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FUTURE PERFECT
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Future Perfect →Refers to an action or event that will be completed in a particular time in the
future before another future action or event.

Present Future 1 Future 2

By the time I get my first job, I will have already graduated from college.

What will happen first? I will graduate.

What happens next? I will get my first job.
Why did the speaker use the Future Perfect? To emphasize the relation between both points in the future
When the speaker looks back from Future 2, Future 1 will have
already happened.

• Structure

Future Perfect

Affirmative: Subject + Will + Auxiliary Verb Have + Main Verb in the Past Participle
By the end of the year, I will have already moved.

Negative: Subject + Will + Not + Auxiliary Verb Have + Main Verb in the Past Participle
By the end of the year, I won’t have moved yet.

Interrogative: Will + Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have + Main Verb in the Past Participle
Will you have already moved by the end of the year?

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Presentation for the Meeting

Mr. Moore – Mrs. Harris, I’d like to review the presentation for
next week’s meeting tomorrow. Will you have
finished it by tomorrow?
Mrs. Harris – Sure, Mr. Moore. I will have finished it before
the end of the day.
Mr. Moore – Great. I appreciate it, Mrs. Harris. We’ve been
putting a lot of effort into this new project.
Mrs. Harris – I know, Mr. Moore. Next month, you will have been
fully focused on this project for a whole year.
Mr. Moore – Exactly. Next week’s meeting is extremely important.

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:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
By the end of the year, I will have graduated in June. By the end of the year, I will have graduated.

MAKING A DEFINITION
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

What is this?

by saying what it is. by comparing to other things.

MAKING A DEFINITION

by saying what it is not. by using metaphors.

• Structure

Making a Definition: Techniques

Literal Definition → One of the most used verbs to make a definition is the verb to be. We use this verb to say
what something is or is not and we usually add function or purpose.

This is a kitchen tool called potato masher.

It is used to mash not only potatoes but
all kinds of vegetables.

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This is not a potato masher. But if you don’t have

one, you can use the fork to mash potatoes.

Comparison → Used to compare what you are defining to something the listener is already familiar with. We use
the comparative or the superlative forms, and expressions such as: like, such as, similar to, the same way as.

This is a food processor. Some say it is similar

to a food mixer but it is not. It is much better
than a food mixer or even than a blender. You
use it to process food in several ways, such as
chopping, slicing, grinding and puréeing.

Metaphors → It is also a way of comparing what you are defining to something the listener is already familiar
with, but you use a word or phrase which is not literally applicable.

Cooking is like painting or writing a song.

Just as there are only so many notes or
colors, there are so many flavors. It’s how you
combine them that sets you apart.

Wolfgang Puck – Awarded Chef and Restaurateur

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Lia’s Pineapple Cake

Brett – Wow! Is this a pineapple cake?

Loren – Watch your words! This is not a pineapple
cake; this is Lia’s most craved dessert ever!
Brett – Oh, sorry!
Loren – You should be. This is the best dessert you
will ever taste in your whole life. In fact, this
is not a dessert, it is a piece of heaven!

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PARAPHRASING
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Paraphrasing → The action of repeating what was said using different words, sentences, and structures
in order to explain, simplify, or clarify a statement.

• Structure

When we paraphrase a statement, we usually introduce it by using

one of the following expressions or questions.

In other words… In plain English…

That is to say… To put it in another way…
Are you saying that…? Do you mean that…?

• Paraphrasing Yourself

I’d never thought I would be so happy in a company. In other

words, working here has really changed my perspective.

• Paraphrasing Someone Else

Ashley – So I talked to Jay yesterday and he told me he could

get two days off work next month.
Carol – Really? Are you saying that you guys will be able to
travel with us?

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• Paraphrasing a Text

The Bruntland Report defines sustainability

as: “Development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.” To put it in
another way, it means that we should not wear out
resources that cannot be replaced damaging the
environment.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Weather Forecast
Jeff – Honey, listen to the weather forecast for the weekend. It
reads here there will be “a couple of showers; otherwise,
mostly cloudy and windy.”
Lisa – So are you saying we are not going to the beach as we
had planned?
Jeff – Well, that’s probably not the best idea. But we could stay
home, cook something nice and watch some series. That
might be even more fun than the beach.
Lisa – Really? Do you mean that you would rather stay home
than go to the beach?
Jeff – Well, not exactly. Putting in other words, what I’m trying
to say is that if life gives you lemons, make lemonade.

TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE: REVIEW

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Future → No facts but predictions that vary according to the speaker’s perception and intention.
→ There are different ways to express future in English.

Modal Verb Will

• Predictions based on the speaker’s opinion.

• Decision made at the moment of speaking.

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I have to go home, but I’ll have some ice cream first.

“Will” is also commonly used in expressions.

On the phone promising to return a call. – I’ll call you back. / I’ll get back to you.
When the phone or the door bell is ringing and you’ll answer it. – I’ll get it.
When you need to the leave a place briefly. – I’ll be right back.

Be Going To

• Plans for the future and predictions made based on physical evidence.

This party planner is the best in the city. Your Apparently, it’s going to rain tomorrow. Look at all
wedding is going to be perfect. those dark clouds.

Simple Present

• Actions that are part of a schedule and the speaker considers them as fact.
• The future is made clear by the use of time expressions.

Tanya teaches the ten a.m. class tomorrow. Are you coming?

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Present Continuous

• Appointments, prearranged activities, and things alike.

Mrs. Glass, let’s review my schedule for tomorrow. I’m having breakfast with investors,
then back to the office, right?

Future Continuous (Will + Be + Verb in –ING)

• The speaker sees the future action as relevant and intends to emphasize this feature.

I’m afraid I can’t come to the vernissage because I will be presenting my thesis.

:: STAY ALERT

Modal verbs infer meaning and not time of actions, but notice that they can refer to the future. Take a look.

Gordon – Let’s have lunch tomorrow.

Stella – I might have something at twelve p.m. Let’s confirm tomorrow.

In extremely informal writing or informal spoken language, “going to” is transformed into “gonna.”
Be careful not to use it in formal situations.

It is going to rain tomorrow. (neutral/formal) = It’s gonna rain tomorrow. (informal)

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Planning a Company Function

Mrs. Flynn – Jessica, I’m meeting the board tomorrow and they’ll ask me about the venue for our balance
event. What do we have?
Jessica – Mrs. Flynn, I have the estimate for two venues by the beach, but the manager of Brewhouse
Coffee was sick and we’re going to meet tomorrow afternoon.
Mrs. Flynn – That might be a problem. Can you give me a report with all of them tomorrow by two?
Jessica – I will be meeting the manager exactly at two, but I think I’ll have the report by five p.m.
Mrs. Flynn – Right...I’ll tell you what: once you leave the meeting, call me with the price and then you send
me the report.
Jessica – Deal. I’ll do it.

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L E S S O N 2

MAKING A DEFINITION: SUBTLE OR EMPHATIC

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Being Subtle or Emphatic → Depends on who you talk to and where you are.

Being Subtle or Emphatic in Definitions

• Being subtle means that you don’t make your definition in a direct way, you use softer words.
• Being emphatic means to be assertive. Remember to mind your tone not to sound rude.
• The use of adverbs infers the writer’s or speaker’s point of view upon the definition.
• A formal definition normally won’t carry adverbs.

Take a look the following dictionary definition.

School: A place where people are taught.

Now, let’s see how we can make this definition subtle

and emphatic.

Subtle → A school can be kind of like a second

home to children, a place where they learn
a lot of things.
Emphatic → A school is an extremely important place
for children and adults who want to learn.

The use of adverbs is a tool to make your definitions subtle or more emphatic.

Adverbs for Subtle Definitions Adverbs for Emphatic Definitions

A little bit Kind of Very Strongly

A bit Sort of Really Immensely
Slightly Extremely

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Playing Crosswords

John – Fruit with a very sour taste. Any idea, Lana?

Lana – That seems like lemon. What are you doing?
John – Genius! I’m playing a crossword puzzle.
Lana – What’s that?
John – It’s a word puzzle that can be slightly difficult
sometimes.

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MODALS + PERFECT INFINITIVES REVIEW: MUST AND SHOULD

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Modals + Perfect Infinitives → Used to talk about modality with a past reference, such as assumptions about
the past (must + perfect) and comments about decisions made in the past
(should + perfect)

• Structure

• Must + Perfect Infinitive: Assumption About the Past

Subject + Must + Have + Main Verb in the Past Participle + Complement

It’s nine o’clock and George hasn’t arrived yet.

Something must have happened. George is never
late for meetings.

(I haven’t talked to George but I assume something

happened because George is never late.)

I can’t find my charger. I must have left it at work.

(I’m not sure I left it at work but since it was the last
place I’ve been to, I assume I left my charger there.)

• Should + Perfect Infinitive: Regret about making a decision in the past which was not the best.

Subject + Must + Have + Main Verb in the Past Participle + Complement

You should have told me about this problem before.

We wouldn’t be in this situation right now.

(You didn’t tell me about the problem before and it

was not the best decision.)

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Karen is in Boston? Why is she at a hotel? She

should have stayed with us.

(Karen stayed in a hotel and it was not the best

decision.)

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Ricky’s Fall

Jonathan – I’ve just talked to Kelly on the phone. Little Ricky got hurt riding his bike yesterday and
she took him to the hospital, but he’s fine now.
Kimberly – What? Ricky got hurt and Kelly didn’t call me? I’m a doctor. She should have called me
right away.
Jonathan – Baby, he’s a kid, it happens. It must have been one of those silly accidents children have.
Kimberly – But still, she should have told me. I would be glad to help.
Jonathan – She must have felt uncomfortable bothering you. It was Sunday.
Kimberly – Well, one more reason she should have called me. We were home.

:: STAY ALERT

Must + Perfect Infinitive is used to make an assumption about the past. If you need to talk about a past
obligation you should use had to.

She had to finish everything in a week. → Past Obligation

It must have been hard to finish it all in a week. → Assumption About the Past

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
You should had talked to me first. You should have talked to me first.
I was late because I must have had to finish the I was late because I had to finish the report.
report.

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PERFECT FORMS: REVIEW

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Use

Perfect Forms → Be it in the past, present, or future, Perfect Forms connect two
events or two points in a timeline either by continuity or relevance.

Continuity

Events/Points Events/Points

Relevance

Events/Points Events/Points

Structure

• Past Perfect

Past Perfect

Affirmative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (in the past) + Main Verb in the Past Participle
Negative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (in the past) + Not + Main Verb in the Past Participle
Interrogative: Auxiliary Verb Have (in the past) + Subject + Main Verb in the Past Participle

When Tom asked me about the report, I had already finished it.

Past Perfect Simple Past Present

I finished the Tom asked
report. me about
the report.

• Past Perfect Continuous

Past Perfect Continuous

Affirmative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (in the past) + Been + Main Verb in –ING Form
Negative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (in the past) + Not + Been + Main Verb in –ING Form
Interrogative: Auxiliary Verb Have (in the past) + Subject + Been + Main Verb in –ING Form

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When my father retired, he had been working for the same company for twenty years.

Past Past Present

Twenty years Retirement
working at
the same
company.

• Present Perfect

Present Perfect

Affirmative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (in the present) + Main Verb in the Past Participle
Negative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (in the present) + Not + Main Verb in the Past Participle
Interrogative: Auxiliary Verb Have (in the present) + Subject + Main Verb in the Past Participle

Have you seen my keys? I’ve looked for them all over and I can’t find them.

Past(?) Present
Even though I looked, I don’t know where they are.

Did you see my keys at any moment before now?

I looked for them at unspecified moments in the past.

• Present Perfect Continuous

Present Perfect Continuous

Affirmative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (in the present) + Been + Main Verb in –ING Form
Negative: Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have (in the present) + Not + Been + Main Verb in –ING Form
Interrogative: Auxiliary Verb Have (in the present) + Subject + Been + Main Verb in –ING Form

Joanna has been living in France for six years now.

Past Six years living in France Present

• Future Perfect

Future Perfect

Affirmative: Subject + Will + Auxiliary Verb Have + Main Verb in Past Participle
Negative: Subject + Will Not/Won't + Auxiliary Verb Have + Main Verb in Past Participle
Interrogative: Will + Subject + Auxiliary Verb Have + Main Verb in Past Participle

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By the time you come back from work, I’ll have finished dinner.

Present Future 1 Future 2

I will finish You will come
dinner. back from work.

• Future Perfect Continuous

By the end of this year, Martha will have been teaching for ten years.

Present Future
Martha will complete ten years teaching.

Martha has been teaching for nine years and some months.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Stuck at the Office

Liam – Where are you? I’m waiting for you at the

restaurant. I’ve been trying to call but you never
answer.
Jen – I’m sorry, honey. I’ve just left work. Let’s see, it’s
seven ten now, I’ll be there in twenty minutes.
Liam – It means that by the time you get here I will have
been waiting for over an hour.
Jen – Honey, I’m sorry. I know we had planned to meet
at six thirty, but you know how crazy things have
been at the office lately. And today it was even
crazier. I’ll tell you everything as soon as I get there.
Don’t be mad. I love you.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
They know each other for two years. They’ve known each other for two years.
I’m working here since 2015. I’ve been working here since 2015.
I had graduated in 2010 by the time I got married I had graduated by the time I got married in 2011.
in 2011. I graduated in 2010 and I got married in 2011.

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REPORTED SPEECH: FOCUS ON VERB FORMS

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Reported Speech → Used to report to a third party what you were told. The speaker often paraphrases the
original words changing verb forms, pronouns, and time expressions.

• Structure

Changing Verb Forms

Direct Speech: “I can’t do it by myself. I need help.”

Reported Speech: Martha said she couldn’t do the job by herself and that she needed help.

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Direct Speech: “I’m going to take the kids to the movies. We’ll be back at around seven p.m.”

Reported Speech: Liam said he was going to take the kids to the movies and that they would be back at
around seven p.m.

Verb Form Changes from Direct Speech to Reported Speech

Simple Present → Simple Past

Present Continuous → Past Continuous
Present Perfect → Past Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous
Simple Past → Simple Past (no change) or Past Perfect
Past Perfect → Past Perfect (no change)
Be (present) + Going To → Be (past) + Going To
Will → Would
Can → Could
May → Might
Might → No change
Should → No change
Could → No change
Would → No change

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Mr. Nielsen’s Retirement

Jackie – Samantha told me Mr. Nielsen was going to retire. Did you hear it?
Rachel – No, not at all. Well, he’s surely going to be missed. Everyone who
works with him says the same thing, “Mr. Nielsen is by far the best
boss I’ve ever had.”
Jackie – That’s true. Just yesterday I was talking to Peter and he told me
exactly the same, he said that Mr. Nielsen was the best boss he
had ever had and he also mentioned how grateful he was to work
with Mr. Nielsen.
Rachel – But if he thinks this is the right time, I’ll be glad for him.

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L E S S O N 3

MAKING METAPHORICAL DEFINITIONS

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Using a metaphor to make a definition means to define one thing by comparing it to another.

Definition of world using a metaphor:

All the world is a stage, and all the men and women merely players.
William Shakespeare

Definition of conscience using a metaphor:

Conscience is a man’s compass.

Vincent Van Gogh

Definition of religions, arts, and sciences using a metaphor:

All religions, arts and sciences are branches of the same tree.
Albert Einstein

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Metaphors We Use in our Everyday Life

Time is money. Love is what makes the world go Life is like a box of chocolates.
round.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Leaving for Work

Brad – 
Emma, hurry up. I have to go to work.
Time is money.
Emma – 
Hold your horses, big brother. I need to finish
my make-up.
Brad – 
Emma, we are going to work. You are not
going to meet Prince Charming.
Emma – 
Well, who knows? Life is a box of chocolates.

MODALS + PERFECT INFINITIVES: MAY AND MIGHT

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Modals + Perfect Infinitives → Used to talk about modality with a past reference. We use May/Might + Perfect
Infinitive to make possible assumptions about the past. The difference is the
degree of certainty you assume.

• Structure

Subject + May/Might + Have + Main Verb in the Past Participle + Complement

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Mr. Coleman said he would call to give us feedback

on the meeting, but he didn’t. He might have
forgotten. Or he may have left the meeting too late
to call. That’s more likely due to the time difference
between California and New York.

I haven’t talked to Mr. Coleman, but I think

there is a slight chance that he forgot to call.

I haven’t talked to Mr. Coleman, but I think there is a

good chance that he left the meeting too late.

I’ll take King to the vet. He’s been too quiet.

He might have eaten something weird on the
street. Or he may have drunk chlorinated water
from the pool again, which is more likely.

I don’t know whether he ate it or not, but I

assume there is a slight chance that he did.

I don’t know whether he drank it or not, but I

assume there is a good chance that he did.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Lucy’s Party

Diana – Did you go to Lucy’s party yesterday? I was so

sorry I couldn’t go, it must have been great!
Claire – Yes, it was great! Everybody was there; we
just missed you and Tom.
Diana – Tom didn’t make it either? Weird, he had
mentioned he was going to go. He might
have had some kind of emergency at work.
Claire – He had told me he was coming back from a
business trip and was going to go straight to
the party. He may have missed his flight.

:: STAY ALERT

It must have been difficult to do it alone. It may have been difficult to do it alone.

It might have been difficult to do it alone.

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:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
Mia may thought we were not home. Mia may have thought we were not home.
That was the reason she may didn’t call. Maybe/Perhaps that was the reason she didn’t call.

PASSIVE VOICE: REVIEW

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Focus on the action, not on the doer:

Our house is being painted by my husband.

The report has been written by Sarah.

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The doer is irrelevant, impossible to know, or well-known:

The meeting was canceled. → Doer is irrelevant.

The traffic sign has been damaged. → It is impossible to know the doer.

Taxes were raised. → Doer is well-known.

• Structure

Active Voice: Subject + Main Verb + Object

The board canceled the meeting.
Someone has damaged the traffic sign.
The government raised the taxes.

1. Object in the 2. Keep the auxiliary from the 4. In the past participle.
active voice. active voice if there is one.

Passive Voice: Subject of the Passive Voice + Verb To Be + Main Verb + By + Agent of the Passive

3. Conjugated in the same form as 5. Subject of the active voice

the main verb of the active voice. preceded by the preposition by.
It's optional in the passive voice.
The meeting was canceled.
The traffic sign has been damaged.
Taxes were raised.
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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT
Tomorrow's Meeting

Jonathan – T he presentation for the meeting is

finished. It was revised by Sarah.
Marianne – For tomorrow's meeting? Haven't you
heard? The meeting was canceled.
Jonathan – Really? No, I didn't know that. Has a new
date been scheduled?
Marianne – No, not yet. But as soon as it's scheduled,
I'll make sure you are informed.
Jonathan – Thank you, Marianne.

:: STAY ALERT
Passive Voice is commonly used in headlines with the omission of the verb to be:

Major cities were destroyed by the hurricane. → Passive Voice Sentence

Major cities destroyed by hurricane. → Passive Voice in Headline (without verb to be)

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
I was interesting in the conference. Active Voice: The conference was interesting.
Passive Voice: I was interested in the conference.

REPORTED SPEECH: REPORTING QUESTIONS

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Reported Speech → Used to report to a third party what you were told. The speaker often paraphrases the
original words changing verb forms, pronouns, and time expressions. When reporting
questions, we should introduce the reported sentence with the verb to ask and turn the
question to the affirmative form.

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• Structure

Reporting Interrogative Form

Direct Speech: “Do you want to see a movie tonight?”

Reported Speech: Jonas asked me if I wanted to see a movie tonight.

Sentence in the AFFIRMATIVE FORM.

Include IF.
Use the introductory verb TO ASK

Direct Speech: “Mom, can you stay with the kids on the weekend?”
Reported Speech: Laura asked me if I could stay with the kids on the weekend.

Sentence in the AFFIRMATIVE FORM.

Include IF.
Use the introductory verb TO ASK

Direct Speech: “What time do we have to be here tomorrow?”

Reported Speech: Andrew asked me what time we had to be here tomorrow.

Sentence in the AFFIRMATIVE FORM.

Include the QUESTION WORD.
Use the introductory verb TO ASK
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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Tomorrow's Meeting

Wife – John, Maggie asked me if she could go to a rock concert with her friends.
I don’t know what to answer.
Husband – Well, she is fifteen now. We have to get ready for that. Who is going with her?
Wife – That’s the point, I asked her who was going to the concert and she told me
a bunch of names I’ve never heard. I also asked her where the concert was
and how they were going to go, but she had very little information.
Husband – I see…we could tell her that she can go as long as we drive her and her
friends there and then pick them up.
Wife – Excellent idea, honey!

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
She asked me where were the kids. She asked me where the kids were.
He asked me when did you travel. He asked me when you traveled.

L E S S O N 4

IMPLIED MEANING: PROVERBS

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Proverbs →
 Repeated sayings that reflect basic truths or cultural beliefs
→ Commonly used to give advice
→ Carry implied meaning

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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Tomorrow's Meeting

Wife – John, Maggie asked me if she could go to a rock concert with her friends.
I don’t know what to answer.
Husband – Well, she is fifteen now. We have to get ready for that. Who is going with her?
Wife – That’s the point, I asked her who was going to the concert and she told me
a bunch of names I’ve never heard. I also asked her where the concert was
and how they were going to go, but she had very little information.
Husband – I see…we could tell her that she can go as long as we drive her and her
friends there and then pick them up.
Wife – Excellent idea, honey!

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
She asked me where were the kids. She asked me where the kids were.
He asked me when did you travel. He asked me when you traveled.

L E S S O N 4

IMPLIED MEANING: PROVERBS

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Proverbs →
 Repeated sayings that reflect basic truths or cultural beliefs
→ Commonly used to give advice
→ Carry implied meaning

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Take a look at some proverbs and the meaning behind them.

• Two wrongs don’t make a right.

If someone does something bad to you, you shouldn’t do the same back.

• Don’t judge a book by its cover.

Don’t rely too much on first impressions.

• Better safe than sorry.

Do things cautiously so that you don’t regret them.

• The early bird catches the worm.

Wake up early to succeed.

• Never look at gift horse in the mouth.

If you receive a gift, be grateful and don’t question its quality.

• Too many cooks spoil the broth.

Sometimes when too many people are calling the shots, it gets confusing and there is no work done.

• Easy come, easy go.

What you get easily might as well disappear the same way.

• Don’t bite the hand that feeds you.

Don’t treat badly people who help you and are by your side.

• Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

Each person has their own idea of what beautiful is.

• The grass is always greener on the other side.

People tend to treasure most what belongs to other people rather than valuing their own.

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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Making Amends

Toby – Dude! I lost all the cash I won on the blackjack table!
Kevin – Easy come, easy go, my friend. Did you think you’d win
all the time at the slot machine?
Toby – Dude! That’s crazy. Anyway, I’ll go get some more chips,
I still have some cash.
Kevin – Toby, don’t. It’s better to be safe than sorry. Let’s get
out of here or you will clear your bank account.

MODALS + PERFECT INFINITIVES REVIEW: WOULD AND COULD

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Modals + Perfect Infinitives → Used to talk about modality with a past reference. We use Would + Perfect
Infinitive to talk about past hypothesis. We use Could + Perfect to talk about a
past possibility.

• Structure

Would + Perfect Infinitive

Subject + Would + Have + Main Verb in the Past Participle + Complement

Would + Perfect is frequently used in conditional sentences with the following structure:

If + Subject + Past Perfect + Subject + Would + Have + Main Verb in the Past Participle + Complement

If you had told me John was sick, I would have told him to go home.
IF-CLAUSE. WOULD + PERFECT.

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• Could + Perfect Infinitive

Subject + Could + Have + Main Verb in the Past Participle + Complement

Could + Perfect Infinitive is also frequently used in conditional sentences with the following structure:

If + Subject + Past Perfect + Subject + Could + Have + Main Verb in the Past Participle + Complement

If you had talked to me about this problem before, I could have helped you. Now, there’s nothing I can do, we lost the client.
IF-CLAUSE. COULD + PERFECT.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Old Friends Meeting

Tina – Brad! Oh my God! How are you?

Brad – Tina, it’s so good to see you! I’m good. And you?
Tina – I’m good too. Hey, I didn’t know you were back in town. If I had known, I would you have invited you
to my birthday party last week. It was awesome. Everybody from high school was there. It would
have been great to have you there too.
Brad – Wow! I would have loved to meet everyone. But I couldn’t have gone, I just came back two days
ago. Tell me the news. How is everyone?

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:: STAY ALERT

The structures Would/Could + Perfect Infinitive can often be interchangeable.

Talking about a past hypothetical situation or a past possibility is frequently just a matter of choice.

I would have traveled with you. (Appropriate)

If I had had enough money back then,
I could have traveled with you. (Appropriate)

In some other contexts, the modal verb would will be more appropriated.

I would have called the police. (Appropriate)

If you had taken ten more minutes to arrive,
I could have called the police. (Not the best option)

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
I could went there with you. I could have gone there with you.
If you had told me the children were coming, If you had told me the children were coming,
I would bake a cake. I would have baked a cake.

REPORTED SPEECH: REPORTING IMPERATIVES

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Reported Speech → Reporting Statements

→ Reporting Questions
→ Reporting Commands and Orders → Imperatives

• In order to report commands and orders in the affirmative form, here’s what you have to do:

Maya – Leo, call the lawyer to get updates on the contracts.

Use the verb Told + Object + the Verb in the

Infinitive Form to start the reported speech.

Maya told Leo to call the lawyer to get updates on

the contracts.

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• In order to report commands and orders in the negative form, here’s what you have to do:

Jackie – Lauren, don’t cross the street without looking both ways.

Use the verb Told + Object + Not + the Verb in

the Infinitive Form to start the reported speech.

Jackie told Lauren not to cross the street without

looking both ways.

*Remember that if there is time or pronoun reference, you might need to change it according to when
you retell the dialogue.

:: STAY ALERT

Imperatives can also be used to make requests. In such cases, you

won’t use the verb told in your reported speech but the verb Asked.

Lara – John, pass me the salt, please.

Reported Speech: Lara asked John to pass the salt.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

In the Office
Tommy – Hey, hey, why the long face? What’s up with you?
Harry – Can you believe that Mr. Thompson asked me
to serve coffee?
Tommy – What’s the problem with that?
Harry – I got into his room to show him my project and
he was with a client. Then, he says “Mr. Potts, get
us some coffee, please.”
Tommy – What’s the problem? He was in a meeting. You
can ask Paulie to give it to him.
Harry – I’m an engineer, dude. It’s not my duty to serve
him coffee.
Tommy – You’re being ridiculous, that’s what. He didn’t
ask you to serve, just to get them some coffee.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
The teacher told me don’t be late. The teacher told me not to be late.

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REPORTED SPEECH: FOCUS ON TIME AND PRONOUN REFERENCE

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Reported Speech → Used to report to a third party what you were told. The speaker often paraphrases the
original words changing verb forms, pronouns, and time expressions.

• Structure

Changing Pronouns

Direct Speech: “Mark, I’ll be home at around nine p.m.”

Reported Speech: Mom told me she would be home at around nine p.m.

Direct Speech: “You shouldn’t wait for me because you have to go to bed at eight p.m.”

Reported Speech: Mom said I shouldn’t wait for her because I have to go to bed at eight p.m.
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Changing Time Expressions

Time expressions will be changed depending on when the statement is reported.

Direct Speech: Reported Speech:

Joana is going to arrive tonight. Sam told me that Joana was going to arrive tonight.

TODAY IN THE MORNING TODAY IN THE AFTERNOON.

Direct Speech: Reported Speech:

Joana is going to arrive tonight. Sam told me that Joana was going to arrive
last night.

YESTERDAY TODAY

Direct Speech: Reported Speech:

Joana is going to arrive tonight. Sam told me that Joana was going to arrive last week.

Nov 2nd Nov 9th

Usual Changes

Now → Then / At that moment

Today → On that day
Tomorrow → The next day / On the following day
Yesterday → The day before
Two months ago → Two months before

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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Duties and Fun

Mother – Bob, did you go to the movies with your friends? What did I tell you yesterday?
Bob – You told me that I could go to the movies with my friends tonight.
Mother – 
Not exactly, Bob. My exact words were: “You can go to the movies with your friends
tomorrow as long as you finish your homework and clean your bedroom.”
Father – 
And I heard it. Your mother made it very clear that you could only go to the movies
if you did your homework and cleaned your bedroom. And it’s not clean, young man.
Bob – I’m sorry…in my defense, the homework is done.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
You told the problem was solved. You told me the problem was solved.
He said me he was going to be here at seven. He said he was going to be here at seven.

R E V I E W

HOW TO DESCRIBE, EXPLAIN, DEFEND, AND

ANALYZE AN IDEA: DEFINING BASIC CONCEPTS
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Duties and Fun

Mother – Bob, did you go to the movies with your friends? What did I tell you yesterday?
Bob – You told me that I could go to the movies with my friends tonight.
Mother – 
Not exactly, Bob. My exact words were: “You can go to the movies with your friends
tomorrow as long as you finish your homework and clean your bedroom.”
Father – 
And I heard it. Your mother made it very clear that you could only go to the movies
if you did your homework and cleaned your bedroom. And it’s not clean, young man.
Bob – I’m sorry…in my defense, the homework is done.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
You told the problem was solved. You told me the problem was solved.
He said me he was going to be here at seven. He said he was going to be here at seven.

R E V I E W

HOW TO DESCRIBE, EXPLAIN, DEFEND, AND

ANALYZE AN IDEA: DEFINING BASIC CONCEPTS
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

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Whenever we analyze an idea, we should describe, explain, and defend our point of view. In order to do that,
we should use different techniques.

DESCRIPTION ARGUMENTATION

IDEA

EXPLANATION NARRATION

DEFINITION
• Structure

Description

When you describe, you detail what someone or something is like.

The weather in Los Angeles is always good. It

is the entertainment capital of the world and it
receives more than 45 million tourists a year.

Explanation

An explanation is a way to describe how to do something or how something happens. It should present steps
in order.

Opening a branch in Los Angeles means that

we will first need to work on a budget for
investments and advertisement. It will take us
some time to establish the brand and gain new
customers. But once it is done, we are going to
have a significant growth.

• Definition

A definition is an explanation, phrase, or sentence that says the meaning of a word, phrase, or idea.

After all, having a business means being bold enough to take risks.

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• Narration

A narration is a sequence of events that tells a story and describes what happened.

Don’t you remember how it was when we opened

our first bakery? We used all our money, we couldn’t
quit our regular jobs, we had to take risks. But we
believed in our potential and now we have seven
other bakeries.

• Argumentation

An argumentation is a way of forming reasons, justifying beliefs, drawing conclusions, and applying them to a
case in discussion with the aim of influencing others.

That is why I think it is about time we gave a new step. Opening a branch in Los Angeles will definitely
take our business to another level. We cannot stand still in our comfort zone.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Sedan vs. SUV

Wife – I don’t know if it’s time for us to buy a
new car, honey.
Husband – But think about it baby, we now
have a sedan. It is a family car, it
accommodates five people, which
is enough for our family, and it
works fine in the city. But it is not
really appropriate to go over rough
surfaces. (Description)
Wife – But what do you have in mind?
Husband – If we get an SUV, we can still have
all the benefits we have now, but I
could also use it to make deliveries
for the company. At first it may
seem expensive, but in a few
months we can save a lot of money.
(Argumentation)
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Wife – But do we have enough money?
Husband – Well, we could sell our car and
then I could ask my father to lend
us the rest of the money. Once I
start delivering for the company
myself, in a few months we will have
saved enough to pay him back.
(Explanation and Narration)
Wife – I guess you are right. Getting a new
car at the moment is not an expense,
it’s an investment. Let’s go for it.
(Definition)
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L E S S O N 5

BE GOING TO (PRESENT AND PAST)

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

Be (in the Past) Going To → It refers to plans and intentions in the past that were not accomplished.
Be (in the Present) Going To → It refers to plans for the future or predictions based on evidence.

• Structure

Whether the speaker refers to the present or to the past, the sentence structure is the same.

Affirmative: Subject + Verb To Be (Present or Past) + Going To + Main Verb

Negative: Subject + Verb To Be (Present or Past) + Not + Going To + Main Verb
Interrogative: Verb To Be (Present or Past) + Subject + Going To + Main Verb

Now, let’s compare Be Going To in the present and the past.

On Wednesday:
Anthony is going to travel with his friends next weekend.
(He has the money, he has the time, and he plans to travel in the future.)

On Friday:
Anthony was going to travel with his friends next weekend, but now he has to work.
(He planned to travel, but something happened and he won’t go anymore.)

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Arranging the Kids’ Visit

Mark – Hi, Anna, are you going to do anything special with the kids this weekend?
Anna – Well, I was going to take them to a park and watch a movie. Why?
Mark – I was wondering if I could have them this weekend. It’s my nephew’s birthday.
Anna – Oh, I guess it’s all right. I thought you were going to be away for a few weeks.
Mark – I was going to visit some clients, but the company canceled the trip until
further notice. So, I’m going to pick them up tomorrow at three p.m., OK?

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CONDITIONALS: REVIEW
:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

→ Hypothesis
Conditionals → Conditions
→ Uncertain Events or Situations

• Structure

Zero Conditional

If + Simple Present + Simple Present

If you press this button, the machine starts.

First Conditional

If + Simple Present + Will

If Mark comes for dinner, I'll bake a pie.

Second Conditional

If + Simple Past + Would

If Tyler took some days off, he would be more

productive.

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Third Conditional

If + Past Perfect + Would + Perfect

If you had played against me, you would have lost.

Modal Verb Should as Conditional

Used to suggest that something is unlikely, or not very probable.

Should + Subject + Verb + Imperative

Should you see Joana, tell her I said hi.
Should you pass by a drugstore, bring some painkillers.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Anna – Don, are you going to the supermarket later?

Don – I'll go, if you need anything.
Anna – Well, if the children come for dinner, I'll bake a strawberry pie.
So I need some strawberries just in case.
Don –  No problem, I'll go there. But what if I don't find strawberries?
Anna – If you don't find strawberries, then bring me some apples, please.
Don – OK. I'll go in a minute.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCOR RECT CORRECT

If you will eat junk food, you don't lose weight. If you eat junk food, you don't lose weight.
If you will study more, you will learn faster. If you study more, you will learn faster.

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IMPLIED MEANING: JOKES

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Implied Meaning → What is said in between the lines; the meaning behind the words that are said.
→ Can be understood from cultural reference, body language, and tone of voice among
other resources.
→ Commonly present in jokes and irony.

Normally based on implied meaning and cultural reference.

Aims at provoking laughter through the ridicule, absurdity, and misunderstandings.

Take a look at some jokes and the meaning behind them.

Example 1

Judy – Doctor, will I be able to play the piano after the operation?
Dr. Moore – Yes, of course.
Judy – Great! I never could before!

The doctor answers responding to the results of the operation assuming the patient already
knows how to play the piano, but the patient takes it as he’d gain a new skill.

Example 2

Why couldn't Cinderella be a good soccer player?

She lost her shoe, she ran away from the ball, and her coach was a pumpkin.

This joke plays with words and requires not only the knowledge of the meaning of the words ball
and coach but also the knowledge of the Cinderella story.

Example 3

Lilly – Meet my newborn brother.

Tess – Oh, he is so cute! What's his name?
Lilly – I don't know. I can't understand a word he says.

This joke implies that it is rather obvious that it is not the baby who will tell the name so the sibling
should know.

Example 4

Tom – When does the (English) alphabet have only 25 letters?

Leo – At Christmas time, because it is the time of Noel.

In order to understand this joke, one needs to have the knowledge of a cultural element and the
English alphabet and pronunciation. L is a letter, Noel is pronounced the same way as “No L”.

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Example 5

This joke presents a cultural misunderstanding between a native speaker of Spanish and a speaker of
English who’s learning Spanish. When the Spanish says it’s feminine, it refers to the word, not the fly.
However, this feature of grammar doesn’t exist in English and the Englishman thinks the Spanish one refers
to the gender of the fly not the word itself.

:: STAY ALERT
Jokes might be offensive, like this one:

Teacher – Today, we're going to talk about the tenses. Now, if I say, "I am beautiful," which tense is it?
Student – Obviously, it is the past tense.

The student implies that the teacher isn’t beautiful anymore.

Or, they might use cultural stereotypes that can also be offensive. So, be careful when telling jokes around.
Here’s a nice joke about Italians.

Jim – What do you call an Italian with his hands in his pocket?
Tony – A mute.

Italians are known for gesturing a lot while they speak.

Now, an offensive Swedish joke about Norwegians.

Martin – How do you say “genius” in Norwegian?

Samuel – Tourist.

Swedes usually refer to their fellow Scandinavian pals as being inferior in intelligence.

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RELATIVE PRONOUNS: REVIEW

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use

→ People
→ Places
Relative Pronouns → Used to refer to nouns previously mentioned → Things
→ Dates
→ Ideas

• Structure

People: Who, Whom, That

My sister, who lives in London, is coming to see us. (referring to my sister)

My sister, to whom I talked yesterday, is coming to see us from London. (referring to my sister)
My sister that lives in London is coming to see us. (referring to my sister)

Places: Where, Which

Our first stop was in San Francisco, where I met some nice people. (referring to San Francisco)
Our first stop was in San Francisco, which I simply loved! (referring to San Francisco)

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Things: Which, That

Junk food, which is usually appealing to children, can be very unhealthy. (referring to junk food)
Even junk food that claims to have natural ingredients is bad for children. (referring to junk food)

Dates: When

Our wedding anniversary is in August, when we'll go for a second honeymoon. (referring to August)

Possession: When

That man, whose wife is pregnant, lives in my neighborhood. (referring to that man's wife)

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:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Invitation to a Party

Emily – Hi, Will! It's Emily. Listen, it's my birthday next Saturday.
I'm throwing a party and I'd love if you and Cynthia
could come.
William – How nice, Emily! We just have to find someone that
can babysit the kids. Kelly, our neighbor, who usually
babysits for us, is not in town.
Emily – Oh, please, feel free to take the kids. I'm putting up a
kid's area where they can play. And I'm also preparing
a special menu, which will only be served to the kids.
William – That's awesome, Emily. Thank you! We'll certainly be
there.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
New York is a city where I love. New York is a city which I love.
New York is the city which I live. New York is the city where I live.
My sister, whom is a doctor, is in Africa. My sister, who is a doctor, is in Africa.

STRESS AND MEANING

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Stress → Refers to how strong or weak the pronunciation of a word in a sentence or of a syllable in a word is.

Word Stress

The way you pronounce the syllables may cause two situations.

1) Stressing the wrong syllable may make the word incomprehensible.

Murray – Can you REpeat the proBLEM?

Mary – I’m sorry, I don’t understand.

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2) Stressing the wrong syllable may confuse the listener because of another word.

DESert (arid and hot place) vs.
CONtest (a competition) vs.
PERmit (a license) vs.
PROduce (fruits and vegetables) vs.
REcord (a music album or a note) vs.
ADdress (house location) vs.
EXtract (a piece of a text) vs.
desSERT (sweet treat after the main dish)
conTEST (to disagree)
perMIT (to allow)
prodUCE (to bring out)
recORD (to keep record or save sound or image)
adDRESS (to speak to someone directly)
exTRACT (to remove something)

Sentence Stress

A neutral sentence, preserving its original meaning, will normally be stressed as follows:

Stressed: Content words (verbs, nouns, adjectives)

Unstressed: Structural or Linking words (articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary and modal verbs)

However, speakers may choose to infer different meanings according to how they pronounce the
words in a sentence. Take a look:

Dialogue 1 → Neutral. Nick is distracted; Julia is trying to catch his attention, but in a gentle tone.

Julia – Nick, look at me.

Nick – What?
Julia – I’m talking to you.

Dialogue 2 → Nick is distracted, but seems annoyed to be called on and Julia points out she’s talking.

Julia – Nick, look at me.

Nick – WHAT?
Julia – I am talking to you.

Dialogue 3 → Julia is annoyed because Nick isn’t paying attention to her.

Julia – Nick, look at ME.

Nick – What?
Julia – I talking to YOU.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

An Italian Date

Mario –
Janet, after the pizza, will you have DEsert?
Janet –
What?!
Mario –
You are not FAT, you can have DEsert.
Janet –
WHAT do you MEAN?
(Starting to show irritation)
Mario – I mean, you will love the chocolate pudding.
Janet – Oh! You mean desSERT. OK, I’ll have some.

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CULTURAL ASPECTS OF COMMUNICATION

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Culture provides people with different ways of interpreting the world. The things we say and do can mean
different things for different people even if they are speaking the same language.

Things we say

• Idioms and Phrases: Groups of words that combined have a different meaning from their individual
meanings.

Cross the bridge when you come to it.

Meaning: Deal with a problem only when it is necessary. Do not anticipate problems.

Once in a blue moon

Meaning: Something that happens very rarely.

• Slang Terms: Very informal language that is usually restricted to a particular context or group of people.

Buck
Slang term for the American dollar.

Booze
Slang term for alcoholic drinks.

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• Jokes

A joke is usually a funny unreal story which makes people laugh. But very often they bring cultural elements
that are restricted a particular culture.

In order to understand why it is funny you need some cultural background information.

There is a widely famous riddle joke in English which asks: “Why did the chicken cross the road?”
The answer should be: "To get to the other side."
It is an iconic example of anti-humor known by most Americans.

• Other Aspects of Language

Tone of voice, proximity between speakers, overlapping sentences: The way we interact with others is also
culturally oriented.

Italians are known for speaking at a loud tone of voice.

Brazilians usually stand much closer to each other when talking than most cultures.
Russians usually overlap each other’s sentences and it is not a sign of disrespect.

Things we do

• Gestures: they may have different meanings in different cultures.

Thumbs up: In many countries, it is considered to be V-sign: In the U.S., this sign means both victory and
a positive sign, but in the Middle East it is considered peace. But in the United Kingdom, Australia, and
to be offensive. South Africa, if you do the same gesture facing your
hand back it is considered to be extremely offensive.

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• Eye contact: D
 epending on your culture, eye contact or lack of eye contact is expected in some particular
situations.

In most western cultures, eye contact is expected and it shows interest and engagement in the conversation.

In middle-eastern cultures, eye contact is less common and ruled by gender. For example, a woman should
not make long eye contact with men.

In Asian cultures, eye contact is not considered to be essential in social interactions and, in some situations,
it is even considered to be disrespectful. For example, students are discouraged to make eye contact with
their professors.

What do you say and do, then?

It is impossible to learn the dos and don’ts of each culture. But a huge step is to acknowledge that everyone
interprets the world according to their culture. Thus, in every intercultural communication you should:

• Listen without judging.

• Confirm information.
• Not be afraid to ask what you don’t know or don’t understand.

ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

English as Lingua Franca

First Language in the USA, Canada, Britain, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, several Caribbean
countries, and some of other territories.

Official Second Language in over seventy countries, such as Ghana, Nigeria, India, and Singapore.

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Foreign Language in over 100 countries, such as Brazil, China, Russia, Germany, Spain, and Egypt.

Used in communications between two native speakers, a native and a non-native speaker, two
non-native speakers.

More than two thirds of the world's scientists read in English.

Three quarters of the world's mail is written in English.

80% of the world's electronically stored information is in English.

Possible Features of English as a Lingua Franca

• Dropping Third Person Simple Present • Using "no" or "yes" as Tag Questions.
He go by car. You live here, no?
She leave at seven. You want to stay, yes?

• Using "a" or "the" where native speakers don't. • Shifting patterns of preposition.
I need a information. I have to study about English.
Reading the books is good for you. I dreamed with you.

• Not using "a" or "the" where native speakers do.

I live in United States. (the United States)

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

To have a glimpse on the use of Englishes all over the word it’s interesting to search for articles on the web
named “English as a Lingua Franca.” It’s is an ongoing process that is happening at the very moment we are
living. There you will find examples and contexts in which they are used.

IMPLIED MEANING: STRESS AND INTONATION

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

Intonation
There are three main intonation patterns: flat, rising, and falling. This book represents these patterns
graphically, but keep in mind that, when speaking, you will use different intonations according to what you
mean.

1) Question with Question Words 2) Yes/No Questions

→ They usually follow a falling pattern. → They usually follow a rising pattern.

What are you doing? Are you OK?

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3) Sentences in general aren’t exactly flat because you stress content words, but speakers will change it
according to their mood and intention.

If you want, you can add meaning to sentences by Highlighting the importance on the interlocutor:
changing the stress and intonation of the sentence.
Inferring surprise or irritation: Are you OK?
What are you doing?
• Intonation and implied meaning

Mother – Kids, we are having fish for dinner tonight.

Kid – I don’t like fish. → Possible Implied Meaning → The others might like it.
But I don’t. Think about me!

Mother – Nice. So, you like fish.

Kid – I don’t like fish. → Possible Implied Meaning → You misunderstood me.

Mother – What do you think about having fish for dinner?

Kid – I don’t like fish. → Possible Implied Meaning → I hate it and you know it.

Mother – So, what do you want for dinner? Fish or chicken?

Kid – I don’t like fish. → Possible Implied Meaning → So, let’s have chicken.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

The Super Bowl

Tony – Baby! You’re not gonna believe this! (Can’t you see that it’s not just an ordinary
(You will believe it, but it’s very good game?)
news.) Sandra – Baby, when have I ever watched a
Sandra – Tell me. football game?
(Why are you taking so long?) (Football games are all the same for me.)
Tony – I got us tickets for Sunday! Tony – Please, stop calling it a game! If you don’t
(Getting tickets for Sunday is really want to come for the football, then come
difficult.) for the halftime show. Bruno Mars will be
Sandra – Tickets for Sunday? For the football performing.
game? (At least, acknowledge its importance.)
Really? That is the good news? Are you Sandra – Now we are talking...
sure?) (You have finally mentioned something
Tony – Wait a minute! It’s not a football game. interesting!)
It’s the Super Bowl.
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REPORTED SPEECH: REVIEW

:: USE AND STRUCTURE

• Use
Santa, mommy told me I was a good girl
and that you were going to bring me a
new doll. Is it true?

Reported Speech → Used to report to a third

party what you were
told. The speaker often
paraphrases the original
words changing verb
forms, pronouns, and time
expressions.

• Structure

Verb Forms → Depending on when the sentence is reported, verb forms may or may not be changed.
Pronouns → Pronouns will always change because the speaker is different.
Time Expressions → Depending on when the sentence is reported, time expressions may or may not be
changed.

Do you guys want to go to the game next week?

Next week, we will be traveling.

TODAY I N T H E AF T ERN OON

• Reported today in the evening:

Direct Speech: “Do you guys want to go to the game next week?”

Reported Speech: Jason asked Martha and Donald if they wanted to go to the game next week.

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ADVANCED 2
L E S S O N 6

Direct Speech: “Next week, we will be traveling.”

Reported Speech: Martha said they will be traveling next week.

• Reported two week after the dialogue took place:

Direct Speech: “Do you guys want to go to the game next week?”

Reported Speech: Jason asked Martha and Donald if they wanted to go to the game on the following week.

Direct Speech: “Next week, we will be traveling.”

Reported Speech: Martha said they would be traveling that week.

:: EXAMPLES IN CONTEXT

Amanda’s Surprise Party

Betty – Is everything OK for Amanda’s surprise party

tomorrow?
John – Yes, I spoke to Lisa this morning. She told me
that Tom bought some balloons and that they
are coming earlier to help us decorate.
Betty – Great. What about the drinks and cake?
John – I bought the drinks yesterday. Helen said she
was going to bake a cake and bring it here
tomorrow morning.
Betty – Nice! I called Amanda and told her she and
I should go out for some drinks. So, she is
going to come to meet here at seven-thirty
p.m.
John – Perfect. I asked everyone to be here at seven
p.m.

:: COMMON MISTAKES

INCORRECT CORRECT
Paul told he was going to help you. Paul told me he was going to help you.
Paul said he was going to help you.
Martha asked him what was he going to do that day. Martha asked him what he was going to do that day.

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