Conversing.

This refers to the verbalization of a concept or idea performed by two or more

people. This activity allows people to express their different views or opinions. It also gives them
an opportunity to explore and to understand the world they live in. Thus, it gives them an
opportunity to relate on the other speaker’s statements, and to make meaningful connections
with others.
Speechwriting. In writing a speech, the speaker does not consider the content but also the
sound production such as pronunciation, articulation, and phonation. The focus of the speech
shall depend on the occasion. It may be informational, inspirational, or ceremonial speech. The
main theme of the speech should be simple and striking. Your speech should be supported with
facts, relevant data and information.
Interviewing. It refers to the conversation between two or more people where questions are
asked by the interviewer to gather information from the interviewee. Interviewers can be divided
into three basic communicative events – interviews for gathering data (research method),
interviews for information (job interview) and interviews for assessment (media interview). The
interviewer must develop listening skills and note-taking skills in order to capture important
details and information.
Presenting. The 21st century brought about changes to our world where everything is
evidence-based and research-based. Schools and companies now require applicants/students
to present their research report. In presenting your research, you should always make sure that
you are able to create a good impact to your audience by informing, persuading, and convincing
them.
Performing Individual Performances. This refers to presenting dramatic reading,
extemporaneous speaking, impromptu speaking, story-telling, and many others. The presenter
must clearly understand the thought and experience the feelings in order to present the literary
piece well. He/she shall observe proper pronunciation, articulation, stress, phrasing, and
pausing.
Presenting Group Performances. This is the same as individual performances except this is
done in a group. Examples are Dramatic Reading, Reader’s Theater, Chamber Theater, Speech
Choir, Interpretative Reading and many others.

Nomination is strategy where you establish the topic. When you employ this strategy, you try to
open a topic with the people you are talking to. An example of this would be when you talk
about something during lunch and you start the conversation with a question or a statement.
Restriction in communication refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker. This could
also mean that the listener may not have a chance to be heard. For example, your group is
asked to discuss a certain topic or when you are listening to a homily.
Turn-taking pertains to the process by which people decide who takes the conversational floor.
There is a code of behavior behind establishing and sustaining a productive conversation, but
the primary idea is to give all communicators a chance to speak. To acknowledge others, you
may employ visual signals like a nod, a look, or a step back, and you could accompany these
signals with spoken cues such as “What do you think?” or “You wanted to say something?”
Topic control covers how procedural formality or informality affects the development of topic in
conversations. This also means that the conversation is bound only to given issues or topics.
For example, in meetings, you may only have a turn to speak after the chairperson directs you
to do so. In contrast, a casual conversation with friends over lunch or coffee where you may
take the conversational floor anytime.
Topic shifting, as the name suggests, involves moving from one topic to another. In other
words, it is where one part of a conversation ends and where another begins. You may use
effective conversational transitions to indicate a shift like “By the way,” “In addition to what you
said,” “Which reminds me of,” and the like.
Repair refers to how speakers address the problems in speaking, listening, and comprehending
that they may encounter in a conversation. This can be self-initiated (speaker corrects
himself/herself) or other-initiated (listener prompts the speaker to correct himself/herself). Repair
is the self-righting mechanism in any social interaction (Schegloff et al, 1977).
Termination refers to the participants’ close-initiating expressions that end a topic in a
conversation. It can be verbal or non-verbal like looking at a watch or by saying some closing
cues like “I have to go...”

Semantic avoidance
Learners may avoid a problematic word by substitution like “the eye was wounded” referring to a
black eye.
Message reduction
Learners express the message but is less accurate that the original idea like “The woman was
wearing a sort of long dress” which describes a woman wearing a gown.
Message abandonment
The Learner's message is totally discontinued like “She was walking in that ... I don’t know.”

Circumlocution
Learners may use a different word or phrase or describe the object or action to express the
intended meaning like "my father's father" to refer to grandfather or “the thing that you wear
when your hands feel cold” for gloves.
Word coinage
Learners create new words or phrases to express his/her idea like “picture place” to an art
gallery or “house shoes” for slippers.
Language switch
Learners use a word from his/her native language to express his/her message like “I saw a …
bruha in the forest.”
Appeal for assistance
Learners turn to someone for help to learn the correct word by pointing at something and asking
“What is this called?”.
Non-verbal strategies
Learners may use gestures and mime to augment or replace verbal communication.

Speech context (intrapersonal, interpersonal, public, mass communication)

Speech style (intimate, casual, consultative, formal, frozen)
speech act (locutionary, illocutionary, perlocutionary)
communicative strategy (nomination, restriction, turn-taking, topic control, topic shifting, repair,
termination).
In linguistics, language has three components – form, content, and use.
Form includes phonology (rules about speech sounds), morphology (small units of meaning
within words), and syntax (word order).
Content includes semantics (meaning of words).
Use includes pragmatics (rules for communication through language).
The content level of meaning refers to the factual interpretation of the words.
The relationship level of meaning expresses the relationship between communicators.
In terms of language forms, Roderick Hart and Don Burks (1972) introduced the term
“rhetorical sensitivity” it means means that a person has to review all available words and
use the one that is least likely to be offensive or hurtful to the listener.
According to Hermosa, et. al. (2016), communication is a two-way process
(sending and receiving messages) but it could have problems that may affect its smooth flow.
These problems may result in communication breakdown which must, at all cost, be avoided.
Denotative meaning refers to the dictionary meaning of a word.
Connotative meaning includes the emotions and feelings people attach to the word.
A loaded word is a word with a positive or negative connotative meaning in addition to its
denotative meaning.
Slang words are vivid and colorful but they are not meant to be used in formal writing.
Clichés are expressions that are frequently used so they are considered as worn-out
expressions.
Pretentious Words are words used to impress others. These words are often fancy as opposed
to simple, natural words.
Offensive Language
Racist language includes words that degrade someone of a particular ethnic background.
Sexist language is language which excludes one sex or the other. This suggests that one sex
is superior or better than the other.
Heterosexist language assumes that everyone in society is heterosexual.
Non-inclusive language is “language that uses certain expressions or words that exclude
particular groups of people.”

An exploratory or informative speech provides the audience with a clear understanding of a

concept or idea.
A persuasive speech provides the audience with favorable or acceptable ideas that can
influence their own ideas and decisions.
An entertainment speech amuses the audience. The humorous speeches of comedians and
performers are the best examples of this type.