f O and H in fig 67 o . .

D ra w through 0 0 0 straight lines mping at 4 5

°

, 1, 2

to the horiz on .

If H is projected horizon ta lly to H on the sloping line 1

thro gh 0 and the vertical line K H M is d awn to

u , l I 1
r

meet t h horizontal line through K in K and the

e 1
296 VITIA TE D T O RRICE LLIAN
210 S . imilarly in fig . 67, assuming B oyle s L ’
aw to hold ,

C H E B = OA. CD ,

or ( e)(h
w—

if xand y denote the eights o f O and H above the level

h
o f the mercury in the cistern so that i f t h e l pi g line s e n

CE is drawn through C meeting the horizontal line ,

through D in E and if the points 0 and H are projected

,

as be fore then as H describes CE 0 will describe a

, 1 , 1

hyperbola with the ver t ical and mping line through E

for asymptotes and as 0 describes CE 1 1 will describe 2 , 2

a hyperbola with the ho izon tal and the sloping line r

through E f asymptotes or .

T h e value f It can be i n ferred from t he obser ation f

o v o

t wo positions f the tube OA ; f if l l de n t the len gt hs

’
o or ,
o e

f the air col umn OH corresponding to heights y y f the

’
O ,
o

me cu y column A H then
r r ,

h) l (y h ) ah ,
’ ’
l (y
’
l y— l y
’

h= °

l —
U
21 1 . Vi ti a te d Vacu u m
of o a B a r me te r
If the tube OA is fixed in position with O at the same
level as the top f the barometric tube CD the relative
o ,

fluctuations f H and D will represent the barometric

o

fluctuations o f a barometer in which a small quanti ty o f

air has vitia t ed the T orricellian vacuum compared with ,

the indications of a s tandard barometer .

N o w i f b denote s the constant height f 0 above the o

mercury in the ciste n r ,

b ) h
( y ( y) = a t n t =—b sup p ose co n s a a ,

where h and y fluctuate assuming that the tempe a t ure ,

r

is consta nt .
 A UUM
V C OF A B AR OME TE R .
297

hus i f the vitiate d barometer reads

T ins w he n th e

standard barometer reads 3 0 ins the correction t o be ,

added to t he rea ding y o f the vitiate d barometer i s

125
'

32 —
y
A lso if a vitiated siphon barome t er reads 3 1 ins when
,

the true reading is 32 and the le n gth of the vacuum is,

then one inch the correction to be adde d to the observed

,

heigh t o f 2 9 ins is 0 5 inch ; and general l y to an Observed

height y is y)
—
.

R e ferred as be fore to t he slopin g line th rough 0 (fig 68 ) .

D will describe a hyperbola with t h e ver t ical and sloping

2

line through 0 f asympto t es as H describes the line

or , 2

OH whence the barom etric correction D H f the

'

or
2 , 2 2

h eight y in t h e vitiate d barome t er can be measu red Off ’

from the diagram ; n d conversely as D describes t he

a , 1

sl e i
p g line
n H will describe a hyperbola w ith t he h eri
o n tal and m
, 1

z ping line through 0 fo asymp t otes r .

2 1 2 D eno t ing by y y the readings o f this vitia t ed

.
1, 2

barome t er when the t rue barometric heigh t s are h 71 ,, 2,

=
(b JXh y) (b yl xh l a ) (b
i 92 Xh 2 x)

(h l 9 1) (h e ya)
an d the correction t o be a ed to the heigh t y is dd
“

(9 1 y) (h 1 91) (9 2 yx hz 3'
7 s )
T hus
the readings of a vitiated rometer are 2 9 9
if ba
and 2 9 4 ins when the true barometric heights are 3 0 4
and 2 9 8 then b = 3 1 9 so that the leng t h o f the vitiated
,
'

vacuu m when the reading is 2 9 is ins ; and th e

correction to be a dded to the reading y is y)
— .
298 VI TI TE D T O A RRICE LLIAN
to deduce the barometric correction from the com
B ut
parison with another vitiated barometer f height 0 ,
o ,

in which the corresponding readings are z x z the , l , 2,

additio al equations n

(0 Z ) (h z) (C e
l )(bl z1 ) (0 s h z )
s

will determine h and h and t hence w find that the 1 2 e

corrections to the observed heights y z are ,

(b 9 M(9 )
al (c Z
r)
. (b e g)( c z
1 li
h
m
—
z
22 ) (b C

Ifthe tempera t ure va ies and is denoted by r , 7 , 7 1, 7 2 C

i t the three observations then ,

(b (b (b "

0 9 2)
2 73 + T ,
so that eliminat ing b , ,

O
h z — yz
’

91
“

M erely
inclining the tubes would cause the true and
vi t iated barometers t o fluctuate di fferently and the ,

arrangement has been suggested as a grayi me t r f (r e or

measuring a h nge in g (C mp t R n du s J une J uly

c a o es e ,
—
,

i f h and y deno t e the barometric heights when

’ ’
1 8 9 3) f or

g has changed to g and the temperature does no t change

’

, ,

’
y)(b
’

e (h y) ~
— —

Work out
example the value ,
when g = 9 8 1
fo r ,
of 9
’

b = 1 00 y= 3 8 cm y , ,

2 1 3 S up pose the vacuum f the barome t er 0A w

. o as

originally per fect and that the air which vitiates the ,

vacuum w a in t roduced as a smal l bubble which a t

s ,

atmospheric p essure o ccupied a lengt h A B o f t he tube

r .

A the bubble P Q rises slowly and steadily in the t ube

s ,
3 00 E Q UILIB RI UM OF B UB B LE S .

If a bubble o f ai which at atmospheric pressure would

r,

occupy hal f inch f the t ube is now introduced the

an o , ,

baromet ic column will fall 3 in hes ; and the correction

r c

to be added to a reading y is y)
— .

2 1 4 T h e behaviour f rising bubbles can be studied in

. o

soda water champagne or water boiled in a glass vessel ;

-
, ,

the pressure diminishes and the bubbles e x pand as they

rise until they reach t h e sur face and bu s t
, r .

D enoting by V the volume o f a bubbl e at the su face r

and by h the height f the water barometer (about 4 00 ins

o

or 1 0 m ) then at a depth 7 the pressure is doubled and

,
7.

there fore by B oyle s L w the volume f the bubble is

,
’
a ,
o

halved and the density o f the air in it is doubled ; at a

depth (n 1 )h the pressure w ill be increased n fold and
—

the volume will become V/ n and gener lly at a depth a z

the pressure will be 1 + / h atmosphe es and the volumez r ,

of the bubble will be

D enoting by k the height f the homogeneo s atmo o u

sphere (or f the i ba ome t ) so that h / h is the S G f

’

o a r r er . . o

air then when

,

h + = k or =h h z e -
,

the density o f the bubble will be the same as that

water and the bubble will be in equilibrium
,
.

T aking h =1 0 m 70 8 000 m ,
:
,

then k h = 7 9 90 m —
,

the depth i n the sea at which a bubble o f air will be

equilibrium ; also
k/h 8 00,
the pressure in the bubble in a tmospheres .

T h densi ty o f hyd ogen being about one four t eenth f

e r -
o

that f air at the same pressure a bubble f hydrogen

o ,
o

will be in equilibrium at about 1 4 times this depth .

 TH E C AR TE SIAN DI VE R .
30 1 .

In M e tric units i f the volum e of t h bub ble a t the

,
e

surface is c its weigh t Will be practically Vk/k g ;

3
,

d at a height x m b o t h e posi t ion o f equilibrium

' '

an c a ve ,

the volume or buoyancy will be Vh / (lc x) cm or g ; so — 3

that the upward moving force on the bubble wil l be

'

h t
V
(
lo — x

21 5 llowing in
. A f the effec t ive inertia of the
,
as or

dis placed water s ph e i cal i

,
form as hal f the weight f
r n ,
o

water displaced the u pward cceleration o f t he bubble is

,
a

t
h k— x ) x
g g °

3—
-

2
h —
x

la
Th e equilibrium f the bubble at a depth k h is con
o —

sequently unstable ; i f sligh t ly depresse d the b bble is ,

u

compresse d and sinks to the bot t om ; but i f it rises t h e

bubble e xpands and reaches t h e surface .

2 1 6 B y imprisoning the bubble in a glass bo t tle w h i ch

.

is ballasted so as t o be on the point o f sinking We can ,

stu dy the equilibriu m and s t abilityn e ar the sur face and ,

this arrangemen t is n o w called a Ca rte si a n Di v e ; i t r

illus t rates the action f the bladder in a fish and i n o ,

ci d ent al l y the da n gerous instability o f a s bmarine boat u .

D e noting by W g th e weight o f t h bo t t l its S G by s

'

e e, . .
,

and by V cm the volume a t at mospheric pressure f t he

3
o

imprisoned air or the weight f Water in g the bottle

, o

will hold t hen at depth z cm the volume and buoyancy

,
a

o f the bubble is and th i s is equal to W W/ s,

and the bott le is in equilibrium when ,

V
(W
s
z h
-
s 1
3 02 TH E LA WS OF E B ULLITION
When is grea t er than the depth of water the C
z ,
ar

t e i a D iver will float on the sur face and to depress it

s n , ,

w e must have means fo increasing h ; this is e ffected r

by covering the vessel of water with a bladder which ,

can be pres ed in by the hand and now i f I is increased

s t

to h the volume f the bubble at a depth z becomes

’

, o
’

so that in the position f equilibrium o

H + a= h + a
or z diminishes s h increases by an equal amoun t ; and
’
a
'

when 2/ is negative the diver w ill sink , .

A C arte sian D iver is readily constructed f a glass o

bottle ballasted by lead wire wound round the neck ;

,

thus a pint bot t le be so weighted that it j ust fl oats

ca n

in wate r w hen one quar ter f an ounce is placed in it ; o

and n ow i f inverted neck downwards over water it is in ,

unstable equilibrium when the level f the water inside o

i t is at a depth o f a little over 5 inches the height f ,

o

the water barome t er being 4 00 inches ; n d increasing a

this to over 4 05 inches will ca se the diver to sink u .

2 1 7 E bu ll i ti on n d th e Law of V p ou r P
. a su re s a r es .

When water or a liquid boils bubbles f vapour a ,

o re

formed in th e in t erior whic h rise to the su face and

,
r

burst ; and the pressure f the vapour in a bubble may o

be taken as that f the surrounding liquid

o .

A y cause which tends to the formation and dis

n

entanglement of bubbles as f instance the shaking f , or o

a l comotive boiler is f assistance to ebullition and

o ,
o ,

improves the performance f the boiler o .

At the surface the pressure f the vapour given off o

during ebullition is equal to that f the e x ternal air or o

vapour .

A s a tu r ted v ap ou is th e name given to a gas formed

a r
 R
P E SS URE AND DE NS IT Y OF VA POUR .

hus at 1 00 C t h e vapour pressure is one atmospher e

T
of 7 60 mm ; so that i f the pressure is suddenly reduced
to a fraction m f an atmosphere the water will boil to
o ,

a depth (1 m) o f the height f the water barometer

-
o .

2 1 8 A ccording to D alton s L w if h deno te s

’
. a

the to tal pressure f the air in mm f mercury head o , o ,

and f mm the pressu e f the aq eous vapour p resent r o u ,

then h f will be the p essure o f the d y air alone r r

T h e de sity f the a q ueous vapour is found x pe i

n o e r

mentally to be about ao f the density of dry air a t the

same pressure ; so that i f a litre f d y air weighs , o r

g at 0 C and 7 60 mm f mercury head then at

°
'

o ,

a tempe ature f C a barometric height h mm n d an

r o 7 , , a

aqueous pressure o f f mm a litre f air weighs , o

1 2932 h f 5 f
g
(7
—
'

+ ()
1 + a7 '
60 8 7 60
and the densi ty p of this damp ai i ,
in g/ c m 3
,
is given by
0
0 0 0 1 2 9 32 h Sf
~
,

‘
1 (1 7 7 60
so that damp i is perceptibly lighter than dry air
a r .

It is im portant there fore that the air should be ca e r

f lly dried i n all expe i men t s on B oyle s Law ; so that

’
u r

the mode o f e xperimen t ing with a gas in a vessel inverted

over water is unsuitable f accurate measuremen ts or .

21 9 . Co r re cti o n s f o r We i gh i n g in Air .

Whena weigh t is marked say P g this means the , ,

abso l u te weight as determined in v acu o

,
.

B t if B deno t es the density of the metal f the w eight

u o ,

and p the density f the air the app a e n t weight iso ,

r

diminishe d by the buoyancy of the air Pp /B to

, ,

P 1
( fil
 CO RRE C TION FOR WE IC H IN C IN AIR .
3
0 O0
1

At the temperature 7

B B 0(1 CT ) ,

where 0 denotes the coefficient o f cubical e x pansion of

the metal and B the density at 0 C ; also p is given by
, 0
°

the formula in the last article .

When t here fore as in 5 7 a body o f some Other densi t y

, ,
.

a is bei g weighed in air and its true weigh t is W g when

n ,

equilibrated by the weight marked P g ,

1 3

0e —
w
es ) ,

W -
P =P

and G : '

O
O / (l
if C denot es the co e fli ci e n t f e x pansion of t he bo dy o .

We might f instance be weighing W g o f hy drogen

,
or , ,

in which case the negative value obtained f P would or

mean that the weight P would have to be place d in the

same scale as the p arcel f hydrogen ”
o .

If the body is now weighed by the H ydrostatic B alance

in water o f density D at C and equilibra t e d by a
, ,
r
7
°

weight marked P g then ’

P
'

<s r - = w(
1

and there fore P ’

a D”
P 0
'

p
,

a :
"
P— P
'

O
T

the density at standard tempera t ure T .

H ere D may be calculated from the formula o f 1 70

, ,

or preferably taken from T able I in consequence o f the .

,

abnormal dilata t ion of water .

G H
. . U
306 C RITICA L TE M PE RA T UR E .

2 20 . Vap o u rs a nd th e i r C ri ti ca l T e mp e ra tu r e .

When a saturated vapou is isolated f o m ontact with r r c

the liquid from whi h it is formed and the tempe ature c ,

r

is raised the vapour is said to be up e h e t d ; and the

, s r a e

va pour w begins to bey appro x imately the G aseous

no O

Laws f 5 1 9 7o .

If not too much su pe rheate d the vapour can by com ,

pression be brought again to the tu ra te d state ; and sa

further compression l i q fi the vapour in part ue es .

B t A ndrews found (1 8 7 1 ) that beyond a certain cri ti ca l

u

t mp e a tu
e r f the vapour lique faction by compression
re o

be ca me im possible ; and the G aseous Laws were now

obeyed very closely .

F orthis reason it is advisable to divide the gaseous

sta te f matter 2 ) in to two classes
o :

( ) tru g a es which cannot be liquefied because

i. e s , ,

hea ted above the critical tempe ature and which r ,

Obey the G aseous Laws f 1 9 7 very closely o

v
p o u s which
a can be rultimately
,
liquefied by com
pression the temperature being below the critical
,

poin t ; and which sho w increasing divergence

f om the s e G aseous Laws
r .

T hus fo ins tance the C ritical T emperatures o f water

,
r , ,

chlorine o xygen and nitrogen are respectively

, , , ,

3 70 1 4 1 1 1 3 and 1 46 C
, ,
—
,
— .

T h C haracteristic E quation
e

( fi
“ e — ba s e,

whe e a and b are small constan t s has been proposed as

r ,

a generalised form f the C haracteristic E quation f a o o

Per fe t G as (A) 1 9 8 by Va der Waals in h i E y on

c , ,
n s ss a

th e Co n ti n u i ty of th e I igwi d n d Ga s u s S ta te f M tt r
/ a eo o a e ,
3 08 DIFFE RE NTIA L AIR THE RM OM E TE R .

H eating the air f om 0 to 2 00 C would ca se the r u

volume to expand f om 2 73 to 4 73 so tha t the density

r ,

o f the ai would be abou t that f coal gas as employed

r o ,

in balloons .

Th merc ry thermome t e is pre ferred f ordinary

e u r or

pu poses as its indica t ions are independent f the height

r ,
O

o f the ba ometer which requires to be observed and

r ,

allowed fo in a reading f the A i T hermometer

r o r .

F i f the baromete cha n ges from the standard heigh t

or r

h to h the re ading f absolute temperature 9 on the air

’

,
O

thermometer corresponds to a true temperature Oh / h ’

.

T hus if the barometer fal ls f om 3 0 to 2 9 ins the read r ,

ing 300 corresponds to a true absolu te temperature 2 9 0 .

If however the open end is made to dip into a vessel

, ,

o f mercury like the tube 0A in fig 67 p 2 9 5 in which

, .
, .
,

the level f the mercury can be raised or lowered the air

o ,

in the thermometer ca be easily brought to a s tandard n

atmospheric pressure measured by a fixed head HD f ,

o

mer ury
c .

2 2 2 T h e Difi e n ti a l A i r Th e rm o me te
. er consists o f r

two equal gl ss bulbs conta ining air connected by a

a ,

horizontal uni form tube in which a small filament f o

mercury or liquid separates the air in the two bulbs .

A small di fference Of temperature o f the two bulbs is

recorded by the displacement f the filament o .

D enoting by V and V cm the volumes o f the two

I 2
3

portions f air when the bulbs are at the same t empera

o

ture and by cm the cross section o f the tube then

7 ,
to
2
,

w hen the bulbs are raised to t emperature and C 7 1 7 2 ,

the filamen t will be displaced from z ero through a dis

tance x cm such that the pressure in each bulb bei n g
, ,

c hanged from P t o p ,
 IS OT HE RM A L A TM OS PHE RE .
3 09

P(Vl mx) P V1 (V
P 2 + wx) P V2
-

’ ’
2 73 4 -
7 1 2 73 + r 2 73 4 -
7 2 2 73 + r
Vl — wx 2 73 4 -
7 1
L O
_I
V2 + wx 2 73 4 -
7 2 V2 92
i f 01 , 92 d eno t e the corresponding absolute t emperatures .

If, as usual V V V suppose

, I 2
:
,

62 “
61

a nd n ow the temperature f each bulb is increased by

if o

r
’

, the filamen t will reach a distance y given by ,

y) 7 1 ) 92 91
V 9 2 + 91 + 2 1
x y 92 4—9 1
x

so that the graduations are in H P

. . fo r equal incremen t s
in T
'
.

223 . Isoth e rma l E q u i l i bri u m of th e A tmosp h e re .

In ascending or descend ng in a quiescent atmosphere

i
o f uni fo m temperature it is found that the logarithm o f
r

the barome t ric heigh t or f the pressure chan ges uni o

formly with the height ; or expressed analytically t he ,

barometric height h the pressure p n d the densi t y p , , a

at any height z are connec t ed with the corresponding

quantities h p P at the ground by the form ul a
, o, o, o

ho P0 P0

where k — p _P
_o

P P0
is the heigh t of the homogeneous atmosphere ; so t hat a t
a heigh t 10 the barome ter sta n ds a t l / e f its height on o

the groun d .
3 10 IS OT HE RMA L A TM OS PHE RE .

T aking logarithms ,

Z 7“ k
0
’
h
10 2
_l o g of ) ;
l h
where log n
= 23 , 1 0 = 2 3 02 5 8 5 09 ~
N
,

the modulus which converts common into N aperian

logarithms .

E x panded n powers o f (h i +h) 0 ,

h _ h h —

Qk ta nh
0 O
z kl g — o —
l
E i i e
l
o
-
f t,

<>
1 hO
0
— h 3

1 "

§ h0+ h
o which the first term only is retained in B bi n t
f a e
’
s

ba om tri c f mu l
r e employed when the barometric
or a,

change is small .

T hus if the barometer falls from 3 0 to 2 7 inches in

ascen ding 2 8 00 ft we find that h = 2 6 600 ft ; and the
, ,

barome t er will fall to 2 1 8 7 inches at a height f 8 4 00 ft o .

With B ritish units at a tempe rature 3 2 F , ,

k : ft ,
and 1 h ft i fathom ;
: N

so tha t the di fference f the common logarithms o f the o

baromet ic heigh t s m ultiplied by

r gives the di ffer
ence f level in fathoms
o .

F a heigh t f 7 miles or 7 x
or fathom
o ,

l o g(h 0/ h ) 0 1 60, h O/ h N 4 .

On S nowdon , 3 7 2 0 ft high ,

so that i f h = 3 0 h = 2 6 h h = 4 a fall f four inches

0 , , O
—
,
o .

D own a mine the pressure will be n atmospheres at

a depth h l g n ; thus f n = 2 the dep t h would have
o , or ,

to be about ft .
31 2 IS OTH E R MA L AND CON VE C TI VE

225 .prove the for mula f 2 2 3 employing the

To o ,

Integ al Calculus suppose that dp denotes the di mi

r
,
-
nu

tion f pres ure in ascen ding a height dz in a stratu m of

o s

density p ; then
ol — d
p p z
B ut if =k
p p,
dp dz
’

1 ) k

and in te gra ting l n 1 2 »

B — 0 cr 7
’

..

0
k 0 ’

P 0
T h e proo f o f this theorem is not easy by elementary
methods not involving the use f the C alculus ; the
, o

following elementary proo f is submitted

S uppose the air between two ho izontal planes at a r

distance at which the pressures are p and P is

2 , 0»

divided into a large number n f strata of equal depth o ,

z / n ; and that t h density in each stratum is taken as

e

uni fo m the density in the rth st atum being denoted

r , r

by p and the pressure being denoted by p at the

r. ,

bottom and by p “ at the t p f the stratum , o o .

T hen considering the equilibrium f t he vertical column o

o f the se strata s tanding on a base o f unit area

, ,

=p r 3
z
pr pr l pr
'

l
"

’
nk
- -
,
n

p r+ 1 = 1
Pr

so tha t 121 '

12 — 2 3
13 p r+ i fi l — i ,
nk
P0 pl 29
2 i t p n -
x

the pressure decreasing in G P as w ascend in . . e A P . .

equal vertical steps / n k ; and therefore z f

 E Q UILIB R I UM OF TH E A TM OS PHE RE .
31 3

Now making i t in definitely great and putting ,

£ ( )
”

=lt 1 _fi
0
nk

0 0
g or exp
<k
Z
—
— c ,

We notice that p an d p are z ero when z is infinite ; so

that on our theoretical ass umptions the height f the o

atmosphere of uni form temperature is infinite .

2 2 6 Con v e cti v e E qu i l i bri u m

.
f
o th e A tmosp h e re .

A ccording to the e perience f moun t a i neers and

x o

aeronauts the temperature of a quiescent atmosph ere is

,

not uni form b t diminishes slowly with the heigh t at a

,
u

rate which may be supposed uni form so that we pu t

0
f)
con nec t ing 0 the absolute tempe ature at the height z r

with 0 the absolute tempera t u e at the ground ; and

0
r

0 wi ll now represent the theoretical height of the atmo

sphere the absolute t emp erature and t he pressure being

,

zero at this height .

T hen the chara cteris t ic equation o f t h e air becomes

Q =k
239
(
4 0
-
1
P Po 60 0

so tha t in gravitation u nits as in g 2 2 5 , ,

1 dz .

z 70
c
and in t egrating ,

log p log p o
log <g) 1 ,
314 . C ON VE C TI VE E Q UIL IB RI UM

7
10 P0 0 6

T hen f two stations at altitude z and

or , 1
k l; 1.

9 91
e2 >
°

()
-

— 2 — - P
—1

c 7
0 1 90 P0 Po

If we p u t y, or E L
k
- .

,
c k 1

then p p or p v ” is constant
on 7
, ,

i f v deno t es the S V f the i ; and as will be shown

. . o a r ,

hereafter this is the relation connecting p and when

, v

the air ex pands adi a b ti l l y that is without parting a ca ,

with any f its heat i f y denot s the ratio o f the specific

o ,
e

hea t s o f i at constant pressure and cons tant volume

a r .

2 2 7 B y C onduction f H eat a quiescent atmosphere

. o

te nds to Iso thermal E quilibrium ; but onsidering the c

extreme slowness o f conduction in air compa ed with r

the rapidity with which the air is carried to di fferent

heigh ts by the wind S i W T homson has proposed r .

the Con cti E q i l bri u m as more e presentative f

ve ve u i r o

normal conditions (M n h t M moi s a c es er e r ,

A ccording to his hypothesis the interchange f the o

same weight W l b f gas at any two places A and B o

without loss or gain o f heat by conduction (a di b ti ca l l y) a a

wo ld simply interchange t h pressure density and

u e , ,

temperature so that no real change would ens e ; W lb

,
u

o f gas moving from A to B through an imaginary non

conducting pi p e A OB and an equal weight W l b from B ,

replacing it at A th ough another imaginary pi pe B DA

r .
31 6 C ON VE C TI VE E Q UILIB RI UM .

2 29 . St arting with the experimental relation

P
=
W ,

we can employ the elementary method f 2 2 5 to dete o r

mine the pressure density and temperature a t , , ,

height z ; and w the equation no

Z
pr pr H -
Para

be omes
c 7 7 —
z
p , p r+ 1 M i r5?
7

1
‘
7 -

1 o
7 -

7
l
pr pr M ”

y 1 1 z
1
7 p r
“ W
”

neglecting squares and higher pow ers of z u / ;

7 1 _7
— 1 z
pr “
-

P
”A
.

y
so that the (y 1 ) th powers f the density and there
— o ,

f ore t he {(y l ) / yth powers—f the pressure diminish o

uni formly with the height ; and finally

7J 1 7 1
z z
-

— 1 —
1
_
_7
“

Y
" r

‘
r
-
l 7 7

6 APY ‘
— l
’
90 29
P 0 k

80that 90 — 9

and p p , , 9 vanish when

’

7
—
1
the theoretical height of the atmosphere .
 R
COM P E SSIB ILIT Y OF WA TE R .
31 7

enoting the depth

2 30 D
. c— z below th e free surface
the atmosphere by a) ,

y
— l a
:
y
— l a
c
y 1
l
7
p p 1
7 A 7 ”

NY
or pu tt ing y 1 l /n ,

n
ca
n
ux su o se
P pp
(n + 1 ) A
n n t ?

We thus obtain the expression the p essure p w hen fo r r

the density p varies as some power i t f the de pth below o

the free surface ; and i f t h e fluid is w supposed i no n

compressible pressure P applied at the free surface

,
a

is transmitted wi thou t c h an ge throughout t h e fluid and

p 56
“H m
S uppose fo r instance t hat y = 2 so that the de n sity is ,

proportional to the square root o f the pressure or the ,

e x cess of t he pressure over a standard pressure P ; then

the l awemployed by Lapla e in calculating the density c

of the s t ra t a o f the E arth ; then u = 1 and t he density ,

varies as the depth .

2 3 1 When the compressibili t y f wa t er is t ake n into

. o

account in determining the pressure and compression in

a deep ocean w e employ the experimen tal l w
,
a

"
0

”0
p,
P
connec ting v the volume f a lb f water at atmo
0 , o o

spheric pressure and p the density with v the volume and

o ,

p the density at a p essure o f p a t mospheres more ; also

r
31 8 R
C OM P E S S IBILIT Y OF M E R C UR Y .

A is th e co fii i e n t of c c c u bi ca l co mpr e ss i on p e r at mos ph e re ,

and we may put

A 00 0005 .

hen i f h denotes the height f the water barometer

T o ,

and x denotes the depth to which water f depth m is o o

reduced by the compressibility ,

55 0

where p denotes the average density which may be ,

t aken t h density at the mean depth 5

as e 93
0
0

T hen i
i “ ac
;
(t
o p h
so that the surf ce is lowered by the compression
a

w fiM fi/ h .

Thus if w = 1 00 h and h = 3 3 ft the sur face is lowere d

0 , ,

abou t 8 ft .

S imila ly it is calculated that the depth of an ocean

r

6 miles deep is lo wered about 62 0 ft by comp ession r ,

corres ponding to and that i f incompressible , ,

the Ocean would have its s rface 1 1 6 ft higher n d cover u ,

a

two million square miles f land o .

S also in allowing f
o the compression of the mercury
,
or

in his experiments on B oyle s Law 2 03) R egnault took ’

A= O000004 62 8 per metre head f mercury ; and now

°

=
p x and o 0

T hus a column o f mercury 2 5 m high is shor tened

mm which is negligible
,
.

2 3 2 Reckoning
. do w nwards from the free sur face
cc ,

and ing the gravitation unit f for e

us o c ,

dp = pd cv
32 0 E NE R G Y OF C OM PR E S S ION .

a fini te range com p ression from v to v ft the

Fo r of , 1 2
3
,

work is there fo e in the notation o f the Integral C alculus

r , ,

where p is given as souie function f v from the physical o

properties of the s bstance u .

T hus in the di a b ti c compression 2 2 6) f a given

a a o

quantity y one lb f air , sa ,

o ,

W= P V 7
P 3
so that the work require d to compress it from v
1
to v
2
ft 3

is in ft l b -

_
, ,

0 0
l (V/ v ) 7 dv B v P
1
v
R
1
s 2
—
i 1 2
—
1
,

7 7

the di fference f t he hydros tatic energies divided by y 1

o .

T his resul t follows geometrically from the graphical

representation the (p ) diagram f the adiabatic
on , v o

cu ve Q Q QQ T h tangent at Q the limit f the chord

r
I
'

Z
. e ,
o

QQ thro gh the consecutive point Q c u ts the axis Op

’ ’
u ,

in T where p T = y Op ; and there fore the elementary

,
.

rectangles Qp and O are in the ratio f y to 1 ; and

’
u
’
o

the e fore also the whole areas p Ql p and v Q Q v ;

r
l 2 1 1 2 2

while their di fference is p v p 2 2

—
1
v
1 .

F isothermal compression w e mus t put y = l and

or ,

t he work required is
P V l og (v 1 / v 2 )
this may be obtained either by in tegration or by the ,

E xponen t ial T heorem as the limit when y l f , ,

:
,
o

PV 7 1
-

— l

“
y
( 1 2 2
3
los is)
74
1 ) 10 s + y
v
- -

2
 HIM NE Y
C UG H T .
32 1

In an atmosphere in C onvec t ive E quilibrium the work

required t o compress 1 lb f air at al t itude z to i ts o
1

density a t a lower level is in ft l b z

2 ,
-
,

P a
y
s
—
pi t
h
7" — z
2 )_ z
1
— z
2

7
— 1 90 v 1 v
or l / y times the work required to raise 1 lb o f air fro m
the level to the level z ; and when y = 1 as in an
z
2 l ,

Isothermal A tmosphere the work is the same , .

234 . T h e D ra u gh t o f a Ch i mn e y .

Th e curren t s of air in the atmosphere are primarily

d ueto inequal ities o f temperature and thence o f density
a familiar instan e o f the artificial produc t ion o f a current
c

o f air is see n in the draught f a chimney o .

C onsidering the draught through the closed furnace o f

a ste am engine boiler the air makes i ts way through the ,

gra t e bars and the fire as th ough a porous plug an d ,

r ,

acquires with the gases f combustion a certain average o

temperat ure which w shall deno te by C or 6 absolute

, e 7
' '

r or O denoting the temperature of the ou tside col d air .

It is calculated t hat about 2 0 lb f i is required t o o a r

burn 1 lb o f coal ; and denoting by p the density o f the

cold air then the density o f the hot air issuing from the
,

top of t he chimney at the same pressure may be taken

to be p O/ O ; so that h f t denoting the vertical h eigh t o f
'

the top f t he chimney above the fire the pressure o f

o ,

t he col d air outside will exceed the pressure o f the hot

air inside the f rnace taking their densities as uni form by
u , ,

oa -

an dthis will be felt as a pressure on the furnace door .

T his will also be the upward pressure on a lid at t h e

top f the chimney i f the f rnace door is opened

o ,
u .

G H
. .
322 ll A X IM UM DRA UGHT
Tomeasu e t h draught a gla s inverted si phon gauge
r e s

filled with wa ter (fig 7 1 p 3 4 5 ) is placed in the side

.
, .

of the chimney and w if z inches is the di fib

,
nof re n c e o

level f the su f e f th e water in the t w branches and

o r ac o o ,

1) denotes the density o f water ,

oa k
.

In o nd numbers
r u , D / p = 8 00 ; so that
i fi
e
h 2 00 o 6) "

Ifthe ho izontal cross se tion f the h imney is

r c o c A t ,
f 2

then the wei g ht f cold air which fills the chimney is

o

A h p 1h ; and the height f the column f ho t air f e q ual o o o

weigh t is h O/ O and their di fference f height

’

,
o ,

’
O
'

(0 0
— ~
T r
“
h h
2 7 3 +?
is taken as the head prod ucing the velocity v of the hot
i
a r u
p the chimney
O otherwise i f ft denotes the head
r, ,
(13 of hot air
e q ivalent to z in hes f wate
u c o r,

i sx p
g , Dz = l 2 l
<
a; 9

Th e a te f fl w f the air th o g h the chimney

r o o o r u

p ends very m h on t h state

uc f the fi ; it is ss med e o re a u

that the ave age velocity f the hot air up the himney
r v o c

is either due to th is head or to some f a tion f it 00, r c o ,

de p ending on the esistance f the fire and the f iction

r o r

o f the Hues b t p utting u

2 _
iv —
g oc
3 24 E XA M PL E S
and the percen tage of air which leaves a room is
h O
’

1
p be
room 1 0 m by 6 m by 5 m will wit h a ba omet ic
A , r r

height 7 6 cm and a t emperature 0 C contain ,

10 6 5
x x kg f air ;
x o

and now i f the baromete falls to 7 5 cm and the t m

,
r e

p t
e ra u rerises to 1 5 C the w i l l lose
°
about 6
, % per ro o nr

cent or 2 5 kg f i o a r .

E x a mp l e s .

(1 ) P ove that i f volumes V and V f atmospheric air

r I 2
o

are f orced into ve sels f volume U and U and s o

I 2,

i f communication is established be t ween them a ,

q uantity f air f volume

o o

U V
( 1 2 _ U2 )
at atmospheric pressure will p ss f rom one to the a

other .

(2 ) Prove that i f a partially e x haus t ed siphon with

,

equal arms is dipped into mercury ; and if t he

sum f the heights to which the mercury rises in
o

an arm when first this and then t he other arm

,

is unstopped is equal to the height of the baro

,

meter ; the the original pressure i the air in

n o

the siphon is due to a head o f mercury whose

height is equal to the di fference o f the leng ths f o

the mercury in the siphon in the inter media te

and final stages .

(3 ) Prove that i f a piston f weigh t W l b is in e q ui

,
o

lib i m in a vert ical cylinder with a f t f air

r u o

beneath it and i f i t is depressed a small dis tance

,
 ON P NE UM A TICS .
325

a: t he energy of t he sys t em when t he tempera

ft ,

t ure is unal t ere d is increased by a bou t l x / a f t l b z -

.

T h e mou t h o f an inver t ed cup is submerged t o a

dep t h o f 6 ins in war m mercury and i t is f ound ,

t ha t no air escapes Prove t ha t if t he barometer .

,

s tands a t 30 ins the mercury canno t be more ,

than 1 00 F warmer than t he a t mosphere

°
. .

A gas sa t urated wi t h vapour originally a t a pressure ,

p ,
is compressed withou t change o f t empera t ure

t o one n t h o f i t s volume an d t he pressure is t hen

-
,

f ound t o be
Prove t ha t t he pressure of the vapour and o f
the gas i n its original sta t e is respect ively
” lo — —
Pu and Pi a P
u 1 u 1

Prove t hat i f t he heigh t o f t he column o f mercury in

,

2 1 1 is reduced from y t o y by t he in t roduc t ion

’

of a bubble o f wa t er into the vitiated T o ricellian r

vacuum j us t small enough t o evaporate com

,

p l t l e
y t he
e p ressure o
, f the vapour in mercury ,

head f is given by ,

—
= (b + h y y
f —
e
—
y ) b_
y
reducing t o y y when the vacuum is per f ect or
—
’

y h ; and t hat now

=

( y)( y f) is cons t ant

b h — —
,

when b h and y change t he t empera t ure remain

, , ,

ing constant .

E g If h = 2 9 8 1 ins ; and y= 2 9 when b = 3 2

. .
,
'
-
3
f3 ,

= 2 8 5 when then = in and t he

’

f 0 4 7
°

y ,

dry air would occupy a length 0 0 4 in f the tube o

at atmos pheric pressure .

326 E XA MPLE S .

(7) A pisto n f weight ZUA in a closed vertical cylinder

o ,

f he gh t a and section A is in eq ilibrium at a

o i u

height / h f rom the base the p essure f the air

a ,
r o

underneath it being
Prove that a small rise C f the temperature 1 o

f the air underneath will raise the piston through

o

a height app oximately eq al to

r u

n — l p T
a
u ri p 273

(8 ) A n air ther mometer is made f a bulb and tube o

inve ted vertically in a reservoir f mercury f

r o o

depth b so that the tube rests on the bottom .

Prove that i f the volume f the bulb and tube o

is eq al to a length
u f the tube and h is the
0 o ,

height f t h baromete the graduation f the

o e r, or

t emperature 9 is at a height above the bo t tom f o

the tube
h
l( +b
where 9 is the absolute tempera t u e at which the
0
r

enclosed air begins to escape .

(9 ) As s ming that the relative dist ib tion f oxygen

u r u o

and nit ogen at di fferent heights in an atmos phe e

r r

in equilibrium f ollows the l w that one is not a

a ffected by the other find at what height in an

,

isothermal atmosphe e the p oportion f oxygen

r r o

wo ld be red ced to h al f wha t it is at sea level

u u ,

where the propo tions by weight may be taken

r

to be 8 0 p arts f nit ogen to 2 0 f oxygen and

o r o ,

whe e the densities are in the ratio f 1 4 to 1 6

r o « .
3 28 TH E M O NT G OLFIE R
leaving the remainder at the same pressure but at density
p /
O O and
’
there
,
fore f weight o

1b
.

By A rchimedes principle the balloon will floa t in

’

equilibrium when the weigh t f the balloon and the hot o

air it contains is equal to the weigh t f cold i displaced o a r

that is when ,

0 M— W+ W ’
0
'
-
o W W ’

_
1

0 9

giving 0 9 the requisite increas e f temperatu e

'
—
,
o r .

T h e balloon will n w be in unstable equilibrium likeo ,

a bubble f air in water and will begin to rise as it

o , ,

ca nnot descend .

2 3 6 T h e ball o on will co ntinue to rise and the hot air

.

to escape till another stratum o f air is reached f

, ,
o

height z suppose a d f density P and absolu te tem

,
n o 2

p t
e ra u re O and there fore
z,o f p essure given by r

P p 9
’

p denoting the pre su e at the ground s r .

Th p essure o f the ho t air in the balloon being also p

e r , ,

the quantity f hot air le ft in the balloon supposed

o ,

always at the absolute tempe ature is r

M
a3
? 31b ,

while the weight of cold air dis placed is

W)
(M
? 17
0
 H OT A IR B A LLOON .
3 29

so that ,
fo r equilibrium ,

W+ M pz
p g; (M + W3p 85 ,

p z W
p W + M (1
’

the barometer and thermomete carried by the

B ut r

aeronauts give p the pressure and O the absolute tem

z ,

p t compared
e ra ur
e ,
with p and O the pressure nd ,
a

temperature at the groun d ; and by the G aseous Laws

P J ” 9 W
?
W + M (1
’ ()
2
p 2 2 92)

denotes the temperature whi h is just su fficient

0

'
If 6 c

fo r levitation as given by eq ation

,
t hen in (2 ) u

M W+ W ’

a
( 9) W
1 ,

p
—
pz
(M _ W+ WO
O
n a W
so that with this temperature 6 the balloon will not rise '

unless O/ O is less than unity or unless the temperature

z ,

of the air diminishes as w e ascend in th e atmosphere -

T hus in an atmosphere in thermal equilibrium o f uni

form temperature 6 m ust be increased beyond the value
’

given by (1 ) f the balloon to ascend

or .

In such an atmosphere it has been show that with n ,

where 7 deno t es the height o f the homogeneous atmo

0

sphere at th e temperature 6 so that taking this height

at the free z ing temperature as ft ,

k : 2 62 1 4 96 O .
3 30 TH E H YDR OGE N
Th e temperat re 9 f t he hot air required to ascend to
u
'
o

a height z ft is o w given by equation

n

M : * W _ Wp /p ’

z
,

where O 9 z
:
, and p
=
p X (
p z e

in an atmosphere o f uni form tem perature ; but

1
92 Z
.
Be
9 lc k
’

y p y
in an atmos phere in C onvective E q ilibrium u

2 3 7 Th H yd g n
. e Gas B l l oo n
ro e or a .

In this balloon the re q isite levitation is secured by u

filling t h balloon w ith hyd ogen as fi st car ied t by

e r ,
r r ou

C harles and R obe t in 1 7 8 3 a f w months afte the fi st

r , e r r

ascent in the M tg l fi balloon or nowadays with co l

on o er a

gas , whi h is speci

c fi ally li g hter than air c .

With hydrogen the balloon c be made f much an o

smaller dimensio s ; but this advantage is ounter

n c

balan ed by the di ffi culty f the manu facture f the gas

c o o

and its great speed f di ffusion ; so that a balloon is w

o no

generally made f larger dimensio s and fi lle d with coal

o n

gas f om the nea est g swo ks

r r a r .

F ormilitary purposes however whe e the b lloon is ,

r a

required to be held capt ve t a height f about 1 000 ft i a o ,

it is impo tant to keep do w n the size so as to reduc e the

r ,

e ffe ct f the wind ; so tha t military balloons are now

o

filled with hydrogen a ied highly compressed in steel ,

c rr

flasks at a p essu e f about 1 00 atmospheres

,
r r o .

With the same no t ation f the M tg l fi balloon as or on o er ,

suppose the g employed has a specific volume n u and

as

a density p/ n times and one n t h th at f air at the

n, -
o

same pressure and temperat e ur .

3 32 TH E TH E OR I

air at 2 00 C about 0 7 8 kg ; so that a m f hydrogen will 3

o

li f t 1 2 9 3 0 08 8 = 1 2 05 kg and a
°

o f air at 2 00 C
°

, 0111
3
,
or

o f coal g will li ft 0 5 1 3 kg ; this makes u = 1 4 7 f

as
°

or

hydrogen and n = 1 8 f the hot air or coal gas

,
°

or .

B t coal gas especially f om the latest products f

u ,
r o

dis t illation can be made f density f om 0 3 3 to 0 3 7 f

, o r
° °

the density o f the air so tha t w n is about 3 ,

no .

G as o f this lightness w employed in the celebrated as

ascent by C oxwell and Glaisher on 5 th S eptembe 1 8 62 r, ,

f rom Wolverhampton when an altitude was attaine d at ,

which the barome t er stood at 7 inches and the the mo r

meter t about 1 2 Fa —
.

2 3 8 T h balloon in unstable equilibrium on the ground

. e

is like a bubble f air com pressed to the density f wate

o o r

at a great depth in the ocean and being unable

to des end it will rise when let go
c , .

T carry the balloon

o
p idly clear f the neighbo ring
ra o u

obstacles i t is advisable that the volume U or quantity P

o f g as should be increased so as to give an ascensional
force which at star t ing will be a force o f
,

(n 1 ) P (W W ) poun ds
’
— —
.

A s the balloon rises the gas contained in it will ,

ex pand until the balloon is compl etely inflate d and will ,

no w occupy V ft ; and this will take place whe e the

3
r

density f the air is p U/ V and the density f the gas

o ,
o

is p U/ n V the tem pe ature being su p posed unalte ed

,
r r .

T h as ensional force will now be

e c

(n— 1 P—
) ( W Wa
g) .

pounds ,

or W W U/ V pounds less than at starting ; and there

’ ’

fore practically unaltered since W is small

’

, ,
 OF TH E B A LLOON .
333

2 39 . balloon will still continue risi g ; but now

Th e n

i t is very im portant that the neck f the balloon should o

be le f t open to allow gas to esca pe as the balloon rises

,

into the more rarefied air a d thus to equali z e the ,

n

pressure o f the gas and the ai ; otherwise the pressure r

o f the imprisoned air might burst the balloo n especially ,

i f the ays o f the sun should suddenly strike upon i t

r s

A t a height z the ascensional force will now be

1
Vp, 1
( Tl ( W W
?)
W1 w pounds
5
2
{(n 1 )Q + ,

on putting Q =
where Q denotes th e weigh t in lb f the gas and M o o f ai r

which would fill t he balloon at the ground ; also

A d eno t ing the l ift f the gas l b/ft o ,
i n
3
.

T his ascensional force is zero and the balloon comes ,

to re st when ,

_P__9
lZ
_ Z W
_ W
"

p p 9 2 (n 1 )Q+
Th e quantity of
g as n o w le ft 1n the balloon is in l b , ,

p W
“

1 )Q+
’

(n
(n 1 >Q <W
— —

Q
< )Q+ W
’
n 1 —

so that t he number of lb of gas lost is

+P Q ,

or ,
if the balloon s tarted full with P Q the gas lost is ,
:
,

b .
3 34 TH E T HE OR Y
To pull the balloon down to the ground without any
fu ther loss
r f gas will re q uire a fo ce gradually i
o r ,
n

creasing to
( n —
UQ W
( n po an .

(W W) (W W)
p

W
( Bf
>pounds
'
1 —

p (1 2 )
at the g ound ; this is such a very small q uantity that
r

a very slight loss f g is su ffi cient to ause the balloon

o as c

to descend and ballast must be thrown out to restore

,

e q ilibrium
u .

In conse q ue e f the balloon losing g in the ascent

nc o as ,

and ollapsing in the descent a aptive balloon raised

c , c ,

and lowe ed slowly e q uires less wo k to pull it down

r ,
r r

than the work requi ed to esist its ascen t r r .

T h g a dual loss f g
e r by di ff sion b ings the balloon
o as u r

down again gene ally i n about two ho s time ; and i f

,
r ur
’

it is re q ired to descend ra pidly a valve is Opened at

u ,

the top f the balloon to l t the gas es ape qui kly

o ,
e c c .

O the other hand by throwin g out ballast the height

n ,

lost c be ecove ed and even exceeded

an r the balloon
r , or

ca n be g i ded into a favourable cu rent f i

u r o a r .

A f ee balloon is always rising

r f lling and it must or a ,

be steered in a vertical plane either by throwing out

ballast or letting ff gas ; b t it can b kept at a o u e

modera te average elevation by the t G een s are o n au r

’

invention f a rop e trailing

o the g ound acting as a 0 11 r ,

spring .

2 4 0 In the absence f knowledge f the distrib tion f

. o o u o

pr essu e density
r ,
and tempe ature in the ppe
,
strata f r u r o

the a tmos phe e w must su ppose that the tr e state is

r ,
e u

so mething intermediate to the states f T he mal and f o r o

33 0 THE T HE OR Y
In an isothermal atmos phe e r ,

é £z— p AB
Az = k h ~

T h s u and i f hydrogen is use d A = 1 2

i f V= 5 0 0 1 n 3
, ,
°

VA 600 kg ; and to rise to a level where p = % p or z ,

2 3 00 m ,

the ballast removed must be

B = i VA 1 5 0 kg
and throwing out 1 0 kg more ballast will make the
balloon rise an additional height f 1 7 8 m o .

2 4 2 N eglecting the weight f everything except t he

. o

envelope f the balloon supposed a sphere of volume

o ,

V 1n and diameter d =
3
,
V/ ) m and f supe fi cial 7r ,
o r

density m kg/ m then i f filled with gas f ascensional

2
,
o

fo ce A k g/ m the l ift at the ground is

r
3
,

VA d kg 71
'

A small hole being le ft pen f the escape f the gas O or o ,

the li ft is reduced to
(VA / q ) wd m kg
z

in a stratu m where the density is reduced to one q th of -

the density on t h ground ; and the balloon will j ust rise

e

to this stratum i f
VA
7rd m
2 °

71
g
3 67 m (1
3 3
V
51 , ,

called the equation o f the three cubes

“
.

In an isothermal atmosphe e r

z 8 000 10 g, q 1 8 4 00 10 g wq 6 1 33 log V M ,

where M 1 2 600 + 1 8 4 00(l g m log A ) ; (2 1 ) o —

so that z increases by 61 3 3 m when V is multiplied ten

fold .
 OF TH E B A L LOON .
337

hydrogen
Fo r and the superficial density of
A =I2 ; °

the envelope is found to range f om 3 00 down to 5 0 g/ m ; r

z
'

so that pu t ting on the average m = 0 1 we find

, ,
°

V= 0 0 1 °

g ;
3

and hence t he t able (Co s mo s ,

Ap ril ,
1 8 9 3, La p ra ti q u e
des a s ce n s i on s a e ros ta ti u e s )
’

q .

q 5 10 40 2 00 5 00
V 12 5 10 64 0 m 3

z m
F or copper one 1 00th f an inch or 4 m m thick o ,

m = 2 2 so that i f a C opper sphere o f this thickness

°

, ,

1 0 0 ft or 3 0 5 m in diameter i filled with hydrogen , s ,

the ascensional force at the gro nd is about kg u

or l b ; also log g = 0 4 4 2 9 so that = 81 50 m °

,
z ,
01

over 5 miles .

B y similar calc la t ions t he J esuit Francis Lana (1 670)

u

first demonstra t ed the possibility of aeronautics but the

C opper sphere exha sted o f air which he considered would
u

not bear t he e x ternal pressu e without collapse r .

Valuable in formation concerning t he state o f the atmo

sphere has been ob tained by free balloons car ying sel f ,
r

recor ding meteo ological instruments

r .

(Comp te s R e n du s A pril 1 8 9 3 G H ermite L exp l ora

’
.
, , , ,

ti o n de l a p a ti e a tmo p h ri q u e a u moy n d s bal l on )

’

r s e e e s .

2 4 3 T o attai a height o f
. n to ft as pro ,

posed by B ixio and B arral in 1 8 5 0 let us p t = 3 5 000 ; ,

u z ,

also 7 0 corresponding to 1 5 C or 60 F and a ,

baro metric height f 3 0 ins at the ground

o .

On the isothermal theory

giving a t the al t i t ude z a barometric height o f 8 6 inches ,

G, n , y
3 38 T HE T HE OR Y A ND PRA C TICE
On the convective equilibrium theory ,

so that 88 C ; 7 3
—

or
a barometric height f 64 inches o .

No w from the condition o f equilibrium

,
p 3 33 .
,

( n —
1 )Q+ W
W
or 3 B .

p ,

ac cording as we assume the isothermal or convective

e q uilibrium sta te .

Th e quantity W / W is so small that it may be

'

neglec t ed ; and taking n = 3 f very ligh t coal gas we or ,

have Q/ W= 1 7 5 or 1 5 a mean value being 1 6 2 5 f

°

, ,
or

a height f o feet to be attained ; and

A n or dinary balloon f 68 0 cubic yards capacity will
o

li ft about 7 5 0 lb gross ; an d C ox well employs a gross

weight W= 1 2 5 4 lb f a balloon with a capacity f o o

cubic feet to be filled with gas of specific gravity

,

0 4 4 0 f that f the air so that

o o about
,
.

T hen at the ma x imum heigh t at tainable with this

balloon
p/ p
= (n z 1 l a bout ;
°

n an isothermal atmosphere
i

z k log 1 1 2 65 0 ; '

,
°

when the re is convective equilibrium ,

7 1

()
-

HE 365 0 .

24 4 In C x w e ll balloon V
. o
’
fts and supposing :
3

the coal gas to have a s pe ific volume f 4 0 cubic feet to c o

the 1b ,
lb abou t a te ; and then ,
n

W 1 3 8 5 lb the gross weight f balloon car ropes

:
,
o , , ,

ballast inst uments d aeronau ts the balloon can t ke

,
r an a

to a hei g ht f ofeet .
34 0 TH E HIS T OR Y OF AE RON A UTICS .

balloon increases in e ff cien y as the tem pera

T h e fire i c

tu e diminishes in the pper strata f the atmosphe e

r u o r ,

and i t can kee p the air f as lo g as the fuel lasts so or n ,

that it is suitable f lo g voyages especially now that or n ,

the fo mer risk f catchi g fire by which Pi l t de

r o n , a re

R ozier lost his li fe is obviated by M Percival S penser s

’

,
r
.

ad e ption f asbestos f the mate i l (Ti m 3 1 J 1 8 9 0)

o or r a es, an .

O the othe hand i ts great size ompa ed with the

n r ,
c r

hyd og en balloon is a disadvant ge f military purposes

r a or ,

where the wind is the great di ff culty to be encountered i

in filling and in holding captive the balloon .

F the H istory and Practice f Aerona ti cs the follow

or o u

i g works may be consulted

n

Fanj as de S aint Fond D c i p ti n le s e xp ri n s d . es r o o e e ce e

l a ma ch i n e a e r o s ta ti l M m de M o n tgo lfie r
’

c e
q ue .

Paris 1 78 3 4 ,
-
.

Vincent L di A ia l V y g s
u n ar 1 78 4
. er o a e . .

T iberi s C avallo F R S
u Th H i s to y n d P , ti of . . . e r a rac ce

A os t ti o n
er London 1 78 5
a .
, .

T homas B ldwin M A a A i p a i di 1 78 6,
. . ro a . .

M onck M ason A e o n u ti a 1 8 38
. r a c . .

Hatton T urnor A s t a C tra 1 8 65

. r as . .

G laisher T l i n th A i
. 1 8 71
ra v e s e r . .

Ti ssandier Hist i d ba l l o n
. 1 8 87 o re es s . .

S tevens Th e H i s to y of A on u ti
. S cientific r er a cs .

A merican S pplement March 1 8 9 0 u , , .

T h e S cientific A merican H o t i ball on i n g p 1 4 3 . a r o ,

.
,

5 Se p , 1 891 . .

Cleveland A bbe Th e M e h an i cs f th E a rth . c o e

’
s A tmo
sphe e S mithsonian Institution 1 8 9 1
r .
,
.

R maritime t coloniale B l lo n
e v ue M e . a s . ay— N ov ,

1 89 2 .
 T HE G A S HOLDE R .
334 1

E xa mp l es .

(1 ) What mus t be the dimensions f a balloon the whole o

weight o f which with its appendages is 700 , ,

pounds that it may j ust rise hal f a mile high ;

,

sup posing air to have 1 4 times the specific gravity

of the gas under the same pressure th t 5 cubic feet ,
a

f air at the earth s sur face weighs 6 ounces and

’
o ,

that the density at the earth s surface is 4 times ’

as g ea t as at the heigh t f 7 miles

r o

(2 ) A balloon ascends 1 000 feet above the height at

which it is f lly inflated determin e the fraction f
u o

gas which escapes with the temperature uni form

,
.

(3) A w eightless balloon filled with hydrogen is held , ,

by a string and has a small hole on the lower

,

side T h e tension f the st ing is

. g ; whileo r

after the barometer has fallen 8 mm the tension

becomes g .

Find t he height f the barometer and the o

volume f the balloon given that the temperature

o ,

o f the air is 1 5 O and that at 0 C and 7 60 m m

° °

pressure a litre f air weighs 1 2 93 g and fo ,

o

hydrogen : 08 9 g .

2 4 6 Th e Ga sh o l de r
. .

G asholde s formerly called G asometers are vertical

r , ,

cylindrical vessels f sheet iron used fo storing gas as it

o ,
r

is manu factured .

Th e cylinder is closed at the top but open a t the bottom ,

and floats inverted over water con t ained in a circular

tank i which the cylinder can rise or fall (fig
,
n .

T h buoyancy f the water displaced by the sheet iron

e o

may be considered inappreciable and now i f W l b is the

weight f the gasholder and ft the radius the g inside
o r ,
as
342 TH E T HE OR Y OF
must be at a pressure W/ r l b/ft (over atmos pheric 7r
2 2

p essure ) ; and this can be measured in a siphon gauge

r

(fig 7 1 ) by a column f wate

. o r

W/ D ft 1 2 W/ D r ins high
7rr
2
or 7r
2
,

the di fference f level f the water inside d outside the

o o an

gasholder .

D enoting the weigh t f the i on plate in l b/ ft by m

o r
2
,

and the height f the cylinder bv a ft then

o ,

W m(2 7rr a
:

his su pposes that the top f the ylinder is flat ; but

T o c

it is generally slightly dome shaped f st engt h -

,
or r .

Fig . 70 .

keep down the p essure f the gas W must be

To r o ,

made as small as possible f a given volume or

V :
7rr a
2

and this is secu ed by making a = or the height e q ual

r r,

t hal f the diamete ; the proo f f this is a simple e x ercise

o r o

in the D i fferential C alculu s .

T hen with these propo tions

,
r ,

W= 3 r m or W/ 7r = 3m
2
, 7rr
2
,

so that the pressure f the gas is th ee times the weight

o r

of the sheet iron in l b/ ft

,
2
.
 34 4 T H E G O VE RNOR OF

the increase f volume pressure f a given rise f tem

o or or o

p t can be al ulated by the G aseous Laws f 1 9 7

e ra u re c c o .

2 4 8 Th Gov e n or of
. e G h ld r a as o er .

D enoting by p and p the density f the air and f the

’
o o

gas then in ascending a moderate height h ft ve tical

, r

along a gas pipe the p essure f the air has diminished

,
r o

by p h and f the g by p h t eating thei densitie s as

o as
’

,
r r

uni fo m r

T h p essure f the g a over atmospheric pressure has

e r o s

there fore incre sed by a

lt = D Z —Z 1 2
’

(p p ) ,

ifmeasu red by ins 2 of water

of , density D, in a si phon
gauge ; and the e fo e r r

p '

0 E)
Z p
12
5
.

h
It is estimated that a di ffe en e f level f 2 0 ft corre r c o o

s
p d
on to a change
s f pressure f one l 0 t h f an inch o f o o o

water so that h / 2 00 ; and putting D/ p 8 00 this makes

, z ,

It is im portant then that the gas f om the gasholde r r

should be delivered into the gas mains leading to di ffe ent ,

r

levels at an appropria t e p essure and this is e ffected by r ,

the Go n o (fig ver r .

It consists f a miniature g asholde provided w ith

o r,

counterbalance weights W and buoyan y chambers B ; c

and the flow o f the gas is regulated by a conical pl g C u

in a circular hole w hich rises and falls with a gover or

,
n

acco ding to the inc ease or diminution f the pressure

r r o ,

and thereby checks or stimulates the fl w o .

Th p essu e in the main is adj usted by alteration f

e r r o

, the co nterbalance wei g ht

u .

2 4 9 T h theo y f the governor is the e fore the same

e r o r
 A GA S / IOLDE R .
345

as that f the old fashioned wooden reservoirs f gas in

o o ,

which the b oyancy f the water wa appreciable

u o s .

S ta ting with a olume f U ft

r f gas at atmospheric
v o
3
o

pressu e when the u pward buoyancy f the water is

r ,
o

equal to the weight f the gasholder less th e counter

o

balan e weights ; suppose that V ft f gas at atmos pheric

c
3
o

p essu e is in t roduced into the gasholder and that it

r r ,

rises ft in consequence with respe t to the outside level

a; ,
c

of the wa t er .

Fig . 71 . Fig . 72 . Fig . 73 .

enoting by ,8 ft the c oss section f the buoyancy

D 2
r o

chambe the loss o f buoyancy is DBw lb ; so tha t i f r is

r,

the internal radius of t he vessel the gas is at a p ressure ,

D BaJ/ vrr l b/ f t
2 2
,

over atmospheric pressure .

If the siphon gauge records f

y t of water then ,

=
B /
2
y w 7rr ;
and y wil l be the i e ence the levels d ff r of of the water
inside and outside the gasholder .
34G OS CILL A TIONS OF A GA S IIOL DE R .

Th evolume f the gas will now be

o ft 3
,

under a head o f H + y ft f water H denoting the height o ,

of the water barometer about 3 4 ft , .

T here fo e by B oyle s L w
’
r a ,

U+ V

V=

and the gasholder in i t descent can give out V f t o f gas

s
3

a t atmos pheric pressure .

2 5 0 If this gasholder is depressed from its position o f

.

e
q i li b i i m through a small vertical dis t ance z f t and
u r i ,

i f the level f the water inside and outside rises through

o

p and 1 ft then and y denoting in ft the interior °

( , a

and e x t rior wa t er line are s

e a

1)
e x pressing the condition that the quantity f wate in o r

the tank is unchanged .

T h e pressure f the gas inside rises f om

o r

D (H + v) to D(H + v
while the volume f the gas diminishes from
o

d to ( z p ) a a CL
— —
,

i f a denotes the length f the cylin der occupied by t he gas

o .

Th e increase f up ward buoyancy and air thrust is

o

there fore
P D 8 ( q) D (q p ) ,
z (2 ) a —
,

and this is the fo e in lbs required to depress the vessel

rc

throu g h a distan e z c .

If no gas can es ape then by B oyle s law

’
c , , ,

—
z —
p XH +y
348 TH E T HE OR Y OF

when submerged and full f i so that (1 1 ) U is the o a r, 0

3 —

volume f t h metal ; then f the bell to sink neglecting

o e or ,

the wei g ht f the i inside the bell o a r ,

s
(I i
3 3
c 01
°

R>
s

determining the linear dimensions f the interior o f the o

bell s pposing it similar to the exterior

,
u .

T aking = 7 2 f t iron then k >

s
°

so that theo r c as ,

thickness f the bell sho ld e xceed one 4 oth the exte nal
o u r

diameter f r the bell to sink in water when full f ai

,
o o r
.

A the bell descends the pressure in the inte r or

s i ln

and the air would be compresse d and the w

c rc as e s ,

would rise in the h e ll ; but by pum ping in i a r

above the wat er is kept out and fresh air is int ,

the foul i escaping under t h lowe e dge f the bell

a r e r o .

T aki g D = 6 4 f n sea water and an atmospheri or ,

c

p essure f 1 4 3; lb/ in the head H of water which pro

r o
2
,

duces the pressure f an atmosphe e is given by o r

H 1 4 ; x 1 4 4 + 64 = 3 3 feet 5 5 fathoms ;
: : »

and 9 ft or 1 3 fathoms f depth gives an increased o

pressure f 4 l b/ in o
2
.

When the bell is lowered to a depth f 3 3 ft or 1 0 m o

in sea water air m ust be pum ped in against a press re f

,
u o

2 atmos p he es and a barome ter in the bell wo ld stand

r ,
u

at double i t ordinary height ; at a de pth f 66 f t the

s o

p ressure rises to 3 atmosphe es and so on in pro p o tion r ,

r ,

up to a depth f 1 65 feet or 2 74 fathoms when the o ,

pressure would be 6 atmospheres which is about the ,

ext eme limit endurable and then o ly f a f w minutes

r ,
n or e

by the most practised divers .

2 5 3 If a diving bell is lowe ed without pum p ing in

. r

air as i the S ounding M achine f 2 04 then when the

,
n o ,
 TH E DI VING B E LL .
349

e th f the b se is
d p o a ac and the water has risen
f t, y ft
,
in the bell so that , as — y is the d ep t h f its sur face o ,
th e

pressure of the air is

atmospheres
H
( + w—
y)/ H
and there fore th e volume f the air is o

y) ft
3
.

air is pum ped in so that the volume i n the bell

B u t if
is V ft and i f y still denotes the height o f the wa t er in
3
,

the bell then at atmospheric pressure this

,
would ai r

occupy a volume
V(H + v .
—
y/
) H ft ;3

H + 2; y
so that H
U f t3

of atmospheric air (that is f i at atmosp h eric density ) ,

o a r

has been pumped in .

T hus putting y = 0 and V=

,
=U w e find that U H f t
, / , oc
3

of atmospheric air must be pumped in to clear the bell f o

water at a dep t h of as ft ; and if t he bell is lowered at a

uni form rate v ft / e c the pressure and density of the i
s ,
a r

increase uni formly so that atmospheric air must be

,

pumped in at a uni form ra t e V / H f t / e c to keep the ,

v
3
s ,

water from rising in the bell .

If the bell is made f metal f S G s and weighs W l b o o . .

,

the tension o f the chain by which it is lowered wi l l be

T l b where
,

W WV
’

T= W D V= W
3 U
W denoting the weight
’
water which will fill the bell of .

2 5 4 S uppose now that the wa t er barome t er rises from

.

H to H + AH while the temperature f the air in the

,
o

bell changes from to C and tha t the water rises an

1 7
’

additional distance Ay in the bell ; then A ft denoting 2

350 THE T HE OR Y OF

the wate line a ea inside the new p essu e expressed

r r , r r ,

in the former atmosphe es is given by r ,

H + AH + ce — y — Ay H + fv — y V
'
273 + r
H H V— A Ay
o r, denotin g the volume of atmosphe ic air in the bell
r

V 0
that
, 80

5 ,
H

( f/ X
f
2
“

;n
“

The diminution AT in the tension of the chain

g iven by
AT : W A Ay/ U ;
'

and th e tension is the e fore unalte ed

r r i f Ay = o, 01
°

A 1
5 ( 6
-
7

1
1
H 27 1:
N eglecting sq uares an d products of Ay and AH ,

V AH — Ay
'
A Ay T
—
T

V V0 H
so that ,
i f AH = O,
VVOH 7
—
7
Ay = 2
V + VOA H
but i f there is no hange c of temperature ,

Ay V2

W
: ‘

AH

15 A V V
S ince A V0
V
—
F
Ay, and A V= —
A Ay ,

a volume A V f atmospheric air pum ped into the

O
o

will lower the water a distan ce Ay given by —

,
35 2 TH E D I VING B E LL

a H
_y
—
a,
a

fy
a
+a
d

so that i f the t mperature alone va ies

e r

y) H
’

Ay —
( a —
a -
r
— '
r

( a

H
'
—
a T T
°
-
a: 2 7 3 + ~r
the bell is s ta t ionary and a volume
If A VO of atmo
spheric i is pum ped in
a r ,

A Ay ( a — y) H
A VO H
’
-
(A

and there fo e i f air is pumped in at a uni form rate the

r , ,

wate r descends in the bell with velocity inve ely p o s

r r

p ortional to
gy
a
+ (i — 2y .

If the bell descends a small distance Ar ,

é y (ct —
y)
2

y) + a H
2
Ace ( a —

and if the velo ity v c of descent is constan t ,

a: vt

256 . Th e S ta bi l i ty
of th D i v i n g B e l l e .

A lthough it is convenient to make the apparent weight

o f the bell in water as measured by the tension f the,
o

chain as small as possible f ease o f manipulation

, or ,

still a certain preponderance is requisite to ensure the

s ta bi l i ty f the bell in i ts vertical position hanging
o

downwards so a to prevent it from tu ning mouth

, s r

u pwards when the air escapes under t he lo wer edge .

 AND ITS S T A B ILIT Y .
353

Th e investigation o f the stability is similar to that

required f a ship aground or the bell is supposed
sligh tly displaced through an angle 6 f om the vertica l r

position represented in fig 7 4 p 3 5 5 by drawing the

, .
, .
,

sur face f the water and the vertical forces in their

o

dis placed position rela t ive to the bell .

N w i f K denotes the point o f attachment o f the

o ,

chain G the C G f the metal of the bell supposed homo

, . o ,

g e B
n e o us , and B the C G f the volume occupied by 2
. .
’
s o

the air in the upright and inclined positions and M the ,

.

metacent ic cen t re f c rvature of the cu ve f buoyancy

r o u r o

B B ; the n as in 1 0 1
2 , ,

BM Ah /
2
V ,

where A le denotes the moment f ine tia in ft f the

2
o r ,
4
,
o

wa t er area A about its C G F and V denotes the volume . .

, ,

in ft f the air in the bell ; but n w t he metacentre M

3
, o o

lies below the centre f buoyancy B o .

T h forces cting u pon t he bell in the dis placed position

e a

K
()
i
. W
{ lb ac t n g downwards
— through G; ,
l

D V lb acting upwards through M ; ,

IV
iii
( ). W D V lb t he
— tension o f the chain ac t ing , ,
S

upwards through K
for m a couple whose moment round K dropping the , ,

factor sin 9 is in ft l b ,
-

W
( a 1 f
rce -
11 V K M .

and the equilibrium of the bell is stable i f this momen t

is positive .

G H . .
35 4 TH E D I VING B EL L

ose the bell is initially f ll f w te and that

S u pp u o a r,

a small volume f i is p m ped in ; the bell will not

o a r u

continue to hang verti ally unless c

( D W i is
-

p ositive K G — D ae .

B t in workin g the bell the water is ex pelled and the

u ,

i escapes under the lower e dge ; altho gh the air wo ld

a r u u

force its way out through a hole at the top f the h l l o e ,

b t then the level f wate in the bell o l d not be ke p t

u o r c u

ste ady .

T h e stability o f the bell as measured by the above ,

ri g hting moment diminishes as air is pumped i and

,
n

V increases A h remaining cons tant i f the interior f the

,
2 o

bell is cylin drical ; so that stability must be secu ed r

when the bell is full f i o a r .

A t a g eat de pth where t h

r density p f the i in
, e o a r

the bell becomes appreciable D in the formula m ust be ,

replaced by D p — .

2 5 7 Th e original idea f the D iving B ell is

. f g e t o o r a

antiquity (B er t helot A n n l d Ch i m i t l e Ph y i q u
, a es e e e o s e,

XXI V ,
but S meaton was the first to use it f C ivil or

E ngineering operations in 1 77 9 ; and it was extensively

employed on the wreck f the l oyal G eo ge in 1 7 8 2 and o r ,

1 8 1 7 ; and in Ramsgate H a bour by Rennie in 1 7 8 8 r .

B t the D iving B ell is now generally superseded by

u

the D iving D ess (fig 7 5 ) which is an india rubber suit

r .
-

f
or the diver provided W th a copper helmet fitted with
,
i

small circular windows and an air valve .

T h diver h a thick lead soles on his boots and carries

e s ,

leaden weigh t s ro nd his neck so a dj us t ed that his

u ,

apparent weight in water and stability are nearly the

same as ordina ily on land r .
356 S UB A Q UE O U S OPE RA TION ;

Th e p ward thrust
u f the air being e q al to the weight o u

o f a cylind i al column f the wate on an equal base

r c o r ,

the weight f this bell must exceed the weight f wate

o o r

it displa es c .

T h same principles are employed in sinking caissons

e

f
or nderwater foundations
u in the Forth B idge , as r

(fig . in d ivi n g a tunnel under a river through

or r

muddy soft soil as in the H udson R ive and the B l ackwall

,
r

tunnels now in p ogress A i is forced in to e q ualize

,
r . r

the pressure f the head f wat and to p reve t its

o o e r, n

entrance being retained by air lo ks th rough w hi h the

,
c c

wo kmen and materials can p a s ; a slight diminution f

r s o

air p essure allows the water to pe colate su fficiently to

r r

loosen th ground but an in rease f pressu e is apt to

e ,
c o r

allow the air to blow out in a large bubble .

T his system due to M G eathead h , overcome t h r . r ,

as e

di ffi ulties f s baq ueous tunnelling ; b t if employed

c o u u

in th projec ted C hannel T u nnel a p essure f about

e ,
r o

1 0 atmospheres would be required to which the wo k ,

r

men are not yet a customed c .

(T h D i i n
e g B l l n d D
v s J W H einke Proc
e Inst a re s , . .
, . .

C ivil E g XV ; n . .

Di i n g A pp a t
v W A G orman P oc Inst M ch a i
ar u s, . .
,
r . . e n

cal E nginee s 1 8 8 2 ; r ,

T h Fo th B i dg E ngineering Fe b
e r r e, ,
.
,

E xa mpl es .

()
1 T w o thin cylind ical gasholders which will hold four
r

times their weight f water and one f which j ust o ,

o

fits over the other will float mou t h downwards ,

hal f immersed in wate r .

If t he larger one is now placed over the smalle r,

de t e mine the position f equilibrium

r o .
 E X AM PL E S .
35 7

T wo equal cylin drical gasholders f weigh t W and ,

o

heigh t a float w ith a length mm occupied by g

, as ,

which at atmospheric pressure would occupy a

length a If a weight P is placed u pon one 1
. 0

them and gas is transferre d to the other till the

,

'

top o f the first j ust reaches the wa t er prove that ,

the other rises a height

><
1 P
1 l m) H
W
— —

m
.

Prove that gas o f constant pressure m easured by a ,

height h o f water can be delivered by a gashol der

,

i n the form o f a truncated cone Whose sides are ,

inclined at an angle to the vertical i f the thicka ,

ness o f the sides is h sin a .

Co al gas o f density 0 6 f that o f the ai is delivered

,
o r,

to t h e pipes at a pressure o f 2 ins o f water ; prove

that 3 00 ft higher the press u re will be given by
3 8 ins ; the temperature being 1 0 C
°
.

Prove t hat the small vertical oscillations f a o

cylindrical solid closed at the top and inverted

,

over mercu y in a wide basin will synch on i ze

r , r

with a pendulu m o f length

M
h +z
1 +g
3
,
h + z + V/ a

where M g denotes the weight f the body and o ,

a

8 cm the horizontal cross sections f the interior

,
2
o

and of the material f the body and h the o , a

density f mercu y and the height f the baro

o r o

meter c ,
the volume f i i the cavity d
3
o a r n ,
an

z m the di fference f level f the mercury inside

c o o

and outside .
 E X AM 1 LE S ’
3)8
z
.

A aisson losed at the t p and divided in the middle

c ,
c o

by a ho izontal dia phragm whose wei g ht is h l f

r ,
a

that f the wate it will contain is floating ove

o r ,
r

water P ove that t h draft f the aisson will be

. r e o c

doubled when a hole is opened in the diaph ag m r .

A diving h l l with a ca pacity f 1 2 5 ft is sunk in

e o
s

salt water to a de pth f 1 00 ft If the S G f salt o . . . o

wate is 1 0 2 5 and the height f the f esh water

r ,
o r

ba ometer 3 4 ft find the vol me f at mosphe ic

r ,
u o r

air re q ui red to lear the h e l l f water

c o .

Tw o ylind ical caissons losed at the top f e q ual

c r c , o

cross se tion d heights } H and % H are placed

c an ,

in water so that the first is j st submerged and u ,

the second at a de pth such that the i occupies a r

the same volume in each prove that h J 2 is the

depth f the water surface in the secon d
o .

What will ha p pen i f communication is made by

a pipe between the i spaces in the two caissons ? a r

Find h w deep a ylindrical diving bell f height

o c o a

and radius 0 with a hemisphe i al t p must be

,
r c o ,

sunk so that the water ises inside to the base f r o

the hemisphe e ; and p o e that t h e volume f

r r v o

atmosphe ic i now requi ed to lear the h l l f

r a r r c e o

water is
a 3 a

H 9 0

times the vol me f the bell u o .

P ove that i f two equal cylind i al diving bel l s f

r r c o

height whose i s p ces comm nicate by a pi pe

a, a r a u ,

are sunk so th at thei to ps at depths and r a re z 2.

and i f a vol me f atmospheric i is forced in

u o a r ,

whi h would o py a length b f eithe h l l the

c cc u o r e ,
3 60 TH E FO CIN G P M P R ’
U
box as ea ie f manu fa tu e and f a dj stment in wo k
, s r o c r o u r

ing and now this ma hine is alled a f

,
p m p c c o rce u

it is sed on a la g e s ale in C o nish p mping engines

u r c r u

2 3) f d iving wate to a high eservoi in wate wo ks

or r r r r r r ,

and in d ining mi es ; the wate li fted being o ften 3 0

ra n r

times the weigh t f the coal aised o r .

Fig . 78 .

T wo such force pum ps placed side by side and wo ked

, ,
r

in alternate opposite directions by a lever constitute the ,

modern man l fi e g i n which does not however

ua re n e, , ,

di ffer essentially from the ma hine invented by C t ibi c es u s,

described in Hero s H n d R C 1 20 ; the p mps

’
ve v a r uc
-
,
. u

discharge into an i vessel in which the cushion f

a r ,
o

i p ese ves a stea dy ontin ous stream

a r r r f wate in
c u o r

the hose .

In a steam fire e gine the piston rod f the steam

n o

cylinder actuates the p iston f a double acting fo ce pump o r

(fi g . by which the continuous stream is p od ced r u .

 AN!) F] If E E NG INE .
3 6l

Th e Wo rthington um ping engine is o f simila desi g n

p r

the ratio f the piston a ea f the steam ylinde to that

o r o c r

o f the pump being made somewhat g eater than the r

inverse r tio f the steam and wate pressures cco di g

a o r , a r n

to the speed t whi h the pump is to be worked

a c .

Wate may be used instead f steam to a tuate the

r o c

pump ; and now the p oduct (A l ) f its head (h f t) and r l o

o f the area f piston on whi h i t acts (A ft ) m ust exceed

o c
?

the p oduct (B i ) f the height to which the water is

r c o

fo ced
r f t ) and f the area f t h pump plunge (B i t )
o o e r
?

t he delive y (Q ft / ) depending on this excess

r
3
se c .

F denoting the length f stroke by l ft the movi g

o r, o ,
n

force D (A h E h ) lb on the piston acting through

—~
ft , (13

suppose will fo l ae f t the remainder f the stroke be

, r —
, o ,

c hanged to a resisting force f D B k lb ; and therefore o

i f we take W lb as the inertia f t h pis t on and th e o e

moving water in t h pump and v f/ s as the maximum e ,

velocity acq i e d u r ,

§ Wv /g D (A h E h )m D B 70(l
2
)
x .

Th e average velocity of the piston being the de

livery -
v8 ;
and hence we find
c B ic
Wi A h )
Q in
s ’ ‘

which i creases from zero to

n s Ah a

increases from B 7 to infinity 0 .

If the water pressure is used to check the motion o f

the piston then ,

J~ l l7 ’v2
2 /g D (A h B loke D (A h + E h ) (l ac );
and the e fore as be fore
r , ,

DA h
W ( I
A 112 ?
)
3 62 WOR CE S TE R S ’
A N!) S A VE R Y S E ’
NGINE .

adj stment f the valves must be ve y a cu ate

Th e u o r c r

to sec e this motion without sho k ;

ur else a connect c or

ing d rank and fl y wheel m st be added as in the

ro ,
c ,
-
u ,

ordinary steam engine .

In the inventions f the M a q uis f Worceste (1 663)

o r o r

and f S ave y (1 69 6) steam a ted di ectly upon the

o r c r

s f ce f the wate without the intervention f pistons ;

ur a o r, o

and considerable waste by ondensation took pla e c c .

Fig . 79 . Fig . 80 .

his method is nevertheless employed nowadays in the

T
P l a t or P l m t p ump (fig 7 9 ) where economy
u s or u so e er .

is not f so much importan e as apidi t y and ce tainty

o c r r

o f action ; an a tom tic s phe ical valve 0 admits steam

u a r

to t alternately on the sur fa e f the wate in the

ac c o r

vessels A and B by whi h the wate is fo ced to the

, c r r

req i ed level ; ent ance and exit valves being p ovided

u r r r

to ea h chambe
c in a pum p r, a s .
3 64: L1 31 ] TA TIO S OF N WOR KIN G

enote by and 8 the oss section in ft f the

D a ,
cr ,
z
,
o

s ction pi p e A O and barrel OB f a vertical s tion

u o uc

p m p by a the height f the suction pipe and by b and

u ,
o ,

c the greatest and least heigh t OB and 0 0 f the lower , , o

side f the bucket P above the lowe fixed valve 0 (fi g

o r .

T hen in the n t h stroke while the pum p is sucking the , ,

water rises in the suction pipe A O f o m a height {E to r n -

1

w f t above the le v el A f the su p ply and the air above

" o ,

th column hanges in density from p _ to p m whe e

e c n l r

P H —
aen

H— w
,
i

P n — l n -
I

and the tension the pum p rod inc eases f om

of r r

to D3 “ l b 90 .

Also by B oyle s law

’

(
a a a ( a —
wn -
i lp n 1 + ,3 0 p ;
so that
o {( u —
( d —
a
rn )} —
o
cn ) C H} ,

a quadratic equation f (o in terms f f which or n o o

the positive root must be taken the negative root co e ,

rr

s
p d i
on
g to a di fferent
n physical problem .

T his equation may be written

H l ' ‘
a “
xn _x n —
1

and the second member being positive it f ollows that ,

(
a c
c ,, the volume whi h ente s the s ction pi pe c r u

in the n t h st o k e is less than B(b ) the vol me swept

r ,
— c ,
u

out by the bucket .

T h water will ea h the b

e el in the fi st stroke i f
r c arr r

w =d1
being ze o ; d there fo e i f
, do r an r

d
_ B(b —
c ) '

H o H + Bb
 OF TH E P M P U .
3 65

It will j s t reach the bar el i the second stroke

u r n ,
if
a =a ;
'

2
d the condition is obtained by eliminating
an d,

between the equations

(
n a —
1 )(
ze H — x
1 ) B {b(H
,
a H} C ,

a
{aH —
(d —
x ) (H
1
—
x 1 ) — cH } ;
and so on .

If the pum p will not su ck then ze is always less , n

than a ; and the great est height to which the water a:

rises in the suc t ion pipe is obtained by putti g n

= =
wn a n
~ =w;
P n p n — 1v -
l
=
c
(
d x ) (H ac ) ,
+ 8 0 H (
a a d )(H x ) 8 b(H
,
cc ) ,

a: c

H
T h e fi rst re q uisi te f the pump to work is there fore
or

a.
(
I

so that wate can be drawn th ough the lower valve

r r .

2 60 N o w i f x m_ and arm denote the height above the

.
1

level f the supply o f the w ater in t h e barrel at the

o

begi nning and end o f the mth stroke the air which ,

occupied a length a + c wm _ f th e barrel nder a head —

1 o u

H t the beginni g f the stroke w ill at the end occupy

a n o

a length d + b u nder a head H mm ; so that —

,

(a + b —
ccm )(H —
mm 1 ) H -
,

a quadra t ic f determining mm in terms f

or o

A lso the tension of the pump rod due to the pressure

f the air increases from z ero to D m duri g the st oke ;
,

o ,
n r

and i f the lower valve 0 opens when the pressures above

and below are equal the bucket has then risen a distance
,

2 give n by
,
3 66 TH E AIR P UM PS
imila ly the position f the bucke t in the do wn
S r o

st oke when its valve o pens

r be dete mined can r .

T h greatest hei g ht to whi h the water

e be d awn c c an r

in the ba el provided it does not reach the b cket is

rr ,
u ,

obtained by pu tting ; and the e fo e 5c r r

— c w} ;
and the e fo e a e q uisite condition is
r r r

b )H B O< H
/ ;
g
( — c or
i A B
othe wise the wate would si k du i g the s cessive
r r n r n uc

strokes ; and the least value f ais th s o : u

Finally f the pump to d aw 0 must be below this

or r ,

level ; and now in fu l l worki g o der w ith the passages

,
n r

f ll
u f wate
o i f k denotes the hei g ht f the dis ha ge
r, o c r

above the lowe valve and y the height f the bucket at

r ,
o

any part f the st oke the tension f the pump rod is

o r ,
o

D 8 (H + I g ) D 8 (H
,
i — lb ; —
,
— a

so t hat the wo k done in one stroke is r

) ft lb ; —
c

the work re q ui ed to li ft the volume f water 8 (b ) ft

r o
,
—
c
3

through + h ft a .

2 6 1 A i r P mp
. u s .

In the ancient method f p od cing a vacuum as i o r u ,

n

vented by Otto von G uericke 1 65 0 the vessel to be ,

exh usted (the M agdeburg hem sphe es f insta ce ) was

a i r ,
or n

fi st filled with wate which w a fte wards pumped t

r r, as r ou

by a water pump .

Th mechanical imp ovements f the pum p made by

e r o

B oyle H ooke,
d H k b e enabled them to dispense
, an au s e

with th water and to onstruct the true air pump

e ,
c ,
as

we have it nowadays .

T w suction p mps side by side actuated in opp osi te

o u , ,

directions by ra ks on the p iston o ds engagi g in a

c r n
3 68 WOR K R E Q UIRE D TO

p ston is worked j st past

i u th e communi atio with the
c n

receive r .

Fig .

enoting by A the vol me o f the receiver and by

2 63 . D u

B the volume f the barrel f the pump swept out

o o

the passage f the piston in a single s t roke ; then in the

o ,

absence o f any l nee the air which occupied the

c ea rer
/ ,

volume A at the beginning will occupy the volume

A + B at the end f the stroke ; o denoting by [ and or 0 71 -
1

pn
the densities f the air in the
o receiver at the beginning
and end f this the n th stroke
o

(A -
1,
 E XH A U ST . l RE CE I VE R .
3 69

2
A A
01 Pa
A +B Pn -
l
m > Pi t -
2
A
if p denotes the density f atmospheric air o .

2 64 S u pposing the temperat re constant the piston

. u ,

valve pens in the return stroke when the air of density

O

pn occupying t he volume B f the barrel is compressed t o o

atmospheric density p and there fore at a f ac t ion P / P f r n o

the st oke distances diminishing i G P

r ,
n . .

If 8 denotes the cross section f the pump barrel in ft

,
o
2
,

and l p the atmospheric press e in l b/ ft the force in lb

a ur
2
,

re q uired t o move the pistons in H k b e air pump au s e

’
s ,

measured by the di fference of the tensions f t he rods is o ,

at a f action 90 f the n th stroke until w= p _ /p afte r

r o , n 1

which the valve in the des ending piston opens and the c ,

e ff ective t i o f this d is zero

e n s on re .

T hese tensions be rep esen t ed graphically by

‘

can r

hy perbolas as in the hydrometer f fig 3 6 p 1 1 3

,
o .
, . .

2 65 . Wor k re q u i re d to e xh a u s t th e r e ce i v e r .

Inthe n th st oke the ascending p iston in H k b

r , au s
’
ee s

pump pushes back the atmosphere through a volume B .

while the air un derneath originally a t pressure kp and , n ..

1

volume A e x pands to volume A + B

, .

T here fore the work done by the ascending piston is ,

in ft l b-

kp B log 1 g) < .

T h e descen ding piston yields to the atmos pheric

pressure kp through a volume B and a t the
same time compresses a volume B o f air at pressure
kp _ t o a vol me
n 1 Ba u t -
1 .

O H . . 2A
3 70 E FFE C T OF CLE ARANCE
T here fore the work done on the descending piston is
kip —
p n — l )B
— '
kPn —
I B l og P/ p a -
l

Th e work done in the n th st oke is the di fferen e r c ,

A l o ga 1 + E
( )
P
B + B 10 °a
p n -
1 A

Putting A
and p
A l B v-
p
p
-

the work done in the n st okes is

r

M A (1
“
B ) (1 —
p + r l os r
" "
)
—
kp (A + B ) (1

if th e is exhausted to one 1 th f the atmos phe i

air —
( o r c

densi ty ; this ed es when the exhaustion is o mplete

r uc ,
c ,

to h p (A + B ) ft l b the w k req i ed to fo ce ba k the

-

,
or u r r c

atmos phe ic pressu e h p l b/ ft th ough a vol me A + B ft

r r
2
r u
3
,

as is evident t p i o i a r r .

A similar result holds f S meaton s and T ate s air

’ ’
or

pump where there is no cle ance ; the investigation

, ar

when the e ffec t f clearan e is taken into a count is le ft

o c c

as an exercise .

2 66 . Cl e a r a n ce .

Suppose the piston does t com plet ly swee p t the no e ou

cylinde but leaves an unt ave sed s pace C at the botto m

r, r r ,

f the barrel in H k b air p ump ; this space 0 is ’

o au s ee s

called the cl e ( p a c n i i bl
a r a n ce h d l i h B u m ) es e u s e , sc a c er a .

A volume C f at mos phe ic air is

o w le f t in the b rel r no ar

at the end f ea h st oke ; and there fo e the vol me

o c r r u

A + B f i at density P is e q ui alent to a vol me A at

o a r n
v u

density p and a vol me C at density p ; so that

p , u

(A
3 72 E FFE C T ON TH E E X IIA US TION
In the (n l ) t h down stroke the piston valve opens
—

when the volume C f atmos phe i air has ex panded to ’

o r c

a density _ and therefo e to a vol me C p / _

a
'

n 1 r u
'
o
-
u 1 .

In the th p st oke the lowe fixed valve opens when

n u r r

th volume C f air f de sity _ has ex panded to

e o o n o
'

n 1

density p _ and there fore to volume O _ /p _ ; and

n l an 1 n -
1

the u pper fixed valve opens when the i f volume a r o

B —
C and density _ has been com p ressed to atmo an
'

s phe i de sity p and there fo e to volume

r c n ,
r

(B — G m a /p
2 68 .wei g ht f the valves is another ause tending
Th e o c

to limit the rare fa tion ; s p pose then that w and c u

denote the p ess es re q uired to li ft the fixed and piston

r ur

valve in H k b pump au s ee s
’
.

S long as the valves ope ate the press res in the

o r ,
u

bar els at the end f the n t h in and out stroke

r o a re

res p ectively
Ip l ZU and l p
’
TU ’

t - -
i t n
—
.

D uring the n t h st oke the air which occu p ied the r

re eiver A at pressure h p _ and the clearance C at

c n 1

pressure l p H IV has expanded to air f volume A d

o -
o an

pressure l p and f volume B and p essure kp m; and

a " o r n
—

therefo e r

A kp u B (kp n 57
) A kPn 1 0 05 10 l
‘ ‘

0" -
1
if 294 ) 0

Z
l
t i) ( i
—f s
1

pis ton valve is li fted in the down stroke when the

Th e
volume B f ai f p ressure lg
o 115 is comp essed to
r o i an d
— r

ressu e l — w and volume to m B given by

p p rk o ,

ke n -
1
 OF T H E WE IG H T O F TIIE A
V L VE S .
3 73

and the fi xed valve is opened in the p stroke wh en the u

volume C f i f pressure kp N U is expanded to volume

o a r o -
'

9 C and pressure h m given by ow l

—
,

lep + m =
’

1 In
);
so that my : 1 .

G e n e ral lv
l h p n _1
'

ZD
‘
—

y kp + d
h
_ p + rJ A A
lop +B B A +B
Th e piston valve opens a fter the fixed valve ,
if
B +C yC dB,
-

or i f B (l —
cc ) C(y 1)

<
“
f p PU
X )
1
l — —
A l '

a: t

B
7 i p +s A —
B
is positive as is generally the case and the valves cease
,

to ac t when
C B
_ y — .

B
’
U
2 69 measu e th e rarefaction a glass tube m y be
. To r , a

led down f om the bo t tom f the re eiver to a ciste n f

r o c r o

mercu y ; and the height f the column d awn up as in

r .
o ,
r

H are s hydrometer 1 62 ) will measure the rare faction

’

the di fference f the height f this column and f the

o o o

ba ometric height being the mercury head f t h p

r o e
‘

re s s u re

in the receiver .

Th p essure may also be measu ed by a barometer

e r r

inside the receiver ; and to kee p down the height a , ,

shortened siphon ba ometer is employed in which the r ,

T o ricellian vacuum does

r t begin to appea till the no r

p essu e is considerably educe d say to a head f 2 ins f

r r r ,
o o

me c y
r ur .
37 4 T H E C OM P R E S S ING OR

2 70 . P mp
Th e Co n de n s i n g u .

If the di ectio f motion f the val ves f

r n o ai pum p o o an r

is reve sed air will be fo ced into the re eiver by the

r
,
r c

motion f the piston and the pum p called a comp i n g

o , 18 r e ss

or con d n i n g p mp or a con d n s
e s u e er .

T hus S meaton s pump can be used a condenser i f the

’
as

receiver is fixed over the t p valve i bei g d awn f om 0 , a r n r r

the atmosphere through the lower valve which may be ,

dispensed with .

Asimple fo m f condensing p m p employed f i

r o u ,
or n

flating pne matic tires f bi ycles is shown in fig 8 2 ;

u o c , .

and fig 78 may be t ken to re p esent the condens i n g

. a r

or exhausting pum p required f the Westinghouse or or

va uum brake on railway carriages

c .

C ondensing pumps are required to supply f esh air r ,

condensed to the requisite pressure to submarine divers ,

and diving bells to aissons and other subaq eo s ,

c u u

ope ations ; also in the t ansmission f power to d ive

r r o r

ma hinery (Po pp s system ) to the Whitehead tor pedo

c
’

, ,

and to bo ing ma hines in mines and in the o st uction

r c ,
c n r

of long t nnels such as the S t G oth d the

u its . ar ,
ai r i n

retu n ssisti g the ventilation

r a n .
376 E FFE C T OF CLE A l tAN CE
Writing this e q ation as a G eomet ical P og ession
u r r r ,

B A B
“ op m

A+o Pn

l
Pn dp
‘

£
?

5
Th e ultimate compression when n = is B / C atmo ,
oo
,

spheres ; and this is otherwise evident i f w notice th t ,

e a

air will cease to enter the receiver A when i t p ess re s r u

is that f the air compressed to the volume C from the

o

volume B f atmospheric air

o .

Fig . 83 .

Writing th si re l a t l on

f 2 X
p
i ) — I 1
A o
’

expanding by the inomial heorem ed ing and lastly

B T ,
r uc ,

putting C = O we obtain as be fore

, , ,

pn = 1 B
+n
P
B ut p actic lly as in diving o perations the p mps
r a , ,
u

are set to omp ess the air to the requisite numbe f

c r r o
 ON T H E C OM P R E S S ION 3 77

atmospheres B / C by an a dj ustment which gives the

,

clearance C the appropriate magnitu de .

If a and ZU denote the pressures require d to li ft the

’

fixed and moving valves and p the limiting pressure ; , oo

then air o f pressure p + 23 i the clearance C will have been

d,
n

compressed from volume B and pressure p m so t hat —

’

B
—
U
p oo

If it is assumed tha t in a diving h e l l or dress at a

depth 2 and under a pressure f gor 1 Hatmos phe es
, o r ,

theair escapes at a rate f o

<
Ig
Vl g or V l g 1 + é >ft / mi te
o —
o
3
nu ,

the pump must make n s trokes a minute given by ,

§ gLlog = _ —

2 7 2 A graphical constr ction o f the working f the

. u o

condenser is given in fig 8 3 ; here OA represents the .

volume f the receiver 0B o f the barrel C C f the

o , ,
o

clearance while ordinates represen t the pressure f the i

, o a r .

In the first stroke the atmospheric air filli g A B i n s

comp essed f om atmospheric pressure E 6 or Cp along

r r

the isothermal hyperbola bp centre A until it cuts the l , ,

“

ordinate Cp i p and then Cp rep esents the press e

n
l , 1
r ur

in the receiver at the end f the fi st st oke o r r .

In the retu n stroke the pressure in the barrel OB fal ls

r

along the hype b ola p d centre 0 until it reaches atmo

r
l l , ,

s pheric pressure ; a fter w hich the piston valve opens .

T h w ork done in the fi st complete st oke is there

e r r

fo e represented by the a ea bp d
r r
l l
.
3 78 TH E A IR P M P U A ND
In the second st oke the atmos phe i i in OB is r r c a r

com p essed alon g the hy pe bola bf ent e 0 unti l the

r r
z , c r ,

p ess e becomes P 3 and then the valve t O o pens

r ur
1
a ,

and the pressure in OA mounts p alo g the hy perbola u n

f p cent e A
g z , r .

In the return st oke the p essu e in C C falls along the r r r

hype bola p d cent e 0 and the wo k done in the second

r
z z ,
r ,
r

st oke is e p esented by the area bf p d ; and so on

r r r
z z z
.

T onst uct these p oints geomet ically d aw A p to

o c r r ,
r

meet B 6 in b then b p is p arallel to A B ; draw Op to l 1

meet b p in then c d is parallel to Cp ; d aw Ob

l 1
0
1» l 1
r
1

cutting bp in then c is pa allel to Cp ; d aw Ap e

2 ,
2
r r
1

to meet e f in then g p is parallel to A B ; and i f

2 2 2 2

g p meets Op in
2 2
then d is pa allel to Cp ; d so on 0
2 , c
z 2
r an .

T h ultimate co mp ression in the re eive

e re p esented c r, r

by the p essure p is obtained by prod cing Op to

r ,
u

meet B b in c and drawing 29 parallel to A B , 0

00
.

A simila onstruction can be employed f the air

r c or

pum p or f the combined condenser and air pump

, or —
.

2 73 Th A i P mp n d C
. d n si n g P mp
e mbi n d
r u a on e u co e .

T ate s air p mp can be made to act as a condensi g

’
u n

pump by sc ewing the receive which is t o be filled on

r r

the end f the bar el o r .

S uppose then as the most gene al case that air is ,

r ,

pumped f rom a vessel f vol me A and f orced into a o u

vessel f volume A by means f a S meaton p mp f

o
’
o u o

volume B leaving clea ances C d C t the ends

,
r an
’
a .

S ta ting with all the air at atmos phe i de sity p and

r r c n

the p isto close to A and denoting by p _ and p

n the , n 1
’

n _1

densities in the vessels A and A t the end f the n 1 t h ’

a o

st oke towa ds A ; then

r r
’

(A + B -
1 (A <
1)
38 0 A I) I IB A TIC E X PA NS ION AND
. R
C OM P E S S IO N .

imilarly P
S
'

n
—
u
,
'

p W(p
'

n 1 U
,
'

P) ” (I u )p ,
'

<
B — O><H
where A
u
’

’
C )(B C
’
CC (A
’
B
)
,

and the ultima te compression in A is to a density p ’

u
,
’
.

In S meaton s ai pump A = ’
and in Ha k b air
r ,
’
cc u s ee s
’

pump B and C are infini te but B C is finite ; so that

,
’

,
’

pu tt ing B C = B ’ ’

as be f ore
In t he condensing pump A = ; an d now putting ,
oo ,

B so that B is t h vol me swept out by the "

e u

pi to n and making B and C infinite gives the result fo

s , ,
r

the ordinary condensing pump with clea rance C 2 ,

'

2 7 4 In the preceding investiga t ions the temperature

.

o f the air has been ass umed constant ; but i f the pu mps
are worke d rapidly the adiaba t ic laws employed in ,

2 2 6 show that the temperature rises and f alls with t he

density and pres sure .

Re f rigerating m achinery depends to a grea t ex t ent in

i t action on this lowering f temperature with rare
s o

f ac tion ; while n the other hand the compressed a r

o 1

supplied to t h diver is warmed to an appreciable ex t ent

e .

Th expressions obtained fo the density f the air

e r o

will not be alte red ; and the cha ge in pressure will only n

a ffect the points at which the valves operate and t h e

work required f e x haustion or compression ; and when

or

a f ter a lapse f time thermal eq ilibrium h a been

o u s

restored by conduction f heat the pressure will assume o ,

the value that has been employed .

2 7 5 Al. i l A i P u mp
e r cu r a r s .

T h rare faction is limited by the leakage f the piston

e o

and valves and by the i absorbed and given ff by

,
a r o
 TH E M E R C UR IA L A IR P UM P .
38 1

the oil ; so that the vacuum which can be produced by

an ordinary air pump is no t su ffi cien t ly good f o i n r

candescen t elec t ric l amps .

In the Fl air pump the passages f t he pump

e u ss o

are filled with oil which circulates and fills up the

clearance and the oil is freed from air in a duplica t e
,

pum p alongside .

S ometimes mercury is employed to fill up the clearance ,

as in K a ogl air pump ; and one f the earliest and

r v
’
s o

bes t me t hods o f e x hausting a vessel is to make it into a

T orricellian vacuum as in T orricelli s original me t hod
’

, ,

during which he discovered t he barometer but

this method requires a large quantity of merc ry u .

In S prengel s mercu ial pump (fig 8 4 ) t he exhaustion

’
r .

o f the air f rom a globe C is per f ormed au t oma t i ally c

by an intermi tt ent fl ow o f mercury by drops f rom the

r eservoir A which gradually sweep ou t t he air and dis
, ,

charge i t in bubbles in the cis t ern B ; a pinch cock E

on a short lengt h o f india rubber t ube con t rolling the
-

flow of t he mercury .

T his is the essen t ial part o f the ins t rumen t ; but a

duplica t e arrangemen t E C is now generally placed
alongside t he vessel G to serve as an air t rap fo t he
,
r

bubbles in t he mercury (fig .

T o make a j oint per f ectly air t ight it is sealed by ,

mercury surrounding it as shown in the join t above D

,

in fig 8 5
. .

If the bubbles at B are discharged into a receiver par ,

t i al l y exhausted o f air by a p ump the apparatus can be ,

considerably shortened below its normal height f about o

4 0 ins ; three or f our f all t ubes may be employed to ,

m ake the exhaustion more apidly r .

38 2 TH E M E R C UR IA L . IIR P UM P .

barometric column H K me asures th raref action ;

Th e e

this is also me s red by the M L d g g consisting f a u

c
eo au e, o

a gradua ted tube closed at the top which be filled p ca n u

with mercury to a given head as in fig 66 the compres ,

.

sion f the rarefied air imprisoned in the gauge measures

o

the are faction to a millionth f an atmosphere which

r , o ,

would be q u ite insensible on the barome t ric column E X .

If the drops f mercury occupy eq al lengths o f the u a o

f all t be and i f
u denotes the length f the air bubble
, 0 o

when at the level f the istern B and there fore at o c ,

atmosphe i pressure then t he lengths f the successive

r c , o

b bbles a bove the cist rn are

u e

ch ch c h
—

FI E c? ll 376
’
h — a I -

where h denotes the hei g h t f the me cury baromete r ; o r

these lengths f air increasing in H P till the junction D

o . .

is reached so that they can be represented by the

,

ordinates o f a recta gular hyperbola n .

An inverted S prengel tube LM A d i by compressed , r ven

i at L ca
a r be employed to raise the mercury again
,
n

f om the cistern B to the reservoir A

r (R F J S mith . ev . . .
,

Ph i l M g 1 8 9 2 ; N tu A g 1 8 9 3 ; JlI cu ri al A i
. a , a re , u . er r

P u mp S P T hompson Journal S of Ar t s
s, . . : ec .
,

E x amp l e s .

(1 ) Prove that i f the height f the spout o f a suction o

pu mp above the water s pply is the height f the u o

water barometer and i f at the commencement f , o

any stroke the water in the suc t ion pipe is m and

f t below the p t
1 1, nd the fixed valve the s en a ,

water will ise f t in the next r

stroke i f there is no clearance and i f the p m p is

,
u

f uni f o m section thro ghout

o r u .
38 4: E X A MI L E S ‘
.

Prove that i f the temperatu e is constant the work r

required to incre se q f old or to diminish to one

a ,

q t h
,
the density f atmospheric air f
o pressure P o

in a receiver f volu me V is respectively

o , ,

P V(l o g q q — q + l ) and PV 1
( 2 ,
10 s W)
Calculate the work required and the change f o

t emperature in these cases when the compression

or rare faction takes place di b ti l l g a a a ca

Work out V= 1 m P = 1 0 k g/ m q 1 00 3
,
‘ 2
,
: .

E xamine the change in t h indications f the siphon e o

barometer o f § 1 7 9 placed in the receiver f an

, o

air pump or condenser when the dimensions f , o

the barome ter are taken into account ; and prove

that in one s troke f the air pump the barometri
,
o , c

c olumn falls a di ta nce approxima t ely

s , ,

Eh A
1
A +H (A i B ) r - 2
ow l-

fl
while in ,
strokes
n of the condenser it ,

approxima tely ,

1
Sh i t -
i n
f)
where A denotes the original volume o f atmo
spheric air in the receiver .

Prove also that i f i denotes the volume and a )

the height f the air pu mp gauge in § 2 69 the

o ,

mercury will rise in one stroke (neglecting the

s q uare of v ) ,

Eh Bhu ’
A h
A +B
 C HAPTE R IX .

T HE TE N S ION OF VE SSE LS . I
C AP LLAR T Y I .

. vessels employe d f containing a fluid under

2 76 Th e or

g eat pressure are gene ally made ylindrical or spherical

r r c

f
or s t rength ; and it is important to determine the stress
in the mate ial f given fluid pressu e or t he maximum
r or r ,

pressu e allowable f gi en strength o f material fo the

r or v ,
r

purpose f calculating the requisite thickness

o .

Th esimplest case f a vessel in t ension is a circular

o

pipe or cylindrical boiler e x posed to uni fo m internal,

r

pre ssure so that there is no tendency to distortion from

,

the circular cross section .

With an in t ernal pressu e p a circum feren t ial pull r ,

will be set up in t h e mate ial f mag itude T per unit fr o n o

length suppose acting across a longitu dinal section or seam

,

o f the cylinder ; and to determine T w e suppose a len gth l

o f the cylinder to be divided in t o two halves by a dia
met ral plane and onsider the equilibrium o f either hal f
, c .

D enoting by d or 2 the internal diameter o f the tube

7” ,

the res ltant fluid thrust on the curved semicircular sur

u

face is equal to the thrust across the plane base and is ,

there fore p l d and this thrus t being balanced by the p ll u

Tl on each side f the diametral plane the e fore

o ,
r

2 Tl = p l d , or T :
5p d = p 7
'
.

2B
38 6 TE NS ION OF C YLIN DRICA L, S P ’
HE RICA L '
,

277 . When
cylindrical vessel is closed t here is in
th e
ad di t ion a lo gitudinal tension in the material ; denoting
n

by T the longitu dinal pull per unit length across a cir

’

cu mf t i l seam or section the fluid thrust % W d p on

e re n a ,
~
2

the end f the cylinder must be balanced by th longi

o e

l pull wd T across a circum ferential seam and

’
t di
u na ,

there fore
i d p or
z
w iT r r
- -
vr ,

T hus the longitudi n al t ension is hal f the circum

f e n t i l tension ; o i n the ylindrical shell f a boiler
er s r c o

the circum ferential j oints and rows f rivets which resist o

the longitudinal pull need be only hal f the strength f o

the longitudinal j oint which resists t h circu m fere tial ,

e n

pull .

2 7 8 A spherical su face in tension is beauti fully

. r

illustrate d by a soap bubble as a complete s p here in

air ,
as a hemisphere on t h su face ; denoting the
or e r

inte rnal diameter f a s pher al vessel by d or othe ic

t nsion per unit length across a diametral se tion due to

e c ,

in ternal pressure p is also T or {p f considering the ,

’

f r or

equilibrium f either hemisphere into whi h the sphere

o c

is divide d the fluid thrust on the hemisphere is e q ual to

,

the th st on the base or fi ?

ru and this is balanced , r e

by d T the resultan t pull round the circum ference ; so

r ,

that as be fore
, ,

d T = 11 d p or T = i p d = §p
7r
’
-
zr
2
,
r

T hus if a cylindri al boiler is made with hemispherical c

ends t hese e n ds need have only hal f the thickness f the

, o

cylindri al shell ; but they will weigh th same as flat

c e

ends f the same thickness as the shell

o .

T h same results are obtained by considering the eq i

e u

librium f the pa t cut ff by any plane parallel to the

o r o
38 8 A VE RA G E TE NS ION AND
When the thickness 6 is small compared with r these ,

averag e values will di ffer only slightly from their max i

mum minimum val ues ; t may be supposed limited by
or

the working tension or te nacity f t h e ma terial as deter o ,

mined in the te sting machine ; and the equisite thickness r

6 is given by

a=r
p/t .

hus a loc omotive boiler 4 ft in diame t er o f s tee l o f

T ,

working ten acity 6 tons/ in should be 02 7 inch thick to g

,

a
“
c rry a pressure f 1 5 0 l b/ in ; a n d water mains 6 ft in
o

diame te r o f cas t iron o f t nacity 1 ton / i n to carry water

, e
2
,

unde a head o f 200 ft should be 1 4 inches thick

r , .

2 8 1 If ! denotes the length

. f a cylin drica l ves el o f o s

radius and thickness required to contain a volume

r e, 1)

of g a at a pre sure p the volume o f me t al f tenac ity

s s ,
o

t required in the cylindrica l part is

2 vrrl e 2 m 5p/ t 3
2 up / t,
which is in depen dent of t he propor t ions f the cylinder o .

T hus in the H h fl boiler compose d of a long

'

e e rr s s c o ,

S
p i ral c pper tube
o or in ve ssel s required to ca ry gas
,
r

like o xygen or hydrogen at a great pressure the pro ,

portions may b va ried withou t altering the weight

e .

Ves els fo holding compresse d air for pneumatic guns

s r

are now made spherical ; and i f a volume 1 a t pressure p )

is to be ca rried in n spherical vessels f radius r and o

'

thickness e,

fi l m/ t ,

fo r tenacity t; and th e volume of metal

W tr e
f‘
2 7rn r p / t
3

which ag ain is independent o f the radius f the ve sels o s ,

and shows a saving f 2 5 per cent f material over the

o . o

cylindrica l shape .
 R
P E SS UR E IN VE S S E LS .
38 9

28 2 .an external collapsing pressure 10 such as is

Fo r ,

experienced by t he tubes and fines f a boiler we take d o ,

or 2 to denote the external diamete ; and the tensions

7
;
r

t and t become changed into equal pressures

’
.

T h s in t he S evern tunnel a brick cylinder 3 0 ft

u ,

e ternal diameter and 2 ft thick the ave age crushi g

x ,
r n

pressure in t he brick work due to a head f 1 00 ft f water o o

outside would be 3 2 5 1b/ in ; this excessive pres ure 2

s

would crush the mortar and cause the bricks to fly d ,

an

requires to be kept down by incessan t pumping f the o

water in the neighbouring ground .

T h e longitudinal thrust and average pressure in a

curved d m can be calculated in the same way ; fo
a r

example in a concrete dam in Australia with a radius f

, ,
o

1 4 00 f t 1 1 0 f t high and wide at the bot t om and 1 4 ft

, ,

wide at the top .

It is asserted tha t the E xe t er canal one of the earliest ,

i this country w
n purposely made winding from the
, as ,

s pposed extra stabili ty f the curved banks

u o .

S o also with spherical sur faces ; thus the M agdebu g r

hemispheres a M agdeburg ell or 2 ft in diame t er would

, ,

require a force o f about 3 4 00 lb t o pull them apart when ,

hal f exhausted o f air ; and t he thrus t at t he j oint would

be about 4 5 l b/ i n z
.

283 . Th e S tre ss E l l ip s e .

ometimes a tube is made wi t h a winding spiral seam

S
and t o determine the s t ess across th is seam generally r ,
or

across any oblique section w e must inves t iga t e the ,

dist ibution f stress in the material due to given

r o ,

circum ferential and longi t udi al t e sions (or pressures ) n n ,

t and t and t his int oduces the theory f t he s t e s

’
: r o r s

e l li s e
p .
390 TH E S T RE S S E LLIPS E .

aking 0A in the direction f the circum ference and

T o

0 B f the axis at any point 0 f the su f a e (fig

o o r c .

the stress represented by the vec tor OP across a short

, ,

length f an inclined section will be balance d by

o

the st ess t across By represented by OA and by the

r , ,

st ess t ac oss y epresented by OB sup pose whe e

r
'
r a ,
r ,
r

a
y and B y are drawn parallel to GA and 0 B .

Fig . 86 .

here fore i f
T ,
OM and ON are the projections of OP
on 0A and OB ,

0M . .
By ,
ON

or denoting the angle between 3 and OB by 9 and

,
a, ,

() A OB by
,
b a, ,

0 M = cos 9 0N = b i 0 ; a , s n

and there fore P desc ibes an ellipse with a and b as r , ,

semi axes and 6 is the excentric angle f P ; this is

-

,
o

called the t l li p s r e ss e se .

In fig 8 6 0 P = .0P = b , 1
a, 2 ,

RP :
{W t -
b) ,
PR P1 29 ;
39 2 TH E S TR E SS E LLIPSE

Th e angle POR is called t he o bl i q u i ty f th t e ; o e s r ss

it at tains its maxim m val e su ppose when OPR is u u , e ,

a right angle and then ,

[
Si 14 2122
in S e tan ( i
— 2
7r

and now the angles A OR B OP or 0 at being e q ual each , , ,

to i w + % the axes f the stress elli pse bisect t h angles

e, o e

between OP and OQ ; and

2 8 6 In the theory f E arth P essure
. 8 0) denotes o r 6

the a gl f repose and thence the ellipse f stress

n e o o c an

be constructed at any point when the substance is on the

point f moving
o .

T hus i f in fig 2 1 p 4 7 two consecutive pl nes p q p q

’ ’

, .
, .
,
a ,

are d awn parallel to the talus F1) and two onsecutive

r ,
c

vertical planes pp q q cutting out an elementary prism

’

,
'

o f the earth the stresses on the pairs f op posite faces

, o

are equal conj ugate st esses of mag nitude w cos i f r ,

z c,

z denotes the ve tical depth f the element below the

r o

surface ; and w the h ea i n s or d n i ty f the earth ; v es e s o

and the axes f the st ess ellipse bisect the angles

o r

between the vertical and the l p its mi e being s e e e, se ax s

given by
a = w (1 + sin ) b w (1 z sin ) e , z —
e .

In foundations in level ground the ultima t e st ess the ,

r

earth can bear at a de pth 2 unde the a djacent gro nd r u

is given by a stress ellipse whose verti al and horizontal c

semi axes are

—

we and w z

the major axis being ho izontal ; but under the f d r oun a

tions the stress elli pse hanges to one with horizontal c

and vertical semi axes -

we tan (i + i ) and w e tan (i + 3

2
7r
3 ) s
4
7r 1
 IN E A R TH AND FO UNDA TIONS .
39 3

so tha t t he depth z f the foun dations re q ui ed to suppor t

o r

a dis tribu t ed pressure p is given by

_P_ 13
(i n %e)
4
z — tan
w w
T hus the foundations f th T ower f Pisa 2 2 ft deep
o e o ,

in earth o f de n sity w = 0 8 2 8 c w t/ ft ould carry with '

3
,
c

sa fety a p essure o f 7 5 or 1 62 c w t/ ft according as is

r
2
, e

taken as 2 0 or °
the actual pressu e being about r

/ ft (B u i l de r Ja n
2
1 50 c wt , .

2 87 Putting b = 0 gives the state f stress across

. o

oblique sec t ions f a body transmitti g a simple pull or

o n

thrust such as a ro pe or pillar a tie or stru t

, ,
.

S ometimes as in the cross se tion

,
f a tube the c o ,

principal stresses are o f opposite sign ; in this case t h e

smaller stress b is taken as negative and now OP in ,

’

fig 8 6 will represent the stress across p g

. .

T h e normal componen t f the st ess can now vanish o r ,

and the stress becomes tangential e sheari g f t wo r n ,

or

conj ugate positions f p g o .

B y twisting the tube the l ines o f principal stress

become spirals but the investigation o f the stress ellipse
,

remains t he same ; i n this w y the tension in the spiral a

strands o f a ope can be investigated

r .

2 88 . Th e S tr e s se s i n a Th i ck Tu be .

When the th i ckness the t ube is considerable as in

6 of ,

a gun the a e rag e ci um ferential tension T/ e or p / e

,
v rc r

may fall considerably below the maximum tension ,

which must be kept below the working tenacity f the o

material so that it is i mportant to determine the radial

press re p a d circum ferential tension t at any radius
u n r

in a thick tube f inte nal and e x ternal radii and r

o r r
o 1

(ins ) due
,
to an internal pressure p 0
39 4 D E TE RMINA TION OF TH E S T E S S R
Th ecurves P PP and T TT e drawn in fig 8 7 O 1 O 1
ar .
,

re presenting to scale the adial p essure p by R P and r r

the ci cum ferential tension t by R T at any radius or

r r

OR ; and fi st supposing the exte nal pressur e p i

r r n
1

sensible the e q uilib ium f the q uadrant A R f unit

, r o o

length f the tube requires the e q uality f the area f the

o o o

rectangle OP representi g the th ust f the internal

O , n r o

pressu e in the di ection OA and f the area T R R T

r r , o
O O I I,

the total pull ac oss the section R R f the tube r

O l
o .

Fig . 87 .

So also the equilibrium f a quadrant bounded e x o

ter n l l y by any inte mediate

a radius requires that r r

the a ea T R RT should e q ual the di ffe ence f the

r
O O
r o

rectangles OP and OP or the area T PT equal the

0 ,
O

r ectangle N P O
.

E xpressed in the notation f the Integr l C al lus o a cu ,

td p p r
o 0
r r

and there fore by di fferentiation

, ,

(l p
t z —
p
—
o
d7
,
t +p — 1
‘

a
or IP — N V
’
or PS ,

if P V the tangent at P cuts OA in V .

396 TH E S T RE SS IN A THICK T UB E
N ext ass me a state st ess in which
u of h yd r os t a ti c r ,

p t = b (R a kine s hypothesis ) n
’

then N V O and the c ves P P and T T coalesce in a

:
,
ur
O O

s t aight line parallel to OR

r .

In the general ase by t he superposition f B arlo w s c ,

o
’

and Rankine s states f stress in va ying p oportions

’
o r r ,

=
=a r ‘
2 —
b
p ,

given by B a low urves f app o p ia te magnitude r c o r r (1 ,

moved a distance b from righ t to le ft represented in ,

fig 8 7 by OC ; and the values f the arbit ary onstants

. o r c

a and b can be determined f om two conditions r .

T hus with given inte nal and exte nal p essures p p r r r o, l ,

— 2 _— 2

— 2 _ 2
73 0 P " P7
1 ‘

19 1 b __ o o 1 1
a ”
2 2 2
7 T0
o
“
T “

1 1

epresenting in fig 8 7 the given applied pressu es

2 90 . R . r

by R P and R I PI and drawing the diagonal Q Q to

O 0 , I O

meet ON in L then OL will re present the average ,

t ension d this will be the actual tension R T at the

,
an

radius OR the G M f OR and OR , . o 0 l

.

P odu e TL to L making LL = OR ; j oin Q L cutting

r c
’

,
’

O I
'

ON in C ; then C will be the centre f the B a low cu ves o r r ,

which c n n w be readily const ucted by a repetition f

a o r
‘

the geometrical method f 64 o .

T h s to find the point T whe e the B arlow curve with

u r ,

cent e C s t arting f rom T cuts the line M T (fig

r , o,
.

p od ce L T to meet M T in H ; j oin CH c tting M T

r u O 0 ,
u O 0

in H ; d aw H K pa allel to CM cutting M T in K ; join

0
r
O
r ,

CK cutting M T in K ; then LK parallel to CM will

, O O O O

cut AIT in T ; f or

M T cg MK CM MT 0 111 2

CM
and ,
’
—
O 0

CM M
M I
’ ’ ’
K O O
 OR S PH E IH CA L S HE LL .
397

determine geometrically the thickness f a tube f

To o o

given h 2 to car y a pressure p with a working

e re rO, r
O,

tenacity t bisect L N in C (fig o, C will be the O G .

centre o f t he B arlo w curve which can now be constructe d .

Th ex t ernal adius OR will be determined by the

e r
1

point where the pressure curve cu ts OR take M Q the O

C M . f M P and M I R I and draw C Q cutting N P in

. o O 0 , O 0

Q then P Q or R R will be the require d thickness

O I O 1
.

to + Po
N OW —
_ .

70 1 2
to “

P0
and as ,
i n 281 ,
the volume f metal 2p o —
ro
z
0

the vol me f gas t p u o r

o
z
o
—
0

A simila procedure with spherical shells will give

r

= ar ‘
3 —
b
p ,

and show that to hold a given vol me o f gas at a given u

pressure i spherical shells the volume of metal required

n

is again independent f the radius f the vessels o o

2 9 1 In a flue f e x ternal and internal radii P and P

. o o 1:

the ci um ferential pressure and radial pressure 0 at a

rc 1

given radius p will be given by

B
U —
’
2
de ;
where ,8 and are determined by the external condi a

tions f instance an applied pressure 5 at t h e ou ter

,
or , 0

surface .

B y making p = zo =
p w thus de t ermine the
o
state ro, o 0,
e

of initial stress when a j acket is shrunk ove a tube so r ,

as to produce a given pressure p or 65 at their surface f o 0

o

contact ; in this w y the tube is rende ed capable f a r o

withstanding a greatly increased inte nal pressure r .

S too hose or steam pipi g can be strengthened by

o n

wire wound spirally round the e x terior .

398 CA PILL AR Y A T TRA C TION .

292 . C ap i l l a ri ty .

On looking at the edge f contact o f a liquid with the o

con taining vessel o f water in a bottle fo instance a ,

r ,

slight violation is observable f the T heorem f 2 0 T h “

o o ,
e

free su rfac e f a liquid at rest under gravity is a

o

hori ont l plane as the sur face f the liquid is seen to

z a o

be perceptibly urved in the immediate neighbourhood f

c o

the edge f conta t f the liquid with the vessel

o c o .

If the vessel is mod ately wide all trace f curvature er o

o f t h e sur face disappears at a short dis tance from the

edge so that t h e sur faces f se paration f superincumbent
,
o o

liquids are sensibly ho izontal planes again 2 1 ) inso r

much that Lord R yleigh finds that the most accurate a

method f forming a pa allel plate f an optical medium

o r o

f
or inter ference e x periments is by means f a layer f o o

water poured on the top f mercu y in a wide vessel o r .

Th curvatu e f the sur face is well illustrated by

e r o

filling a wineglass brim full f water and then care fully o ,

dro pping coins into the gl a s ; the su face will become s r

more and more convex until at last the water runs over ,

the edge .

T his e x perimen t seems to be re ferred to in cer tain

ve sions f the story f C harle I I
r o 54 in whi h o s .
, c

it is as erted tha t a de ad fish will s pill no wate even i f

s r,

the bu ket in which it is placed is brim full

c .

293 Th . theory f the laws observable is called

e o

C apillarity or C apillary A t traction from the Latin ,

word ca p i l l a i es because it w fi st noticed that i f a very

r ,
as r

fine tube so fine as only to admit a hair is dipped into

, ,

liquid and partly withdrawn the li q uid is foun d t o rise ,

in the tube so that there is a violation f the T heorem

,
o

in § 2 4 that the separate par ts f the free sur fac e of a

o
,
“
o
4 00 S URE A CE TE NS ION
294 ma s f liquid under no external dist rbing
. A s o u

fo ces will assume a s herical shape under the influence

r
p
of the supe ficial tension ; f
r instance as in Plateau s or ,
’

ex p eriments when floating immersed in another liquid

,

o f equal density or i f falling freely .

T hus lead shot is made by allowing d ops f mel t ed r o

le ad to fall and soli di fy in the i ; and the optical pheno a r

mena o f the Rainbo w prove that the falling raind ops r

are spherical .

Fig . 88 . Fig . 89 .

spherical sha pe is a p proximately realised w i th

small drops f mercury on a table the deviatio from
o ,
n

spheri ity being slighter as the drops are smaller ; b

c e

cause the e ffect f gravity which depends on the volume

o , ,

becom s in ensible com p a ed with the capillary energy

e s r ,

which depends on the su fa e r c .

S i W T homson in his lecture on C apillarity begins

r .

by supposing that gravity may be left out f account o ,

as f instance in a l b t o v at the centre f the E arth ;

or a o ra r o

and now the pre ssure p in a spherical mass f liquid f o o

radius due to the tension T f the surface will be

r, o ,

given by (g 2 78 ) Y

p Q T/ T .
 OF C PILL A A R Y A T TRA OTION .

So also f a spherical soap bubble f radius r ; but

or o

now p denotes the e x cess o f the pressure in the interior

over atmosphe ic pressure (the gauge pressure ) and the
r -
,

tension T is that due to both sides o f the liquid film .

2 9 5 If two liquid spheres B and C are now brought

.

together and the liquids do no t mingle the compound

, ,

mass will come to rest in a configuration consistin g o f ,

two intersecting segments o f spheres cons t ituting the ,

outside surface and a third spherical segment as the

,

interface f th e liquids the body thus forming a sort f

o ,
o

compound lens or meniscus (fig .

Th e angles 8 y at which the spherical surfaces meet

a, , , , ,

are the same the angles w h i h three balancing forces

as c

make with each other when their magnitudes are th e ,

surface tensions f the inter face and f t he e x terior

o o

sur faces of the liqu ids denote d by T T T A de , E C, C A, A E,

noti g the e x t erior medium air suppose ; an d represen t ed

n ,

by the triangle f fo ces a b the angles of which are the

o r e,

supplements o f 3 y a, , ,
.

In the illustra t ion given by S i W T homson B is r .

,

forme d o f su l phate f zinc and C o f carbon bisulphide

o ,

and the angles f contact are o and

A ccording to Lord R ayleigh however (M axwell H e t , , a ,

p. this tria gle f tensions can never be observed

n o ,

as a thin film f the liquid f inter mediate tension

o o

always spreads on the interface f the two other fluids o .

D enoting by the radii of the spherical sur

r
1 , r
2 , r
3

faces and by
,
the radi s f the circle in which t hey
r u o

in t ersect ; then f the equilibrium f the sur face b

or o e

t ween B and C ,

QA TB
7
23 7 0
‘
T 7s
I
4 02 S URE A CE TE NS ION
A lso as ,
e x ercise the stude t may prove
,
n

1 2 00 3 1
"

T
7 7 ? 73
2

1 2 coS
6
3
+
1
,

Fo r insta nce with liqu id films , a § 7r , and

3 1 1 l 1 1 1 l l
s
? 3
2
"

4.

r
a
r r
?
a 2
r3
.
; 7 r3 r
2 g 3 3 l

2 9 6 If a third s phere o f another liquid was brought

.

into contact a compound body would be formed bounded

, ,

by portions o f spherica l surfaces ; and the same condi

tions would have to be satisfied at the inte rfaces and
edge s o f inte rsection with the additional con ditions o f
,

equili briu m of the points o f intersection ; and so on for

an agg egation o f any n umber o f liqu ids
r .

T h e equilib riu m f the edges and o f their points o f

o

i n te rsection can be studie d in the arrangement o f the

liquid films in froth especially when im prisoned in a ,

gla ve ssel ; the tension being the same everywhere

ss ,

three films meet in an edge at angles o f and four

edges and s i x faces meet in a point at equal angles , .

Acc or ding to M ax well (M a th e ma ti ca l Tri p os ,

the number o f regions and edges is equal to the number

o f faces and poin ts .

2 9 7 S uppose the regular arrangement o f the spheres

.

in 5 3 3 was subjected to a uni for m squeezing pressure ;

the spheres i f pl astic would be flattened into rh ombi c
do deca h e dron s in which any two a djacen t faces are i n
,
4 04 S URE A CE TE NS ION .

In a V shaped groove in B straight or circular the

-
, ,

liquid C will gather in a cylindrical or ring shape having ,

the same a gle f contact n o .

2 9 9 S p pose a volume V f t h
. u liq id C is between e e u

two pa rallel p l anes B and B a small distance d apart ; ’

it wi l l meet these planes at the angle f con tac t and o a

form a film f area A suppose ,

o .

T hen neglecting the curvature o f the outline o f the

,

film the pressure in the liquid C will be less than the

,

pressure outside by 2 T o / d T denoting the surface c s a ,

ten ion o f C ; and the planes will be pressed together

s

in consequence by a thrust
2 A T cos / d = 2 VT cos / d c c

which becomes conside able when d is small r .

A parallel plane dividi g the liquid into t wo parts f ,

n o

volumes V and V will have a position of equilibrium

I 2. ,

at dista nces and y f om the fixed planes where

a
s r ,

but this p osition f equilibrium will be unstable d the o ,

an

plane w i ll stick to one other f the two fi xed planes or o .

Th R egelation
e f Ice may be explained in this o

manne ; and also the sticking together f t wo accurate

r o

plane su faces in consequen e f the apillarity o f the i I

r ,
c o c a r .

3 00 W hen a la ge numbe n f rain drops f radius

. r r o o r

coalesce into a single drop f radius R then the volume o ,

of wate r being unchanged ,

fi R “ or R n é -

a r .

T h diminution f sur face is th s

e o u

4
mm 2
R 2
) 47 m 7i §
)r
2
”(a s 1 )R ; 2

so that sur face energy has been liberated amounting to

4 7r(n mr a
;
 RIS E IN C PILL A A R Y T UB E .
4 05

a nd it is supposed that this is the source of the electric

energy in a thundersto m r .

T hus i f a thousand million rain drops coalesce to form

a single drop 0 1 inch in diamete n = 1 0 and 4 R = r,
9 2

and with T = 3 2 3 g i / i n h this energy amounts to

,
'

ra n s c ,

(
7r1 0 x 33
2 3 inch g ains or 0 0 0 1 2 3 f t l b -
r ,
-
.

A cubic foot f water will make about 3 30 millions o f

o

such la ge d ps so that the corresponding energy would

r r0 ,

be abou t 4 00 thousand ft l b -
.

301 When we return to the sur face f the earth and

. o ,

restore gravity the shape f the liqui ds will be con

, o

s i de bl y altered as shown f
ra instance i n fig 8 9 p 4 00 ;
,
or .
, .

but the conditions of equilibrium of the edges will remain

the same as before .

T o determine the height h (ins ) which a liquid f o

density w and sur face tension T

will ascend in a ca p illary t ube f internal bore d (ins ) o ,

when is the angle of con t act f the liquid with the

a o

solid of the t be ; take h to denote the mea n height f

u o

the column above the level f the liquid outside so that o ,

i d h w is the weight f t he column in grains

g
n o .

T hen resolving vertically ,

d T cos i d h w z
’

w 7r a ,

4 T cos 4 a
2
c c os a
’
w et d
on p utting so t hat h is inversely as d
=
T /w c ;
2
.

302 If t he tube is slightly conical 8 denoting the

.
, ,

semi vertical angle and the verte x is at a heigh t a above

-
,

the outside surface the n ,

2 (a h ) tan 8 T cos (
7r
B ) w h ( t h,) tan 8 a n (
2 2
, ,

( B) e t 8
2
ah h 2
20 008 a e , ,
40 6 A
C PILL AR Y A T T RA C TION .

a quad atic fo h o f which the smaller root gives the

r r ,

stable po sition f equilibrium ; the larger root will give a

o

position f equilibrium which will tend to fill t he cone

o .

T h e p te n ti a l e n e g y o f the liquid aise d is

o r r
z
l av ira- i’
tan fi la § w7r(a h) 3
ta n 2
,
8 {h + i (a h )}

a , h n t a
- 2 2
tan 2
8 6
,
( }; 2)
2 a 3

redu ing to a constant :s wc c s f a cylin drical tube

c ,
‘
o
2
a, or .

T h e height h to whi h the liquid ascends is inde c

pendent o f the shape o f the vessel e x cept at the part ,

ne ar t h u pper sur face

e .

In this way the i o f sap in t rees may be e x plai n ed

r se .

Fig . 90 .

3 03 . the ise h between two parallel vertical

Fo r r , ,

plane plates a distance cl apart we have

, ,

2T = w dh or h 2 T c / wd
cos a , os a ,

h a lf the rise in a circular tube as is easily observed , .

If the plates are vertica l but not quite parallel then , ,

d varies as a; the dis tance from the line f in t ersec t ion of o

4 08 TH E C PILL A AR Y C UR VE .

exact position f K is determined by Li ppmann

Th e o

by observing the position f the fl i at K f a spo t o re e x on o

of light approximate ly at the same level ; he fin ds

T = 4 8 g/ m f merc ry and air
or u .

If I denotes the height f the drop and

t the angle o f o , a

contact ,

h = 2 0 sin 5 ; a

an d in some barometers the level f the mercury in the o

cister is kept constant by allowing the mercury to

n

overflow as a large flat drop ove a ho izontal plate r r .

If the angle f contact is acute as with water the

o , ,

c pillary surfac e is elevated above the asymptotic hori

a

zen ta l p l ; so tha t the point X does not e x ist on a

ane

dro p f water on a horizontal plate

o .

306 If a plane pla t e f glass is placed vertically in

. o

water or mercury the liquid will be raised or depressed

,

to equal dis tances on each side ; but now i f the pla t e is

inclined at an angle B to the vertical the slope f the ,
o

c pillary cu ves at their contact w ill be changed from

a r

tw to t —
Ba and lfl l B; n
—
a
—
r
—
a
- -

so that the di fference f elevation f the edges f the o o o

liquid will be
2 { i (i
c s n 7r sin (l t - - —
vr a

or the distance between the edges measured pa allel to , r

the pla t e f thickness b suppose will be

,
o ,

a} b tan B+ 4: os (i l ) sin 5B sec B c c -

zr a ,

When B= § the free su fa e on one side f the

7r
—
a, r c o

plate is undis t urbed f om the horizontal p l ane and this r ,

can be observed with p e ision ; and now r c

a) (b+ 2 ) tan B : c .

3 07 B etween t w parallel verti al p l anes the liquid

. o c

will be raised or de pressed to a g eater extent ; the r

 TH E LIN TE A RIA OR E L A S TICA .
4 09

vertical cross section is shown in the curve A P f fig 9 0 o .

,

and this curve is found to be th e same as B ernoulli s ’

Li n t a i
e or E l sti ca f which t h e capilla y curve is
r a a ,
o r

a pa ticular case
r .

T aking Oy in the undis t urbed horizontal f ree su face r

o f the liquid the pressure at a depth as below i t will

,

e x cee d the atmospheric pressure by wee ; so tha t resolving ,

horizontally and vertically the equilib ium f unit length ,

r o

o f the liquid f cross section OA PN gives w ith OA = a

, o , , ,

wa ) ( a T I cos s)
a
s ? z
,

w . OA PN = T s i n 7)
These are also the conditions f equilibrium f a o o

flexible watertight cylind i al su face (a tar paulin ) dis r c r

tended by water under a head equal t o the depth below

,

the level o f O ; the tension T being constant f the same or

reason that the tension f a r e pe round a smooth surface o

is constant ; the curve AP is called the Li n te a i a (the r

sail c ve ) in consequence
ur .

If the water pressure acted on the upper side f A P o ,

the tension T would become changed into a thrust or

pressure this a angeme t would be unstable unless th e
rr n

fl exibility f A P was destroyed ; and now Rankine s

o
’

H yd os ta ti c A h is realised in which the thrus t is

r rc ,

uni form when the load is due to material f u n iform

,
o

density rea hing to the level O

c cc .

3 08 T h di fferenti tion o f these equations gives

. e a

T sin pl
w
g? il ? or aa
p
=c (
ft

T his can be proved di ec t ly by considering the equi r

librium o f the elementary pp whose middle poin t a rc

’

is P and centre f curvature Q ; the hyd os tatic thrust

o r

wx p p on the cho d p p is balanced by 2 T sin P Qp the

’ ’
. r ,
41 0 TH E E Q UILIB RI UM OE

com ponent of the tensions along the normal so that ,

2 sin P Qp T
wx = T l t
PP P
cu vatu e Up is thus proportional to the distan e
Th e r r c

a: f om O
r
y so that the curve A P is also the E l ti
, as ca ,

the curve ssumed by a h w f uni fo m fl x u l i g i di ty

a o ,
o r e ra r

B bent by a tension E in O ; the bending moment E

,
y d

at P is then equal to the moment f resilience B / p and o ,

F/ B T/ u 0
2
l 0

Fig . 91 . Fi g . 92 .

3 09 . represents the vertical section f a

If fig . 90 o

circular tube and f the corresponding capillary sur

, o

f aces f revolution the curves are o f a m uch more

o ,

complicated analytical nature .

Th general proper t y f all such ca pillary sur faces

e o ,

separating two fl uids at di fferent pre sures is expressed s ,

by the f ct tha t the di fference o f pressure on the t w

a
“
o

sides is e qual to the produc t o f the surface tension and

f the total cu vature f the sur f ace the t t l
”
o r t o ,
o a c u rv a u re

being defined as the su m f the reciprocals of the t w o o

p irn i
p l
c d i i f a t f
ra the sur f ace o c u r v a u re o .

T prove this take a small element o f the sur face

o ,

at P t out by lines equidis t ant f rom P and parallel

cu
41 2 TH E C O S T N R UC TION OE

In a conical su face P Q is infinite and the value f r , ,

o

T in 2 7 9 is obtained immediately
2 .

In a su face of evolution A P (fig 9 1 ) abo t 0 as

r r ,
u 93

axis the principal adii f cu vat e

,
P Q and P G the r o r ur a re ,

radi s f u vat re and no mal to 0 f the meridian

u o c r u r 512 o

c rve A P so that i t filled to the level LL

u ,
’

w .
-

G ) ,

1 LP ,
1
°

PQ PG
complete inte gration of this intrinsic relation is
Th e
intractable b t the c rve A P can be d awn '

u Y oung u r , as

pointed out in 1 8 04 by means f s ccessive small , o u

arcs stru k with Q as centre this method w first p t

,
c as u

into operation by Pro f John Perry acting nder the .

,
u

instr ctions f S i W T homson in 1 8 74 ; and now M

u o r .
,
r .

C V B oys has constructed a celluloid scale with recip

. .

ro ca l grad ations (fig by means f which the curves

u . o

c a be drawn with e se and rapidity

n a .

Th scale carries a glass pen at P and is pivoted

e ,

instantaneously at Q by means f a b ass t ipod pro o r r ,

v i d d with three needle points two f which stick in the

e ,
o

paper and the thi d ac ts the centre at Q

,
r as .

3 1 2 S i W T homson ill strates the f orm f a li q uid

. r . u o

d op and generally f a flexible el s tic sur face by means

r , o a ,

o f a sheet f i di bb f astened to a ho izontal circula

o n a ru er r r

ring ; water is pou ed into the shee t by which it is dis r ,

tended and assumes a variety f f orms f revolution o o

about a vertical axis (fig .

D enoting by T and T the tension per unit length f

’
o

t h sur f ace in the di ection f the meridian A P and pe

e r o r

p n di
e l to it then at the
c u ar sectio PP f diameter
,
2 y n
’

,
o ,
 CA PILL AR Y S UR E A CE S .
41 3

where the sur face makes an angle j with t he vertical

“

i f ,

2 yT cos a w volume LP A P L
’ ’
7r

2
a 1 0 7ry (h a ) ,

ifthe vessel is filled to a heigh t h above the lowes t point

A with liquid f density t ; and the value o f T is then
’
o o

given by t he charac t eristic equation

’
T T
—
x ) .

As an exercise the s t uden t may prove that

so tha t T is a max or min ei t her when \b = 0 t ha t is a t

. .
, ,

the wides t or narrowes t par t f t he sur f ace and then o

d T T
’
Z
T
’
T T —

2
d8 yp
or else when T T ’
.

If however T should t urn o t nega t ive t he sur f ace

’

, , u ,

would t end to pucker .

T hus as exercises the s t uden t may prove t hat i f the

, ,

sur face is a paraboloid generated by y = 4 am then ,

2
,

a
T 2
+ 8 ah + 9 a )
2
(a 5J6 4
.
- s0 2
8 0
so t hat 7 is negative and the sur face will p cker Wh ere u

2
a 8 ah + 9 a );
while in a sphere , of radius a ,

2a — w
which is always posi t ive if bu t if h < %a ,

T is negative where
’

x <
a a +h> —
h >e a
414 P RINCIPLE OE A R CHIM E DE S
We may consider also the stresses in a C atenoid 3 1 9 )
due to a constant press re di fference p on its two sides u .

A closed s rface c nnot be de f ormed withou t stretch

u a

ing or contraction in the material ; so that pouring in

liquid cannot alt r t he shape i f the mate ial is i e r ne x

ten ible s .

B t i f fig 9 3 represents the c oss section f a cylinder

u . r o

with horizontal gene ating lines the su face i f flexible r ,

r

will s me the f orm f the Li t e i ; b t i f it possesses

as u o n ar a u

fl i i di y the be n di n g mom t at any point P

'

ex l
u ra
r g t ,
en

can be calculated f a given c oss section or r .

S uppose f example that the cross section is circula

,
or ,
r,

as in a boiler filled p to a depth h or in the pontoon f u ,

o

fig 4 5 p 1 9 0 floating t o a dra ft h ; be ding moments

.
,
.
,
n

and shea ing stre ses are called into play which can be
r s ,

calculated as an exercise .

3 1 3 M difi t i
.
of
o A r h i m de P i
can ci p l by Con
p i l c e s
’
r e a

l a ri ty .

W hen the s r face o f the liq id is depressed by a

u u

floating body as a needle on water or a platinum ball

,

on mercury the upward buoyancy o iginally due t o the

, ,
r

displaced liquid when the sur face is undisturbed f rom

the l evel plane is increased by the weight f the volume
, o

o f li q uid depressed below this plane that is the volume , ,

re q uired to fill up the li q id to its original level u .

T his f ollows immediately i f w suppose t he body is e

provided with a weightless projection fitting close ,

against t h capillary surface which may w be sup

e ,
no

posed deprived f its capilla y tens i on o r .

S o also in the ca e o f an ordinary body floating in s ,

liqu id which wets it like water the buoyancy is dimin , ,

i h d by the weight o f the volume f liquid raised above

s e o
416 SO P B A UB B LE S
Thus if a number o f bubbles coalesce in t o a singl e
bubble o f radius R sur f ace S and volume V
, , ,

p Z U -

i -
TS ,

V Ev 2 T
_
S 3 55
’
28 —

or the incre as e o f volume bears a constant rat io to the

decrease o f sur face .

T h e air inside a bubble o f radius at volume v and r

pressure p + 2 T/ would occupy a volume

r,

at atmospheric pressure ; f instance when t he bubble or ,

bursts .

T hus a volume Av = 2 T / p r f t mo ph i c air has

'

v o a s er

been f orced into the volume ; and the work required v

is 2 3 3 )
2 2 2
1 (Av ) 2T v 2 T a ,

2 p v r
g
3 pr
p
while the work re q uired to f orm t he sur face is T8 ; the
ra t io is thus % T/p r .

If the barometric height h f alls a small dis tance Ah ,

t he radius o f the bubble will incre ase A given by r,

.
q

31 5 . Whena bubble is electrified the radius is i , n

creased i n conse q uence f the electrical repulsion 2 m

o , 7
?

per unit area i f ,

deno te s the sur f ace elec trification
0
'

(M axwell E l tri ci ty n d M g n e ti sm I C hap VIII )

,
ec a a ,
.
,
. .

If the radius increases f rom to a when the bubble r

is el ectrified to pote ntial A then the charge E = A a d , a, n

E
0
'
_ .

2
4 7ra 4 7rd
 A N D LI Q UID FILMS .
417

If p now denotes the pressure

’
of the a i r,

2T 3

( )
r
p p 2 and p
—
’
7ro
- 2 ’

p
7
T
,
( a

by B oyle s law and there f ore

’

A z
a 2 2
p(a
3
r
3
) 2 T(a r ) .

8 7r
If p =
p
’

,
then A 2 : l 67ra T, and the elect ric energy is
2
éE A gA z
a 8 7ra T 2 S T,
or double the surf ace energy f the bubble o .

3 1 6 If a ci cle o f wire is dipped into a basin f soapy

. r o

wat er and raised gently in a horizontal position a sur

, ,

f ace o f revolution is f ormed by t he film sticking to the

wire orthogonal to the sur face o f the wa t er and the
, ,

meridian curve is a c t n a y a e r .

Fo neglecting t he weight o f the film the condi t ion f

r ,
o

e q uilib iu m o f the zone cut o ff by an upper horizontal

r

circle PP f radius y and by the circle CC on the

’

,
o ,
’

water of radi s suppose is

,
u 0 ,

2 yT cos \b 27r T or y cos 7rc , c,

where (b deno t es the angle M P G be tween t he ordinate

P M and the normal P G .

D ropping the perpendicular M B on the normal then ,

PH = c a constant a property o f the catenary

, , .

3 1 7 T h e film always breaks when the height f the

. o

wire above t he water exceeds a certain amount about ,

one third the diameter of the wire circle ; this may be

—

accoun t ed f as f ollows or

While the wire is at a modera t e distance f rom t he

water two t n i d can theoretically be drawn satis fy
, ca e o s ,

conditions and corresponding to the two loops or

,

s in which an endless chain will hang over two

p l l iuat the sameeslevel not too f apart , ar .

2 1)
418 TH E TE NGIB ,

T hese ca tenoids are similar surfaces and thei r common ,

tangent cone will have its vertex on the su f ace f the r o

wate ; and thus the tangent cones along the j unc t ion
r

B B with the wire will have their ve tices one below

’
r ,

and t h other above the water the second sur f ace being
e ,

unstable and there fore non existent -

.

A t a certain distance f the wire f rom the wa t er these o ,

two catenoids coalesce j ust as the two f estoons f the , o

endless chain coalesce when the p l l i exceed a certain u es

distance apart and the li q uid film always b eaks at this r

distance that is when the vertex f the tangen t con e

, ,
o

round the edge f the wire reaches the surf ace In fact
o .
,

the p lane film f ormed on the wi e circle is now f o nd t r u o

have a smaller area than the corresponding ca t enoid .

3 1 8 If air is blown into the space bounded by the

.

ca tenoid and the plane film sticking to the wire circle , ,

or i f i is removed ; the p essure in this space exceeds

a r r

or f alls below the atmospheric pressure by a certain

amount which we can denote by T/ ; so that 2 a a
,
a is

length the radius f the sphe e into which the plane

,
o r

film is bulged and the meridian curve CPB f the o s ur

f ace Will change still h owever cutting the sur f ace f t he

, o

wate at right angles at C (figs 9 3

r .
,

C o sidering the e q uilib ium f the zone o f the film

n r o ,

bounded by the horizontal circles PP and C C ’ ’

2 yT cos x/ T = (y ) é or (
2 — 2 2
7r 2 x
—
y 7re 7r c 7r c -

or 2 (y gb ) =
ya or co s
y
—
c
2 —
c ,
0
2 — 2
,

a cording as the pressure inside is increased or diminished ;

c

there f ore writing n f the length f the normal P G

,
or o ,

2 2
2d c 0 2a 20 0 0 2a
2
— 1 or
2
v n v v
4 20 T HE HE L IC OID .

the roulette f the f oc s f a pa abola is a catenary as

o u o r ,

is well kno wn .

T h su f ace f ormed by the re v olution f the oulette

e r o r

o f the f oc s f an elli p se is called the n d l i d and by

u o u u o ,

the roulette f the f ocus f a hyperbola the d i d the

o o no o ,

surf ace f ormed by the catenary has already been called

th t n oi d
e ca e .

Th und loid becomes a cylinde when the olling

e u r r

ellipse is a circle : and it becom e s a sphere or a series f , o

contiguous spheres when the elli pse degenerates into a ,

finite st aight l i r ne .

T h po tion f the
e r d i d f ormed by the revolution f
o no o o

a loop must be taken as having the inte nal pressure r

T / over atmospheric pressure ; this ca be prod ced by

a n u

blowing a b bble between two plates f glass propped

u o ,

open at a small angle by a p iece f wood at the node o .

If the portion f the catenoid bounded by the planeso

B B and C C could be solidified without losing its

’ ’

flexi bility then on cutting it open along a meridian

,

CPB and pulling CC out straight the su f ace will t ake

’

, ,
r

the f orm f the h l i co i d the sur face a su med by a film

o e , s

sticking to a uni f orm helix and its axis .

If any section PP f the C atenoid is rep l aced by a

’
o

thread or wire the tension due to the film above or the

, ,

thrust d to the film below will be yT i rb or T i f

ue s n 3 , s

denotes the CP ; and the st ess in the corresponding

a rc r

spiral on the H elicoid will be f ound to be

2

where is the radius

s of the cylinde on which the spi al
r r

is wo n d (C V B oys
u . .
,
S o ap B u bbl e s .
)
 T HIC KNE S S OF T HE E ] LM .
421

320 In these investiga t ions the weigh t f the li q uid

. o

film has been taken as insensible ; otherwise the weight

would influence t he result as in tents and marquees ,
.

B t the thickness f the liquid films as determined

u o ,

by Reinold and R ucker f rom optical me s rements a u ,

may be as small as l 2 , ; and hal f a litre o f oi l poured

a a
,

on the surface of the sea h been f ound to cover 1 0 as

9
c 11 1
2
,

or 1 00 m s q uare witho t losi g its continuity implying

,
u n ,

a thickness f b t this thin film is still e ffective

o u

for checkin g the ripples and small waves and calmi g n

the surface f the sea in a storm

o .

M any interes t ing ma x im m and minimum problems u

can be solved in a simple manner f om the me hanical r c

considerations involved in the theory f fl exible sur f aces o

under tension as f o instance r

T h e circle has the g eatest area f given perimete ;

r or r

illustrated by an endless thread in a p l ane film when ,

t h film in its interior is broken

e .

T h sphere has the greatest volume f o g iven sur f ace ;

e r

illustrated by t he soap bubble .

T w o segmen t s on given bases and f given perimeter o

will enclose a maximu m area when they are arcs f o

equal ci cles realised by passing the endless thread

r ,

through rings at the ends f the bases ; and so also f o ,

or

spherical segments on given circles realised by blowing ,

bubbles o the ends f a f rus t um f a cone ; etc

n o o .

E x a mp l e s .

(1 ) Prove that the height o f a flat drop o f mercury is

a mean proportional between the diameter f a o

capillary tube and the depth t o which mercury is

,

dep essed in it supposing the a gle f contact

r ,
n o
422 E XA M PL ES .

()
2 Inves tigate the coe fficient f expansion f the radius o o

f a soap bubble s p p osing that the sur f ace ten

o ,
u

sion diminishes uni f o m l y with the temperat e r ur .

()
3 A soap b bble f radius u is blown inside another f
o a o

radius b ; and the radii change to and b when a

’ ’

the atmospheric pressure ha ges from p to p c n

’

P ove that r

2
b b (a
’ ’
b b
’
3 3 3 3
)
’
3
a a a
p °

b ) (b b b
’ ’
’
2 3 3 3 ’
3 3 3
p a a a a

(4 ) Prove that a flexible su face f s perfi ial density r ,

o u c

l b/ ft
as han g ing a ho izontal cylinder the
Q
,
as r

ve tical cross section f whi h is a ca tena y is

r o c r ,

changed by a pressu e di fference p l b/ ft on its r

2

si des into a cylinder in which the tension ac oss r

a g ene ating line is still wy whe e y is the height

r
r
,
r

above a fixed horizontal plane and in which the ,

adi s f cu vatu e is ha ged to

r u o r r c n

2
w v .

p + w a

if y= a where the slo pe gh

z O; a l so that
(p + w cos

e ermine the e q u tion f this ve

D t a o cur .

(5 ) P ove that i f
r denote the adii f curvature f a
r, r
’
r o o

p air f e
p p endi ula o no mal se tions frthe sur c r r c o

face i g 3 09 making an angle 15 with the lines f

n , ( o

urvatu e ; d i f t t and denote the cor e

c r an ,
’

,
u r

sp nding normal tensions and t ngenti l stress

e a a ,

due to a p ess e di ffe ence p ; then r ur r

"

_ t t 1 1
_ —
+
p r T
,
r 7 r R
whe e R r , R
’
denote the p incip l ad r a r ii o f c vat e ur ur .
4 24 R
P E S S LR E IN
'
A S CE NDING
uppose then that a b cket A and a counter poise B
S u ,

or else two buckets A d B suspended by a ope an ,

are r

over a pulley and that eq uilib ium is destroyed nd

, r a

motion takes pla e in onse q uence f the ineq ality

c ,
c o u

of the weights f A and B o .

D enoting these weights i lb by W and W by T n

’

pounds the tension f the rope by the ve tical o , a r ac

l ti
c e e ra f A and B and by g the accele ation
on o f ,
r o

gravity in ft/ c ; then by the principles f E lementa y

,
se
Q
o r

Dynamics and by N ewton s S econd L w f Motio

’
a o n,

W W W W
’
T T
’
a —

W w+ w
.

5 W ’ "

and the e fo e r r

the "M f W and W

. o
’
.

W sup pose the preponde ating b cket A to be red ed

e r u uc

to rest by ap plyin g to i t an upward acce l eration ; so a

that now the pressure at any dep t h in th wate in the 2 e r

bucket becomes changed f om r

D to D 1
) z z
<g — .

If Bwas also a b cket f water the p essu e at a u o ,

r r

de p th in it would be hanged from

2: c

Dz to Dz l +
<3>
Ifthe buckets are cylindrical and f weight negl igi ble o

com pared with the water they ontain then the hyd o c ,
r

stati thr st the bottom f the buckets is

c u on o

W
( ) 1 J ?
t’
or
9
ea h e q ual to
c T ,
as is o the w ise evident r .
 A ND D E S CE ND] NC B UCIi E TS
'

.
425

a omete s attached to A and B standing at a heigh t

B r r ,

h when at rest would now have heights ,

h h
and
1 a /g 1 /g a

S o also with a bucket attached to a sprin g per forming ,

vertical simple harmonic oscillations or placed on a

, ,

vessel perfo ming dipping oscillations ; or with the water

r

on the t o p f the piston f a ve tical e gine a horizon t al

o o r n

plane f cleavage may make its appearance when th e

o

amplitude and speed f the oscillations is su fficiently o

increase d .

3 2 3 S uppose now that in each bucket a pa t f t h

. r o e

weight W or W consists f a piece f co k f S G 3

,
’

, o o r o . . .

If the co ks floatin g freely

r change will take
a re no

place in consequen e f the motion c o .

B t i f com pletely submerged by a thread attached to

u

th ebottom f the bucket then denoti g the tensions f

o ,
n o

the thread in A by P lb and the weigh t f the cork by ,

o

M l b the buoyancy f the cork at rest will be M / lb ; and

,
o s

there fore in motion wil l be

M
8 O
T here fore

and if
P=M 1

1 s
< w
P becomes negative and t he body must be
us e —
;

s p posed suspended by a thread f om the t p f the

u r 0 o

b ket
uc .

F the tension f the thread in B the sign o f a must

or o

be reversed .

S u ppose W W so that the b kets bala ce ; then i f

’
:
,
uc n

th ethre d holding do w n the co k M in A is t the

a r cu ,
4 26 U
IM P LS I VE P E S S R UR E
equilibrium is destroyed ; and the student may prove as
an exe cise that the bucket A will descend and the co k
r ,
r

will rise th ough the wate with accele ations respectively

r r, r

1 M 1 W
(°
2
g and
—
l
> -
1
)
his treatment as in § 1 4 8 i g nores the motion f the
T , , o

water d to the passag e f the co k ; b t as in § 1 4 9

ue o r u , ,

the esult can be corrected f a Small s pheric l or yl i

r or a c n

d i l cork in a la ge vessel
r ca r .

3 2 4 If the bu ket A st ikes the ground with velocity

. c r

v and is s ddenly red ced to rest an impulsive press re

u u ,
u

is set up f an instant in the w ater

or .

S uppose however that the impact takes an appreciable

, ,

time t se onds
, c .

T stop the body A weighing W lb movin g with

o ,

velocity ft/ in a sho t time t se onds re q ui es an

v s e c, r c ,
r

average resistan e R f the g ound given in pounds by

c o r ,

Wv
gt
p oduct R t f the force f R pounds d f the
Th e r o o an o

t seconds f which it acts is called the i mp l in

or u se ,

n d p o u ds ;
s ec o -
d its me hanical equivalent W /g is
n an c v

cal led the momentum also in sec l b f W l b moving ,

-
,
o

with velocity ft / c v se .

T stop the water i the bucket reaching to a depth

o n

ft re q uires the e fore a f o ce D /g t p ounds ft de

r r z av ,
a
2

noting the cross se tio f the bucket or a pressu e c n o , r

D /g t l b/ ft compared with which the p essure due to

ev
g
,
r

g avity is insensible when t becomes small so that the

r ,

b cket r ns the risk f bursting when it strikes the

u u o
4 28 TH E H YD RA ULIC RA M .

also in shutting ff quickly in 75 seconds a

326 S O
. O , ,

stop valve i a wate pipe or main l ft long filled with

n r , ,

wate flowing with velocity ft /

r the pressu e in the v s e c, r

neighbourhood f the valve is increased by O

D v /g t l b/ t ;
l f z

this may become excessive is made too small if t .

Th increase f p ressu e due to a sudde heck f

e o r n c o

motion in a pi pe is alled wa t m ; so also in the c er ra

imp act f sea waves the sp ay is sent to a great height

o ,
r .

T diminish the sho k f water ram an air vessel m st

O c O , u

h provided
e in fig 78 p 3 60 ; and if p denot s the ave
,
as .
,
. e r

ag epressu e f the ushion f air the wate is sto pped in

r O c O ,
r

t = D l /g p seconds v ,

during whi h the average velocity is $ 3 so that

c 1

$0 15 $1 1 D l v /g2) ft
2 3
q A :

o wate enters the air vessel i f the cross section f the

f r , o

main is A ft ; and this water 2

be delivered at a c an

pressure or to a head h =p / D ft i f its return into the ,

main is p reve ted by a valve n .

T his is the princi ple f M ontgol fi er s h yd m

’
li o ra u c ra ,

in which the main is laid at a slope with a fall f , O

H feet su p pose and a valve at the lo wer end pens and

,
O

shuts automatically to start d check the flow ,

an .

If the valve is open T seconds f th ol mn f water or e c u O

i the main to acqui e the ve l ocity

n then r v ,

’
U =
and the wate which flows r o u t Of the valve is in ,
ft 3
,

=
Q A l
i>; s gA v /g H .

S in e
c (
1 ft is the eby li fted to an e ffe tive hei g ht
3
r c

h — H ft ,
the e ffi iency is c

e (h H)
QH
 TH E GA UG E G L SS A .
4 29

327 onsider w the p essu e in li q id which is

. C no r r u

moving bodily i a vessel with given acceleration a in n ,

a fixed directio n like the water in the boile or ten der,

r

o f a lo omoti ve enginec .

It is convenient to reduce D ynamical problems to a

question f S tatics by the application Of D A l mb t
O
’
e er
’
s

principle which asserts that the reversed e ffective forces

,
“

and impressed forces f a system are in equilibrium the o ,

”

ff
e e t i v e
c f ce f any par t icle or body being
O defined as or

the fo ce req ired to give it the acceleration whi h it

r u c

a tually takes
c .

T hus i f the weigh t f a particle is m lb and i f it has O ,

an ac eleration a f t/ c in a given di ection its e ffec t ive

c se
2
r ,

fo ce is m /g pounds (ma poundals ) in that direction ;

r a ,

i nC G S units the effective force f m g moving with

. . . O

acceleration a p n d is ma dynes s o s .

If the particle is carried along steadily by the vessel as

a plumb bob at the d of a short th ead this t hread will en r ,

there fo e assume the direction Of the resultant f g and f

r o o

a revers ed .

Th sur faces f equal pressure in the liquid will be

e o

parallel planes p erpendicular to this direction f the O

pl mb line ; and there fo e the free surf ce i f it exists

u r a , ,

will also have t h i direction when the liquid moves s ,

bodily with the vessel .

A y floating body will occupy t h

n same position as e

be fore relative to t h i s new free surface all the forces

, ,

being cha ged in the same ratio n .

3 2 8 T h level f the su face f the water in the boiler

. e o r O

is marked in the gauge glass and now i f the

engine o iginally on the level is standing or running
,
r ,

steadily with uni for m velocity on an incline the mean a,

+3 0 C H AN G E OF LE VE L

wate level will still be a horizontal plane FL makin g

r
I,

an angle with its original plane FL t h nodal line f the

a , e O

two su faces passing th ough F the C G f the wate line

r r , . . O r

a re a so that i f is the distan e f the glass tube e c O

f om this nodal line the hange f level in the gauge

r , c O

gla s is tan (fig

s 0 a .

B t if the engine and t rain is movin g f eely with

u r

a celeration 9 sin down the incline the di e tion f the

c a , r c O

attached plumb line and f the normal to the su fa es f O r c o

equal pre s re will be that f the resultant f g and

s u o o

g i
s n a eve sed and will
r there f
rore be er
p p
,
endi ula to c r

the ails ; so that the water i n the g auge gl ass will

r

retur to i t normal position

n s .

3 2 9 When s t eam is tu ned on the engine will re eive

. r , c

an ad ditional a ele ation which we may sup pose

cc r a,

c onstant and re presented by f t so tha t the reversed a,

a celeration p the plane is

c u

+ g sin a a

and t h plumb l i will now make an angle 9 wit h the

e ne

pe pen di ula to the rails given by

r c r ,

t 6 = a /g cos an a .

T h water level FL will b pe pendicula to the plumb

e
2
e r r

line so that the height f the wat r i the glass will

,
O e
n

change by tan 9 /g 0 : Oct cos a ,

and will be the same whethe the engine is going p or r u

down the incline .

C onversely when steam is shut ff and the brakes f lly O u

a pplied the e ta dation produced with a coe ffi ient f

,
r r c O

f ic t ion
r will be My os ; and now the pl mb line and
u
,
c a u

su faces f equal press e will be deviated with respe t

r O ur c

to the ga g e g lass through the angle f f iction

u O r
 L E VE L IN 1 M O IIN G VE S S E L
'

432 . .

T he i f the tumblers will spill when the level f the

n O

water makes an angle with the ho izon h is accele a a r ,

r

tion or retarda t ion is rest icted to g t ; so that u r an a

t h shor t est time in seconds he can move a distan e l feet

e c

from e t to res t is given by

r s

t = 2 l/v ,
where i t
3 =a Ql ,

or v J ai l ) ,

th s
u cot /g ) t= a .

B y j udi iously in lining the tray he

c however c c a n, ,

keep t h tumblers from sli pping and the water from

e

spil ling .

3 3 2 Again suppose a tumble

. f water is placed on a
,
r o

ta ble in a railway t ain on a level railway then the mean r

level f the wate r is hanged when the train is getting

o c

up s peed is coming to rest as on t h e waiter s tray

or ,
’

but will be level when the train is going at full s peed on

t h st aigh t
e r .

B t on coming to a urve f radius

u fee t then i f the c o r ,

s peed is f/ the acceler tion f t h tumbler is v / f/

v s, a o e
g
r s
2

to the centre f t h curve so that t h slope Of the mean

o e e

level f the water in the tumbler will b a t an angle

o e

whose tangent is v /g r ; and the mean sur face f the iz

O

wa ter will b at right a gles to the mean di ection f

e n r o

the plumb line o f a plummet suspe nded by a short cord

in the railway ca rriage .

If however the tumbler is f ee to slide on a smooth

, ,
r

horizontal table then on entering a curve the t umbler,

wil l proceed to describe th e i n l t of th e cu rv on the vo u e e

table be ause f containing in s pace the straight line Of

,
c o

i ts original mo t ion and w the mean level f the wa t er

,
no O

will remain a horizontal plane .

 R OTA TI
'

NG LIQ U] D .
4 33

333 Pre ssu e of Li qu i d i n a R ota ti n g Vesse l

. r .

S uppose a closed vessel filled with liquid is attached

to a wheel ro t ating about a horizon t al axis with angular
,

veloci ty adi / (0 r an s s e c .

If the cavity is a smooth sphere or horizontal cylinder ,

the liquid will not turn but every particle wi l l describe ,

a circle f radius 0 with velocity Cw where 0 deno t es th e

O ,

dis tance f t he centre Of the cavity from the ax is

O .

T h e resultant f g d Of the reversed accelera t ion Cw

o an
?

will therefore be parallel and proportional to C O the ’

line j oining C the cen t re f the cavity with the point

'
O

vert ically above 0 the ax is Of otation at a height g /w r

2

(fig 9 6
.
) and there f ore the sur faces f equal pressure will O

be parallel planes perpendicular to ,

and if A B is
parallel to C O t he pressure at B exceeds tha t at A by
’

w
33 45 B u t i f . t he cavity is
any arbi t rary form t h e Of ,

liquid will be stirred p by internal motio ; but this u n

internal motion is soo n destroyed by viscosity so

that the liquid finally moves bodily with the vessel .

(A exceptional case
n
p o m t d out in T homson and is e

T ait s N a tu a l Ph i l osop h y 7 5 9 in which the liquid is

’
r , ,

heterogeneous and a ranged i coaxial cylindrical s trata

,
r n

in which the density is inversely proportional to the

square Of the distance from an external a x is ; in this
case i f ro ta ted about a parallel axis the liquid will move
, ,

bodily with the vessel whatever the shape , ,

3 3 5 When the liquid is carried rou nd bodily any

.
,

particle Q moves in a circle Of radius r = OQ with velocity ,

rm ; and the resul t ant Of g and the reversed acceleration

w along OQ is given in magnitude and di ec t ion by

2
r r
434 S UR FA C E S OF E Q UA L PR ES S URE
Th e su
ces f e q ual pressure are now coaxial cylinders
f
r a O

round 0 as axis ; and i f A B passes through

'
and C ’

is i ts middle point the average force per uni t volume

,

from A to B is so that the p ressure at B

e x eeds t h pressure t A by
c e a

w A .

Fig 9 6 . Fig 9 7 .

hus i f the cavity spherical or cylind ical and A B is

T r

the diame t r through the pressure at A will be z ero

e

or a minimum and at B the pressure will be a maxi

,

mum a nd the same whether the liquid d or does not

,
oe s

rotate with the vessel .

In these cases t h surfaces f equal pressure are con

e o

sta n t l y changing in the vessel so that a fixed free sur ,

face is not possible ; and the liquid or liquids should fill

the vessel complete ly .

3 36 B ut f . many practical purposes as in the design

or ,

Of wa t er wheels it is assumed that the free surface may

,

b taken
e coincident with the surface f equal pressure
as O ,
4 36 S URFA CE S ’
OF E Q UA L P E S S UR E R
Of re pose f the sand ; and we may call OQU the virtual
o

slope or g adient f the sand r O .

T his an g le OQO is a maximum where the ci cle OQU

”
r

tou hes the i cle OQ and the e fore where 0 0 Q is a

c c r ,
r
"

righ t angle ; and i f OQO is the angle Of repose f the "

e, O

sand and 0 Q = ,
r,

sin
3 3 9 S fa es of E q u l P
. ur u r e i n a S wi n g i n g B o dy
c a re ss .

S uppose a bucket f water O mercurial horizo a O r n,

marine barometer a b x f sand and a plummet P l b ,

o O , , ,

at the end Of a short thread are fastened to any point Q

Of large body oscillating like a pendulum through an
a ,

a gle 2 abou t a fixed horizont l axis throu g h 0 (fig

n a a .

consider f instance a ship when 0 may be taken at the

,
or , ,

C CL and the length

.
,
f the e q uivalent pendulum (S 1 5 4 ) O

OI K / OM
fi
. .

hen the an g ular ccele a tion at an inclination

T a r 0 to
the vertic l will be a
2
01 9 g
tt t
? ()
1

i f LX d r awn pe pendi ular to 0 L meets t h e ho izontal

r c r

th o g h 0 i K ; while the angular velo ity is from

r u n c to

the Principle f E ne gy (g 1 5 5 ) given by o r

g (eos O cos )
5 0 L = (2 ) . (0
2 —
a ,

T h plumb line QP will assu me the direction f the

e O

res l tant f gravity and f the reversed fl t i fo ce

u O O e ec ve r

of P denoted in g avitation units f force by P and F

,
r O

pound s

T hen i f F makes an angle w i t h OQ the e ffective fo e ,

rc

F can be resolved into the t w components o

F 1 P OQ /g the c
c os () n t ifu g l fo ce. . a
z
‘

,
e r a r ,

F sin <1 P sin 9 the t a

) n sv l fo ce ,
r e r sa r .
 ON A S WINGING DY
BO .
4 37

As in § 3 3 3 a point 0 is taken vertically above 0 at ’

a heigh t g/ ; so that the resultant f gravity and the

a
z
O

centri fugal fo ce f P is a force

r O

pounds in the direction O Q ,

'
.

If QR is drawn pe pendicular to OQ f length OQ tan r O

so that the angle the tangential fo ce r

P i 6 = P OQ tan p
s n . (

so that the resultant Of gravity and the reve sed e ffective r

force at Q is a force T pounds in the direction O R where

'

, ,

T :
P(
If OJ is drawn per p endicular to UK, then
0 0J =
’

and the triangles OJ OQR are similar as also the ,

triangles OQJ OR O homologous sides being inclined

,
'

at an angle gs .

T h tension Of the plumb line is thus

e

T = P(J Q/ OJ
poun ds in a direction making an angle a with J Q and
,

thus the rolling f the ship converts the steady ve tical

O r

lines f force due to gravity alone into variable equi

O

angular spirals round J as pole Of radial an g le ,

sin 6
Th e sur faces f equal p essure in the bucket OI water
O r

will be cylinders the sec t ions f which are o thogonal

,
o r

e q uiangular spirals ; and the free surface i f so small ,

that the waves O it die out rapidly will be p pn ,

er en

d i c l a to the pl mb line P Q
u r u .

34 0 When the angle between the plumb line P Q and

.

the normal to the surfa e f the sand in the box exceeds c o

e the angle of repose (g th e sand will slip ; and thus

the preceding investigation will enable us to determine
4 38 ST R E SS E S D UE TO R OLLING
the tendency f a grain a go to shi f t f the wate in
O c r ,
o r

the boilers f pet oleum argo to wash about and

,
or O r c ,

to a ertain e xtent the tendency to produce sea si kness

c -
c

at any point f the shi p o .

H ence the necessity f loading grain cargo up to the O

beams and f filling petroleum tanks up to a height in

, O

the ex pansion chamber ; while the disturbing e ffect f O

the olling is seen to diminish in descending towards the

r

keel .

A marine baro met r at Q i f free t swi g in gimbals

e , o n ,

will hang in the direction QP and the mercury column , ,

i f mo b i l will stand at a heigh t y instead f h and regist r

e, o ,
e

the pressure
c h
so that
to prevent this p mp i g action the tube f the ma ine
u n ,
O r

barometer is contrac ted to a fine bore f part f its or o

length
3 4 1 A t the end
. f a ro l l and J coin ides
O c

with K ; the plumb line PQ now sets itsel f at igh t r

angles to QK d the sur face f water in the bucket

, an o

will pass through K ; while a grain ca go will slip i f r e

the angle f repose is less than the ngle between QK

o a

and the sur face at Q (P J enkins T a n .

,
r s .

T hus i f the bu ket is taken p the mast to a point C

c u ,

the wa t er will be spilt at the end f l l throu g h an O rO

angle 2 whi h would require a steady inclination

a c e

(the angle f r e pose f the sand ) given by

O O

CL CL
"

127; T
(L
tan
Th e tension T Of the plum b line is no w given by
r :
4 40 A NA L YS IS OF 1 11 E C OM B I E !)
’ ‘
N
The ombined motion will be compounded f small
c O

oscillations f sim ple p end lum type f equivalent

o u ,
O

length A given by ,

g
ri d fl
'

gO
z
’

g gy
’
al t di
:2 2 z
A a n A
so t hat we find putting P/ W= p , ,

(1 + p) a —
rh
h
p ,
l
1 +p —

A
a q uadratic f A ; and the two values f y/ O
or the O a re

heigh t s above 0 f the parallel xes about whi h the o a c

shi p rolls in the independent simple sci llations O .

N egle ting p “ the values f A are given by

c , O

K
3} — lh )

a) 2P M
a l)+

an d AO,
denoting the value Of 7\ when Z 0 :
,

2
I
i
z

)
( +p )a
1 —
p h 1 +
( 11 )
T hus taking
, th e larger value Of A, w e find
71 a h l
2
7\ O
] _ 0

A K (K‘ z —
a t)

so that by winding the weight p lose to the point

,
u c C ,

the period f rolling is shortened by the fraction

o

pah
5
2
l / (K 4
al ) .

In similar manner the e ffe t f a s phere

a cask c O or

rolli g ac oss the bottom f the hold or f the m tion f

n r o , O o O

the water in the cylindrical boile s be investigated r ,

ca n .

343 Th pitching or l l i and tossing oscillations

. e ,
ro n or’
0

may now be investigate d which must coexis t in a shi p ,

 OF A S IIII
'
. 441

when as in 1 5 0 F d G are not in the same vertical

, ,
an

line ; f instance when the ship is no t on an even keel

as or ,

or is heeled over by the sails .

If the ship is depressed bodily a small d istance ft a: ,

and turned through a small angle 0 about a horizontal

transverse ax is through G then F will be depressed ,

through 4 60 f t i f (1 denotes the horizontal distance

06 -
,

bet ween F d G so that the additional buoyancy will be

an ,

wA (x + b6) tons f

while the righting couple called up by the heeling is

(i ) wA K 6 f t tons d e to the change f t im
.
2 -
u O r ,

MA ft tons due to the extra immersion and -

(iii )
. We d ft tons due to the hange f position f the
-
c O O

C B i f a t a vertical heigh t above G

. .
, 0 .

T h e equations f mo t ion are O

Wd x z

g dl
z

W t
5 i“
2 2

?
and putting W= w V and '

d z
a g ee d 9 2
g9
’ ’
dt 2
A dr 2
x
Ab K 2
A

O l A
V V A
a qu d atic f K the lengths f the pendulums whi h
a r or , O c

synch onize with the normal oscillations ; and the two

r

values f m/ O are the distances from G f the axes abou t

O o

which the independent simple os illatio s n exist c n ca .

442 E XA M I LE S ’

(1 ) P rove that if pie es f lead and f cork f S G and

c o o ,
O . . s
1

onne ted by a thread f len g t h are in equi

c c O a,

li briu m in a close d vessel filled with wate and i f r,

the vessel is moved downwards wit h ac eleration c

n g the lead and cork will change pla es in

, c

econds l s
11
.

(n De r
-
82

(2 ) T w t anks on wheels fi lled with li q uid move on i

o , ,
n

clines under g avity being connected by a rope

r ,

p assing over a pulley at the top f the inclines o .

Prove that the sur faces Of equal pressure will b e

p a allel
r and bisect
, t h e angle between the inclines ,

i f t h gross w ight f a tank is proportional to t h

e e o e

e ant f the slo pe f the incline

s c o o .

Determine the hyd ostatic t hrust on the si des r

f a tank sup posin g it ubical and pen at the top

o , c O .

3
( ) l o
’
r ve that if an pen hemispherical bowl f radi s
O o u

a and weigh t l V filled with li q uid f density w

,
o ,

sli ps do w n an inclined plane f which the angle o

of f i tion is
r c then
in gt 5 Wcos B) (2 + c0
2
s : c os s

where is the angle which the sur fa e f the c o

li q uid le ft in the bowl subtends at its centre .

(3 ) Prove that in liquid filling a closed b x which is o ,

suspended by equal parallel hains f len g th l and c O

oscillating throu g h an angle 2 the surfa es f a, c o

equal pressure parallel planes pe pend i cula

a re r r

to the chains ; and that when the chains make an

angle 0 with the verti al the rate f increase f c ,
o o

p essure is
r

w (3 cos 9 2 ) cos a .
 U D R OT A TING
LIQ I S B OD IL Y

the vessel is filled with li q ui ds f di ffe ent densities

If O r ,

f instance air il water and mercu y the as in a

or
, , O , , r ,
n,

state f est the liq ids will distribute the mselves in

O r ,
u

st ata f densi t ies in easing as they go down ; but the

r o cr

s fa es f se paratio f any t w liquids and the free

ur c O n O o

sur fa e will be e q al paraboloids f latus rect m 2g/w

c u , O -
u
2
,

inst ad f ho izontal planes the vertical de pth f each

e O r ,
O

stratum emaining the same as whe at rest

r n .

Fig . 98 . Fig . 99 .

Plaster f Pa is on t h top f me u y
O r thus be e o rc r c an

made to assume the fo m f a pa aboloid ; i this way r O r n

M d l f p oposes to fo m the speculum f a teles ope

en e ee r r O c .

3 4 6 If the free surface A P is i

. contact with i the n a r,

i must also be s pposed to rotate bodily with the

a r u

li q uid when its density p is taken into a count ; f i f c or

the air is at rest the f ee su face A P is longer a

,
r r nO

surface f e q ual p essu e as the p essu e at A exceeds

o r r ,
r r

the pressure at P by p m i f A M ,
:
cc .

G enerally i f it was p ossible f,

t w li q uids f di fferent or o O

densities p and water over mercu y f instance to r or ,

rotate bodily with di fferent ang lar velocities w and Q u ,

sli pp ing smoothly over each other at thei surface f r O

se paration then along this surface

,
 IDO UT A VE R TIC A L A XIS .
4 45

2 2
py w _p d _
l

29 2g
so that the surface is a pa aboloid r Of latus rect m -
u

L L
29 :z _ 2
.
,

0 Q w
p
,

34 7 sur fa es f separation f liquids in rotation

. Th e c O O

can be shown experimentally in a glass vessel swung

round at the end f a th ead like a conical pendulum ;
O r
,

also in a glass s pinning top filled with water and mer ,

cury a bright sil ver belt being formed by the me cury

,
r .

C rea m is now separated f om milk i n an iron vessel r ,

poised on the rounded top f a rapidly rotating verti al O c

a x le (fig the cream rising through the side pipe

.

reaching to the broadest part f the interio while th O r, e

re fuse milk escapes past the upper edge ; cloth etc is , .

,

dried in the same w y in H g l oe xt a ct a c r r o rs .

Th e f the vessel is placed as close as possible

o

under the cent e Of the support by means f adjusting

r ,
O

screws ; t his tends to diminish the vibration f the spindle O ,

which is hel d in position a t the upper end by an india

rubber ring ; f if the depth f the C G below the cent e
or O . . r

o f the su pport is h the angular veloci ty must exceed

,

be fore the vessel will tend to wobble (g

thus if h = 0 02 inch the critical number f revolutio ns is
‘

,
O

about 2 2 per se ond c .

T h rise f the liquid round the inside f the vessel

e o O

will also diminish h and tend to increase t he dynamical

,

stability .

3 4 8 When t he revolutions are very great the stresses

.
,

d ueto the rotation will e x ceed the e l a ti c li mi t and the s ,

metal w ill be de formed in this manner tea pots are sp n u

out f d c t ile pewter

O u .
 S UR FA CE S OF E Q UA L PR ESS UR E
A ring f metal f radius ft cross sec t ion ft and
O O r , a
2
,

density w l b/ ft moving wi t h pe i phe al s peed v f/ will

3
,
r r s,

ex perience a centri fugal force /g l b/ ft ; and this will i oa v

2
r

2 7 6) set up a ircum f erential tension T l b/ ft given by

c ,

wa v 2
wv 2

2 Ta x 2 r, or T
97
'

9
so that T is independent f the radius ; and O if T denotes
the tenacity the ring w ill burst i f
,

T hus in a s teel flask a foot in diamete making

,
r,

re v s
/ m i and taking
n, w = 5 00 we find T is about ,

1 1 million l b/ ft or 3 4 t /i
2
,
o ns n
2

3 4 9 If the plummet is sunk to P I its plumb line will

.
,

take the di ection GI PI normal to A P the sur face f

r ,
l 1
o

eq al pressure through P b t not normal to the free

u
I ,
u

sur face .

T h e pl mb line GP can also hang ve tically f om G

u r r ,

b t the e q uilibrium will b unstable until its length is

u e

shortened to less than g/ w the adius f curvature f the g

,
r o o

p ar aboloid at the vertex ; and i f the plummet is lighte r

than the li q uid it dis pl aces like a ork the plumb line ,
c ,

must be in the p olongation f GP and fastened at a r o ,

p oint beyond P ; d the equilib ium in the axis

an will be r

stable .

T h resultant thrust f t h
e liquid on a finite po tion O e r

w hose is P at a dis tance g from the axis has a

], ,

verti al omponent W the weight f this portion f

c c
’

,
O O

liq id and a horizontal component towards the axis

u ,

Wyw /g
’
2
or Wy/l ’
.

Thus i f the submerged plummet is f fini t size f

,
O e , O

weight W l b and S G the ve tical and ho izontal e ffe tive

. . s, r r c

fo ces on it are
r
4 48 TH E P R A A B OLIC S PEE D ME A S UR E R
this depth
For i f 0A is denoted by as, the volume Of

water displa ed is c 1 35 )

7r(t
2
lt 3h
t )
2
(a: { h y}
y
’
7z a
-

(
2
2 l ec ) h ;
and is e q ual to
t h is i the position f equ librium n O i .

A lso the inc e se f b oyancy d to a small addi

r a O u ue

a l ve tical d is lacement x is 2 lh so that ’

ti
’
on
p r 1 4 8 ) 7r ac ,

the ve tic l os illations synchronize with a pendulum f

r a c o

length l /l sa
2
.

If the w t er is contained in a coaxial

a yli der f c n O

r dius the cylinder sinks i (h

a until the water 2

reaches the t p ; th modifica tion when the angula

o e r

velo ity is stil l further inc eased is le ft as an exe ise

c to r rc .

S also f
O a cone Of hei g ht h and radi s f base
or ,
u o a,

floating vertex downwa ds ; it can be shown that the r

wate l i reaches the base when

r ne

w
2 =
35 1 P r bol i c S p ed M
. Th e e a a e e a s ur r .

T his onsists essentially f a gl ss cylinder

c cell O a or ,

partly filled wi th mercu y the remaining volume being r ,

occupied by air or water ; it is placed on a vertical sh ft a

Ox the angular velocity w Of whi h is to be measured by

,
c

noting the rise f the mercury O a grad ated scale

O n u .

S uppose Oy is the level f the mer ury whe at rest ; O c n

the mer ury will rise on the walls to the level B M P

c
’

while the verte x f its paraboloidal su face will sink to

O r

A suppose where (fig 9 9 ) ,

.

PM 2
2g
AM
Putting A M = a, then in a cylind ical vessel r

AO OM fim
l
,

om the fact that the volume

fr Of the pa aboloid swept r
 A N D IT S G RAD UA TION .
449

ou t by A M P is hal f the volume Of the circumscribing

cylinder 1 35 ) so that denot i ng the radius by a , ,

2
x w
Or a)
2 n
a é ,
29
an d there fore the angular velocity is proportional to the
sq are root Of OM t he rise Of the mercury
u , .

Th free sur face Of the me cury wil l cut the hori

e r

o n t l plane 0 0 in a circle at D such tha t OD = §

z a
J ;2 a ,

an d this is t h ere fore a fixed circle .

In another form Of speed indica t or the ro tating vessel

is closed at the top by a fixed cover CC provide d with a ’

cylind ical part C P P C di pping into the mercury ; and

r
I I
' ’

the mercury ca rise throu g h holes in the circum ference

n

P P into a fine glass tube Oat in t h e ve tical axis

'
r
l l
.

Th e pressure in the rotating mercury glidi g round n

P P is measured by t he column at rest in Or and the

’

l l ,

column will there fore rise to M at the same level as

would the f ee surface PP while the ver t ex A will now
r
’

remain near 0 i f the closed vessel is filled with mercury ;

,

and the graduations f M are the same as be fore or .

T h e gra d ations fo equal increments Of angula

u r r

velocity can be made geometrically by dividing H E

and CE into the same number f equal parts n ; and O
\

n w i f N and R are corresponding divisions such t hat

o , ,

HN C
_
R r
—

HE CE 7

the vertical NQ and OR will meet in a poin t Q at the

level f P O ,
s u ch that
GP OP CR r
2

so that the angular velocity registe ed at P is / n r r Of the

ang lar velocity registered at the level f E
u O .

21 ‘
450 TH E P A RA B OLIC S PE E D ME A S UR E R
Th e depth Of the directrix plane below 0
g 2 2
1 g a o) (t oo

w
a minimum 4 / 2 when w ,
and then 0 is
5 a,

the focus f the paraboloid O .

3 5 2 A the speed . is increased P will meet the top

s a) ,

E E (and the liquid will spill out unless the top is closed )
’

or A will meet the bottom B B fi st according as the ’

r ,

cylinde is more or less than hal f full ; and finally f

r ,
or

still g eater values f w the t p E E will be partly

r O ,
o
’

cove ed with me cu y and the bottom B B partly

r r r ,
'
nu

covered (along as in a cream separator .

T aking f simplicity the cylinder as hal f f ll f

or u O

mer ry and f heigh t h the depth Of the vertex A

cu ,
O , a
s

below 0 will now be g iven by the e q uation 1 3 5 )

w z w+ a W (w W } we ,

or x i whe e
a
2
/l ,
r =
l g/ w ;
2

and the a eas r O f the circula edges r Of the merc u ry a re

the bottom B B is still overed while the mer ury

If
’
c c

meets the top E E in a ci cle PP f ra dius y and i f ’

r
’
O ,

OH b A H = : then the volume f the pa aboloid PA P

,
cc , o r

SO th t a : —
a
a
2 b (0
2
(I) a
2

and g could be bserved on a transpa ent cove to the O r r

cylinder ; while i f it ould be bserved would be a, c O ,

p oportional to w
r .

T h de p th f the direct ix below O is

e w O r no

q a
2
b g
i +
.

x i
56 ,
2
2 00

a mini m m when u w = i a fib lf
g
‘
45 2 LIQ UID IN R OTA TING
his follows from the geomet ical theorem that the
T r

volume f mercury above the horizon t l tangent plane at

o a

A is one thi d f the volume-

f the vessel included
r o o

between the h orizontal planes through A and M P when ,

the cross section f the vessel is rectangular o .

3 5 5 In finding the thrust on a plane wall f a rotating

. o

vessel f liquid and its C P we notice that the pressure

o . .
,

at a point at a distance y from the axis e x ceeds t h e

pressure w at the same level n the axis at a depth

z o ,
z

below the vertex f the free surface by § w y /g o ,

zu
2 2
,
or

g y / l ; and it is onvenient to calculate the thrust and

z
iv c

C P due to w and fi g/ / l separately the thr st due to ‘

f Z
. . z av ,
u

the latte being § wA k / l where A 7 denotes the moment

r
2
,
2
0

of inertia f the we t ted area A about the axis f rotation

o o .

C onsider as an exer ise the side f a rectangular vessel c o .

S also the average pressure over the sur face S f a

o o

vessel filled with li q uid d e to the rotation is fiwk / l , u ,

f z
,

where k denotes the radius of gyration of the surface S

about the axis .

B t i f the axis f rotation does not pass th ough the

u o r

highest point f S the small bubble le ft at the top moves

o ,

t the point where the highest s r f ce

o f equal pressure u a o

to ches S and whe e a small drop f liquid can be

u ,
r o re

moved without a l tering the pressure and the average ,

pressure d ue to g avity is diminished by the head r

equivalent to the ve tical descent f the bubble r o .

3 5 6 If the vessel is omposed f a tube f small bore

. c o o ,

the paraboloids f equal p essure must be drawn through

o r

the ends and th ough the points f separation f the r o o

liqui ds ; and now the pressures e e q ua l at the points ar

where one f these pa aboloids cuts the t ube ; so that is

o r

now no longer generally t e that ru

 0 0 12 1p T UB E S .
4 53

the heights o f the free sur faces above thei common r

surface o f two liqui ds in a ben t t be are inversely as u

their densi t ies

Wh en is su fficiently increased a free sur face will
to

reach an end o f the tube and liquid will be spil t unless , ,

the end is closed and now the pressure o f th e imprisoned

air modifies the result .

If as in § 1 6 1 a filament f leng t h 0 makes angles

, ,
o

9 gb wi t h the normals to the free sur face th ough the

, ,
r

ends an d i f these normals make angles

,
With the
vertic l the same reasoning will show that the small
a ,

oscillations of the filamen t will synchronize with a pen

dulum o f length
/( c 6 cos 6 + sec cos gt )
’
e c s .

Th e same principles will ap p ly to the liquid in a

ro tating vessel o f any shape by means o f wh i h t h ,
c
’

s t udent can prove the results f t he following theorems o

or exer ises c .

E x a mp l es .

(1 ) A fine tube bent into three sides f a square each of o ,

length a is filled with liquid and rotated about a

,

vertical axis bisecting the middle side at right

angles Prove that no merc ury will esca pe until
.

the ngular velocity exceeds

a

where h denotes the height f the barome t er o .

If the hori z ontal part f the tube alone contains o

mercury and the vertical parts atmospheric air ,

the tube being closed at the upper ends determine ,

the angular velocity requi ed to make the mercury r

rise a height i the ve tical branches0 n r .

454 E XA MPLE S ON

A straight t be closed at the lower end is rotated

u

about a vertical axis through this end at a con

stan t angle to the vertical ; prove that i f l =g /w
a
2
,

the greatest length f mercury it can contain is

o

{ l cot J (2 l h ) } a c c os e a.

If a cir ular tube f radius

c rotates about a vertical
o a.

diameter and conta ins a filament f mercury sub

,
o

tending an angle 2 at the cen t re the filamenta ,

divides at the lowest point f angular velocity or

9 J (g / ) a se c $ 01 .

a greater angula velocity t h e filament

Fo r r on

divides into two eq al halves the cen t res f which

u ,
o

subtend at the centre f the circle an angle o

2 cos i } n .

If the tube rotates about a vertical tangent a filament ,

f length ( + 9 ) a j st reaches the highest point i f

o 7r u

If an open vertical cylinder f height h and radius a o ,

full f liquid is set s pinning about its axis with

o ,

peri pheral velocity the vertex f the free sur

v, o

face will sink to a depth $ / g below the i m and v

2
r ,

a volume l w n /g f liquid is s pilt ; so that i f the

a o

c ylinder is stop ped the sur face will be at a depth

,

v
2
1 /g below the rim .

When is grea ter than k the bottom f the ,

o

c ylinder will be uncovered in a ircle f a ea c o r

5
v

and when the ylinde is stopped the li q uid

c r ,

stands at a de pth 2gh / 2

v
2
.
456 E XA MPLE S .

Fo rg eate values f prove that the g eatest

r r o to r

pressure is along the ci cle where the paraboloidal r

su face f equal pressure tou hes the sphere at a

r o
‘

c ,

depth g/ w below the entre ; and determi e the

2
c n

paraboloid orthogonal to the sphere .

If W denotes the weight f the liquid filling the o

sphere the li q uid thrusts on the upper and lower

,

hemis pheres are

w
2 2

wo s) w ee
W hen the vessel is an open hemisphere the bottom ,

is un ove ed when w
c r and the volume o f
liquid le ft in the vessel is even
with a hole at the lowest point .

Th average pressure over the surface be fore

e ,

the botto m is uncove ed is di minished from r ,

<
a
t wo , to § ma
r
l —

In an pen pa aboloid one n t h f the liquid is

e r ,
-
o

s pilt i f g /w = L where L denotes the semi latus

2
a ,
-

rc ct m;
u d all is spilt i f g / w = L the sur faces f
an
2
, o

equal pressure being w similar to t he paraboloid ne

and th us i f a hole is made anywhe e in this vessel r ,

all the li q uid must flow out .

If the horizontal cross sections f the paraboloi d o

at a de p th z below the i m the elli pses r a re

2 2
(E y
fi r (
e

th e wate line of the liquid will sink to a depth

r

b
Z
2
)
 TH E S E A LE VE L .
4 57

(1 3 ) If the p araboloid is closed and filled with liquids o f

v arious densi t ies originally in horizontal strata
, ,

the arra gement f the strata is inverted when

n o

the angular veloci ty excee ds

(1 4 ) In an open cone the uppe part o f the surface
,
r

becomes uncovered whe nthe dep th o f the erte v x

f the free surface exceeds hal f the depth o f the

o

cone ; and the volume the cone can now hold is

3

{W (fi) 71
1
7r l 3
co t a
4
.

onsider also an inverted cone on a whirling

C
t able and find w hen the liquid will escape
,
.

(1 5 ) If a closed surface filled with liqu id is rotated with

angular velocity about a fixed a x is a t an angle
to a

to the vertical the su faces of equal pressure are

,
r

paraboloids of revolution round a pa allel ax is at r

a distance 9 sin / w of latus rectum 29 cos / w the

a
2
,
-
a
z
,

same as fo liquid under the diminished gravity

r

in the direc t ion f the axis o .

3 5 7 Th F e e S u f ce of th e O ea n
. e r r a c .

C are ful measurement shows that the sur face o f the

Ocean w hich w e may take as the mean sur face o f the
,

E a th is
r t e x actly spherical as drawn by A rchimedes
no

but f the spheroidal shape the sur face would assu m

, , ,

o e in
consequence f the diur al rotation
o n .

Th e ormal to t he f ee sur face o f the Ocean is at any

n r

poin t in the direction o f the plumb line ; and o w i f we n

assume that the soli d part f the E arth is spherical or o

rather en t o ba i c the plumb line will take the direction

c r r ,

of the resul t ant g f the attraction f pure gravitation G

o o

to the centre f the E arth and of the centri fugal force

o ,

due to the whirling motion f rotation o .

458 THE F E E S R URFA CE
It is more convenient n w to employ the absolute unito

o f fo ce ; so that the attraction

r f pure g avitation on a o r

plummet weighing W g is WG dynes where G denotes ,

the a celeration f gravity on a p rojectile or freely falli g

c o n

bo dy ; and the cent i fugal force at a di s tance y cm from

r

the polar axis is Wy dynes where w denotes the e)

2
,

angu lar velocity f the E art h in radians per second

o , .

Fig . IOO . Fig .

Producing the plumb line to mee t the equator E Q in Q ,

then by the triangle f force E QP (fig 1 00)o .

WG
N ow in the case o f the surface f the E arth G is so o ,

nearly constant and eq al to g (9 8 0) and E P is so nearly

u

equal to R the mean radius f the E a th 1 0 + § cm o r ,

9
7r ,

that we may as a close app o x imation p t

,
r , u

E Q= M P where
e
2
.
= Rw g
/ ,
e
2 2
,

so that PQ is the normal to an ellipse f excentricity o e

p assing through P ; and the sur face o f the Ocean may

be taken as the spheroid generated by the revolution f o

this elli pse about the polar axis .

T his w ould be accurately true i f the accelera t ion f o

pure gravity at a distance from the centre w G( /R ) r as r

and g at any point P would now va y as the normal P Q r .

4 60 TH E S E A LE VE L .

35 9 Plateau has devised an apparat s by which these

. u

phenomena may be imitated ; a vertical axis is fixed in

a vessel f water and oil f equal density is placed on a
o , ,
o ,

solid nucleus fixed to the ax is ; the spheroidal form is

closely imitated when the ax is is revolved (fig .

H ere the const aining cause is the apillarity te sion

r c n

o f the su face o f separation T dyn / m suppose ; and

r ,
es c

it can be p oved as an exercise that i f the mean radius

r

is R cm and the density g/ e m the ellipticity due to o

- 3
,

a small angular velocity is fi s / T 0) a

3
.

3 60 A ccording to ast onomi al definitions the an gle

. r c

P GQ is called the l ti t d f the place ; n o t the angle

a u e o

PE Q which is distinguished a the g e o e n tri c latitude

“

,
s c ,

the angle E I G being called the a n g l e of th c n t e ; the

’
e e r

tangent plane at P perpendi ular to the plumb line GP is c

called the n si bl h ori z on and the parallel pl ne through

se e ,
a

the centre E the r ti on a l horizon f P a o .

Th eangle f the centre E FG is the gradient f the

o o

free level sur face with respect t o the mean spher

surface through P ; denoting it by and the g e t i e oc n r

latitude by 9 ,

sin ( /
E G E P ) i 6 6 00 9 sin 9 sin 2 9s n
2
8 6 .

T hus in latitude where is g eatest a river flow r ,

ing sou th is running away f om the cent e f the E arth r r o

on an apparent gradie t f about one in 3 00 n o .

Th e M ississi pp i rises in latitude and flows nea ly r

due south into the sea in latit de a distance f 9 00 u o

geog aphical miles at an average g adient with respect

r ,
r

to the E a th s ce tre of one in 3 2 0 ; so that i f the sou ce

r
’
n r

is one q uarter f a mile above sea level the m n th will

-
o , o

be about 2 5 miles farther f om the centre f the E arth r o .

 CHAPTE R Xl

H Y D RAU L CS I .

3 61 . word H yd a u l i cs means primarily the science

Th e r

o f the M otion f Water in Pipes ; but it is n w e x t ended

o e

to cover the elementa y parts o f the practical science o f

r

the M otion f Fluids o .

T his includes the D ischarge from O ific the T heory r e s,

o f Hydraulic M achinery such as Water Wheels T urbines , , ,

Paddle Wheels and S crew Propellers Injectors etc which , ,

.
,

c n be treated by the aid o f T orricelli s and B ernoulli s

’ ’
a

T heorems ; and the M otion in Pipes C a nals and Ri vers , , ,

taking into account t he e ffect o f Fluid Friction so f as ar

it can be treated in an elementary manner .

3 62 To rr i ce l l i Th eor e m
’
. s .

Th evelocity v of discha g e f wa t er from a small r o

orifice a depth h below the free surface w gi ven by as

T orricelli (1 6 4 3) as the velocity v acquired in f alling

from the level f the f ee sur face so that
o r ,

é = gh or vJ
z
(2g h ); ,
c

and v is then called the velocity due to the head h .

T his is argued by asserting that the hydrostatic energy

of the water E h ft l b per ft
, h ft l b per lb becomes
-
3
,
or -
,

converted Openi g the orifice i nto th e ki n etic energy

on n

é D /g f t l b/ ft
i
fl
or gi v /g ft l b/ l b
-
3
,
2 -
.

4 61
4 62 TO RRIC E LLI S THE ORE M’
ON

T hus the jet o f wate i f directed nearly vertically r,

upwards would nearly each the level o f the f ee sur

,
r r

fa e ; and i f di ected in any other direction will for m a

c r

pa aboli j et f which the directri x lies in the free

r c ,
o

surface o f the still liqu id .

Th e sec tion f the j et OVR while continuous

c ro s s o ,

and not shattered into drops will be inversely as the ,

velocity ; and the horizontal component f the velocity o

being const nt equidistant vertical planes will inter ept

a ,
c

equal quantities f wa ter so that G the (LG f the water

o ,
. o

will coincide with the o f the parabolic area cut ff o

by t h e chord ; and the height f the o f the jet t o cu

o ff by a ho izontal chord OR will be two thirds f the

r -
o

height f the ve te x (fi g 1 04 p

o r .
, .

If the jet could be instantaneously reduced to rest and

fro zen it could stand as an arch without shearing stress
, ,

ac oss normal se tions

r c .

If the vessel is in motion the velocity f e ffl ux v is still ,

o

taken as due to the head o f the pressure p ; in this way

the ffl x from an orifice in a rotating ves el (Barker s
e u s
’

M ill or a T u bi e ) is given 3 4 5 ) by
r n

or from an orifice in an ascending or des ending b cket ; c u

balanced by a counterpoise at the end o f a rope over a

pulley by J {2 (g t a )z } 3 2 2 ) the student may work
v

out the motion f the buckets comple tely as an e x ercise

o .

3 63 T h velocity f fH 1) must be reckoned not

. e o e ux

exactly at the ori fice but a little in f ont at the point

,
r

where the j et is seen to cont act to its smallest cross r

section ; this pa t is alled the v e n ntr ct and the a co r ac a ,

ratio f the cross section f the vena contra ta to that f

o o c o

th e o ifice is called the coefiici e n t of on t a cti on d

r c r ,
an

deno t ed by 01
4 64 FLO W WITH AR IA B LE HE A D
V .

the orifice in a vertical wall is large and the varia

If ,

tions o f he ad over i t area is taken into accoun t and i f y

s ,

denote s the breadth f the orifice at a depth mbelow the o

sur fa e the e ffl x in ft / e c is with 0 1

c ,
u
3
s ,
:
,

and
T hus i f h h deno t e the depth f the top and bottom of
'

,
o

a rectangular orifice f breadth b o ,

so tha t the average velocity of e ffiu x is due to the head

4 h 3 h g
'
2

(
- -
.

O h
'
— h
and this is h i f h = 0 t
1 ,
'

F ore x ample the time f draining to a depth f

, o o

3 inches the di tch f a fortress one mile long 30 ft

o , ,

broad and 9 i t dee p by a vertical cut 2 ft b ad is

, ,
re ,

1 3 1 hou rs ; and t lower the depth t o one inch will take

o

1 2 hours more .

3 65 T h e flow
. f water is D A v = DA J (29 h ) l b/ s e c
o ,

posse sing momentum DA / y 2 DA h second l b / e c ;

s u
z -
s

this will there fore be the thrust in lbs of the je t against

a fi x ed plane perpendicular to i ts direction .

T his th u s t is double the hydros tatic thrust due to the

r

head h ; thus f insta nce the water o f N iagara falli g

,
or , ,
n

1 62 ft can balance a column o f wa t er 3 2 4 ft high in a

,

J shaped tube with i t lower mouth under the fall

-
,
s .

T h energy f the j et is D A v 5v /g = D A h ft l b/ e
e o .
2
v -
s c

and there fore the H P (ho se powe ) is . . r -

r

5DA / 5 5 0g
71
3
B A vh / 5 5 0 .

With a metre an d kilogramme as units D = 1 000 , ,

and 7 5 kg m/ sec is the ch e v a l v p eu r

- -
a .
 M OM E N T UM AND E NE R G Y OF A JE T .
4 65

hus a j et f wate 1 0 ins in dia meter issuing n de a

T o r ,
u r

head f 600 ft has 7300 H P t hese large j ets are used

o . .

for hyd aulic mining in C ali f ornia the nozzle being con
r ,

trolled by a pparatus called a h yd a u l i c g i a n t

an r .

3 66 D enoting by p the hydrostatic pressu e E h l b/ ft

. r
2

d ue to the head h then ,

and the j et
discharges
or
possessing mo mentu m 2 Ap sec l b and energy and H P -

, . .

A (2 9 10 l
ft l b -
and
2g D é
,

Th us t he velocity of e fil f ro m the H ydraulic Power ux

main would be 333 f/ and the fio w t h gh a s, ,

ro u

hole 4 inch diame t er w ith c = 0 65 would be ,

°

gallons in 2 4 hours .

Again the pressure in the air vessel in fig 7 8 f a .

,
or

s t eady fl w f V ft / e c f water through a delivery pipe

o o
3
s o

A f t in section is
2
% D V /g,
A l b/ f t z 2 z
.

3 67 S ppose that two fluids water and steam f

. u ,
or

instance are issuing by two nearly equal no z zles f ross

, ,
o c

sections A and ft from a vessel in which the (gauge )

a
2
,

p essure is p ; denoting the density f the steam by 6

r o ,

then according to T orricelli s theorem

,
’
,

the velocity f the steam j et D

the velocity f the water j et \/
o

the delivery in lb f the steam j et f o f

t h e delive y in l b f the water j et

r A o

the momentum f the steam j et o (1

the momentum f the water j et A o

the energy or H P f the s t eam jet . . o a

the energy or H P f t h wate j et A . . o e r

2G
4 66 OIFFA R D S INJ E C T OR
’
.

Ifthe a ea f the water sur face in the boiler is O ft

r o
2
,

the time equired to lower the su face one inch is

r r

D
12 3 (
1
seconds .

F instance i f a p isto
or f weigh t W lb is placed in
,
n o

a ve ti al cylinde f cross section C W resti n g on the

r c r o ,

s fa e f wate and a small vertical nozzle f a ea A ft

ur c o r, o r
2

is opened in the piston the water will fl w through the , o

orifi e with velocity J (2 Wg /D C ) f/ ; and the pisto

c s n

will des end with velocity

c

Fig . l o2 . Fig . IO3 .

su perior energy f the steam j et enables

The o

even when mixed and condensed with water to over ,

come the wate j et and to enter the boiler ; the maximum

r

wate f d in being the di fference between the q uantities

r e

of wate and steam blown out and the e fore

r ,
r

A J (2 n ) a J g p 8)
(2 l b/ s e c .
4 68 BE RNOULLI S THE OR E M ’
.

stream line filament in the interior o f the liqui d or in ,

a smooth pipe f gradually varying section is e x pressed

o ,

by the equation
p g /g
D v D h a constant ’i
, ,

2
l
+ + g = la a constant
z w ,

where 1 denotes the pressu e D the density the velocity

) r , ,
7)

and the heigh t above a fi xed horizontal plane

a: .

T hus with B ritish units the total constant energy Dh ,

along a stream line is in ft and composed f p due o

to the pressure Dz to the head and ts /g due to the

, ,

velocity or in ft l b/l b the energy or head h is composed

-
,

o f p / D due to the pressure z to the head and t e /g to , ,

g

the veloc ity .

3 70 B e rnoulli s T heorem is illustrated e x perimentally

’
.

in fig 1 0 4 by an ap paratus devised by Froude (B i ti sh

. r

A ss c ia ti n R p o t
o o a tube f varying section
e r ,
o

c rries a cu ent f water between two cisterns filled

a rr o

with water to nearly the same level and the pressure is ,

measured by t he height f water in small vertical glass o

tubes ca lled p i z ome te tubes ; and it is found in accord

e r ,

ance with B ern oulli s T heorem t ha t the water stan ds ’

higher where the cross sec t ion o f the current is greater ,

and the velocity consequently less .

If the velocity at the throat E is that given by T e rri

ll i T heorem the p ressure there is reduced to atmo
’
ce s ,

s p heric pressure and the tube ca n be removed in the

,

neighbourhood f E a at the throat f the injector j et

o , s o .

A t M the cross section is less than at E and the

pressu e is below atmospheric pressure so that water
r ,

will be d awn up in a curved p ie zometer tube like a

r

siphon .
 TH E VE NA CO N TRA OTA .
4 69

By the observation f the heights i pie z ometer at L

o n ,

and N as well t he velocity f fl w can be in ferre d o o ,

knowing the cross section f the c rrent ; this is the o u

principle f the Vent r i Wate M eter invented by M

o u r ,
r .

C le mens H erschel ; also f the a sp i a to o r r .

Fig . IO4 .

As an appli ation f B e oulli s T heorem Lord

c o rn
’

Rayleigh (Ph i l M y 1 8 7 6) dete m ines the area A f

. a , r o

t he vena cont acta f a jet issuing f om a entrant pipe

r o , r re -

at 0 (figs 1 03
. f cross section B inserted in a pipe
,
o ,

o f cross section C ; this aj utage is alled a ring n ozzle ‘

c ,

and it is employed sometimes with a fire e gine j et n .

T hen if V f/ denotes t he velocity and p l b/ ft deno t es

s ,
2

the gauge pressure in the pipe C the e q a ti on of on , u c

ti n i ty gives
u

Av = C V ,

and B e noulli s equation gives

r
’

p _0
' 2
V 2
4 70 TH E C OE FFICIE NT OF C O T N RA C T] ON .

A thi d equation is given by the p in iple f momen

r r c o

tum ; taking the momentum which enters and leaves

the space cut ff by two planes A and C (fig 1 03 p 4 66)
o .
, .

the momentum which leaves this pa t in sec l b/ c is r ,

-
se ,

D (A v C V )/ g 2
2
.

B ut if p denotes t h (ave age) pressure in

’

e r l b/ ft 2
over
the annular end f the tube C o ,

'

p C —
p (C -
B) se c -
lb
is the mome n tum per second d e to the pressure ; and u

there fore in the state f steady motion

, o ,

(C
2
CV ) /g
’
2
p C —
p B) B (A i '
.

If we assume p =
p
’

,
then
Au CV 2
z
—

g
and there fore
2 V2 1 1
B Am
so that B is the H M f A and C . . o .

In pa ticular i f C is infinite A = 5B ; so that the

r , ,

in ferior limit o f the coe fficient f contraction 0 is 0 5 o 1

.

B y the addition f mou thpieces or ju t g e o f various o a a s

sha pes c can be increased and even made greater than

, l ,

unity a fa t known to the R omans and prohibited by

, c

the law (C l i de eac s a mp li u s a p i t F t in )

a a: v u r ,
ro n us .

In this case a partial vacuum f head h is formed ,

o
’

in the throat f the aj utage so that the e ffective head

o ,

becomes h + h ; and the j et now acts’

an asp i a tor as r ,

for creating a partial vacuum or as a l ifti n g i jector ,

n .

3 7 2 Th e principle f momentum shows that i f water

. o

is flowing with velocity 1) through a tube f cross section o ,

the axis f th e tube being in the form f a circle the

o o ,

tension f the tube is thereby increased by DA v /g lb

o
2
.
4 72 R
F E E CI C L R U A R AND S PI RA L R
VO TICE S .

I I T n the di ection f motion at each point through

. ur r o

a igh t angle ; the sur faces f equal press re are now

r o u

unchanged and we obtain what is cal led a f ci c l a

,
re e r u r

v ort x in whi h 5 the a ea swept t by the adius of

e ,
c 7 s)
'

,
r ou r

a pa ti le in one se ond is the same f all p rticles

r c c , or a .

S in e the cir ular lines f flow now lie on the sur faces
c c o

o f e q ual press e a free surface can exist ; this state f

ur ,
o

motion is easily prod ed in a hemisph erical basin when uc

the plug at the bottom is removed .

G enerally in any state f t i l motion about n axis o ver ca a ,

i f two circular filaments f radii and f velocities

’
o r r , o

v and and f e q al weight W are made to hange

v
’

,
o u ,
c

place their new velocities will become u and u given by

,
’

rv = and r u
’

so that the work required is equal to the increase f o

kinetic energy

W
,

z < i s e w t
~ —

and this is positive so that the motion is stable i f , ,

u > ru when
’ ’ ’
> r r r .

T hus i f v / is constant we obtain a stable vortex in

2
r , ,

whi h the sur faces f equal pressure are cones

c o .

III B y supe posing the states o f motion in I and II

. r . .

in given proportio s we obtain Rankine s fre e sp i a l n

’
r

vortex (App l i e d M ech a n i cs s 63 1 ) in which the lines o f ,

flow are e q uiangular s p irals ; this is use ful in the dis

cus s io f certain turbines and centri f ugal pumps
n o .

T h e sur faces f equal pressure remain the same as o

be fore ; but in this case the lines f flow cross the o

surfaces o f equal pressure so that a steady f ee sur face ,

r

is not possible ; this is observable when the basin is

nearly em ptied .
 WHIR LPOOLS AND C YCL ONE S .
4 73

3 74 . Whirlpools and cyclones are v e rtices o f the nature

of II and III ; but the central part where the velocity
. .
,

would be very great soon assumes i consequence of ,

n

viscosity a bodily rota t ion as in § 3 4 4 called a fo ce d , ,

r

v o rt x ; thus a compa ative cal m is f ound in the centre

e r

o f a cyclone bu t the barometer is very low

, .

Th combination f a free circular vortex with a central

e o

forced e t x is called a comp o n d v o tex ; the pressure

v r e u r

is due to the head f om a poin t up to the free su face r r ,

which is formed by the revolution o f t he combination

f a B a lo w curve and f a parabola
’

o r o .

T h s the ce n t ifu g a l p u mp consists o f a wheel with

u r

curved blades which draws water in at its a x is forms

, ,

the water into a forced vortex d delivers it into an , an

e x ternal whirlpool cha mber as a free spiral vortex where ,

its dynamic h ead enables the water to overcome a certain

'

head and rise to the additional height .

3 7 5 Th e Wa ter Wh e e l a n d P a dd l e Wh e l
. e .

If the jet o f water i mpinges normally on a series

o f plane plates following in regular procession with
,

velocity u on the cir um ference f a wheel (the Un de r c o

s h t Water Wheel ) then in t seconds D A v t lb o f water

o ,

is reduced in velocity f om v to u and the h ang o f r , c e

’

momentum is DA t(v u )/g sec lb ; so that the thrust o — -

o f the j et is D A (v u ) /g lb v —
,

and the wheel is working with horse power -

H P . . D A v u (v u )/ 0g
5 5 .

ratio o f this H P to the H P f the jet is called the

Th e . . . . o

e fficiency of the wheel and denoted by so that , e

)_
<
?
( I
r )
—
vu v u u
-

1
“
2
ga e
a maximum 5 or 50 per cent when u
4 74 TH E PE L T O N WHE E L .

3 76 . replacing the plane plates by cupped vanes as

By ,

in the Pelton wheel the e fficiency is greatly increased ; ,

and it is laime d may reach 9 0 per ent

c ,
c .

Th e velocity f the water relatively to the vane is

o

supposed constant and equal to v u ; so that if the —

cu pped vane is hemispherical the water leaves the lip ,

o f the cup with relative velocity u back wards and v —

,

there fo re with velocity

u ( u ) or 2 u u —
v — —

in the forward dire tion relatively to the groun d c .

Th e H P f the wheel is now doubled ; so that the

. . o

e fficiency
e =l —
4

a ma x imum 1 when u t , o .

Th e water now drops out f the wheel with no o

velocity and there is theoretically no loss o f energy ;

,

but practically a small amount f dive gence must be o r

given by the vanes to make the water run away clear

of the wheel so as not to be carried over
, .

F instance under a head f 1 1 00 ft f w ater a Pelton

or ,
o o

wheel should with a peripheral s peed o f 1 8 3 f/ ; and

ru n s

would give 3 H P f every mi n r s i n h f 1 6 ft p

. . or e
’
c , o
3
er

minute with an e fficiency f 9 0 per cent

, o .

3 77 Th e Paddle Wheel may be assimilated to the

.

undershot wheel with flat floats or plates worki g fas ter ,

n

than the j et ; and n o w i f the ircum ference of the wheel c

measured through the centre f the fl oats is p ft and the o ,

wheel makes n revolutions per second the water which ,

was flowing past the sides f the ship wit h velocity will o i)

be driven by the paddles with velo ity n p v denoting the c ,

velocity f the shi p through the wate r

o .
4 76 SA IL S AND WIN DM ILLS .

The resolving p erpendi ular to the sail a wei g ht

n, c ,

8A ( cos 8 ) t lb n a 7) c o s ,

o f air strikes the sail in t seconds d is reduced in ,

an

velocity in that di ection by cos U o B ; the n r n a

— ’
c s or

mal th ust R on the sail is given in po nds by

r u

6A (w cos cos a 1)

and the prop lsive thrust on the sh ip is u

T 8A cos B(w cos cos : a 1)

so that th E H F f the sail is

e . . . o

T / 5 5 0 SA?) cos B(w cos

’
s cos a 1)

T hus the p rop lsive H P f the sails o f a ship spre d u . . o ,

a

ing ft f canvas set a t an angl e B = GO and

2
o ,
°

sailing S W at 1 0 knots in a trade wi d blowing S E at

. n .

1 2 kno t s is about 3 2 2 4 t king l b/ f t ,

a
3
.

3 7 9 In an ordinary Windmill the sail moves at right

.

angles to the wind so that + 8 = gm ; and now the ,

a
,

E H P SA cos B( sin B
. . . cos [i f / 5 5 09 ;
( ?) u
,
— r

which is a maximum when = 3n tan 8 one third the v ~

, , ,
or -

speed at whi h the wheel would revolve without loa d

c .

H ere A denotes the area f an element f the sail at a o o

given distance from the axis ; so that = 2 rn i f the r v 7r ,

wheel revolves n time a second and it is assumed that

the sails do not inte rfere with each other .

B t when the sails nearly overlap as in the C anadi n

u , a

windmill A must be taken to re p esent annular stri p

,
r an

of mean radius inter epting 6A w lb/ f air ; so that

r, c se c o

now the H P f the element A is

. . o

iv B(n sin B r cos cos —

v

a maxim m when u tan 3 one hal f the speed f f

e z
, ,
or -
o

the wheel when unloaded .

(S meaton E xp i m n t a l E n q u i y o n th e P w
,
er
f e r o er o

W t a n d Wi n d to tu n M i l l Phil T an
a er r s, . r s ,
 TH E P R E SS UR E T URB INE .
4 77

up pose this wheel was enclosed in an annular

380 S .

pi pe f e x ternal and internal radii

,
o and areas r
,,

A A ; and s ppose the wheel was d iven by water as

1 , 2
u r ,

a P essu e T bi n e then i f the axial fl w i t is supposed

r r ur o

to remai unchanged the water a fter passing through

n ,

the wheel will be otating bodily w i th n /p e / r — u r v s s e c,

or with angular velocity w = 2 (n u /p ) di / e c 7r

—
ra ans s .

Th tu ning moment L f the wheel is equal to the

e r o

ang lar mome tum gene ated per second

u n d the e fore r an r ,

L s w /g (ft l b),
-

3
57 01
4 4
r
2
<g)
4
)u . 2 7r n

) <)
g _ ”
it
(
2— 2
Al A2 u n
p
and the H P of
. the wheel 18

2 7r7l L D
“
’

u
2

550 7
5 50
a maximum when n = $ /p u .

3 8 1 B y supposing the water at rest and the wheel to

.

advance with velocity we can thus obtain a p u, re ~

limina y idea f the action f the S crew Propeller ; b t

r o o u

no w n p t he speed o f advance o f the screw in a solid nut

,

with n e / must be greater than u f the screw

r v s se c ,
or

propeller to e x ert a forward propulsive thrust T ; S that o

IZ
(1 )f
‘
L = (A
— 2 —
A2 )u 2 —
n ;
9 “
while the reaction being normal on a smooth screw
, ,

T]? 2 7rL .

Now the efficiency

E H P. . . Tu —
u

IH P
. . . 27 m]; np

as in the paddle wheel .

4 78 TH E S C E R W R
P OPE LL E R .

Of the wo k wasted by the propeller one hal f is

r ,

ca ried away by the energy o f t h wake ro tating as a

r e ,

forced vo te x and the other hal f is lost by the shock at

r ,

the leading ed g e f the blades o .

T h first loss
e be minimised by making the pitch p
ca n

small and orrespondingly increasing n the revolu t ions

c ,

provided fluid fri tio is le ft out f account ; but the

c n o

second loss can be suppressed by employing a sc ew f r o

gaining pitch increasing fro m u/ n to any final value p ;

,

and the e ffe tive p itch will n w be found to be the H M

c o .

of n / and p while
u ,

e =1 —
l »
s .

38 2 second scre w on the same axis f pposite

. A ,
o O

pitch and revolutions can be employed to utilise the ,

energy f rotation f the wake f the firs t screw as

o o o ,
in

the Whi tehead t or pedo ; and n o w the e fficiency is perfect .

S uch an arrangeme t o f propellers enclosed in a tube n ,

and running in reve se order could be employed as an r ,

axial flow P essure T urbine one scre w being fi x ed to act

r ,

as guide blades .

Th T heo ry
e f the T urbine is per fect because the
o

wate r is compelled by the guide blades to take the

best course ; the general p inci ple to be followed is to r

make the water enter without shock and leave with

little or no velocity .

B t the scre w propeller works in wate already set

u r

in motion by the ship and the wa ter is free to follow ,

its e siest ourse so that the vortex formed may be

a c ,

anything intermediate to the f e e vortex and the f d r o r ce

vo tex assumed above while the axial flow may be

r ,

accelerated ; and the theory is corres pondin g ly m co

plicated (Rankine T n 1 N A ,
ra s . . . .
,
480 E L UID F IC TIO R N AND
If water is flowing bodily with veloci ty v f/ thro gh s u

a main f diamete d ft the f ictional drag on a length

o r ,
r

l f t is
dl l p ounds 7r cv
2
,

where k is a coe fficient found by e x periment ; a good

average value in iron pipes is 0 0 08 .

T hus the f ictional d ag in a p ipe line f

r the con r or

ve
ya nc e o f petroleum 3 0 miles long and 6 inches in ,

diame t r with a delive y one ft per second would be

e ,
r
3

abo t u pounds requiring a pumping pressure ,

9 2 0 lb/ in 2
.

3 8 5 T h loss f pressure on the hydrostatic pressure

. e o

fi l l ie s ?
4l

{ vra
z
El
and the loss of head is
4lk 4l v
2
2g k
‘f
“

d 29
"

’
f D
hus
T all the energy d e to the head l u /g
if d/ l = 4-f ,
u
g

w sted by frictional drag ; f instance i f f 0 0 1

a or , ,

l I

the water ente s under a head

B u t if r It f t ,
the HP . .

given out at the end f the pipe is o

“d W i ”
m
it 5i ,
2 2

Ur )
7 3
-
m
s
a maximu m when and the fli ci e n y is 3 e c 1 .

T h loss f head is proportional to the length so that

e o ,

f
o r a. st ight pipe the hy draulic gradient through the
ra

upper levels in the piezometers is a straight line loping ,

S

at an angle 9 given f a level main by , or

"
r
tan 9 a : .

(l 29
 TH E H YDRA ULIC G RA DIE N T .
481

If t he pipe is required to delive Q ft / s e c then r

3
,

= Z 7Td2 v , ’

3 2s
n
'
5
d
giving the requisite diameter d f a given delivery Q or

and hydraulic gradien t 9 in water works ; f instance or ,

between a reservoir and a cistern at a lower level .

T h slight deviations o f a main from a strai gh t level

e

l ine do not sensibly aff ect t he results f this formula o ,

unless the pipe rises above the hyd aulic g adient when r r ,

it acts in the manner f a si ph n o o

386 . T h e R e si s ta n ce o
f S h ip s .

resis tance to the motion of a vessel through the

Th e
wa t er is initially zero but the resistance mounts up as
,

the velocity increases .

T aking the knot as a speed f 1 00 ft a minute one H P o ,

. .

equivalent to 3 3 0 knot poun ds or knot tons ; -

,
-

so that i f a steamer f W tons displacement is propelled

o

at a speed f a t i t expe iences a resistance the same

o o s, r

as th t f a smooth gradient f one in 2 2 4 WV S S H P

a o o + . .

in the Pa i and N w Yo k f instance i f W= 1 0000

r s e r ,
or , ,

V 2 0 and H P = 2 0000 the gradient is abo t one in 68

:
, . .
,
u .

A lthough no theory is in existence which will enable

us to predict w ith certainty the resistance at a given
speed f a vessel f given design still the expe iments
o o ,
r

of Fro de enable us to assig this resistance f om the

u n r

measured resis t ance f a model f the vessel run a t a

o o

correspondingly reduced speed .

di g to Fronde s Law T h resistance f i mi l a

’
r n ,
e o s r

at speeds as the sq are root o f th e length or as u ,

h root o f t he displacement is as the displacement ,

e c be of the length
u
482 TH E R E S IS TA N CE OF S HIPS .

Then if L n L are the lengths and D n D th dis

,
g
, ,
6
e

pla ements f a vessel and its model the esistances at

c o ,
r

s pee ds V n V will be R n R ; and there fore the H P

, ,
°
. .
’
s

will be as 1 to n 7

If the resis t an e is su p posed to be due to skin friction c ,

and this again is supposed to be proportional to the

wetted su face or as l to n then the remaining factors
r ,
‘
,

o f the resis tance e as 1 t o n or p o portional to the ”

ar ,
r

square f the velocity as in fluid friction

o ,
.

T hus f inst nce we may take = 0 1 ; and if

,
or a ,
n

vessel is designed to have a length L and p d f a s

'

ee o

knots a re duced model f 1 00 th th length is run at on

, o e

tenth the speed and the resistance pounds is measu e ,

r r

then F d La w sserts that the f ll sized vessel

ro u e s
’
a u -

e xperience a resistan e 1 0 pounds at V knots and c

6
r ,

e ffe tive H P re q ui ed will be IO V/ 3 30

c . . r
G
r .

T h coal required p
e hour is proportion l to the H P er a . .

or to b t the coal per mile is as n or

n
"
,
u the displace 6
as

ment ; so that ove t h same length f voyage the oal r e o c

endurance is the same .

In po pular language to in rease the speed one per ,

c

cent over a given voyage w must incre se the length

.
,
e a

two per cent or the tonnage and coal capacity 6 per .

cent and the horse powe boiler capa ity and daily
.
,
r, c ,

consumption f fuel by 7 per cent o .

T hus ta king the P i s and N e w Y k the model ar or as

for a new desi g n f a s teamer to cross the A tlanti o c,

2 8 00 miles at a speed f 2 1 knots then , o ,

s 7
n u : 1 3 4, n

so that the new steamer would have abou t tons

dis pl cement and require
a H P ; this is . . a pp ro x i

mately the ase in the C mp n i and L an i c a a a uc a .

484 E X M PLE S A .

P ove that the H P f the feed pump f a boiler

r . . o o ,

w hich evaporates W l b/ mi f water at a gauge n o

p essu e p l b/ i must exceed

r r n
f
,

144 Wp —z
—
3 3 00 0 .

P ove that i f the j et f § 3 7 1 delivers Q ft /

r d o
3
s e c, a n

the hose is l ft long the p mping H P f the fire ,

u . . o

engine is
D_Q 21 l J
'
3
1 1
)
r
—

1 1 00 9 21 9 5
,

0 0%

If water is scoo p ed p fro m a tro gh between the ti u

rails into a locomotive tender to a height f h ft o ,

dete rmine the minimum velo ity required and c ,

th delivery at a given e x tra speed taking

e ,

f i tional losses as represented by a given f raction

r c

f the hea d
o .

S ho w how liquid may be raised through a i p s

tube made to revolve about its longer

,

whi h is held vertical ; d de te rmine the de l

c an

and the me hanical e ffi iency f a given ang lar

c c or u

velo ity c .

S how h w to de termine the elements o f a cyclone

o

f om observations at three point

r s .

What is the direction f rotation in the N d o . an

S hemis pheres
.
 CHAPTE R XII .

I
G E N E RA L E QU AT ON S OF E QU L B R U M I I I .

387 It was proved in C hapter I 1 9 2 0 that the

. .
, , ,

sur fa es f equal pressure and t h e free sur face o f a liquid

c o

at rest under gravity are horizontal planes ; but this

assumes that gravity acts in parallel ve tical lines r .

When we e x amine more closely the s rface o f a large u

shee t f water like the open sea w e find it uni formly

o ,

curved so that the s rface is spheri al ; showing that

,
u c

the lines of force f gravity converge to t he centre f

o o

the E arth ; and A rch imedes in his diagrams f floa t ing o

bodies represents them immersed in a spherical ocean .

If three posts are set up a mile apart in a s t aight

,
r

canal to t he same ve tical height out f the water the

,
r o ,

visual line j oin i ng the two e x t eme posts will in the r ,

absence f curvature by re fraction cut the middle post

o ,
‘

8 ins lower ; hence it is in ferred that the diameter f the o

E arth in miles is the nu mber o f 8 ins in 1 mile or 7 9 2 0 , .

If l miles apa t the visual line cuts at a depth 8 l ins ;

r ,
2

f
or ins t ance the C han nel tunnel 2 0 miles lo n g i f made
, ,

l e e l would rise in the middle 8 00 ins from the straight

v ,

chord ; but i f made st ai gh t i t would have a gradient o f

r ,

about one in 4 00 at the ends n d water reaching to the ,

a

ends would have a head f 8 00 inches in the mid dle

o .

4 85
486 LE l E L S
'
URFA CE S OF E Q UILIB RI UM .

38 8 are ful measu ements f a degree f the meridian

. C r o o

in di fferent latitudes reveal that the mean level su face r

o f the Oce n is not exactly spherical but slightly l l i p

a ,
e

s id l and bulging at the E quator ; an e ffect attrib table

e e u

to the E arth s rota tion and inves t igated i the theory f

’

,
n o

the Figure f the E arth o .

Lastly the imperceptible deflections f the plumb line

, o ,

due to the per t u bative att action f the M oon d r r o an

S u n, are rende ed very mani fest by t h phenomena f

r e o

the T ides due to the same cause f perturbation

, o .

3 8 9 A l l these mani festations

. examples f the a re o

general prin iple enunciated in 2 4 as c

Liquids te nd to m
,

“
ai tain their Level n ,

but w the level sur face must be taken to mean the

no

sur face whi h is eve ywhere per pendicular to the result

c r

ant force f gravity at the point as indi ated by the

o ,
c

plumb line .

T prove the theorem that

o

T h sur fa es f e q ual pressure in a fluid at est nder

e c o r u

g iven forces are at eve y poin t per pendicular to the line r

of resultant force
dra w two consecutive surfaces f eq al p essure PP QQ o u r
'

,
’

on which the p essures p and p + Ap s ppose ; and

r a re u

consider the e q uilibrium f a cylind ical element f cross o r o

section the axis PR f whi h is n ormal t o the sur fa es

a, o c c

of eq al pressure
u .

T h resultant thrust on the curved side f the cylinder

e o

of the surro nding liquid o f uni form pressure in planes

u ,

pe pendic lar to the a x is being zero the resultant thrust

r u , ,

on the ends must be balanced by the resultant impressed

fo rce whi h must the e fore act along the normal PR to
,
c r

the sur fa e of equal pressure

c .
 LI NE S OF FO CE PE R R PE NDIC ULAR
his e q uation may be ded ced f om the eq ili b i um o f
T u r u r

the fluid filling a fixed closed su face S ; denoting by r

l m n the direction cosines f the outward d awn normal

, ,
o r

at a point f th s face and resolving parallel to 0

o e ur ,
513 ,

X da dydz '

’
n

the integ ations ex tending over the surface and through

r

out the vol me f S u o .

B t by G een s trans fo matio n

’
u ,
r r ,

dadydz ;

Jr i
and the e fo e r Y r — X fx? Z
p p p
d; (l il J
, .
’
z

A lso t king moments o nd the axes

a r u ,

y mz ) dS p (yZ z Y) dxdydz ;
and these e q ations now satisfied identi ally
u a re c .

3 9 1 F om e q uations (4 ) and
. r

di p (l p dY dp dZ
_
Y+ _ Z+p
‘
dy
’
dydz dz dZ dy

<
dZ dY dp dp
p
Y

) n
—
Z
dy
wit h two similar e q at ons ; so that eliminating p u i , ,

<
M dY dX dZ dY dX
fay az l a l fax as )
(
X
7 z
a
+Y <6) +z 0 ,

this is the analytical ex p ession o f the fa t that the lines r c

o f fo e are perpendicular to a system f sur faces

rc o .

T h e pressu e p density p and temperature

r ,
f a fluid , 1 o

a reconnected by a cha acte istic equation and i f r r

the temperat re is va iable the surfaces f equal p res

u r ,
o

su e and o f equal density must interse t on the surfaces

r c

of equal tem perature .

 TO S URFA CE S OF E Q UA L PR E S S UR E .
489

39 2 .the work done by the forces X Y Z on

If , ,
a

parti cle carried round a closed curve in the fluid namely , ,

fl d + Ydy+ Zdz ) ,

vanishes when the particle h as completed a cir uit then c ,

Xdx + Ydy + Z dz
must be the total di fferential of some function V
,
called
the p oten ti a l ; and now
1 dp dV 1 dp dV 1 dp dV .

p dd dx
’

p d y dy
’

p dz dz
so that dp / p must be the di fferential f some other o

function P d as i the case with physical subs t ances

, an ,
n

at uni form temperature p must be a f unction f p only , o ,

given by the rela t ion p = dp /dP and w no

dP + d V= 0 ,

or P + V H a constant :
, ,

is the condition f equilib ium o r .

T hus i f X = y+ Y= + Z = w+ y z, z cc, ,

then V= yz a: xy — —
z —

and the surfaces of equ l pressure and density are hyper a

bol id
o f revolution
s o .

B ut if J Y= y(a — z ) ,
Y= 5c (a — z ) , Z = xy,
equation becomes in t eg able if p is treated as an i
(4 ) r n

t g t i n g f actor made propor t ional to (

e ra ,
s t hat a o

sur faces f equal density are parallel planes ; or more

o

g l
e n e ral y b y p tt i n u cr

1 / p = (a
N ow by integ ation
,
r ,

f (r)
so t hat the sur faces of equal pressure are hyperbolic
paraboloids (fig 65 p .
,
.
4 90 GE NE RA L EQ UILIB RI UM OF A FL I UD .

B ut if the forces ca do work in a closed ci c it n r u ,

cu rents will be set up ; thi generally ha ppens in con

r s

se q uence f ine q alities f temperature illust ations f

o u o ,
r o

wh i h may be seen in the T rade Winds and the G ul f

c

S tream whi h can be imi tated by water in a tank

,
c ,

heated by alamp at one end and cooled by ice at the ,

othe end r .

3 9 3 W can now utilise the method

. e f the C alculus s o ,

and obtain without di fficulty the solution f more com o

plicat d problems f t he nat re f those in 2 2 3 2 3 2

e ,
o u o —
.

T hus i f as in § 2 3 0 the density p at a depth

, in
, c
c

li q id at rest under gravity is h e and i f w use the

u
“
, e

gravitation unit f f orce o ,

33
=1 + ’ i0
p P+

39 4 ppose the variations f gravity are taken into

. Su o

acco nt in the e q uilib i m f the atmosphere ; we must

u r u o

now employ the absolu te unit o f f orce the poundal ,

or dyne and measure pressure in p d l / ft or in

,
ou n a s
z
,

dyn / c m (b
es de ) so that the f ormer gravitation
2
ara

measure f p must be multiplied by g and

o ,

= k ,
P 9 p
g /c being c ons tant over the E arth at the same temperature
denotes the radius f the E arth then at a height
If a o ,

z f om the sur face or at a distance f rom the centre

r ,
r ,

y becomes changed to
W
2

so that equation ()
4 becomes
dp ga
2

2
p dz ( a z
) d
p r r
492 V A RIA TION 5 '
OF GR A VIT Y

W ith absolu t e temperature 9 inversely as r,

O 90(a / r )
and equation 1) becomes
a r
log p ‘’
1 log or
p d r lcr pO la a

S imila ly we shall find

r , if

(/ )
n -
1 _1
l o °g fl a r a

po I
t: n — l

the C enti g rade temperat re

If u 7 varies i nvers ly as e

r
2
, we shall find
—
m
( t an 1 —
tan 1
‘

where and c are constants

m .

3 9 7 If the rotatio
. f the E ar t h is taken into account
n o ,

the atmosphere being supposed to ro ta te bodily with '

angular velocity w equation (1 ) must be wri tten

,

<
2
d
; z)
’
—
g dr + w y
? d
y
2
,

where y d t eno es the distance

f om the pola axis r r .

In isothermal equilibrium this be comes

2
kdp a)
(l r + l d
l 3!
10 a

<8
2 '

w y
_a
“

p a
l0g 1 +
p, k n
if p0denotes the atmospheric pressure on the ground
the pole .

T hus at the equator whe e y= ,

r a

2 2
”
l oo 1 a
—
1 3s5
-

a ,
P0 2 9 1“

on putting g/ aw
2
28 9 ,
 IN TH E A TM OS PHE R E .
4 93

T his proves tha t the E arth canno t be spherical ; fo r

here the surface f equal pressure p is given by o 0
a 2
a m
1
E
so that ,
if the equatorial radius of this sur face is b,

a w
2
l) 2 2
(0 61, 5 77
_ _
b 2g a 29 5 78

In onvective equilibrium
c

lc d6 _ 3
y _ dr l 9 ydy
- -

90
’

y
— l g

y
L
—

— l ( 90
—

I
r: 7
‘
29 k
.

39 8 . qua t ion (4 ) is employed to de t ermine the

E
pres sure in the inte ior of a spherical liquid mass due r

to i t s own gravitation f instance in the E ar th when ,

or

i n a mol t en condition .

W ass me t he well known t heorems tha t the a t trae

e u -

t ions f a homogeneous spherical shell (i ) is zero in the

o .

inte ior cavity and

r is the same as i f the matter is
,

condensed a t the centre f o an ex t erior point r .

Wi t h C G S units deno t ing by y the

. . . n t nt o
f ,
co s a

grav i t ti n that is the attraction in dynes be t ween

a o ,

two homogeneo s spheres each weighing one g wh en u

their cent es are one cm apa t and firs t supposing the

r r ,

liquid f uni f orm densi t y p g/ m then (1 ) becomes

o e
3
,

d
a ?
since the attraction a t a distance f rom t he centre in r

t he interior of the liquid sphere is th same as that f e o

the mass {gmp condensed at the centre the a tt action

-
r
?
, r

o f the shell ex t erior to the radius being zero r .

494 G RA VIT A TING SP HE R E OF LI Q UID .

enoting by V the g a i ta ti n p ot n ti l f the liquid

D r v o e a o ,

the t of i n c as of which in any direction is the

ra e re e

f orce p unit m ss in tha t direction then in the interior

er a ,

o f a sphere f radius o a,

lV
6
fi rs t ,
V 2 7rrp (a
= 2

if a constant is added so that there is no ab upt change , r

in V in passing into exte ior space where r ,

V= s m
wi / r
s
,

the same as f the whole mass collected at the centre

or

the sphere .

S upposing the pressure zero at the exterior radius a,

where V V 0

then p = p<V —
7

Hence the thrust across a diamet al plane or the r ,

att action betwee the two hemispheres is

r n ,

2 7rrt l l = z 2 4 l
gyllI / a
Q z
'

d
p
'

, g zr yp
'

if M g denotes the mass f the liquid sphere o .

39 9 T h gravitation co stant 3 is deter mined by the

. e n ;

C avendish experiment ; it is f ound that in C G S uni t s , . . .

,

= 10 ‘
8
x 6 69
y .

denotes the radius (1 9 + 5 cm )

N ow if a
9
7r , p g/
c m 3

the mean density f the E ar th and g sp n d o , o e

the mean acceleration f gravity on the s rface o u ,

= M =
r /
2
y c6 s rp
w a t rio
so that with , g = 98 1 s p o n ds ,

== x =5 5 '

yp p .

Th s at the entre
u c of the E arth if of
, uni form densi
p ,
the p essu e r r

ts p “
2 2
P t r y/0 4
4 96 DE NS IT Y OF S T RA T A OF T H E E AR TH .

D enoting the surfa e density by p then c

O,

x a ,

0 s1 n
p0
5 P
’
!

2
so that
(
CL
p
l — —
c ot
Po a K K

whence is determined 1c : for instan e by putting c ,

i
) 55 , p0 2 .

With p and sur face density

o
= 0,
p0
= 0, we must put
a x / = 7r ; and now we find

4 01homogeneous liquid fills a pherical ase f

. 1f S c o

radius and i f a spheri al cavity f radi u s b cm is made

a, c o

anywhere in the in terio f t he liquid with its centre B r o ,

in O at a dis tance f om O the cent e f the liquid sphe e

n: c r r o r
,

the cavity wi l l collapse unless kept distended by a rigid

spherical surface ; and now the potential at a point P in
the int ior f the cavity is
er o

AOP ) 2 yp < § B P ) constant g yp x

2 Q 2
2 yp (
7r a b L
7r
2 -
vr c

so that the field f force in the cavity is f uni fo m o o r

intensity g yp parallel to 50 0 -
-
n e, .

If the ca ity is filled by a solid s pherical nucleus f

v o

density the att action on this sphe e is

a ,
r r

fi yp fi
w b yp b dynes c r e
- it
g
‘l
a
3
c ,

in the direction DO .

T h potential in the interior f the liquid is n w due

e o o

to a complete sphe e f centre 0 radius a and density p r o , , ,

and to a sphe e f centre B radius b and density

r o p , , a
—

and there fore in the liquid

1 1

p
2 _ s -

7ry 0 (
'

p) l
)
3
(P
B
_
BA ) ,

the p ess re vanishing at the end A

r u of the diameter Ox
remote f om B r .
 G RA VIT A TING LIQ UID S P HE RE S .

4 02 hydros ta t ic t hrust on the nu leus over which

. Th e c ,

B P is constan t is i the direction OB ; and integrating

,
n

over the surface and throughout the volume f the o

n cleus this thrust in dynes is given by

u ,

l pdS dydz

{ fi n/ p
f
.
4
35 7 11 3
0 .

resulta t
Th e n of gravitation and hydrostatic thrust is
the eforer

dynes p) b 3
c

in the direction B O ; so that i f p the nucleus will be , 0

'

i n s table equilibrium at the centre f the sphere with B o ,

and O in coin cidence ; but i f < p the nucleus will tend , 0

'

to float up to the sur face ; so also the E arth would floa t

up to one side out o f the Ocean i f its me n dens i t y were ,
a

less than the density o f the water f the O ean o c .

(P i n c p i a lib iii prop x ) r i , . .

, . .

4 03 T h e same result can be proved by calculating the

.

va iable part f the potential energy o f the liquid and

r o

the solid nucleus ; t his is the same as that f a complete o

liquid sphere o f density p and f a solid nucleus o f o

density p and is the e forea ,

r

a constant % yp ( p ) b ergs —
rr
2
a
3 2
c

and the variable part is the work required to displace the

nucleus to a dis tance 0 from the centre 0 .

T h same method holds when the external vessel and

e

the nu leus a f any shape ; and now the pressure in

c re o

the liquid is yp (V V ) where V is the minimum alue0 , 0

v

o f the potential V on the equi p otential sur face which

touches the vessel ; and the n ucleus is in equilibriu m
when the potential energy f the system is a maxim m o u .

a n . 2 1
4 98 G R A VI T A TING L IQ UID S P HE RE S .

4 04 . Th e potential at a point P ex ternal to the case is

and d awing the eq ui po tential sur f ces in the neighbour

r a

hood f the sur fa e these will represent the su faces

o c ,
r

e q ual pressure and the f ee surfa e f an Ocean compos r c o

o f a small quantity f li q id poured ove the su face o u r r .

S u ppose f instance that the O ean j s t cove s

, or ,
c u r

sur f ce ; it will be shallowest ear A d its g t

a n ,
an re a e s

depth h at the point A nearest to B will be given by ’

b
(
3
a p )
“W 3 ” P“ if ”
b +71
‘

e +h n +b

4 05 the n cleus B is lique fied b t ke p t ph i

. If u ,
u s er

in shape by a fixed rigid case and i f a solid s phere ,

radius b and density is placed in this interior

’
a
"

with its cent e B in OB at a distance f om B t h

r
'
a r ,

pot nti l ene gy f the system is

e a r o

a constant yp S w y b h ergs -

7r
2
o
z
o a
' ’
c
?

and this is a maxim m when u

p +o
c w= 0 , 93 —
C
p / cr,
provi ded howeve that a < b d so that the e is r
'
—
, r n

con tact between the su faces r .

If this solid s phere is placed anywhere in the li q id p u ,

wit h i t ent e B at a distance from O the potential

s c r
’
c
'

ene gy is the same that f a com plete sphere f de n sity

r as o o

p and f two s p he
o es f densities p and p
r o a a
’
—

the e fo e de oting B B by d its va iable part is in

r r ,
n
’

,
r

3
bb 3 '

1
3
? r ‘

r w pX —
o
—
p) d
t r
z
rp <
T ( -

p ) 5 3 2—
0 % 7r
2
rp ( v
-

p
5 00 E Q UILIB RI UM OF R OTA TING LI Q UID .

4 07 the case is removed the rotating li q uid wil l

. If ,

lose the s pherical form ; and as the angular velocity i to s

g adually inc eased from zero the f ee surface of t h e

r r ,
r

liq id when otating bodily will first assume the form 1

u r 0

an oblate spheroid and a fte wards f r o an

elli psoid (Ja bi ) co

’
s .

W assume that the potential V f the homogeneou

e e s

elli psoid
1»

of densi ty p ,
is given by (M inchin S ta t i cs ,
II .

V=
/ ( 1
a“
2 d
“ b I “ b 2
+ 7\ . 0
2
+ A)

2 7ryp t t l) c (P
'

su pp se where
o ,

( lh
and % A
O+A 2

and then
T hen in the rotating liquid
73 : V+ l a (y + z ) + u 2 2
co nstant
P
a constant 2

so that the su fa es r c of e q ual pressure a re similar to

exte rior su face i f r ,

2 2
Aa (B >0
z z —
w

B b
' ' '
Z— 2 z
2 ‘
A A
'

w a a .

2 2
wyp a bc 6 c

w
b0 2 2 2
db
>J ffi
.
a
(b T
y
z
2 z
a +k +N
U
 JIAOLA ’
UR IN S A ND ’
J ACOIJI S FIG
’
URE S .
5 01

4 08 . On e solution is obviously (Ma e l au rin

’
s

sphe oid)r and then

dk
P ’

d( c w e
dP
’
2
a da
2
a c ( a.

’
dP a 1
2
cdc ( c
(2
2
a
z
fi
’ ”
2A + C
’
3
20 2A
2
640 a

2a + 0 2 2
a 3 05 2
3 +f 2

f
2 ? 3
2 }
wy a
(
0 0 0 a

on putting 1 +f 2
.

Th e e l l i p ti ci ty (g 3 5 8 ) of the spheroid is given by

sf
2
— 1 %
;

and then ex panding in powers of f ,

2
00
4 ”b
T?
Q W VP
T hus i f we assume that the E arth is homogeneous and ,

o f mea radius R then

n ,

Vp
‘
é sT
-
—
g »

agreeing very nearly with ewton s estimate f 2 30 N

’
o .

(P i n ci p i a lib iii prop i x ) r , . .

, . x .

B t as the t rue elli pticity f the E arth is about

u o

the density must be greater in the interior ; fo i f w e r

assume that there is a oncentric cent oba ic nucleus o f c r r

5 02 E Q UILIB RI UM OF R 0 T A T I G LIQ UID N .

de nsity p p and radius k the ad ditional p o tential at the ,

pole and the e q ua t or is

m
k s
k
s

37 0“ an d h
71 0
y n

so that equation (A) of su face equilibrium becomes

r

1 3

m p<
.

22
2 2 2
u
~
11 -

2 4 11
§ wyp (fl
~ — 1) —
l 00 + i w0 »
g
1

g( )
1 1
20
'
ac
fl -
1)
(l C

and now
1 49
so that
(la
e
e 5 w 1

inte g al which is the remaining fac tor o f (A)

4 1 0 Th e
. r ,

§ 4 07 gives the relation connecting b/ a and c/ a f

. a . or

Ja obi an ellipsoid
c .

Putting b = in this inte gral givesc

c
‘
dk (1.
2
c
M
( u se u m s

)
1
dl g y
ll
(
to a.
(do ) l
? 2
( a

a transcendental relation whi h becomes c

and gives approximat ly

,
e ,

a
_ 1 3 95 , 0 1 87
f 5 27
.

W)
Atthis cri t ical angular velocity the stable figures
of equilibrium f the rotating liquid will pass from
o

M cla i spheroids into J acobi s ellipsoids (T homson

au r n s
’ ’

and T ait N a tu l Ph i l sop h y 77 1

,
ra o ,
5 04 R OTA TING C YLIN D E RS OF L IQ I UD .

equations f determining A B or tc when A B l

'

, l
’

, e ,
’

, ,

C and are given

"
2
a) .

T hus i f the outer case is spherical ,

and bcA g . a
’
.

It might even be possible f the interior nucleus t o or

rotate bodily as a concentric but not coax ial ellipsoid ,

when the ou t er ase is made to rotate about an axis not

c

a principal a x is .

4 1 3 W he . a the ellipsoi dal case becomes

n : so

elliptic cylinder and now

A 0

wp dA 4 71
1 '

n
c+ b

so that i f fille d with one liquid rotating bodily the sur faces ,

of e q u l pre su e are the quadric cylinde s given by

a s r r

2
I 2

(é + b
w w
c
_ y +
2
)
Z
2 _C
— onstant ,
4 7r yp ‘
C +b 4 7 )/ p

and there a central nucleus o f density p + p bounded

if is
l ,

by the coaxial elliptic cylinder f semi axes b the o -

a], ,,

condition f equilib iu m f the sur fa e is

o r o c

4 7ryp c 4 7ryp 1 C1 4 77 7 10 1 171

b ‘
2
( +b c C
l + bl
_ 2
c,
2

o+ h (f
l
-
H) 1

(l c
?
b1 )w2 2
4 7ry
( —
 C HAPTE R XIII .

T HE M E C HAN C AL T HE OR Y OF HEAT I .

41 4 . When work is done by the expansion a gas of ,

as f instance by the powder gases in the bore f a

,
or ,
o

gun o by t he steam in t he cylinder f a s t eam engine

,
r o ,

a certain amount o f hea t is found t o disappear ; and

according to the First La w f T hermodynamics the o ,

heat which disappears bears a constant ratio to the

work done by the ex pansion .

T hermodynamics is t he science which investigates t he

relat ions between the quantities f heat expended and o

work given out in the C onversion o f H eat into Work ,

and i e e rsa ; and fo a complete exposition of the

v c v r

subject the reader is refe red t o th e t rea t ises f C lausius

,
r o ,

T ait Ve de t M axwell S haun B aynes Parker A le x ander

,
r , , , , , ,

A nderson e t c ; also to t he S mithsonian Index to the

,
.

Literature o f T hermodynamics .

I measuring q uantities f heat the unit em ployed is

n o ,

either the B l tl Sh Th ma l Un i t T
’
or t he ca l ri e
’
er o .

T h B T U is the quantity o f heat requi ed to raise the

e . . . r

temperature f one lb f water t hrough 1 F

o o
°
.

T h c l o i c is the quantity f heat req ired to raise

e a r o u

the temperature f one g f water through 1 C o o

°
.

5 05
5 00 S PE UIFIG HE A T .

his is the
T calorie also called the th w as the
s mal l ,
e
/i

calorie is sometimes defined as the quantity required to

raise one kg o f water through 1 C ; this is 1 000 therms °
.

T o be precise the water should be at or near its

max imu m density or at a t emperature f 4 C
, o
°
.

4 1 5 D i fferent substances require di fferent qua t ities

. n

of heat to raise their temperat es through the same ur

number f degrees ; and are th us distinguished by thei

o r

s
p e c ifi c h e a t .

T h e sp e cific a subs tance is the number f

h eat of o

requi ed to raise the temperature o f one lb of the

r

substance through 1 F or f calories required to heat °

,
o

one g through 1 C °
.

I other words the specific heat is the ra t io o f the

n ,

quan tity f heat required to hea t the subs t ance to the

o

quantity required to heat an equal weight f water o

th ough the same number o f degrees ; the s pe ific h e at

r c

is thus the same in any system f uni ts o .

With solid or liquid substances the s pecific heat is

practically inde pendent f the pressure or temperature o ,

so that the above de finition is su ffi ie t f them ; and c n or

now i f weights
W W W (l b or g )
1 ,
2, ,, ,

f subs tances (solid or li q uid ) f S H

’
o o . . s

0 cn ,
2 ,

at emperatures
t (F or C ) 7 1, 7 2.
“
Tn

are plac ed in a vessel impervious to heat the final uni ,

fo m tem perature T a sumed by cond tion is given by

r s uc

(c l
+ Wgc2 c l 1r WQ
cfl ' -

2
Wc
n n
-
r" ,

or T = 2 Wc r/ 2 We -
.

substances in the gaseous state absorb or give out

B ut
heat in a manner depending on t h e relation between the
5 08 ME C H ANICA L E Q UI VA LE NT OF HE A T .

4 1 7 Th e constan t fac tor which according to the Fi s t

.
, 1

La w o f T hermodynamics conver ts uni t s f heat which ,

o

disa ppe r into t he equivalent units f work per forme d is

a o

called the M ech an i ca l E q u i v a l e n t of He a t and is deno ted ,

by J .

A ccording to J oule s e x periments as revised recently

'

by Rowland and G ri ffith s,

1 BT U 7 7 9 ft l b (at Manchester ) ;
. . .
~ -

1 large calorie = 4 2 7 k g m (at Paris ) -

1 small ca lorie = 4 1 9 x 1 0 = 4 l 9 j oules 7

‘ ‘

g er s .

Th reci proca l f J is the H e a t E q u i v a l e n t of W k

e o or

it is generally denoted by A .

In t h e T hermo dynamic l e q uations unless e x pressly a ,

stated otherwise we adopt one o f two systems o f units

(i ) T h
. B rit sh e syste m o f the foot poun d
i , ,

second and Fahrenheit sc l e and the gravitation measure

,
a ,

o f force ; measuring volume 2) i n f t pressure p i n l b/ ft s

,
z
,

work in ft l b heat H in -
,
and thus take J = 779 .

(ii ) T h C G s system o f the centimetre gr mme

. e . . .
,
a ,

second and C entig ade scale and the absolute measure

,
r ,

o f force mea uring volume in cm pressure p in

s 7)
3
,

h a ds
ar work in ergs heat in small calories ,

or the ms ; and ta ke J = 4 1 9 x 1 0 A 2 3 8 6 x
r
°
7
,

A an application
s onsider the theory o f the Injecto ,
c r

on T hermodynamical Prin iples ; then i f W lb f wa ter c o

is injected by S lb o f steam against a pressure head of

h ft f water and i f the water injected is raised in
o ,

tem perature f rom F to E and i f H denotes the tota l 1 2,

h e a t f one lb f steam at the boiler t emperature E then

o o

the heat which disa ppears in the Injecto is in r ,

S H — S (E 2 — 3 2 ) W(F2 — Fl ) ,

whe e r H :
+ O 3 O5 (F — 32
°

)
 TIIE RM OD YN AMICS OF TH E I J E C T O N R .
5 09

and i f the water is li ft ed h f t and the f ictional losses 0 ,

r

are denoted by L ft l b the wo k done is -

,
r

Wh o FL -
.

T here fore by the First ,

La w of T hermodynamics ,

Wh 0 + L = J {S H —
S (F2 — 3 2 ) W(F2
S uppose f example that the boiler pressure is 1 00
or

l b/ i nand F= 3 2 8 ; suppose also F = 5 0 F 1 2 0 ; then

Z
’

, l , 2
:
,

neglecting h and L w find W/ S = 1 6 about

O ,
e , .

4 1 8 T h e simplest thermodynamic machine is a gun or

.

cannon it is a single acting engine which completes i ts -

.
wo k in one stroke and does not work in a con t inuous
r ,

se ies f cycles like most steam engines

r o .

When the gun is fired t he sho t is expelled by the ,

p essu e f the po wder gases the pressure is represented

r r o

on a (p v ) diag am 1 9 7 ) by the ordinate M P o f

,
r

the curve CPD OM representing to scale the volume

,

o f the powder gases when the base o f the shot has

advanced f om A to M ; the curve CPD starts from a

r

poi t C s ch that t he o dinate A C represents t he pressure

n ,
u r

when the shot begins to move (fig .

T h e area A M PC t hen represe nts the work done by the

powder (per unit area f Cross section of t h bore) when o e

the base f the shot has advanced from A to M t h e area

o ,

A B D C representing the total work done b y the powde r

as the base f the shot is leaving the m zzle B

o u .

If OM rep esents cubic inch es and M P represents tons

r

per square inch then the areas represent inch tons f

,
-
o

work reducible t o foot tons by dividing by 1 2

,
-
.

S ppose the calibre f t he gun is l in hes

u d the shot o c c an

weighs W l b and that it acquires velo ity v f/ at M ; c s

then equating the kinetic energy and the work done ,

2 W /g 2 2 4 0 x 2 d x area
v A2
M P O z 12
1
7 7r
2 —
.
510 G RA PH IC AL R E PRE S E NTA TION OF WOR K

his su pposes the bore is smooth ; but i f it is rifled

T
with a pitch f 6 feet the a gular velocity at M is
o ,
n

2 /
7rub ; so that i f the radius f gyration f the shot about o o

its ax is is k feet the kinetic energ y is replaced by

,

allow f the f i tion f t h e bore an empi ical

To or r c o r

deduction say f 2 ton / in is made from the pressure

, o
2
,
.

represen ted by M P .

4 1 9 S c h a diagram is c lled the Indic tor D iag am

. u a a r

o f the shot ; and i f the gun is free to recoil there is a ,

similar in dicator diag am f the gun repre senting the r or ,

pressure on the bas e f the bore at corresponding points o

o f the length f recoil o .

T h recoil can be measured at any instant by S chert

’
e e

velocime ter ; the t avel f the shot is measured by ele tric

r o c

contacts at equal intervals alon g the bore n d the corre ,

a

s p nding pressures are recorded by crusher gauges

e

fi x ed in the side f the gun ; the muzzle velocity is o

found from electri records outsi de the gun and thence

c ,

is in ferred the g e pressure in the bore re presented

a ve r a ,

by the ordinate A H such that the rect gle A B A H is , an ,

e q al to the area A B DU
u .

A compa rison f these di fferent records a ff ords an

o

independent check on the work done by the pow der

gases inferred f om the experiments f N oble and A bel
,
r o ,

and enables us to assign the pressure deduction due to

the friction f the bore o .

A in fig 4 2 the curve A QE is drawn su h that its

s .
, , c

o dinate M Q re p esents to scale the work done by the

r r

p owder or the kinetic e ergy ac quired by the shot each n ,

pro portional to the area A M B U and there fo e the r

 0 RA 1 71 1 CA L RE PR E S E NTA TION OF WOR K

Fi g represents a 6 inch gun firing a projectile

. 1 05 ,

weighing 1 00 lb with a harge f 1 3 l b o f ordite giving

,
c o c ,

a muzzle velocity f about 2 2 00 f/ o s .

T h length f travel f the shot being 1 0 ft and the

e o o ,

pitch f the i fl i ng 1 5 ft this implies an ave age pressure

o r ,
r

”
of 7 5 t o ns / i n .

initial pressure A O is found to be about 8 tons / in

Th e ' g
,

rising to a maximum o f 1 6 t o n / i n and falling to s

2
,

4 t ns/ in at the muzzle

o
g
.

Fig . 10 6 .

In the cylinde f a steam engine (fig 1 06) t h

4 20 . r o . e

steam is admit t ed alternate ly to t on each side f the ac o

p iston and the operations

,
continue periodically in cycles ,

when the piston actuates the cra k f a revolving shaft n o

by means f a connecting e d as in an ordinary or loco

o r ,

motive steam engine .

 IN TH E C YL IN D E R OF A S TE A M E NGINE .
513

We represent as in the gun the volume f the steam

, , o

and its pressure by OM and M P and now OA represents ,

the cl e a a n e at the end f the cylinder

r c o

A the piston moves from A to E the poin t f cut ff

s ,
o o

o f t h s t eam the pressure is sup posed to b equal to the

e , e

ful l boiler pressure represented by the line OF so th t

, ,
a

the work done on the piston from A to E is represented

by the rectangle A ] A O ,
'
.

C ommunication with the boiler is n o w cut ff ; and o

the ste m which a t boiler pressure filled the length OE

.

a ,

o f the cylinder does work by e x pansion so that i f FPD

,

is the p essure cu ve the area E B DF represents the work

r r ,

done by the expansion f the steam o .

S team is now being admit t ed in the same manner to

the other end of the cylinder ( f which the indicator o

diagram O F D may be drawn below OB ) while the

' ' '

steam firs t admitted is allo w ed to escape ; ei t her into the

atmosphere as in a locomotive engine when the press re
, ,
u

M P is taken as the ga ge p essure ; or else into a con u -

r

denser whi h may be suppo sed at nea ly zero pressure

,
c r

absol te or at a negative gauge pressure f one atmo

u ,
o

sphere and these operations ontinue perio dically c .

A instrument called Watt s Indi ator is e

n ,
’
c ,
in

p loyed to record the pressure at any point f the stroke o ,

and thence the wo k done by the steam ; it consists f a

r o

small cylinder ommunicating with one end f the engine

c o

c
y lni d (fig
el .

T h Indicato cylinder is losed by a light piston held

e r c

down by a light piral spring the piston rod actuating a

S ,

p encil whic h draws a l ine on a piece f paper wrapped o

round a brass drum ; the moving parts are ma de as ligh t

as possible to diminish the e ffect f inertia
,
o .
 WA T T ’
S I NDICA TOR .

As the engine moves round and the piston reci procates

the dru m is made to revolve through a proportionately
reduced dis t ance o f the piston travel by a thre ad attached
to a point f the reciproca t ing machinery the th
o ,

be ing ke pt tigh t by a spiral s pring in the drum .

Th spring f the Indicator piston gives a di pl ac m

e o s e

pro portional t the pressure so th t the pencil t races

o ,
a

the pape a reduced copy f the curve CFD

r o ,

a ddition the curve f diminished pressure as the s o

is be in g e x hausted and drawing periodically the ,

clo ed cy le the area o f which represents the work do m

s c ,

by the s te am on one side o f the piston in a single s t roke

a similar Indicator giving the work done on the o th m
side f the pis to n
o .

W may t ke fig 1 0 6 to represent the diagram d aw x

e a . r

bv the Indic tor the pencil moving in a fi x ed line ON

a ,

whil the pa per moves in a pe pendicular di e cti or

e r r

through a proportionally reduced distance and

I n dica t or Di gra m would be the closed curve
a

th e real diagram has the corners more or less roun

as shown by the dotted line .

T h e area is either read o ff by a Planimete r or ,

calcula ted by S impson s R ule and the mean p ’

P l b/ in is thence in ferred ; and o w the indica t ed ho

2
n

power f the one e n d o f the cylin der is given by

o

PLA N
where L ft denote s the length f stroke A i the pi o ,
n
g

area and N the

, / mi n re v s .

Th Indicator may be made double acting like

e ,

engine d n w the indica t or diagra m A C FD O

,
an o
’

will be made up by the superposition f the two p o se

diagrams end f end ,

or .
516 TH E FI S T R AND S E CO ND LA WS
work done i e x panding to the volume or OM
Th e n 1)

is represented by the area E M PE ; and i f FF is the

adiabatic cu ve f a per fect gas this work is 2 33 )
r o ,

3 99:
9
,

y 1 y 1
1
o

reducing fo r an isothermal urve along which c

y
: 1 to
pr 10 g r v
/ o
B O10 1; I’o/P~
4 23 the piston moves r m
. As a n d the point f o E to M ,
F follows along the curve FP a certain quantity H units ,

of heat is absorbed (or gi ven out) by the gas which ,

de pends upon the shape f the curve FP upon the o .

,

cha acteristic equati n f the gas

r and u pon t h o o

change f the i t n l n gy f the gas

o n er a e er o .

A the piston moves from M to M su ppose that ZH

’
s ,
(

uni t s o f he t are abso bed and that the change f inte

a r , o r

nal energy is IE heat units ; then acco ding to the Fi

( ,
r r

L w f T hermo dynamics
a o ,

where l W denot s the number f i t f work perfor

« e
o un s o

in the motion f om M to M ; in this case c = p d r

'
u

l t is beyond th e sco pe f the present trea t ise t o discus o

the S econd L w f T hermodynami s d Thomson a o c an

’

A bsolute S c le f T emperature ; it will be

a o ffic i su en

for our purposes to assume that the absolute scale

t em perature is given practically by the indi ations c 0

an A i or Hydrogen T hermometer 2 2 1 ) obeying the

r

C ha ac t eristic E q uation
r

ps O .

hus in the experimen ts on the A bsolute D ilatation f

T o

Me cury r 1 64 ) an air thermometer must be employed ,

as the mercu y thermometer could not dete t va i tio s

r c r a n

in the o fficient f expansion

c e o .
 OF TH E 1 811!0 0 Yr M 1 CS .
5 I7

It is assumed also that the S econd La w of T hermo

dynam ics is embodied i the equation n

dH
where q!) is a certain function called the , e n tr op y then
dE dH A p ac Och /1 Ap rl v , (3 )
embo dying the Fi st and S econd La ws r .

Th internal energy E depends only on the state f

e o

the gas as given by p v 6 its pressure vol me and , , , ,

u ,

temperat re connected by the C haracteristic E quation

u , ,

1700 » 0 , "

so that a change in E is independent f the i termediate o n

states ; or in other words dE is a p e fect li fi e n ti a l

, , r ( er ,

and so also is d¢ according to the S econd L w

, a .

Th First and S econd La ws f T hermodynam i cs are

e o

thus exp essed by the relations

r

W denoting the work done the integrals being ,

and

t aken round a closed cycle in which there is no escape

o f heat by conduction ; t h e quantity d H / G is sometimes

calle d the h t w i gh t f the heat Hi

ea -
e o ( .

If H units f hea t pass from a body at a tem perat re

o u

9 to another body at a lowe tem perat re 9 the e t py

2
r u
1 ,
n re

o f the first body falls H/ 9 and f t he second rises H / 9 ; 2

o
1

so that the entropy f the system rises o

H
0 92) ,

entro py is t hus unchanged i f no heat passes

The
except between bodies at the same temperature ; but
con d cti n
u f heat between bodies o f di fferent temper
o o

ature raises the entro py and the entropy thus tends ,

to a ma x imu m .
5 18 TH E l ? M OD 1 VA 1/ I
'

. . A L RE LA TIONS
“
.

424 the four q uantities p

. Of 9 two only are ,
v, ,

inde pendent ; and any p ir may be taken as indepen dent a

variables .

Pro f Willard G ibbs selec ts v and <1 as va iables

. ) r ,

that from with C l a i notation f partial di ff r u s us s

’
or e

ent i l coe fficients

a ,

J)
AP “

a
B ut d enoting by m y any pa i r of independent variables
« U ; e
3v
(
.

at
ax
By
? ay Ap _i

ar <
dcc +
6 31
dy ,

ab EN aw 81 ET S
so that G E —
A1 )
3

G1 —
A
ar ar By 83]
a t; fi e al
a
s wM
-

ap a
may,
.

by 3 3/ Ba“

ae ap av
_ _
_A

EX" .

31 1 3 a(l ‘

: y)
his proves that i f the plane o f the (p ) diag am is
T ,
c r

covered by i th mn l lines f which 6 is constant and

so c a ,
or ,

sent 0 1
1 or
/
1 a d i a b t
1 0
a i lines f wh ich is onstant c ,
or c ,

then integ ating round any losed ycler c c ,

ffi ¢ f/ p
19 l =A l d v c
6 times the area f the
i ycle o c

or the area f the ycle is J/ f dcd a o c

4 2 5 A cycle .
By d which is bounded bya two iso
thermals 9 and 6 and two adiabatics j a d
1 2
i , () , n s

called a C n o t y l fig 1 07 and it thus encloses an a ea

ar c c e, . r

J
5 20 ItE l E RS IB ILIT I OF TH E C
' '

ARNOT C YCLE .

a not ycle
Th e C r is e i bl that is i f des ribe
c r v e rs e ,
c

in the eve se di e tion dyB as i a f i g ti

r r r c a ,
n re r e ra n

machine the heat H absorbed at tem pe atu e 6 i

, 1
r r
1

gi ven out as heat H at a higher temperature 2

at th
ex pense f the wo k re presented by the a ea f the cycl
o r r o

C t principle asserts that the e fficiency f

a rn o
'

s o

reversible cycle is a maximum ; f i f it were p ibl or os s

to obtain a g eater e fficiency by another

r
g e m n a rra n e

this could be made to d ive the C arnot cycle b ckward r a

d thus c eate energy and realise Perpetual M otion

”
an r , .

T hus a thermo dynamic engine f instance a 1 ,

or 01

p ess re engine working between the extreme temper

r u ,
a

tures f the freezing and boiling points 0 C and 1 OO C

o ,
° °

g ives away at least 2 7 3 ou t f 3 7 3 units f heat to t h o o

condense ; so that its efficien y falls short f

r c o

4 26 B y ta king
.
y t re p resent any pair f
a) , t h o o

va iables 1
r 9 qt we obtain various thermodynamic
1 , 1 1,
-

, ,
s

relations ; th s with independent variables

u

Si m —
A 1

gas —
J ,

%g
3
11
( 0 9 ,
8 ?
1
—
A l
,

<
w > 1
< ,
A
21};
sé

A
m
a
 TH E ICM OD YN A M ICA L RE LA TI0 VS ’

1 .
521

hese rela t ions are proved geometrically in M axwell s

T
’

Th y of H t by taking the C arnot cycle

eor ea , Byd so a

small that it may be consi de ed a pa allelogram A B CD ; r r

and n w an in pe tion of fig 1 08 shows that the a ea

o s c . r

of the parallelogram or ,

m ena= A H . . A l c = A L AZ= A M A r n . .

i
Fg . IO7 . Fig . I0 8 .

Th e n the relation (iii ) is eq ivalent to . u

AK Age
J
,

’
AO A lc

fo r A K is the dilatio f v at constant pressure while n o ,

A lc is A p is the diminution f pressure correspon ding

—
, o
g
to the increment A¢ along the isothermal A D .

S i milarly the e lations r (vi ) are equivalent to .

AL AO
J
Al
’
W th i AL Al
Agb

AM A
AO fi ,
W l th Am :
A9 1) ;

AN AO
J
fl ’ W th i An
5 22 TH E l f M OI) YN A MICA L RE LA TIONS .

4 27 . Th e specific heat 0 fo r any given hange c of s tat

is given by
dH
“
GQ? G
6
ags da;
6
234)
( Id dd Ba: d d By d d

and if the hangec of s tate is given by the relation

f(OU , y) 0 ,

Bf dx Bf (l y
_
+
Bx d d By d d

B d clcc Bd
+
Bx d d By d d

W
"

so that c=d
9 f ) 5 a(19 I)
B(a y) '
B (ce

T aking d and '

v as v a 1 i ab l e s , and denoting the
consta nt volume by then
as
’
se

c —
c tl
v B,,p cl v
‘

at de e s de

T hus if c
p
denotes the S H . at constant pressu e r ,

v + p u
B9 (l i
f

Bd Bv dd

60
5 0 1)
"
11 9
3 Br

Now the el sticity at constant temperatu e is

a r 4 2 2)

so that denoting it by
,
E9 ,
5 24 T HE RM OD YN A RE LA TIONS
4 28 . A p p lying these formulas to air ,
fo r which
p r Rd ,

Bp p R 71 Bap Rd
“

as "
’

9 B 11 1 12 1

and c
p

A lso (
3, y e“ where y is 1 4 ,
about so that
A
V R AR
'

y l y 1
With B ritish units ,
J = 7 79 R ,
: 5 33 so
A R = 0 068 '

02 3 8 = 0 1 70 ;
°

cv
-
5
, ,

and the nu mbers are the same with metric units and t h
C entig ade scale ; these numbers were obtained in thi
r

manne by Rankine in 1 8 5 0 be fore they had been d

r ,
e

t mi d ex perimen t lly
er ne a .

If w e divi de the c by the S V f the gas w . . . 1) o ,

obtain the th m l p a ci ty p e u n i t l u m ;
er a ca r vo e

found to be very nearly the same number f all or

at the same temperatu e r .

T h numerical value o f y is deter mined most accu

e

f o m the observed velocity

r f sound o

mode of determination due to C lement and D ,

is to compress air into a closed vessel and to o b e ,

s r

the p ressure 7 when the temperatu e d is the same

1, r

that f the atmosphere

o .

A sto pcock is then opene d and suddenly closed w h ,

the air e ases to rush out ; and it is assumed th t

c a

enclosed i has ex panded adiabatically to t m ph

a r a os e

pressure p .

A f ter a time the air inside will re g ain the o di s u rr u n

temperatu e 0 and its p essure 2 is again b

r ,
r 1
2
o s e rv

so that 9 the tem peratu e at the instant f c

2 ,
r o

sto p ock is g iven by d = dp /p

c , g 2
.
 OF A PE R FE C T G A S .
5 25

V denotes the volume f the vessel then the air le ft

If o ,

in ide at pressure p and temperatu e 9 originally

s , ,
r ,

occupied a vol me Vp /p at p essu e P 5 and in ex

u
2
.
1
. r r
1

panding adiabatically to volume V it assumed the atmo

spheric pressu e p ; so that r

2 V ¥=
p ( or )
1

y 10 s 29 1 — 10 s a
T aking 9 and v as variables with a per fect g as ,

( U1 :
Bel g!) we
a’
c d +A O
ég dv av ad + A
p du ,

so that we may put

A R O/ (y
hus the inte nal energy f the gas i heat units E in
T r o ,
n ,

the state represented by the point in the diag am f a r o

fig 1 07 is A times the area f the indefinitely extended

.
,
o

adiabatic curve dv cut ff by the ordinate aa ,

o aa .

T h increase in inte nal energy E in passing f om the

e r r

state to the state 6 by any path 8 is thus A times

a a
,

the area v and t h i v aai ma de p f a bfi e p s are a

'

s u o a ,
r re

senting the work done in compressing the gas f om to r a

8 and f v BU rep esenting the mechanical e q uivalent

, , o et
/ ,
r

of the heat supplied in goin g fro m to 8 a

,

l (9 lQ
lso A — - -

+AR
(
- —
;
6 U
I

and integ ating

,
r ,

p
( log 9 + ( + a on tant
01, v c s

log 60 7 + constant
‘
1
a ,

9 v 2 )
.

( 1
00 “

7
f

4; °
L0
9 /
7
5 26 E XA M PLE S .

With 6 and p as
( variables ,

v log
9
P
— C»
( o
-

60
H
“ ej
log ? l g9
— —
a
p
o

so that the i m t i and i o bso f a pe fect gas

e r cs s a rs o r a

logarithmic curves on the (9 p) diag am , ( r .

In the C not ycle Byd f a per fect gas f instan

ar c a or ,
or

in an ideal gas engine the work done in com pressing t l ,

gas a diabati ally f om to B

c r a

R(9 2 l ) r

and this ork is there fo e given out gai in the di

w r a n a -

batic e x pansion f om y to 6 so that the areas bB a

r , aa t

a”; e equal (fig

ar n d the above equations l a a
y .

sho w that
l 7

Ul l _ bfi_
Of) Ur: (9 ,
d a dd
Ucl an 00 b,8
() a « fd Ob c
y
wo k done p l b or g f the g by the isother m
Th e r , er o as ,

expansion from B to y is ,

R9
Ra ng
C '

while the w k onsumed by t h isothermal compressi

or c e

from 8 to is a

the di fference as be fore being

, ,

J“ )

E xa mp l es .

(1 ) Prove that the orthogonal urves f the adiabatics c o

the (p ) di g am are the similar hyperbolas

,
v a r

p y constant g
.
O 28 TA B L E S .

T AB LE I .
— V
DE N S IT Y OF \ A T E R (M E N DE LE E F) .

C . v e (m

T A B LE II .
— V IT Y
S PE C IFIC G R A .

l i m
P at nu , A l mi i m
u n u ,

P (t old
u re , St o B i k wo k
ne , r c r , o r E a rt h
St d d G old
an ar , G ly i ce r ne ,

M y
e rc u r , Se a W at e r ,

Le a d, Pu re D s t i ill d \V e a t e r,

Silv e r, lee,

C o pp e r, Oa k ,

B ras s , o m
Pe t r l e u ,

Ir o n or S te e l ” P A l ohol
u re c ,

C as t Ir o n, Co k r ,

TA B LE l Il .

C as t Ir o n,

W h e at or G i
ra n ,

T imb e r,
 IN D E X .

PA GE P A GE
b ol dil io m
A s ute at n of y e rc u r 24 3 Atw ood 152
b ol m
A s u t e t e p e rat u re 2 42 v
A e rage e n s i t d y 98
m l o
A c c u u at r 22 v
A e rag e p re s su re ov f e r a su r ac e 8 l
di b i io
A a a t c e x p an s n 2 66 i
A x s o f sp n tan e o o ot t o us r a i n 66
li
E an 52
io
A g g re g a t n o fyli d i l B bi t b om t i fo m l
3 10
’
c n r ca a ne s ar e r c r u a

p t l
ar i c e s 48 B ara d s 48 9
A i lo k B k mill4 62
’
r c 35 5 ar er s
Ai p m p
r u s 3 66 B lo w
ar cur e v39 5
Ai r p mp du o d i g an c n e ns n B om t
ar e er 25 1
p m p ombi
u d c ne B o op
ar s c e 1 05
A i t h mom t
r er e er 307 B e ar V ll y d m a e 55 a

Al d
e x an er B en d i g mom t n 4 14 en

A lloy d m t o ll l i t i 4 09
’
s an i x u re s , 1 20 B e rn u i s n e ar :l
A mag at 287 B e rn o lli t h o m
u
’
4 67
s e re

A maga t g a ug e 25 B t h lo t
er e 9 5 35 4
d B iq d ti f t
,

A n re w s ua ra 64c ee
A ne r oid b om
ar e te r B i io
x d B anl 337 arra
l o
A n g e o f c n t ac t 4 03 B l k w ll T
ac l a 77 un n e
l o
A n g e o f re p s e
‘

45 B l o k o ffi i t
c c e 2 13c en
l
A n g e o f t h e c e n t re 4 60 B ody p l an 2 10
l o ill io
A n g u a r s c at n s of a fl o at B o dour
p n 3g g
’
re s s u re au e
i g body
n 22 8 B oyl e 3
A t i l ti B oyl
,

2 8 0 2 86 2 9 4
’
n c as c 1 60 l w
e s a
A l S B oyl t ti l b o op
, ,
’
ra ea 79 e s s a 1 05 ca ar s c e
A him d
rc e es l 93 , 4 8 4 B oy s 412
A him d p i i pl B m h
,
’
rc e es r nc e 77, 9 3 ra a 18
A é met
r o re 1 27 B it i h t h m l
r s it 5 05
er a un

A i t ot l
r s e 1 05 B bbl
u l t ifi d
e e ec r 4 16 e
A sc e ndi g d d n an e s ce n di ng B d b g
u en er 18
b ktuc e s 424 B oy
u y an c 94
A sce n sio l fo na rc e 33 1 B oy
u y t f
an c 1 49ce n re o
B oy y
,

At m ph os er 11 u an c ( f ) f 149 c u rv e o r s u r ac e o
A t mo p h B oy y im p l
,

s e ri c a i r 1 28 u an c 14 9
, s e .

O H
. . 5 29
5 30 NDE X
I .

PA GE
C ail l e t e t 5 C om p o t ho iz o t l t h t
ne n r n a ru s

i o
C a s s ns 35 6 f li q id
o a u 8
C i o f t h Fo t h B id g C om p o t v ti l th t
.

a ss ns o 1 82
e r r e ne n er ca ru s 7
C lo i C om p o d vo t
.

a r e un r ex 47
C m l
a e s 1 39 C o nip i bil i t y f m
re s s y o e rc u r 31
C p ill y t t
a ar t io a 39 8
ra c n C om p b il ty f w t
i e s8 1 i o a er 31
C p ill y
a ar v c ur 4 07 e Co d n i g p mp
e ns n u 37
C p t iv b lloo C o di t io f t bili t y
. .

a e a n n ns o f s a o a

C dioid
ar s 1 63 hi ps 14
C a rn ot y l c c e 518 Co ne 1 89 19
ti o
,

m gh D
’
C t
a ri i o f s un c 5 19 n C one au an i 4
C t i
ar e s a n div 30 1
er Co y I lne d t d p i p 76
s an s an e 36
C pi Co i l p d l m
,

as S an ea 79 n ca en u u 22
C t oi d
a en 4 18 Co j g tn u t
a e s re ss e s 39
C t h t om t Co t oi
.

a e e e r 243 n s e rv a d A t
re t es i s e

C l i
e s us 24 6 Mé ti e rs 1C
C tig d
en ra e 2 46 C o v t iv
n ec t e c u rre n s E
C t im t
e n e re 10 C o v t iv
n ec q ilib i m f t h
e e u r u o e

C ten f b
re o y uo 149 an c t mo p h
a s e re 31
C t
e n re o f l t io os c
'

65 a n C o i h p m pi g
rn s u gi n en ne

C t
e n re o f p io 65
e rc u ss n Co t io
rre c f w i g hi g i
ns or e n n

C t
e n re o fp 4 3 60
re ss u re i a r
i f g l p mp C o mo
,

C e nt r u a 4 73
u s s
C t ob
en r i ar c 457 C ot es
Ch ang f l v l i
e o lo o e e n a c C o w llx e
mot iv boil C o w ll b lloo
.

’
e 4 30
er x e s a n
Ch an
g f t im
e o r 15 1 C re am p to se a ra r

Ch a nn elT 3 56 4 8 4
u un e C iti l t mp
r ca t e e ra u re
Ch i t i q io f C o v f t bili t y 1 5 2
,

t
a ra c e r s c e u at n o a r ss c ur es o s a 16
C ow f Hi o
,

p f t ge r ec as 28 1 r n o er f
Ch l ar e s 3 C t i bies us 2 36
Ch l C bi l om p io
,

ar e s II 1 00 2 8 9 3 9 8 u ca c re s s n 5]
Ch l t l
.
, ,

G y L 27
’
ar e s o r l w a 2 80 u ssae s a C p f T
u o an a u s

C hi g o ca 1 39 C v ur (
e orf ) f b oy
s ur a c e o u

C him y d ug h t y
.

ne ra an c 14
C h i holm C v f dy mi l t bili t y
.

s ur e o na ca s a It
Ci l f i d io C v dd ity
.

rc e o n ex1 77 ns ur fp
es o i e ssu re a n ens 31
Ci l i h
rc u a r nc 13 C v ur t
es e f ly t i q
s u r a ce s ana ue s 21
Cl k C v
.

ar d St
an fi ld 1 39
ans e ur t
es e f t p g ph i
su r a ce s o o ra

Cl e a ra n c e 3 70 q ue s 21
Cl me H hl
e ns e rs c4 69 e C v ur f t t i l t bili ty
e o s a ca s a It
C ffi i t f o t
oe c en t io 4 62 4 70
o c n ra c n C yli d n er IE
C o ffi i t f bi l om p C yli d flo t i g p ig l t
,

e c en o cu ca c re s ~ n er a n u i i 19
sio n 3 18 C yli d n er p i m flo t i g
01 r s a n

C o ffi i t f di h g
e c en o 4 63 sc ar e yho i z o t l l y
r n a 19
C o ffi i t f
e c en p io o 24 1
ex an s n

C o ffi i t f fi D A l mb t p i i pl
’ ’
e c en 140 2 13
o n e ne s s e er s r nc e

C o ffi i t f v lo i t y D lt o
,

l w
’
e c en o 4 63 e c a n s a

C ommo nf f tw
s u r ace o o D i ll
an e

li q d
.

’
ui s D A rl an de s
5 32 NDE X
I .

PA GE
G re a t e a h d m l iv
I p u s e p re ss u re
G re a t S a t La e l k o l
In c l i n i n g c u p e
G re e n In di c at i i x
’
G re e n 8 t ra n s f r at n o m io di o di m
In c a t r ag ra

o h mody mi c al
.

‘
G rifl i t h s Inje c t r o n t e r na
ill m
G u au e i i
p r n c pl e s
ill m
G u au e de M o e i be k h
In t e rc a ng e o f u b oy y a nc an d
l
G u f S t i e am re s e rx e o f b oy y
u an c

hi
Gut r e mi i ho
In t e r t t e n t s p n
l y
.

In t e rn a e n e rg
H l f b d t h pl
a -
re a an v d i ho
In e rt e s p ns
Hare s hyd om t’
r e er In vol ute
H k b
au s e e Is ob a rs
H k b
au i p mp s ee a r u ob h k d
Is a t i n s t an
H d fw t
ea o a e r Iso ca re n e s
H t q iv l t f wo k
ea e u a en o r Is om i e t r cs

H t w ig h t
ea e oh ml
Is t e r a s
H vi o h m l q ilib i m
.

ea ne ss Is t e r a e u r u of t h e

H li g ff t f t h
ee n w e ec o e s c re t mo p h
a s e re

p o p ll
r e er

H i g h t f t h homog o
e o e e ne us J obi o t t i g lli p oid
ac
’
s r a n e s

t mo p h
a s e re J mi
a n 1 03 2 4 a,

J ki
,

H i k
e ii e en ns 1 63
H li oid Jo d g ly i b om t
,
’
e c r an s ce r n e ar e er

H mi t
er e Jo l u e
H o
er

H K l y
'

l fl
e rre ss c i o ee e
H i o f Sy
er o ra c us e K ilog mm ra e

H NL S A hill “
150 c es

H ook L t om t
. .

e 3 66 ac e er 1 14 129
Ho
,

rac e 2 L an a 33 7
H d o lii T l
u s n 77 vei u nn e L pl
a ac e 39 9
H yg b om t L pl b om t fo m l
’ ’
u en s 2 63 ar e er a ace s ar e ri c r u a 311
H yd li ra u 4 61cs L pl
a l w f th d
ac e s
’
aity f o e e ns o

H yd li g di t
ra u 2 76 4 8 1c ra en th t te s f th ra a oth e e ar

H yd li Po w C om p y 2 1 L R o h ll
,

ra u c er an a c e e

H yd li p ra u 17c res s L t
a ent h t f f io ea o us n

H yd li m ra u 4 28c ra L t t h t f v p o i t io
a en ea o a r sa n

H yd d y mi
ro na cs L t it d
a u e

H yd og r g b lloo n 330
e n or as a L w
a f v po
s o
p a ur re ssure

H yd om t r e er L l t th o m
ec er
’
s 1 65 1 73e re s

H yd o t t i b l d
, ,

r s a 98 99 c a an c e L g
e ran
H yd o t t i b llow
r s a 18 c e s
,

L li E lli
es e s

H yd o t t i p do
r s a 21 c ara x L v l
e e f f q i l ib
su r ac e s o e u 1 1 n1u

H yd o t t i t h t
r s a 41 c rus Li ft
H yd o t t i t h t i mo ld 74
r s a c ru s n a u L i ft i g p m p
n u

H y p boloid
er 1 8 9 2 02 L im co a ns

Li vt
,

nes o f c u r a u re

Im p i l mer a f p i t y 1 06 e a su re s o ca ac Li q idu

Im p l t
u sebi 4 79ur ne Li q id b ll t i g
u a as n
 IN D E X .
5 33

PAG E PA GE
Li q id film
u 4 15 4 17 s M omm se n 2
i q id omm i i g oo om
,

L u in c u n cat n ves M rs 2 13
l
se s 79 M o n t g o l fie 1 h o t a i r a b lloo n 32 7
L i q id i ot t i g vd M o1 1 t g o l fi e 1 s h yd1 a u l i c m
’
u n r a n cu r e 1a 4 28
t b u es M on t u cl a 4
Li q id m i t i
u it l v l a n a ns s e e ol d
M r an 18
Li q id o t t i g bo t l d di o l b om t
M e i an s
’
u r t a n a u a ver l ag n a ar e er
ca l i ax s ly d b l
M Oi l an d s s t e e ar o r a an c e
Li t t l e b om tar e er
Lod g e Mo l y se e
Lo g i t di
n l Mt t u na e ac e n i e Mo t E un st vei e

M Le o d ga u g e N my t h 19
‘
as
M a c fa r an e G ra l y Ni g a a1 a 4 64
ki l y N i hol o
.

M ac n a c s n 1 72
l i
M ac au r n s a n d J ac obi fig N i hol o 1 yd
’
1 15
’
s c s t n1 10 1 1 o n1 e er ,

f q ilib i m f
u re s o t t
e u i u o i o a N d id
o o 4 19
i g li q id N obl d Ab l
.

n u s e an e 5 10
M g d b g h mi p h
a e ur e s e re s N m i l
u e r cal l t io i ca cu a ns n
M i a n na v l hi t ta arc e c u re
M ll t
a e

M m b om t
a1 e ar e er Obli q i t y f th u t o e s re ss
M io t t
ar e O bo
s R y old
rn e e n s

M q i
ai f Wo t
u s o rc e s e r O ill t io
sc fa
g hold ns o a as er
Ma t
s c ai O ill t io
sc fa hi p ns o a s
M im m d
ax
ght fu him rau o a c Ot t o Gv on ik ue r c e

y
ne 32 2 Ovid
M w ll
ax 6 4 01 4 02 4 1 6
e 520
d pt h P ki g f p h
, , , ,

M e an e 64 ac n o s e re s 52
M h i l q iv l t f h t
ec an c a e u a en o ea 5 08 P ddl w h l
a e ee 4 75
M h i l th o y f h t
ec an c a e r o ea 5 05 P l mo
a ae n 95
M di t
e e rran e an 2 34 P pi
a n 11
M d l fi
en e ee
'

444 P ara boli yli d c c n er 2 00

i l i p mp boli p d m
.
,

M e rc u r a a r u 3 80 P ara c s ee e as u re r, 448
y w i g hi g m hi boloid
.

M e rc u r e n ac ne 141 Para 1 89 200

‘

l
,

M t e t
a c e n re 1 49 Pa sc a 3 17
t i h igh t l v
, ,

M t
’
e ace n r c e 1 49 P asc a s as e s 78
M t o olo g y f t h b om t
e e r o e ar e er 267 P lt o wh l
e n ee 4 74
M t e re 10 Pe a rs o n 6
M t i y t m
e r c s s e P iod
er 2 24
M il ne r Pe rr y 4 12
Mi i h Pi t t
’
ne r s nc c e

M i im mn f u su r a ce s Pi z om t
e e er 4 68
M i i i pp i d R o zi
.

s s ss Pi l at re e er 327
M i tm x d lloy e s an a s Pi p t t e e 2 92
M ol e Pl an im t e e rs
NI m t l lli p
o en a e se Pl t i i t y
as c 6
M om t f i en ti o ner a Pl t
a e au 4 00 4 60
M om t m gy Plim oll
. .
,

en d u f an e ne r o a s 1 38
Plim oll m k
.

je t 4 65 s ar 1 68
534 I NDE X .

li y
P n R it
e s s anc e o f hi p s s
l
P u t a rch R lt t th t
e su an 1 us
i
Pn e u ma t c s Ri p ill y t ub
se i n ca ar e
m i m hi
Pn e u at c ac n es R obi ns

o v bili y
P l ar c u r e s o f s t a t R oom g a e

oll
P ard c t D u de b o u t R ot t i g yli d f l i q id
a n c n e rs o u
o d
P un R ot t i g li q id
a n u
i y
Pra t t a n d W h t n e 0 0 R ot t i g p h f di q i d
a n s e re o u
R o wl d
.

Pre s su re an

d iy f
Pl e a s u re a n d e ns t o va R oy l o i t y
a s c e

po ur R tt
u er
P i
i e s s u re homo g o n a e ne us

li q id u S f t y v lv
a e a e

S il d w i dmill
.

Pre s s u re i n t e n s i fymg a
ppa a s an n s

ra t u s S li m t
a no e e1
Pre s su re in th e i n t e ri o r o f S lt L k
a a e

a
g ra n ta t i n g s
p h e re of li S t
a u ra et d v po a ur

q u 1d S v y
a er
l l q id i movi g
re s s u re o f i u n n S y St
a
’
s om t e re e er

v l e ss e s 423 S h fl
c a
’

er

P t b
re s s u re ur i ne 4 77 S h ii dl i h
c R m c er au

Pi ip l i
r nc a ax s S c re w p o p ll r e er

P i ip l
r nc dii f a t ra o c u 1 v a u ne 4 10 S e n ne tt
ibl ho i z o
.

P i 1i pi nc a S e ns e r n

Pi li pl f vi t
nc l v l oi t i
e o r ua e c es 20 S v
e e rn T l unn e

P odr t f i uc ti o ne r a 65 Sh i g t
e ar n s re s s
P l to
u sa
p l om tr or
p mp u s e er u Sh eer
pl an

P mpu s h ip g o a d r un
h ip d ig l l t io
.

es d n an ca cu a n

Q k B id g D m
ua er r e a ik hyd om t
es s
’
1 10 r e er

S im p l b oy y
,

e u an c

R a d i at i n c u rre n t S im p l h m i mo t io
R di ggy t i
e a1 on c n

a us o ra on S im p l h mo i
e ti lar n c v ei ca
P i b w
a u o o ill t io
sc a ns

R m bo t t om f t y v lv S im p o l
’ ’
a s s sa e a e s n s ru e
R ki n
an 13 e 4 78 S i p ho n

R ki hyd o t t i h S i p ho b om t
,
’
an ne s r s a c arc 4 09 n ar e e r
R ity
ar 127 S i p ho g g n au e
R t io l ho i zo
a na r n 4 60 Sm to ea n

R yl i g h Sm to i p mp
.

’
a e 3 9 8 40 1 4 69 ea n s a r u

R m S mi t h
, ,

e au ur 24 7
It dee 1 80 S mi t h o i s M t o olog i l
n an e e r ca

R f t io i o pt i
e ra c n n cs 25 9 t bl
a es
R g l t io f i
e e a n o ce 4 04 S o p b bbl
a u es

R g lt e n au 34 2 4 3 2 82 S olid s

R g l t t mo p h S p ifi g vi t y
, ,

e n au a s e re 34 ec c ra

R g l t t bl
e n au
’
s a e 3 03 S p ifi g vi t y bo t t l
ec c ra e

R i old d R k
e n an uc er 42 1 S p ifi h t
ec c ea

i S p ifi vol m
.

R e nn e 35 4 ec c u e

R voi w ll
e se r r a 41 S p e n se r
5 36 I NDE X .

P A GE
W e d o f i ni ni e rs 1 0 n 152 VVo l s t e n h o l me ,
W e i g t s a n d M e as u re s A c t 1 03 \Vo k do by o pl
r ne a c u e
We i g h t t h e rmom e t e r W o k do by p o w d
r ne er

W e i g h t an d w e i g hi ng Wo k q i d tr reh u re o ex a us t

W e i g h t o f t h e at mo sp h e re iv re c e er
\Ve in h o l d \V t h i g t
or n on

\Vh i r1po o l s a n d c y lo
c ne s W o t hi g t o p m p g
r n n u in
\Vh i te , W H 1 4 0, 1 60
hi Joh Yo g
. .

W te a n d n un

hi li
W st n g we ll
W hol o m l p
e n r a re ss u re Z uyde r Z e e
\Vill d G ibb
ar s

3 9 9 1

G L A SG O W : P R INT E D AT T HE U N IV E R S IT Y PR E SS , B Y ROB E RT M AFL E H U S E

‘
.