BTLE 30173 Principles of Food Preparation IM

Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Office of the Vice President for Academic Affairs
Santa Rosa Campus
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR

PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION (BTLE30173)
COMPILED BY:
ENGELINE DELA CRUZ-ILUMIN, RND, MBA

Faculty
PUP Santa Rosa Campus
August 2020
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
BACHELOR OF BUSINESS TECHNOLOGY AND LIVELIHOOD EDUCATION
MAJOR IN HOME ECONOMICS
SCHOOL YEAR 2022-2023
COURSE TITLE PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION

COURSE CODE BTLE 30173
CREDIT UNITS THREE (3) UNITS
COURSE PREREQUISITE None
COURSE DESCRIPTION This course introduces students to the exciting world of food exploration. It is designed to develop a deep understanding
of the significant concepts related to the nature and composition of foods which form the basis for their selection and
preparation. It includes cooking techniques and equipment, sensory and nutritional evaluation.
Institutional Learning Outcomes Program Outcomes Course Outcomes
1. Creative and Critical Thinking After the finishing the BBTLE Major in Home
Graduates use their imaginative as well as a Economics program, its graduates are expected to:
rational thinking abilities to life situations in At the end of this course, students are expected to:
order push boundaries, realize possibilities, and Demonstrate the competencies required of the
deepen their interdisciplinary and general Philippine TVET Trainers - Assessors  Identify and apply basic principles of food
understanding of the world. Qualifications Framework (PTTQF). preparation.
2. Effective Communication  Demonstrate appropriate organization, use,
Graduates are proficient in the four macro skills Apply with minimal supervision specialized care and selection of kitchen equipment and
in communication (reading, writing, listening, knowledge and skills the field of technology and appliances.
and speaking) and are able to use these skills in livelihood education.  Identify and apply appropriate food safety
solving problems. Making decisions, and and sanitation practices
articulating thoughts when engaging with Demonstrate higher level literacy, communication,  Identify terminology and abbreviations used
people in various circumstances. numeracy, critical thinking, learning skills needed in basic food preparation.
3. Strong Service Orientation for higher learning.  Evaluate principles of food selection and
Graduates exemplify the potentialities of an preparation and adapt procedures to
efficient, well-rounded and responsible Manifest a deep and principled understanding of nutritive and socioeconomic needs.
professional deeply committed to service the learning processes and the role of the teacher in  Develop appropriate time management
excellence. facilitating these processes in their students. plans for food preparation.
4. Community Engagement  Plan a menu.
Graduates take an active role in the promotion Show a deep and principled understanding of how
and fulfillment of various advocacies educational processes relate to larger historical,
(educational, social and environmental) for the social, cultural and political processes.
advancement of community welfare.
5. Adeptness in the Responsible Use of Apply a wide range of teaching process skills
Technology (including curriculum development, lesson
Graduates demonstrate optimized use of digital planning, educational assessment and teaching
learning abilities, including technical and approaches).
numerical skills.
6. Passion to Lifelong Learning Develop highly competent and motivated teachers
Graduates are enabled to perform and function in Technology and Livelihood Education in the
in the society by taking responsibility in their area of Home Economics
quest to know more about the world through
lifelong learning.
7. High Level of Leadership and Organizational
Skills
Graduates are developed to become the best
professionals in their respective disciplines by
manifesting the appropriate skills and
leaderships qualities.
8. Sense of Personal and Professional Ethics
Graduates show desirable attitudes and
behavior either in their personal and
professional circumstances.
9. Sense of National and Global Responsiveness
Graduates’ deep sense of national compliments
the need to live in a global village where one’s
culture and other people culture are respected.
COURSE PLAN
Week Topic Learning Outcomes Methodology Resources Assessment
Week 1 Review of the  Determine Orientation of

(Synchronous) PUP vision the the course Course
and mission, classroom program Syllabus None
PUPSRC policies
vision,  Recognize Review the Student
mission, the course syllabus Handbook
goals, university’s
objectives and mission, Setting of class
core values, vision and expectations
BBTLE goals
objectives and  Demonstrate Distribution of
job targets. interest and orientation
eagerness to slides, course
Online learn the syllabus and
classroom course instructional
orientation material
through MS
Course Teams or
Overview Google
Classroom
Week 2 Kitchen Tools  Demonstrate Posting of Basic Foods Work with your
(Asynchronous) and the different recorded for Filipinos groupmates and do the
Equipment tools and lecture and by Sonia Y. following activities:
Food Storage, equipment for other course de Leon, -Compile pictures of all
Food Safety & food materials in MS et.al., 3rd the kitchen tools and
Sanitation preparation. Teams or Edition, 1999. equipment that are
Cooking  Describe the Google available in your home.
Methods & characteristic Classroom Quantity -Attach a picture of you
Food s of the Food while cooking and
Preparation different Production in indicate what cooking
Terms kinds of food the method/s and food
Table of poisoning Philippines preparation terms (with
Equivalents and by Adela pictures) you have
infections Jamorabo- applied.
and the Ruiz, -Look for any spoiled
prevention et.al.,2006. food/s in your kitchen and
and curative https://www.s identify what might have
measures for lideshare.net/ caused it.
each kind. akihirojonel/ki -Illustrate ways on how
 Identify the tchen-tools- do you clean and sanitize
different and- your kitchen.
cooking equipment-
methods and 69221879
food
preparation https://www.e
terms. atright.org/ho
 Apply and mefoodsafety
value /four-
cookery to steps/refriger
real life ate/refrigerat
scenarios. e---the-basics
Training on
Meal
Management
and Food
Handling Part
5 Webinar on
Food Storage
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=X6
OQROkLfaE)
Training on
Meal
Management
and Food
Handling Part
6: Webinar
on Food
Safety
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=T4Y
x5h1Lrzw)
Basic Foods
Weeks 3-5 Introduction to  Explain the Online lecture for Filipinos -Make a list of food you
(Synchronous- Food Science importance of and interactive by Sonia Y. ate in one week indicating
Asynchronous- Sugars and food science discussion via de Leon, its natural sources.
Synchronous) Sugar  Identify the MS Teams or et.al., 3rd -How is food pyramid
Cookery functions of Google Meet Edition, 1999. applied in planning your
Cereals and sugars in https://cooks- meals? Take pictures of
Starch food Posting of other place.com/m food you ate in a day and
Cookery preparation course ethods-of- place them in the food
Flours and  Identify the materials in MS heat-transfer- pyramid.
Flour Mixture different Teams or in-cooking/ -Make a list of foods you
forms of Google http://egyank eat and classify them
sugar and its Classroom osh.ac.in/bitst according to pH and
substitutes ream/123456 water activity level.
 Identify the 789/11694/1/
stages of Unit-1.pdf
sugar https://www.s -What methods of heat
cookery. lideshare.net transfer you apply in
 Explain the /sugar- cooking your meals?
significance cookery
of cereals https://www.s Activities/Questionnaires
and cereal lideshare.net/ for Sugar Cookery,
cookery starch- Cereals, Starch and
 Identify the cookery Alimentary Pastes and
different https://en.wiki Flours
kinds of pedia.org/wiki
cereal and its /Candy_maki
market forms ng
 Distinguish Sugar- How
the properties It’s Made
of starch and (https://www.
its youtube.com/
applications watch?v=jCK
in cooking t02NGjfM)
How to Cook
 Enumerate
Sugar Syrup
the uses of
(https://www.
starch in food
youtube.com/
preparation
watch?v=-
 Identify the
v7smLGl5Fc)
market forms
of flour
 Differentiate The Magic of
the different Candy
mixing Making
process (https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=dnC
mOc6EAHI)
How It’s
Made-Cereal
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=HP
pMV_vcVEg)
Milling Rice
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=pIa
xP-t_eu8)
https://www.a
cademia.edu/
31760153/CE
REALS_AND
_STARCH
Nutritional
aspects of
cereal. By
Brigid
Mckevith.
June 2004.
Retrieved
from
https://www.r
esearchgate.
net
-Why is yeast called a

Weeks 6-8 Yeast Bread  Explain the Online lecture Basic Foods biological leavener? What
(Synchronous- Quick Breads, different and interactive for Filipinos are the differences
Synchronous- Cakes and steps in discussion via by Sonia Y. between yeast breads
Asynchronous) Pastries bread MS Teams, de Leon, and quick breads? Give
Fish and Fish making. Google Meet et.al., 3rd examples.
Products  Describe the Edition, 1999. -What are the types of
Meat and characteristic Posting of other www.slidepla baking powders sold
Meat s of good course yer.com/flour locally?
Specialties quality materials in MS sandflourmixt List down products made
breads. Teams or ure with flour mixtures that
 Differentiate Google www.slidepla are fried or steamed.
yeast breads Classroom yer.com/quic -How does overmixing
and quick kbreadscake and undermixing affect
breads sandparties each of the following:
 Identify the Baked Bread: -sponge cake/pancake/
cooking How Flour is muffin/ pie crust/cream
methods of Made puffs
cakes and (https://www. -Give a specific brand for
pastries youtube.com/ each type of cookie.
 Discuss the watch?v=y8v -Questionnaires and
fish sources LjPctrcU) activity for Fish and Meat
and The Journey: cookery
production in Wheat into
the Flour
Philippines (https://www.
youtube.com/
 Explain the watch?v=PY
nutritional P6AnNQjNo)
importance of Understandin
fish g Different
 Distinguish Flours and
the structure When to Use
and Them-
composition Kitchen
of meat Conundrums
 Explain the with Thomas
nutritional Joseph
importance of (https://www.
meat youtube.com/
 Identify the watch?v=pkE
different p26sck58)
methods of http://ihmgwl
meat cookery btk.blogspot.
com/2019/02/
fish-cookery
https://www.s
lideshare.net/
meat-meat-
cookery
How to Test
Steak
Tenderness/
Doneness
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=yu1
fm-9uUVc)
How to cook
the perfect
steak for
every
temperature
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=n7
mBuHr2TxU)
9 MIDTERM EXAM
Weeks 10-12 Poultry  Explain the Online lecture Basic Foods -Incorporate a method of
(Synchronous Eggs nutritional and interactive for Filipinos cookery in your own style
Asynchronous Milk and Milk importance of discussion via by Sonia Y. of preparing poultry.
Synchronous) Products poultry MS Teams, de Leon, -List 10 recipes for poultry
Food Gels  Identify the Google Meet et.al., 3rd classifying each under
(Gelatin, Agar different Edition, 1999. dry-heat or moist heat
and methods of Posting of other https://www.li method of cookery.
Seaweeds) poultry course vestockkenya -What are the edible eggs
Fruits and cookery materials in MS .com/index.p in the Philippines other
Vegetables  Identify the Teams or hp/blog/poultr than duck and chicken
Legumes and different Google y/8-11- egg?
Nuts market forms Classroom abnormalities -Interview a balut-vendor.
Fats and Oils of milk in the -of-eggs Learn how balut and
Philippines https://slidepl penoy are differentiated
 Enumerate ayer.com/slid -Questionnaires and
the different e/4376215/fat activities for Food Gels,
milk products sandoils Fruits and Vegetables,
and milk How Cheese Legumes and Nuts
substitutes Is Made
 Identify the (https://www.
different gel- youtube.com/
forming watch?v=wx
substances m8jTzU_8o)
used in foods The Milking
 Identify the and
different Pasteurizatio
classification n Process
s of fruits and (https://www.
vegetables youtube.com/
 Analyze the watch?v=ad7
composition RChNWjLo)
and nutritive How Nespray
value of fruits is made
and (https://www.
vegetables. youtube.com/
 Enumerate watch?v=67jv
the different 7AeM_Wo)
kinds of Haagen-Dazs
legumes and Nestle
nuts Dreyers Ice
 Explain the Cream
functions of Tulare,
legumes and California
nuts Plant
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=10R
1QQPgndY)
Tips and
Tricks to
Gelatin
Success -
Kitchen
Conundrums
with Thomas
Joseph
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=kJg
cZzGLLPA)
Salads and Online lecture Basic Foods -Give examples (with

Weeks 13-14 Salad  Recognize and interactive for Filipinos pictures) of appetizer
(Asynchronous Dressings the different discussion via by Sonia Y. salads, salads that can
Synchronous) Food ingredients in MS Teams, de Leon, accompany the main
Seasonings salad and Google Meet et.al., 3rd course at luncheon,
and Other salad Edition, 1999. salads suitable for a main
Additives dressing Posting of other https://slidepl course at luncheon and
Beverages  Demonstrate course ayer.com/slid salads that may serve as
photos of the materials in MS e/4537805/sa desserts.
different Teams or ladsandsalad -Compile pictures of the
herbs and Google dressing different herbs and spices
spices Classroom https://slidepl and indicate their names.
 Enumerate ayer.com/slid -Show pictures of food
the different e/4515447/be seasonings and additives
types of verages available in your home.
beverages https://www.li -Prepare your own non-
 Discuss the vpure.com/bl alcoholic beverage at
different og/did-you- home.
methods of know-the-
preparing difference-
beverages between-
purified-
water-
distilled-
water-and-
mineral-water
The basics
about: Coffee
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=vFc
S080VYQ0)
Everything
You've Ever
Wanted to
Know About
Coffee
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=FM
5_NoXW2Y0)
WINE | How
It's Made
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=3PI
nCVXBsS8)
Tea | How It's
Made
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=vAi
1qBV5n7I)
Online lecture https://www.s

Week 15 Meal Planning  Explain the and interactive lideshare.net/ -Create a 3-day meal
(Synchronous) Food importance of discussion via denosmena/ plan for your family
Preservation meal MS Teams, meal- (Breakfast, Lunch,
and planning Google Meet planning- Dinner)
Packaging  Develop a https://slidepl -Make your own
meal plan Posting of other ayer.com/slid packaging using a
 Enumerate course e/4710266/fo recyclable material.
the different materials in MS odp
types of Teams or https://www.s
packaging Google lideshare.net/
 Explain the Classroom meal-
importance of planning-
packaging 137941110
reservation
and
packaging
Food
Preservation
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=bn
GaOFataws)
How to:
Home Food
Preservation
and Canning
(https://www.
youtube.com/
watch?v=rqIa
7SBeTPU)
Final Presentations
Week 16 FINAL (Practical Applications)
EXAMINATION and Peer Evaluations
SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES
Basic Foods for Filipinos by Sonia Y. de Leon, et.al., 3rd Edition, 1999. ISBN: 971-30-1054-X
Prepared by: Reviewed and Approved by:
ENGELINE DELA CRUZ-ILUMIN, RND, MBA LENY V. SALMINGO, PhD

Faculty Member Campus Director
TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT I – INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PREPARATION
Lesson 1 Kitchen Tools and Equipment ......... 1
Lesson 2 Food Storage, Food Safety and Sanitation ......... 9
Lesson 3 Cooking Methods & Food Preparation Terms ......... 15
Lesson 4 Table of Equivalents ......... 16
UNIT II – INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE

Lesson 5 The Science of Food ......... 18
Lesson 6 Kinds of Food ......... 19
Lesson 7 Foods and Health ......... 20
Lesson 8 Chemical Structure of Food ......... 21
Lesson 9 Food Acceptance and Food Evaluation ......... 28
UNIT III – SUGAR AND SUGAR COOKERY

Lesson 10 Forms of Sugar ......... 30
Lesson 11 Uses of Sugar ......... 34
Lesson 12 Manufacturing Process of Sugar ......... 35
Lesson 13 Sugar Substitutes ......... 37
Lesson 14 Candy-Making 38
UNIT IV – CEREAL AND STARCH COOKERY
Lesson 15 Kinds of Cereal and Market Forms ......... 39
Lesson 16 Rice Cookery ......... 45
Lesson 17 Starch Cookery ......... 46
Lesson 18 Alimentary Pastes and Local Noodles ......... 51
UNIT V – FLOURS AND FLOUR MIXTURE , YEAST BREAD,

QUICK BREADS AND PASTRIES
Lesson 19 Kinds of Wheat ......... 54
Lesson 20 Market Forms of Wheat Flour ......... 55
Lesson 21 Non-Wheat or Composite Flours ......... 56
Lesson 22 Composition of Wheat Flours ......... 56
Lesson 23 Flour Mixture Ingredients ......... 58
Lesson 23b Mixing Process ......... 61
Lesson 24 Yeast Breads ......... 63
Lesson 25 Quick Breads, Cakes and Pastries ......... 66
UNIT VI – FISH AND MEAT COOKERY

Lesson 26 Fish Sources and Production in the Philippines ......... 71
Lesson 27 Nutritional Importance of Fish ......... 72
Lesson 28 Finfish ......... 72
Lesson 29 Shellfish ......... 77
Lesson 30 Meat Cookery ......... 79
UNIT VII – POULTRY AND EGG COOKERY

Lesson 31 Nutritional Importance of Poultry ......... 85
Lesson 32 Structure and Composition of Poultry Meats ......... 85
Lesson 33 Preparation of Poultry for Cooking ......... 86
Lesson 34 Market Forms of Poultry ......... 88
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Lesson 35 Handling and Storage ......... 89
Lesson 36 Poultry Cooking Principles ......... 90
Lesson 37 Egg Cookery ......... 93
UNIT VIII – MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Lesson 38 Composition of Milk ......... 99
Lesson 39 Market Forms of Milk ......... 100
Lesson 40 Storage of Milk ......... 102
Lesson 41 Milk Cookery ......... 102
UNIT IX – FOOD GELS, FRUITS AND VEGETABLES,

LEGUMES AND NUTS
Lesson 42 Food Gels ......... 108
Lesson 43 Vegetables and Fruits ......... 111
Lesson 44 Legumes and Nuts ......... 118
UNIT X – FATS AND OILS
Lesson 45 Classification of Fat ......... 121
Lesson 46 Market Forms of Fat ......... 122
Lesson 47 Fat in Food Preparation ......... 123
UNIT XI – SALADS AND SALAD DRESSINGS, FOOD

SEASONINGS AND OTHER ADDITIVES,
BEVERAGES
Lesson 48 Salads and Salad Dressings ......... 128
Lesson 49 Salad Dressings ......... 133
Lesson 50 Food Seasonings and Other Additives ......... 134
Lesson 51 Beverages ......... 140
UNIT XII– MEAL PLANNING

FOOD PRESERVATION AND PACKAGING
Lesson 52 Meal Planning ......... 145
Lesson 53 Food Preservation and Packaging ......... 147
UNIT 1 – INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PREPARATION
OVERVIEW:
Any cook should be familiar with the correct utensils, devices and equipment in the kitchen. It is important
to consider several things and not only the price when buying them. The job of cooking requires specific tools,
utensils, and equipment for proper and efficient preparation of food. Each piece has been designed to accomplish
a specific job in the kitchen.
Proper food storage and maintaining a clean work environment is also critical in preventing foodborne illness.
The problem of food sanitation and ultimately of food safety is not confined to food processing plants and public
eating places only but include our very own homes and kitchens as well. To minimize or prevent the occurrence of
food poisoning or infection, we must be aware of the characteristics of the different kinds of food poisoning and
infections as well as the prevention and curative measures for each kind.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After successful completion of this unit, you should be able to:
 Demonstrate the different tools and equipment for food preparation.
 Describe the characteristics of the different kinds of food poisoning and infections and the prevention and
curative measures for each kind.
 Identify the different cooking methods and food preparation terms.
 Apply and value cookery to real life scenarios.
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 1. KITCHEN TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Cooking tools and equipment are essential for preparing extraordinary foods and drinks ̶ the kinds of meals
that keep people coming back for more. When used and maintained properly, your cooking equipment will serve
you well.
KNIFE SET
BTLE 30173 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION Prepared by: Prof. Engeline C. dela Cruz
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MEASURING TOOLS
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STRAINERS
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COOKWARES
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COOKING UTENSILS THAT EVERY KITCHEN NEEDS
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KITCHEN EQUIPMENT
Lesson 2. FOOD STORAGE, FOOD SAFETY & SANITATION
When stored properly, foods remain safe and retain their quality, nutrients and flavor or longer. Be sure to
store foods in the right container, at the right temperature and for the right length of time. Proper food storage will
reduce your risk of food poisoning and also stretch your wallet since your food won't spoil as quickly.
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CAUSES OF FOOD SPOILAGE
Fruit and vegetables spoil over time because of the presence of enzymes. These are chemicals that occur
naturally in food and cause it to ripen and eventually decay. Bruising is caused by the release of enzymes when a
fruit is damaged. This speeds up the rate of decay. Spoilage may also be caused by micro-organisms such as
molds, yeasts and bacteria. These cause the food to break down, rot or go sour. The food may then discolor, smell
bad or become sticky and slimy.
MOLDS
These appear like whiskers or soft cotton wool on food. To grow, they require
warmth, moisture and air. They are killed by sunlight.
Advantages of molds:
 Molds are used to make antibiotics, e.g. penicillin.
 They are used to make blue cheeses
Disadvantage of molds:
 They spoil the appearance and taste of food.
YEASTS
Yeasts are larger than bacteria and grow on foods containing moisture and
sugar, such as fruit, fruit juices and syrups. They are not as visible as molds but
they may produce an alcoholic taste in foods. They are killed by heat.
Advantages of yeasts:
 Yeasts are used in bread-making, brewing (beer) and wine-making. 
 Yeasts produce vitamin supplements.
Disadvantage of yeast:
 Yeasts affect the taste and texture of foods.
BACTERIA (GERMS)
Bacteria are invisible to the naked eye. They are found everywhere -on our skin,
in our bodies, in the air, in sinks and worktops and on our clothes. In small
amounts most bacteria are harmless. This is known as 'an acceptable level of
contamination'. Bacteria is the plural of bacterium.
Advantages of bacteria:
 Bacteria are used to make cheese, yoghurt and vinegar.
Disadvantages of bacteria:
 They cause food spoilage, food poisoning and other diseases.
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CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH
Micro-organisms, such as bacteria, need food, warmth, moisture and time to grow and multiply.
Food
Bacteria thrive on moist high-protein foods.
Warmth
The ideal temperature for most bacteria is 30-45°C. Boiling kills most bacteria and cold temperatures slow down
their growth.
Moist
Bacteria thrive best in damp conditions and in moist foods.
Time
When the correct conditions for growth are present, bacteria can double in number every 10 to 20 minutes, so that
in about six hours 1 million could be produced from just one bacterium.
HOW FOOD BECOMES INFECTED BY BACTERIA

People carry bacteria in the intestine, nose, mouth and on the hands, particularly if they do not wash after
using the toilet or handling pets.
Cross-contamination. Cross-contamination occurs when unaffected food becomes contaminated by bacteria from
another food, e.g. raw and cooked meat on the same board. Food handlers must be very careful about personal
hygiene. One should not work with food if suffering from an infectious disease. Separate color-coded chopping
boards should be used to avoid cross-contamination.
Insects. Insects carry dirt and bacteria on their legs. When they land on food, they vomit and excrete on it as they
eat.
Pets and Vermin. Pets, rats and mice also carry bacteria and should be kept out of the kitchen and away from
food.
Kitchen Clothes and Dirty Kitchen Utensils. These provide a breeding ground for bacteria, particularly if used
cloths are left in a warm kitchen.
FOOD POISONING
Food poisoning or intoxication refers to an illness caused by the ingestion of toxin or poison present in food.
Food infection on the other hand refers to illness caused by food-borne organisms which invade the gastro-intestinal
tract in the body system. Food poisoning could be of microbiological, biochemical or chemical origin.
The following are some of the most common food-poisoning bacteria:
Salmonella- This is present in the intestines of animals and humans. It is spread by flies and vermin and by poor
standards of personal hygiene. It is essential that hands are washed after using the lavatory in order to avoid
salmonella. Meat, poultry, eggs and shellfish may be contaminated.
Staphylococci- These bacteria are found in the nose, throat, skin and in cuts and boils. It is essential that food
handlers cover any cuts and do not cough or sneeze over food to avoid the spread of Staphylococci. Unpasteurized
milk and cold meats may be affected.
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Listeria- This may grow and multiply in chilled foods, as it prefers lower temperatures. It may contaminate poultry,
pate, soft cheeses, coleslaw, pre-cooked chilled meals and chilled pre-packed salads. Pregnant women should
avoid these foods, as listeria may cause miscarriage.
E.Coli- This is found in the intestines of animals and humans. High standards of hygiene and thorough cooking of
foods are essential to prevent E. coli poisoning. Foods most at risk include undercooked minced beef and beef
burgers, salami, unpasteurized milk, cheese and yoghurt.
FOOD GUIDELINES
Food Hygiene
• Keep all foods cool, clean and covered. Store perishables in a cool place. Check expiry dates on
perishables.
• Keep raw and cooked meats separate to avoid cross-contamination.
• Use separate chopping boards for raw and cooked foods.
• Cook eggs, meat, fish and poultry thoroughly to kill bacteria.
• Thaw frozen meat and poultry thoroughly before cooking.
• Cool and cover leftovers, and refrigerate.
• Reheat leftovers until piping hot to ensure that all bacteria are destroyed.
Food handler
 Maintain a high standard of personal hygiene.
 Wash hands before handling food and after handling rubbish, using a tissue, using the toilet or handling
pets.
 Cover or tie back hair and wear a clean apron.
 Handle food as little as possible.
 Avoid touching face or hair while preparing food.
 Keep fingernails clean and short. Do not wear nail varnish.
 Do not cough or sneeze over food.
 Avoid wearing rings, earrings or watches when preparing food.
 Taste food with a clean spoon. Do not lick fingers.
 Cover any cuts or burns with a waterproof dressing.
THE KITCHEN
 The kitchen should be well designed, with adequate lighting and ventilation.
 Ensure that a plentiful supply of hot water and cleaning materials are available.
 All work surfaces and equipment should be regularly washed and disinfected.
 Kitchen cloths are an ideal breeding ground for bacteria. They should be changed daily and disinfected
often. Use separate cloths for kitchen and bathroom.
 Keep kitchen bin covered. Empty daily and disinfect once a week.
 Disinfect sink and draining board regularly.
 Keep pets out of kitchen at all times.
 Sweep kitchen floor daily and wash and disinfect regularly.
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FOOD STORAGE
It is essential to store food properly to ensure that it remains in prime condition
for as long as possible.
Proper storage:
Protects food from flies and dust.
Prolongs its shelf life.
Makes finding the food easier in the kitchen.
Ensures that the kitchen is clean and well organized.
The shelf life of a food is the length of time a food remains safe and fit to be
eaten.
Guidelines for Storage

1. Store foods correctly according to their
type.
 Non-perishables, e.g. dry,
bottled and tinned foods. Store in
a cupboard on their own or in
airtight containers.
 Semi-perishables, e.g. bread,
cakes, fresh fruit and
vegetables. Store breads and
cakes in a bread bin or tin. Fruit
and vegetables may be stored in
a rack or basket. Some semi
perishables, e.g. salad
vegetables, may be stored in the
refrigerator.
 Perishables, e.g. eggs, milk,

cream, fresh meat, frozen or
fresh 'ready to cook' meals, etc.
These have the shortest shelf life
and must be used within three or
four days. Store in the
refrigerator at 4°C.
 Frozen: Store in the freezer at -
18°C.
2. Note the 'best before' and 'use by' dates
on perishables.
3. Use up older foods before opening new
ones.
4. Store foods away from cleaning agents.
5. Keep cupboards and storage containers clean to prevent contamination by bacteria.
6. Once packages are opened, store dry foods like rice and pasta in airtight containers to prevent them from
becoming stale or infested by insects.
7. Never refreeze thawed frozen food.
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Packaging Materials
Many disposable and reusable materials are available for storing foods. Disposable packaging, such as
greaseproof paper and cling film, should only be used once, as they cannot be cleaned thoroughly after use.
Plastic, china, glass and tin containers may be reusable. Some have sealable lids to prevent food drying out.
HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP)
The traditional manner of ensuring food safety was through examination and inspection after the food has
been processed or prepared. HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point) is a prevention-oriented strategy
which may not guarantee absolute safety but it reduces the risk to the barest minimum.
HACCP was originally developed as a microbiological safety system for the astronauts of the NASA space
program in the 1960s. The original system was drawn up by the Pillsbury Company which looks at what could go
wrong in the stages of the operation, what are the possible causes, the likely effects then deploy control measures.
The HACCP System consists of seven (7) principles. These seven principles are accepted internationally,
having been published by the CODEX ALIMENTARIUS COMMISSION (1993) and the National Advisory Committee
on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF, 1992).
1. Conduct a hazard analysis. Prepare a list of steps in the process where significant hazards occur and
describe the preventive measures.
2. Identify the Critical Control Points in the process.
3. Establish critical limits for preventive measures associated with each identified critical control point. Critical
limits describe the difference between safe and unsafe food which must involve measurable parameters.
4. Establish monitoring system for the CCP. Establish procedures from results of monitoring to maintain control,
making adjustments as needed.
5. Establish corrective actions to be taken when monitoring indicates a deviation from an established critical
limit. Specify the corrective action procedure and the key personnel responsible for the implementation. This
includes the actions needed to bring the process back to control and how to deal with products
manufactured/prepared when the process was out of control.
6. Establish effective recording system to document the HACCP system. Records must be kept to demonstrate
that the HACCP system is operating under control and that appropriate corrective actions have been taken
for any deviation from the critical limits. This records will be the evidence of product safety.
7. Establish Procedures for verification that the HACCP system established is working.
With HACCP plans in place, the points in the food preparation where things can go wrong are identified and
closely monitored so that microorganisms do not grow and multiply in such numbers as to compromise the safety
of the food. Testing for microorganisms becomes a confirmatory process instead of the diagnostic process in the
former control method.
HACCP is a preventive approach that can be implemented at all levels of food preparation and processing from
micro-establishment to large scale enterprises. Computer programs on the market today are the most recent options
available for HACCP development and implementation. It must also be noted that it is only for a matter of time until
HACCP becomes mandatory for the entire food industry (Stier, 1996).
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Lesson 3. COOKING METHODS AND FOOD PREPARATION TERMS
Methods of Cooking
1. Roasting – to cook uncovered

without water, it is usually done
in an oven (roast chicken like
what in SM supermarket,
inasal
2. Frying – to cook in hot oil or
shortening
3. Pan-frying – to cook in small
amount of oil or shortening
4. Deep-fry – to cook immersed
in large amount of oil or
shortening
5. Boiling - to cook in liquid at
boiling point
6. Stewing – to simmer slowly in
a small amount of liquid
7. Steaming – to cook in steam
with or without pressure
8. Broiling - to cook using
intense heat radiated by
electrical, gas, or charcoal
9. Sauteing - to brown or cook in small amount of fat or oil
10. Baking – to cook in an enclosed heat like the oven
Food Preparation Terms and

Techniques
1. Blend - to thoroughly mix two

or more ingredients until
smooth and uniform
2. Chop - to cut in pieces with a
knife, chopper, or blender
3. Marinate - to allow food to
stand in mixture of spices and
liquid, to tenderize and add
flavor
4. Dissolve - to disperse dry
substance in liquid; to form a
solution
5. Truss - to secure poultry or
other meat with skewers; to
hold shape cooking
6. Cream - to beat with electric
mixer or a spoon
7. Whip - to beat rapidly to
incorporate air as in egg
whites
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8. Stir - to mix ingredients with circular motion until well blended
9. Blanch – to dip or plunge food into boiling water for a few minutes
10. Mince – to cut into small pieces with a knife or chopper
Lesson 4. TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS
Table 1.1 Liquid (Fluid or Volume Measurements (approximate)
Table 1.2 Dry Weight Measurements
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Table 1.3 Recipe Ingredients Substitution
READINGS:
Basic Foods for Filipinos by Sonia Y. de Leon, et.al., 3rd Edition, 1999.
Quantity Food Production in the Philippines by Adela Jamorabo-Ruiz, et.al.,2006.
https://www.slideshare.net/akihirojonel/kitchen-tools-and-equipment-69221879
https://www.eatright.org/homefoodsafety/four-steps/refrigerate/refrigerate---the-basics
WATCH:
Training on Meal Management and Food Handling Part 5 Webinar on Food Storage
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X6OQROkLfaE)
Training on Meal Management and Food Handling Part 6: Webinar on Food Safety
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T4Yx5h1Lrzw)
ACTIVITY/ASSESSMENT:
Work with your partner and do the following activities:
1. Compile pictures of all the kitchen tools and equipment that are available in your home.
2. Attach a picture of you while cooking and indicate what cooking method/s and food preparation terms (with
pictures) you have applied.
3. Look for any spoiled food/s in your kitchen and identify what might have caused it.
4. Illustrate ways on how do you clean and sanitize your kitchen.
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UNIT 2 – INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE
OVERVIEW:
Food is anything people eat that provides nourishment. The concept of food is as varied as there are societal
groupings. Food selection is determined by what is available in the locality. This is in turn determined by geography,
soil, climate, the production technology, transport systems, storage and preservation facilities and the economic
condition of the community. Food choices are further refined by attitudes and religious beliefs.
As civilization progressed, so did social structures. Changes in food preparation certainly paralleled such
progress. The foods we eat today are the products of thousands of years of biocultural evaluation. Many early
varieties still survive in different regions of the world but many have perished in the name of progress. Food
preparation techniques have also evolved through the years even as many traditional food preparation methods
have also become instinct.
In the Philippines, and in other countries similarly situated, there is a wide range of food preparation still in
practice. These extend from simpler cooking in earthen pots heated by firewood to the use of microwave ovens and
Teflon-coated pans.
]
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Explain the importance of food science
 Identify the chemical structure of food
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 5. THE SCIENCE OF FOOD
Food science is defined as the study of the physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory aspects of food
and the transformations that food undergoes as reflected by changes in characteristics and properties from the time
food is produced to the time it is ultimately consumed. It is easy to see from that definition that many fields of study
are related to food science.
The interrelationship of various fields of study with food science is illustrated in Fig.2.1. The chart shows that
food science is applied to food technology, food engineering, food service, applied nutrition as well as economics,
agriculture, sociology and anthropology. It is in fact related directly or indirectly to every branch of human endeavor.
The scientific study of foods is therefore a necessary and serious concern.
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Figure 2.1 Interrelationship among sciences surrounding food science and technology
Lesson 6. KINDS OF FOOD
The variety of food available to any group of people invariable originates from two major sources, plants and
animals. Agricultural land, rivers, lakes and seas are necessary for the constant sourcing of food. Some foods
originate from forest or wildlife but these are fast dwindling and rapidly being depleted.
The plant and animal products that make up man’s food are classified as follows:
I. Plant Products
A. Grains (cereals) ̶ rice, corn, wheat, sorghum, barley, oats, rye, millet
B. Pulses ̶ beans, peas, lentils
C. Fruits
(1) Tropical ̶ banana, pineapple, mango, papaya, avocado, breadfruit
(2) Sub-Tropical ̶ citrus, olives, figs
(3) Deciduous Fruits ̶ apple, grapes, pear
(4) Stone Fruits ̶ peach, cherry, apricot
(5) Berries ̶ strawberry, blueberries
D. Melons and Squashes ̶ cantaloupe, watermelon, squash
E. Vegetables
(1) Leaf and Stems ̶ cabbage, kangkong, pechay, lettuce, celery
(2) Root ̶ carrot, radish
(3) Seeds ̶ green peas, mongo, green beans
(4) Fruits ̶ tomato, eggplant, cucumber
(5) Flowers ̶ cauliflower, banana blossom, squash flowers, broccoli
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F. Tubers- potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, yam
G. Nuts- cashew, almond, peanut (technically is a legume), walnut, pilinut, macademia, pistachio
H. Fungi- mushrooms, “taingang daga”
I. Oilseeds- coconut, palm oil, soybeans, peanut, olive, sesame
J. Seaweed- agar, carrageenan, “lato”, “kulot”
II. Animal Products

A. Milk- cow, carabao, goat, sheep, camel, elephant, yak
B. Meat and Entrails-
Domesticated- beef and veal, pork, mutton, goat, rabbit, horse
C. Poultry
D. Eggs
E. Fish
F. Shellfish
(1) Crustaceans- crab, lobster, crayfish, shrimp, prawns
(2) Molluscan- oyster, clam, scallop, squid, cuttlefish, octopus, snails
Miscellaneous are manufactured foods, and manufactured foods are those considered convenience foods.
Lesson 7. FOODS AND HEALTH
Foods are sources of substances called nutrients that are responsible for the physiological roles of food to
give energy, build and repair tissues and regulate body processes. The main groups of nutrients are water, proteins,
fats, carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. The quantitative need for these materials varies according to age,
physical activity, physical make-up, physiological stresses like pregnancy and lactation, and the state of health of
the individual. To ensure that one’s choice of food is nutritionally adequate, nutritionists have devised the food
pyramid as shown in Fig. 2.2 and 2.3.
In planning daily meals, an interval of 3 to 4 hours between feedings is satisfactory for most normal
individuals. For young children, teenagers and old people, six feedings consisting of three bigger meals and three
snacks are recommended.
Figure 2.2
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Figure 2.3 The Eight Kinds of Food Pyramid
Lesson 8. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF FOOD
Food is a mixture of chemicals in a well-ordered system of cellular structures. Any food item can be
separated into chemically identifiable substances. The chemical structures found in food are classified into 6
categories as follows: carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals and water. These 6 groups constitute 99 percent of
food.
Most food contains mixtures of all six categories of compounds but many contain more of one type.
Invariably, all food items contain water. Honey, for example, is mostly carbohydrates and water. Meat which is
derived from animal muscles is mainly water and protein but not exclusively so. It contains fatty substances also
and some carbohydrates in the form of glycogen.
Water
Water is a remarkable substance. Its most important function is as a

biological solvent. When water is heated or vaporized into steam it is a
medium for applying heat in cooking and food processing.
Chemically, water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one

oxygen atom. The atoms are arranged in a non-linear, three –dimentional
structure.
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Table 2.1 Water Content Range for Selected Foods
Water activity- The state of water in food is described by the relationship between the moisture content of the product
and the relative humidity of the air surrounding it. The ratio of these two figures is called water activity (aw), which is
significant in that it has a direct bearing on shelf life stability of the food. The following equation defines water activity:
aw= P/P0
where:
aw= water activity
P= partial pressure of water in the food
P0=partial pressure of water at the same temperature
By definition, water activity of pure water is 1.0. Food items with high moisture content have water activities
close to 1.0. It must be emphasized however that moisture content alone does not determine water activity. The
presence of solutes lowers water activity. Spoilage agents such as bacteria, yeast and molds require a certain water
activity for them to grow. Table 2.2 shows a schematic representation of water activity requirement for microbial
growth and typical activity ranges of some foods.
When substances are dissolved in water, there is a substantial reaction between the solute and the water.
A number of the water molecules are bound by the molecules of solute making water unavailable or not free for
microbial growth. The extent to which the water activity is lowered depends on total concentration of dissolved
substances. Thus, if sugar, salt or other substances are added as ingredients these compete with bacteria for water.
The water-binding capacity of the added ingredient influences the amount left for bacterial growth. This is how water
activity directly affect shelf-life of food.
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Table 2.2 Water activity and growth of microorganisms in food
Carbohydrates are subdivided into sugars (simple sugars) and polysaccharides (complex). A third subdivision is
oligosaccharides. Sugars are further classified according to the number of basic sugar molecules it contains while
polysaccharides are further classified into starches and fibers or pectin and cellulose.
Sugars are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides or trisaccharides depending on the number of

sugar molecules present. The three most common sugars in nature are sucrose (found in sugar cane and sugar
beet), glucose (found in grape sugar), and fructose (fruit sugar). With prolonged heating, sugars undergo
caramelization with the formation of brown color.
Oligosaccharides means several unit of sugars. They are usually found in seeds of plants. Humans are
incapable of digesting oligosaccharides because we do not have an enzyme that will break these up into the simple
sugars so it passes intact into the colon where microorganisms may break these down producing large amounts of
carbon dioxide.
Polysaccharides - a long chain of glucose molecules forms an important polysaccharide starch

 Starch – has many uses in cookery and contributes significantly to the supply of calories in diets. It
is chief food reserve of plants and is converted into sugar (by plant).
 Cellulose – chief structural carbohydrates of plants
 Pectin – another complex carbohydrate present in fruits
 Fiber – term applied to polysaccharides that cannot be digested in human digestive tract
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Table 2.3 Classification of Polysaccharides and Food Sources
Fats
Characterize by their appearance and greasy feel and inability to mix with water. The distinction between fat
and oil is arbitrary, oils being liquid at ordinary conditions while fats are solid. In all other respects, fats and oils are
interchangeable.
Natural oils are classified according to origin as animal fat, marine fat, or vegetable fat. Vegetable oil is the
most abundant food fat. Nearly 70 percent of all fats produced in the world is vegetable in origin. Coconut is an
important source of vegetable fat together with palm, kernel, soybean, peanut, cottonseed, olive and sunflower.
Butter and lard are animal fat.
Proteins
The building units of proteins are amino acids. 1 protein contains 500 or more units of amino acids.
 Denaturation is a term applied to any alteration to original properties of protein but not in amino acid
sequence. Denaturation of meat usually occurs 57 – 75°C
Table 2.4 Classification of Protein and Food Sources
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Table 2.4 Classification of Protein and Food Sources
Enzymes ̶ protein molecules synthesized by living organism for specific action as biological catalysts.
Useful application of enzymes in food:

1. Meat tenderizer –bromelin from pineapple and papain and effective tenderizers of muscle meat.
2. Invertase –sucrose inversion is facilitated by adding enzyme invertase for certain confections like the soft of
chocolate centers of candies
3. Amylases –The splitting of starch in flour during bread making by the presence pf amylases yields
fermentable sugars to be acted upon by yeast
4. Pectinases –Ripening of fruits
5. Microbial enzymes bring about fermentation and proteolysis as in patis and bagoong, vinegar and wine
making, and cheese ripening.
Vitamins ̶ Complex organic compounds that are required in the diet in very small amount but are vital for
maintenance of health. Absence of these compounds cause deficiency diseases.
 The fat-soluble vitamins are: Retinol: (vitamin A), Cholecalciferol(vitamin D), Tocopherol (vitamin E), and
Phyloquine (vitamin K)
 The water-soluble vitamins are: Ascorbic acid(vitamin C), Thiamin(vitamin B1), Riboflavin(vitamin B2),
Pyridoxide(vitamine B6),Niacin Pantothenic acid, Cobalamines(vitamin B12), Folic acid, Biotin, Choline,
Inositol.
Minerals and Trace Elements
Are inorganic substances that may be or may not be in combination with organic constituents.
Classified into two categories: Those that need more than 0.005 percent of body weight and those who don’t The
latter are called Traced elements.
Macro-minerals: Calcium, Chloride, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Potassium, Sulphur, Sodium

Micro-minerals: Chromium, Molybdenum, Iodine, Cobalt, Silicon, Nickel, Copper, Tin, Selenium, Fluorine,
Vanadium, Zinc, Manganese, Fluorine.
pH in Food Systems
The term pH is a designation for the degree of acidity or basicity of a solution, a measure of how acidic a
solution is. It is measured colorimetrically or electronically.
Importance of pH in Foods
1. the behavior of food during preparation and cooking
2. the shelf life of the food
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3. the control of microbial growth
4. the food preservation method to be uses
5. sensory characteristic of the food
Food with lower pH has longer shelf life because microbial growth is inhibited at low pH.
pH plays a critical role in jellymaking. Pectin can form a gel with sugar only at pH 3.2. At lower pH of 2.5,
syneresis will occur and above 3.5 the jelly will not form. In breadmaking, a pH of 5.0 gives good volume and
texture, while for soda crackers, crispiness is obtained at pH 7.0.
In the preservation of food by canning, the critical pH value is 4.5. All food with pH values lower than 4.5 are
classified acid foods and those above it are classified low acid foods. Acid foods can be processed in an open
water bath at 100oC. Low acid foods need higher temperature that can only be achieved with pressure. These
are processed in a pressure canner. pH 4.5 is the point of acidity below which the spores of Clostridium
botulinum will not germinate.
Figure 2.4 Alkaline and Acidic Foods Chart
Source: https://www.mindbodygreen.com/0-5165/Alkaline-Acidic-Foods-Chart-The-pH-Spectrum.html
Heat in Cookery
Heat is applied to food primarily for cooking but it is also used for food preservation as in drying,
sterilization and pasteurization. Cooking is a heating process aimed primarily to produce a more palatable food, to
render the food safer from parasites and microorganisms, and to make it more digestible. It also alters color and
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texture and develops flavor of food. Cooking can be considered a preservation method, because cooked food can
stand longer than uncooked food, provided contamination is prevented. An example of this is that of adobo, which
is practiced in many Filipino homes as a temporary preservation of pork and chicken, respectively. Two important
actions of heat take place to make preservation possible (1) the destruction of microorganisms and (2) the
destruction of enzymes. Both agents cause food to spoil.
Undesirable changes are also brought about by cooking; These are degradation or destruction of nutrients,
and reduction of sensory attributes as color, flavor and texture.
Methods of Heat Transfer in Cooking

Cooking is defined as energy being transferred from a heat source to a food item or items. What are
the methods of heat transfer in cooking?
The methods of heat transfer in cooking are; conduction, convection, radiation or a combination of these. The energy
we are using here is heat and through these heat transfer methods we derive the method of cooking where food
item can be prepared by using cooking methods such as saute, bake, broil, etc.
When heat is applied to a food item, the heat, as energy, makes the molecules of the item vibrate and expand.
Through this movement they bounce off of each other distributing the energy in this case heat. Here are brief
explanations of cooking and heat transfer for food items:
Conduction
Conduction of heat is accomplished through an item transferring heat to another item by contact. Grilling a
steak is a food item that can be prepare by using the method of conduction where the heating source, the flame,
touches the food directly. The fact that conduction must have contact between the heat source and the food item
makes conduction a slower method to cook. The example above where molecules collide to transfer energy is
conduction in action. As the molecules of the food item near the heat source heat up they move more rapidly
creating friction which transfers heat energy from the outer area to the interior. This is how a steak can be cooked
thoroughly on the outside but still be rare on the interior. Metals conduct heat very well so your cookware is all made
of metals; aluminum and copper being the best conductors of all. Gases and liquids are poor conductors so steaming
an item will take longer than grilling or pan sauteing.
Convection
Convection is heat transfer through the use of a fluid as the conducting material. The fluid can be either
liquid or gas and is circulated either by natural or mechanical methods.
Natural Convection
The natural method uses the principle of heated gas will rise while cooler gas will fall combined to create circulation.
Mechanical Convection
Mechanical methods are used in modern ovens and happens through the use of fans. Ovens using convection will
cook items evenly and in less time than with a conventional oven.
Radiation
Radiation is where heat is transferred through waves that can be heat, light or radio. Microwave ovens through the
use of microwave technology use radio waves to heat certain molecules while not heating others. This allows the
food item to cook while the container remains cool. Infrared is another technology being used to cook items through
either heat or light.
Through these three methods of heat transfer in cooking. These methods are used to transfer heat to a food item
while the distribution of the heat within the food item will always be through conduction. It is through the
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understanding of types of heat transfer in cooking methods that we can better understand the subtle ways we can
use this heat to produce different and unique meals.
Lesson 9. FOOD ACCEPTANCE AND FOOD EVALUATION
Food is to be nutritionally functional should first be consumed. In normal circumstances, food is consumed
only if it is palatable enough for the consumer. Consuming food that does not provide enjoyment is existing without
living. It therefore becomes a great responsibility of one who prepares and serves food for the family to provide
palatable food besides it being nutritious and safe. Palatability defines the quality of the food.
When the quality of a food is assessed by a person the method is said to be sensory because the human
senses are the instruments used to evaluate. Even with developments in scientific instruments, judgement of food
is primarily by this method both formally and informally. Informal evaluation is done every time food is eaten and
formal evaluation is done in test kitchens and research and development laboratories.
When food is presented to a consumer, the first attribute evaluated is the appearance. Appearance is
determined by color, shape, size and the general arrangement of food. This is why food presentation and garnishing
is an important part of food preparation. Japanese cuisine puts appearance of food in the highest priority. Whether
the food is meant for an emperor or a peasant, the food is subjected to the same meticulous arrangement.
Symbolisms such as those observed in flower arrangements are also accorded to food presentation. In the
Philippines, careful presentation is not considered as important but that attitude is happily changing gradually.
The Sensory Attributes of Food:

 Appearance
 Color
 Flavor (3 components: odor, taste, mouthfeel)
Sensory Evaluation of Food
Sensory or organoleptic testing have been developed to evaluate food quality. While the quest for more
accurate physical and chemical tests continue, sensory methods of testing have also made great strides. Today it
is more than ever recognized as an effective tool in the measurement of food quality not to replace objective testing
but as an essential compliment to it. Sensory evaluation has evolved as a scientific discipline used to evoke,
measure, analyze and interpret the human reaction to food attributes.
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The current classification of sensory test are: analytical test and affective tests. Analytical tests are used for
laboratory evaluation of food products in terms of differences or similarities. Discriminative tests on the other hand
include the classic concept of sensory tests, the difference tests and the sensitivity tests. Under difference tests are
Paired Comparison, Duo-Trio, the ever popular Triangle test and Ranking. Sensitivity tests include Threshold and
Dilution tests which are usually used in the selection of panel members.
Affective tests are used to evaluate preference and acceptance of food products. This is the kind of test that
market researchers for food companies use to determine consumer acceptability. Generally, a large number of
respondents are needed for this test.
The following basic requirements are important in sensory evaluation:

 Physical environment of the testing area
 Manner of sample presentation
 Psychological factors affecting the panel
 Serving area should be comfortable for the evaluation panel, well-lighted, with sufficient space and
ventilation
 Food samples should be presented in a glass or glazed ceramic ware in sufficient quantities but not
excessive.
READINGS:
https://cooks-place.com/methods-of-heat-transfer-in-cooking/
Work on the following activities:
1. Make a list of food you ate in one week indicating its natural sources.
2. How is food pyramid applied in planning your meals? Take pictures of food you ate in a day and place
them in the food pyramid.
3. Make a list of foods you eat and classify them according to pH and water activity level.
4. What methods of heat transfer you apply in cooking your meals?
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UNIT 3 – SUGAR AND SUGAR COOKERY
OVERVIEW:
Sugar is a natural sweetener which provides 15 calories per teaspoon. It is a disaccharide sucrose, a
carbohydrate found in every fruit and vegetable. All green plants manufacture sugar through photosynthesis, the
process by which plants transform sunlight and soil nutrients into their food and energy supply. Sugar cane and
sugar beets contain sucrose in large quantities, that’s why they are used as the source of the sugar we use. The
sugar removed from sugar cane and sugar beets is exactly the same as the sugar found in all fruits and vegetables.
Fully processed beet sugar and cane sugar are identical products and may be used interchangeably for all purposes.
This unit will cover the types of sugar used in cooking, uses and functions of sugar, manufacturing process
of sugar and the stages of sugar cooking.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Explain the functions of sugars in food preparation
 Identify the different forms of sugar and its substitutes
 Discuss the stages of sugar cookery
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 10. FORMS OF SUGAR
Sugars are sweet, crystalline organic compounds classified

under carbohydrates. They are the simplest of the digestible
carbohydrates. It is available from a variety of sources. They are
used for a variety of reasons. Most families buy sugar for
sweetening, baking and cooking. A large amount of sugar
consumed is derived from food products, though. Sugar of one kind
or another is usually used in cereals, baked goods, candies,
processed foods, and soft drinks.
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Source: https://drwilliamtennant.wordpress.com/2011/04/18/sugar-content-of-foods/
Sugars According to Chemical Form
Monosaccharides- These are carbohydrates molecules that cannot be broken down to simpler
carbohydrates. They are referred to as the simplest sugars.
Glucose or Grape sugar is found in fruits and plant saps.
Fructose, also called fruit sugar, is found in fruits, honey or plant saps. It is the sweetest of the natural
sugars.
Disaccharides- These are sugars composed of two monosaccharide units.

Sucrose, commonly known as table sugar, cane sugar or beet sugar. It occurs in many fruits and vegetables.
It is commercially prepared from sugar cane or sugar beets. In the Philippines, cane sugar is an important
commodity and is one of our biggest export.
Lactose, or milk sugar is found only in milk of mammals. On a commercial scale, it is a by-product of various
milk industries, such as from whey in cheese-making.
Maltose or malt sugar is found in cereals and starches.
The process of modifying sugar (pure granulated sucrose) by dissolving it in a little water and then heating
it without stirring to various temperatures to produce various non-crystalline consistencies until finally there is
caramelization which changes its flavor and chemical composition. Beyond its contribution as a sweetener and
flavor enhancer, sugar:
Interacts with molecules of protein or starch during baking and cooking process
 Acts as a tenderizer by absorbing water and inhibiting flour gluten development, as well as delaying starch
gelatinization
 Incorporates air into shortening in the creaming process
 Caramelizes under heat, to provide cooked and baked foods with pleasing color and aroma
 Speeds the growth of yeast by providing nourishment
 Serves as a whipping aid to stabilize beaten egg foams
 Delays coagulation of egg proteins in custards
 Regulates the gelling of fruit jellies and preserves
 Helps to prevent the spoilage jellies and preserves
 Improves the appearance and tenderness of canned fruits
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 Delays discoloration of the surface of frozen fresh fruits
 Enables a wide variety of candies through varying degrees of recrystallization
 Controls the reforming of crystals through inversion (breakdown of fructose and glucose)
 Enhances the smoothness and flavor of ice cream
Types of Sugar Used in Cooking
1. Crystalline or granulated sugar. It is highly refined, multi-

purpose sugar. It is also sometimes called refined table or
white sugar. It is made from sugar cane and sugar beets.
It is used in cooking and baking.
2. Caster sugar. It is super fine granulated white sugar,

because the crystals are so fine, they dissolve much
quicker than standard granulated white sugar which
makes it ideal for making meringues, syrups and cocktails.
3. Powdered or confectioner’s sugar. Confectioners’ sugar

also referred as powdered sugar and 10x sugar. This is a
type of white sugar that has been ground into a fine powder.
To prevent clumping, a small amount of cornstarch is
typically blended in. It is easily dissolves in liquid, and is
ideal for making icing and frosting, as well as decorating
baked goods.
4. Pearl sugar. It is nib sugar or hail sugar. Pearl sugar is a

variety of white sugar that has a coarse, hard texture and
an opaque color. It also holds its shape and does not melt
when exposed to high temperature. It is used to decorate
pastries, cookies and buns.
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5. Sanding sugar. Sanding sugar is used mainly for
decorating. It has large crystals, which are fairly
resistant to heat and add extra texture and crunch to
cookies and other baked goods.
6. Cane sugar. Cane sugar is produced solely from sugar

cane and is minimally processed. It has also a slightly
larger grain, darker color, and higher price tag.
7. Demerara sugar: Demerara sugar is a variety of raw

cane sugar that is minimally refined. It has large grains
with an amber color and a natural, subtle molasses flavor.
It is used to sweeten coffee or tea, or as a topping on
baked goods, like muffins, scones, cookies and cakes.
8. Turbinado sugar: Turbinado is another type of minimally

refined raw cane sugar. This sugar variety has large
medium-brown crystals and is often mistaken for
standard brown sugar because of its color. It has a
delicate caramel flavor and is commonly used to
sweeten beverages and can also be used in baking.
9. Muscovado or Raw brown sugar. Muscovado sugar is

a variety of unrefined cane sugar in which the molasses
is not removed. It has a sticky, wet, sandy texture with a
rich complex flavor. It can be used as a substitute for
brown sugar. Its flavor is much stronger. It’s especially
wonderful in barbecue sauce, marinades and savory
dishes.
10. Panutsa. It is a crude form of sugar. The sugar cane

is evaporated into a brown sugar concentrate and
molded in polished small halved coconut shells.
Sugar is allowed to crystallize and dry up into a solid,
brown hemisphere.
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11. Light brown sugar. Light brown sugar is refined white sugar
with a small amount of molasses added in it. It has a wet
sandy structure. It is used for making any baked goods as
well as in savory dishes.
12. Dark brown sugar. It is refined as white sugar. It contains

more molasses than light brown sugar which gives it a
stronger, more intense flavor. Light and dark brown sugar
can be used interchangeably.
13. Honey. Honey has an intense sweetness, but

the flavor is determined by the source of the flower
nectar. In general, darker the honey, stronger the
flavor. Like corn syrup, honey adds moisture to cakes
and cookies. Unlike corn syrup which has a fairly
neutral flavor, honey adds distinctive flavor.
14. Washed sugar. Is sucrose crystal which is one

step short of the complete refining process. It is the
more common sugar currently available in the
Philippine market. It has a light straw color which
can be distinguished only when placed side by
side with a white bond paper.
Classification of Syrups
Sugars are syrup in solution. They are classified as follows:

Cane syrup
Molasses
Refiner’s syrup
Sorghum syrup
Maple syrup
Corn syrup
High fructose-corn syrup
Honey
Lesson 11. USES OF SUGAR
Preserves and Jams

Sugar is commonly used as a preservative in jams and jellies, and enhances the color and flavor of various fruits.
The addition of sugars to jams and jellies is also essential to the gelling process, to obtain the desired consistency
and firmness.
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Baking
Sugar helps tenderize bakery products and provides a source of nourishment for the growth of yeast, which helps
the leavening process (e.g. breads to rise). The browning reaction that sugar undergoes when exposed to heat
adds flavor, and contributes to the appearance of color that can be seen on baked goods such as the crusts of
bread and the browning of cookies.
Canning and Freezing

Sugars are added to canned fruits and vegetables to improve flavor, enhance texture, and preserve natural colors.
Sugars are also used to slow the freezing process, and prevent large ice crystals from forming in frozen sweet
mixtures, such as ice cream. Large ice crystals can create a gritty texture, while the formation of smaller ice crystals
results in a smoother product, providing a more desirable texture. Sugars also increase the thickness of frozen
desserts, imparting a thick, creamy texture in the mouth.
Candy
Sugar (sucrose) is the primary ingredient in a wide variety of candies, largely due to its solubility. In its simplest
form, candy is made by dissolving sugar in water, and heating the solution. As the temperature rises, more sugar
can dissolve. The solution is boiled until no more sugar will dissolve (a "supersaturated" solution). As the solution
continues to boil, the water evaporates, making the solution more concentrated. When the solution cools, the sugar's
solubility decreases and the sugar crystallizes out of solution. The type of candy that is being made (and its desired
consistency) determines the degree of sugar concentration, and the extent to which sugar particles are
recrystallized.
General Cooking
Sugar is a key ingredient in the preparation of custards, puddings, and sauces. These food products depend on
sugar to perform a number of functions, in addition to its role as a sweetener. In custards, sugars help to breakdown
proteins in egg whites so that they are more evenly dispersed in the liquid mixture. This permits the egg mixture to
thicken slowly, mixing with the other ingredients, resulting in a smoother consistency. Sugar helps to prevent
lumping and thicken sauces and puddings by separating the starch molecules of the flour (or other thickening
ingredient such as cornstarch). This allows for a more desirable consistency. In non-sweet foods such as salad
dressings, condiments and sauces, sugars enhance flavors and balance the natural acidity of tomato and vinegar-
based products. This is because sugars are easily broken down by weak acids.
Beverages
Sugars are added to beverages to provide both sweetness and body (otherwise known as "mouth feel"). Sugars
are also important in the brewing and wine-making industry. Sugars or other carbohydrates (except lactose) can be
used to produce alcohols by fermentation. During fermentation, yeast feeds on sugars and produces bubbles of
carbon dioxide, water, and alcohol.
Sugar also has some surprising non-food uses:

 Sugar is involved in the fermentation process to make products containing alcohol (such as wine);
 Sugar slows the setting of cement and glues;
 Sugar is used to help make certain types of detergents;
 Sugar is used in the textile industry for sizing and finishing fabrics;
 Sugar is used to make certain pharmaceuticals;
 Sugar is used in wound healing.
Lesson 12. THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF SUGAR
Cane sugar which is the sole source of table sugar in the Philippines is manufactured by extracting the juice
from crushed sugar cane. The juice is then purified by heating with lime. The purified juice is evaporated into a
concentrated syrup until crystals are formed. The crystals are then separated by centrifuge, leaving molasses as a
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by-product. The raw sugar crystals are washed, redissolved, decolorized and recrystallized in several stages:
brown, light brown, golden or yellow, off-white and finally to pure white refined sugar.
Figure 3.1 Sugar Manufacturing Process
Purification of
Juice juice -
Planting and Preparation Drying and
extraction clarification Crystallization Centrifugaling
Harvesting and Processing packaging
pressing and
evaporation
Process of Cooking Sugar
Crystallization
 Definition: “Crystallization is the process by which a solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly
organized into a structure known as crystal” Some of the ways by which crystals form are precipitating from
a solution, melting, or more rarely deposition directly from a gas.
 Principle: The principle behind the crystallization is that the amount of solute that can be dissolved by a
solvent increase with temperature. In crystallization, the impure substance is dissolve in a suitable solvent
to reach its nearly saturated solution at a temperature higher than the room temperature.
 Process: Crystallization occurs in two major steps, and these are as follow: Nucleation and Crystal growth
 Nucleation is the step where the solute molecules or atoms dispersed in the solvent start to gather
into clusters, on the microscopic scale, that become stable under the current operating system. It is
at the stage of nucleation that the atoms or molecules arrange in a defined and periodic manner that
defines the crystal structure.
 Crystal growth is a dynamic process occurring in equilibrium where solute molecules or atom
precipitates out of solution, and dissolve back into solution.
Types: Crystal formation can be divided into two types, where the first types of crystals are
composed of a cation or anion, also known as a salt, such as Sodium Acetate. The second types of
crystals are composed of uncharged.
Methods: Crystal formation can be achieved by various methods, cooling, evaporation, addition of
a second solvent to reduce the solubility of the solute, solvent layering, sublimation, changing of
cation and anion and as well as other methods.
Stages of Cooking Sugar
There are 7 stages of cooking sugar:
Thread: Cooked to 230° to 234°. The syrup spins a soft, loose, short thread.
Soft Ball: Cooked to 234° to 240°. The syrup forms a soft, pliable, sticky ball.
Firm Ball: Cooked to 244° to 248°. The syrup forms a firm, but still pliable, sticky ball.
Hard Ball: Cooked to 250° to 265°. The syrup forms a hard, sticky ball.
Soft Crack: Cooked to 270° to 290°. The syrup forms longer strand that are firm, but yet remain pliable.
Hard Crack: Cooked to 300° to 310°. The syrup forms stiff strands that are firm and brittle.
Caramel: Cooked to 320° to 338°. The syrup changes color, ranging from a light golden to a dark amber brown. It
forms hard strands that are firm and brittle.
Functions of Sugar Cookery
Aside from making some foods more palatable and providing kilojoules, sugar has a number of important
properties that contribute uniquely to a food’s appearance, texture and shelf-life. It’s therefore an important
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ingredient in both the foods we make at home, and the manufactured foods on our supermarket shelves. Reducing
or removing sugar from a product often requires replacement with a number of substitute ingredients to achieve the
same quality, taste and texture profile. Below are some of the important roles sugar plays when it is added to foods:
As a bulking agent – sugar contributes to the texture of food, such as in meringue and biscuits. This is an
important role of sugar in most baking applications.
As a preservative – sugar helps to prevent or slow the growth of bacteria, moulds and yeast in jams and
other preserves. It also helps to prolong the shelf life of many foods on our supermarket shelves by acting as a
humectant – maintaining and stabilizing the water content in foods.
Enhancing flavor – adding a little sugar to nutritious foods such as sour fruits (frozen berries or rhubarb),
or porridge, helps to make them more palatable. Sugar also enhances fruit flavours in foods.
For color – on heating, sugar breaks down to produce the colour and desirable flavour that characterises
many cooked foods. This is caused by sugars reacting with proteins as they break down in the cooking process,
called the maillard reaction. A sprinkling of sugar and cinnamon on top of fruit muffins makes for a browned crunchy
topping and gives a nice texture.
Adds viscosity – sugar provides body in drinks and semi-liquid foods like syrups, chutneys and sweet
sauces.
As an anticoagulant – when it’s heated, sugar delays the coagulation of proteins (or the change to a semi-
solid state), such as in baked custards and other desserts.
Lesson 13. SUGAR SUBSTITUTES
Synthetic or Artificial Sweeteners- are otherwise

known non-nutritive, calorie-free, alternative or intense
sweeteners. These are substances that can be used in
small quantities to sweeten food and drink. Synthetic
sweeteners add sweetness without adding energy
value, which is desirable in weight reduction and
diabetic diets. The most commonly used synthetic
sweeteners are aspartame, cyclamates and saccharin.
Aspartame is 200 times sweeter than sucrose and

does not leave a bitter aftertaste. Sweetness is lost during prolonged cooking and at high temperatures, so it is
useless for sweetening of cooked food.
Acesulfame is a white, odorless, crystalline product which has properties that offer many advantages to food
processors. Its sweetening power is 130 times that of sucrose. It remains stable at room temperature for many years
in its crystalline form.
Acesulfame K is stable to heat

Hernandulcine has a bitter component
Thaumatin is soluble in cold water and is used in taste modification and flavor enhancement.
Sucralose has a good sweetness quality
Sugar Alcohols
The use of sugar alcohols in the food industry is becoming popular. As an alternative sweeteners, the most
common are sorbitol and xylitol. These two sugar alcohols occur naturally in many fruits and vegetables.
Sorbitol is half as sweet as table sugar or sucrose and is slowly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract.
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Xylitol has the same sweetening power as sucrose or table sugar. This naturally occurring sweetener has a
remarkable caries-inhibiting property which interferes with the formation of new cavities and the progression of
existing carries. Thus it is used in toothpaste, chewing gums and candies.
Isomalt is a sugar substitute which has a clean, pure sweet flavor without any aftertaste. It is used in confectionery,
bakery, dairy and other similar products.
Maltitol has a sweet taste and is a suitable sugar-free sweetening alternative.
Lesson 14. CANDY-MAKING
Candy making is the preparation and cookery of candies and sugar confections. Candy making includes
the preparation of many various candies, such as hard candies, jelly beans, gumdrops, taffy, liquorice, cotton
candy, chocolates and chocolate truffles, dragées, fudge, caramel candy and toffee.
Candy is made by dissolving sugar in water or milk to form a syrup, which is boiled until it reaches the desired
concentration or starts to caramelize. The type of candy depends on the ingredients and how long the mixture is
boiled. Candy comes in a wide variety of textures, from soft and chewy to hard and brittle.
Hard candy, also referred to as boiled sweet, is a candy prepared from one or more syrups boiled to a temperature
of 160 °C (320 °F). After a syrup boiled to this temperature cools, it is called hard candy, since it becomes stiff and
brittle as it approaches room temperature. Hard candy recipes variously call for syrups of sucrose, glucose,
or fructose. To add color, food coloring is sometimes used.
Soft candy
 Cotton candy, also known as candy floss, is a form of spun sugar. Typical machines used to make cotton
candy include a spinning head enclosing a small bowl into which granulated sugar is poured. Colored sugar
or separate sugar and food coloring are used to provide color. Heaters near the rim of the head melt the
sugar, which is squeezed out through tiny holes by centrifugal force, and the molten sugar solidifies in the
air and is caught in a larger bowl which totally surrounds the spinning head. After the product builds up on
the inside walls of the larger bowl, a stick, cone, or hands are inserted, upon which the sugar strands are
gathered.
 Marshmallows are prepared using egg whites, corn syrup and sugar. The use of marshmallow to make a
sweet dates back to ancient Egypt, where the recipe called for an extract from the root of the marshmallow
plant (Althaea officinalis) and mixing it with nuts and honey. Another pre-modern recipe uses the pith of the
marshmallow plant, rather than the root. In modern times, marshmallows are often commercially prepared
using extrusion.
READINGS:
https://www.slideshare.net/sugar-cookery
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candy_making
WATCH:
Sugar- How It’s Made
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCKt02NGjfM)
How to Cook Sugar Syrup

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-v7smLGl5Fc)
The Magic of Candy Making

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dnCmOc6EAHI)
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Answer the following:
1. Summarize the functions of sugars in food preparation citing specific food products.
2. Research products/brands that contain sugar. Read the labels and find out how sugar is listed. Enumerate
10 different products.
3. Observe how vendors caramelize sugar during cooking of “banana cue” and “camote cue”.
UNIT 4 – CEREAL AND STARCH COOKERY
OVERVIEW:
The word “cereal” was derived from the Latin Cerelia munera, meaning the gift of Ceres, the Roman goddess
of harvest and grains. The cultivation of cereals for human consumption and animal feeding may have started some
7,000 years ago during the Neolithic Age. Since then, cereals have become the mainstay of diets all over the world
because they are easy to grow, store and transport. With their bland flavor, cereals are versatile foods with extensive
culinary uses. They are inexpensive sources of energy largely in the form of starch. They supply proteins which
become significant considering the amount of cereals eaten, particularly in areas where animal proteins are scarce
and expensive. Besides their role in foods and feeds, cereals and cereal by-products have varied industrial products
uses in the manufacture of textiles, leather goods and building materials.
Starch is a product of phytosynthesis and is the predominant food reserve substance in plants. It is the
source of 70-80 percent of the calories consumed worldwide. Commercial starches are obtained from cereal grain
seeds particularly from rice, corn, wheat and from tubers and roots particularly potato, sweet potato, cassava, and
yam.
This unit will discuss the forms and compositions of cereals and starch, the cooking process and the
principles behind their preparation.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Explain the significance of cereals and starch cookery
 Identify the different kinds of cereal and starch and their market forms
 Distinguish the properties of starch and its applications in cooking
 Enumerate the uses of starch in food preparation
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 15. KINDS OF CEREALS AND MARKET FORMS
Cereals are the edible seeds or grains of the grass

family, Gramineae. A number of cereals are grown in different
countries, including rye, oats, barley, maize, triticale, millet and
sorghum. On a worldwide basis, wheat and rice are the most
important crops, accounting for over 50% of the world’s cereal
production. All of the cereals share some structural similarities
and consist of an embryo (or germ), which contains the genetic
material for a new plant, and an endosperm, which is packed
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with starch grains. Cereals are grown for their highly nutritious edible seeds, which are often referred to as grains.
There are several species of cereals and many varieties within each species. The types of cereals cultivated
in a country or region depend on soil and climatic conditions, agricultural know-how and other economic resources.
Table 4.1 Uses of Cereals and Their Nutrition Values
Source: https://www.pearsonschoolsandfecolleges.co.uk/secondary/DesignAndTechnology/14-16/Standaloneproducts/Examining-Food-and-Nutrition-for-
GCSE-2nd-edition/Samples/SampleSpreads/Cerealsspread.pdf
Rice
Rice (Oryza sativa L.), the fruit of a grass usually grown in flooded fields called paddies, has been one of
man’s most important foods throughout history. Today, it is the staple food of more than half of the world’s
population, mainly in Asia. For many people, it supplies more dietary energy than any single food.
Rice is nutritious, economical, easy to prepare, and tastes good. Rice is more versatile than any other food
because it can fit into every cuisine and it can be used in recipes for soups, salads, main dishes, desserts, etc. in
any part of the meal. It can be an excellent complement to entrees, or it can be a main ingredient in many ethnic
dishes. Furthermore, modern science tells us that rice is mainly and easily digestible complex carbohydrate, which
can be stored in the muscles and is released as energy as required. It is also cholesterol-free, low in sodium, gluten-
free and non-allergenic.
Rice is grown efficiently in parts of the world that have a reliable water supply or abundant rain coupled with
moderate to warm temperature.
Classification of Rice Varieties
There are numerous varieties of rice but it is generally classified into the indica group which is suited to
tropical environments and the japonica which is adapted to subtropical and temperate regions of the world. In the
Philippines, it is the indica varieties that are cultivated.
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Figure 4.1 Various cereal grains
Rice Milling and Products
Rough rice or paddy rice, locally called palay, is delivered to the

mills after being dried. It is passed through a shaker screen to remove the
weeds, pebbles, foreign seeds and other foreign matter. The cleaned
palay is dehulled into brown or unpolished rice which is the most natural
form of polished rice. Brown or unpolished rice takes a longer time to
cook, has a shorter shelf-life, and looks worn and misshapen upon
cooking. This type of rice, however, has nutritional advantages.
Rice is composed of a germ and seven bran layers rich in vitamins,

particularly the B-complex group, and minerals which contributed to its
brown color. Brown rice is polished to remove the bran and germ resulting
in polished or white rice with commercial bran as a by-product. The
percentage distribution of polished rice, polishings and bran based on the
total weight of unpolished grains is 88 percent, 2 percent and 10 percent, respectively.
Grading of rice depends on the size of kernels as long, medium, or short; the percentage of broken kernels;
and the degree of whiteness. Long-grain rice has high amylose content. It is often use in frozen dinners, soups, rice
cakes and confections. Medium-grain rice is plump in shape and has a lower amylose content than long-grain rice.
It yields a clingy, moist texture and tends to stick together when cooked. It is commonly used in rice cakes and
breakfast cereals. Short-grain rice which is rounded in shape and has an amylose content similar to that of medium-
grain rice. It is sticky, chewy and moist when cooked. From a quality standpoint, an intact grain is desirable. Broken
pieces are often for meal of flour.
Rice, considering its overall qualities, is not exceptionally nutritious because of milling; many of its nutritional
elements are ‘polished’ away. Nutrients can be added to polished rice. Thiamine, niacin, and iron enrichment of rice
is mandatory in many countries. Riboflavin, calcium, vitamin D, and lysine are optional requirements. In the
Philippines, the Rice Enrichment Law in the early 1950’s required the addition of thiamine, niacin and iron.
Unfortunately, this was not fully implemented. In the USA, four nutrients are mandatory: thiamine, niacin, riboflavin,
and iron. Some states add calcium and vitamin D.
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Parboiled rice or converted rice is rough rice or palay that is soaked, steamed, dried, and finally milled.
This process forces some of the vitamins in the bran into the endosperm and gelatinizes the starch therefore sealing
in the nutrients, making the grain resistant to over-cooking, and producing fluffy, less sticky kernels. This product is
firm and less prone to breakage. Although brown in color, its nutritive value, keeping qualities, and milling recovery
are better than polished rice. In India, parboiled rice is preferred over polished rice. For Filipinos, parboiled rice is
something unfamiliar.
Pinipig is a type of parboiled rice prepared by soaking, steaming, and drying the immature palay. The rice
used is generally malagkit, which is of the waxy variety and low in amylose. It is pounded manually and winnowed
in bilaos to rid it of the hulls. Pinipig flakes are simply roasted and used as toppings for many Filipino delicacies. It
is also used as rice krispies for chocolate or dessert topping. Much of its use is in kakanin or native rice delicacies
and in frozen milk bars. Pinipig fried in oil gives a better crispy texture.
Pirurutong is dark purple colored rice used in puto bumbong and in fermented rice.
Quick-cooking or minute rice is precooked, rinsed, and packaged as a convenient food item. Cooking time is
cut down to only one-third of the original, e.g. ten minutes against thirty minutes for ordinary rice.
Rice grits or binlid are broken kernels as a result of the milling process. Rice galapong is wet-milled from
whole rice kernels and has a particle size more like a meal than the powdery fine flour that is derived from milling
wheat grains.
Rice starch is 100 percent pure carbohydrate obtained from the endosperm of the rice grain.
Rice oil, which is extracted from the bran, is a good quality salad or cooking oil. It is not commercially
processed in the Philippines because the bran is fully utilized as food or feed.
More and more products are being made from by-products of rice milling and/or processing. One of them is
rice milk, a nutritious blend of rice syrup solids from partially milled brown rice, with rice protein, canola oil, and
seaweed extract. It is hypoallergenic and lactose-free.
Corn
One out of five Filipinos utilize corn as staple. This food commodity was introduced in the Philippines by the
Spaniards 400 years ago. Since then it has been grown throughout the archipelago, making it our second staple
crop. Corn is known as maize in the Americans and Europe from which the local term mais was derived. Next to
rice and wheat, it is the third widely used cereal, representing 20 percent of the world’s total consumption. Corn is
the staple food in Mexico, Central America, some southern regions in the USA and part of Africa. Practically half of
the world production of corn comes from the Central Plains of the United States of America called the “corn belt”.
Corn is grown more for animal feed than human food.
Corn is considered sacred by some people like the Mayas in Mexico. They believe that the first humans were
created out of white and yellow cobs of corn. To this day, the sowing and reaping of maize are accompanied by
ritual celebrations.
Varieties of Corn
Corn is commonly classified according to kernel color as white or yellow. In the Philippines, the government
has a continuous breeding program to develop varieties adopted to local conditions. On the other hand, the seed
companies introduced the hybrids in the country and have the seeds available to the farmers after evaluation and
recommendation by the Philippine Seed Board. The different types of corn seeds are Batangas, Yellow Flint, College
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Yellow Flint, Cebu or Bicol White Flint, Sweet Corn, Popcorn, Dent, Opaque, and Lagkitan or Glutinous or Waxy
Maize.
Sixty percent of the corn produced in the Philippines goes to food and the rest to livestock feed. In some
industrialized countries, 90 percent is utilized for animal feeding. Yellow corn is preferred to white corn for feeds
because of its high carotene content.
Corn Milling and Products
Corn milling in the Philippines is done basically to prepare grits for supplementing rice supply.
Corn Grits are coarsely ground from whole kernels from which the bran and germ have been removed.
Corn meal is prepared by grinding white or yellow corn to fine granules smaller than corn grits.
Corn flour is finely pulverized grit and it resembles wheat flour.
Cornstarch is refined starch in powder form obtained from the corn endosperm by a wet-milling process.
Grit, meal, flour, and starch vary in size of granulation, i.e., from coarse fragments to powdery form,
respectively. In chemical composition, grit, meal and flour are similar since they are prepared from kernels that are
dehulled and debranned. Starch is 100 percent digestible carbohydrate obtained from the endosperm, whereas, the
other forms contain carbohydrate, protein, ash, and traces of fat.
Hominy is corn with the hull and germ removed. If the process is done by machine, the product is called peral
hominy. Lye hominy, locally called binatog, is prepared by soaking the kernels in lye water to facilitate dehulling.
Lye alters the characteristics of the cornstarch. Granulated hominy or hominy grits are broken hominy kernels.
Corn oil is extracted from the germ by pressure.
Corn used in breakfast cereals and snack foods are made from corn grits that are precooked, dried, and then
puffed, toasted, flaked, or shredded. Flavoring ingredients may be added. Mais ampaw is puffed corn molded into
round or rectangular pieces using caramelized sugar as binder.
Corn and corn products are used in many household recipes or commercially prepared foods as added
ingredients or thickening agents.
Most Mexican dough-based foods are made from masa flour, which is milled from pre-cooked corn kernels.
Examples are taco and the tortilla. Snack foods made from extruded masa flour comes in a variety of shapes and
flour and are very popular with young people. The Mexican tortilla is a round flat bread made from masa flour. It is
used as a sandwich bread but looks like rolled lumpia wrapper with filling. Tacos are thin, baked maize cakes, the
size of a palm of a hand. Inihaw na mais (charcoal broiled) and broiled corn-on-the-cob are favorite sidewalk snacks.
Very popular nowadays are broiled corn kernels served in a cup and seasoned with cheese, barbecue, or other
savory flavor powders.
Ready-to-eat popcorn which are originally sold only in movie houses can now be bought from food stalls in
many shopping centers. It is flavored with butter, cheese or barbecue powders or with various candy and sweet
flavors. Another creative option developed by the food industry are popcorn cakes, a product similar to rice cakes.
Unpopped popcorn are also sold in groceries and this can be prepared in the time-honored fashion, i.e.,
popping in a pan. Nowadays though, fresh popcorn can be prepared via the microwave, and unpopped popcorn
can now be purchased in microwave-suited containers, complete with butter and flavors.
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Kornicks- is a corn product developed in the Philippines particularly in Ilocos. It is made by frying previously dehulled
and cooked corn kernels then flavored.
Wheat
Wheat has been known since the prehistoric times, and has always been the most important cereal, from the
western point of view. It is commonly grown in temperate climates. From the practical standpoint, wheat is
differentiated into two main classes: hard and soft wheat. Hard wheat yields the strong flour flavored for
breadmaking while soft wheat is very good for biscuit manufacture. A certain species of wheat, T.durum is an
important source of semolina flour, which is used in the manufacture of pasta products.
Wheat was introduced by the Spaniards in the Philippines and has been grown successfully during the
Spanish time. It was grown primarily to provide flour for the making of hosts used in the Catholic religious ritual. It
was completely abandoned when the Americans came because of cheaper flour in the USA.
Bulgur, cracked wheat, and farina are market forms of wheat that are cooked as substitute for rice. Bulgur or
parboiled wheat is a whole wheat that has been cooked, dried, partially debranned, and cracked into smaller
fragments. Cracked wheat is prepared by breaking debranned wheat, other than durum wheat, into a coarse meal.
Structure and Composition
Figure 4.2 Main Parts of the Rice Grain
Source: Basic Foods for Filipinos by Sonia Y. de Leon, et.al., 3rd Edition, 1999.
Each cell in a cereal grain is enclosed in a wall composed of cellulose and hemicellulose. Within the cell is
the protoplasm which contains water, starch, and protein molecules, fat globules, minerals, vitamins, pigments,
and enzymes.
Physical structure- All cereal grains have similar structure consisting of three parts: the bran, the germ or
embryo, and the endosperm. The bran is the outer covering and constitute about 5 percent if the kernel. It may
be present in several layers, e.g. five layers in wheat and two layers in rice. It contains cellulose, minerals or ash,
vitamins and some proteins. Just beneath the bulky bran is a group of single layered square cells called aleurone
layer. It represents 8 percent of the kernel and is rich in protein, ash, and thiamine.
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Rice bran contains 20-30 percent dietary fiber, a food component with beneficial effects on health.
Because rice bran is high in protein, it is largely used in animal feeds. During milling, this bran layer is removed by
the abrasive action of pearlier machines.
The germ or embryo is a small part located at the lower end of the grain. It makes up 30 percent of the
kernel and contains oil, protein, ash, and vitamins. This is the part easily attacked by insects.
The endosperm makes up 85 percent of the kernel. It consists of well-packed starch granules embedded in
a matrix of protein. A typical endosperm contains 75 percent starch, 10 percent protein, and traces of fat, ash, and
fiber.
The white pigments in rice and other white cereals belong to the flavones. Yellow pigments found in yellow
corn are carotenoids.
Lesson 16. RICE COOKERY
Of all the cereal grains, rice presents extreme variations in individual preferences: e.g., long vs. short-grained;
sticky and more moist vs. separate and drier, new harvest vs. old stock; waxy variety vs. ordinary rice; hard vs.
sauce; brown vs. white polished rice; etc. Even among nations, the eating qualities preferred for steamed rice differ.
Whichever characteristics consumers prefer for cereals, the fundamental principles remain the same, namely:
proper ratio of water to cereal; complete gelatinization of the starch; prevention of lumping in hot cereals; retention
of discrete grains as desired; and prevention of scorching.
The average of water to dry polished rice is 1.5:1 up to 2:1 water to rice by volume measure. Waxy varieties
or high-amylose containing rice, short-grained kernels, newly harvested rice, cooking in automatic cooker with tight
lids and preference for drier and harder kernels entail less use of water, but which I still close to the 1.5:1 ratio. If a
consumer like a more moist and sticky steamed rice, he may add two cups water per cup of raw rice. The common
practice however is washing the rice first so the amount of water added to rice is less.
For breakfast cereals like champorado, oatmeal, cream of wheat, or farina, more water is required for a thinner
porridge. Also, the finer the granulation, the more water is absorbed. Thus, one cup oatmeal needs two cups water
while one cup farina needs four cups water. To avoid lumping, the dry cereal is added gradually to boiling water and
stirred gently with a fork. The mixture is stirred occasionally to prevent scorching. Too much agitation, however will
make it pasty. Some purposely allow this to happen as in arroz caldo and champorado for a thicker consistency of
the finished product.
Gelatinization ̶ is dependent on water and heat. This moist heat method of cooking starch requires the right
proportion of water as determined by a number of factors just discussed and the proper endpoint of cooking.
In general, volume expansion of cooked cereals is related to the amount of water present for absorption.
Finely milled cereals like farina, cornmush and cream of wheat increase in volume five times. Oats or flaked cereals
swell three times and rice, twice. Thus, a cooking vessel large enough to allow for volume expansion and occasional
stirring as needed, should be used.
Storage and Care
It should be remembered that cereal grains are seeds composed of living cells which continue to respire after
harvest and is favored by temperature and moisture at optimum levels. During storage, oxygen is consumed with
the formation of carbon dioxide and heat. A moisture level less than 13 percent slows down the respiration rate and
prolongs shelf-life of grains. It discourages mold growth and insect infestation. Therefore, the drying period after
harvest is very important. Palay that is adequately dried to contain not more than 13 percent moisture can be stored
in the warehouse up to six months. Higher moisture level would promote mold growth and insect infestation.
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The approximate storage time for cereals that are properly packaged I 2 months for ready-to-eat breakfast
cereals, 6 months for granulated cereals, 6 months for whole grains and brown rice and 1 year for whole corn
kernels and polished rice.
Cereal grains are hygroscopic, that is, they tend to absorb moisture from the air. Thus, they should be stored
in a cool, dry place.
The loss of crispiness in dry cereal flakes is due to moisture absorption. This is even more apparent with
sugar-coated cereals. Therefore, after the package is open, the inner foil should be folded several times.
The aims of proper storage and packaging of cereals are:

 To retain crispness as in ready-to-eat cereals;
 To avoid off-flavors absorbed from surrounding foreign odors;
 To prevent the access of rodents and insects;
 To avoid moisture absorption which could lead to mold growth
Lesson 17. STARCH COOKERY
Starch is a nutrient carbohydrate found notably in corn, potatoes, wheat and rice, and is commonly prepared
as a whole tasteless powder. Starch exists in nature as the main component of cereals and tubers. Wheat flour,
cornstarch, and tapioca are starches commonly used as thickening agents in cooking. Some common starchy foods
are bread, cereals, pasta, rice, corn, wheat, potatoes, beans and chestnuts.
Starch is a solid carbohydrate that is granular in form and naturally present in many plants such as grains
(wheat or rice), pulses (corn), tubers (potatoes), and numerous other plant species. When cooked, starch can affect
foods as it changes the stability, texture and viscosity of the item being prepared. It is a substance commonly used
to alter various aspects of foods being manufactured as well as being prepared. As an example, sticky rice is a
short grain variety of white rice that sticks together when cooked. This variety is generally used for commercial
product formulations rather than home recipes, converting the rice starch and flour into food binders for fillings,
gravies and sauces. The starch and flour can withstand refrigerated conditions without separating when frozen or
thawed, becoming an excellent option for frozen food formulations. During food preparation, different varieties of
foods cook into a very dense consistency due to the higher ratio of starch, thus affecting the preparation and results
when finished, similar to the reaction occurring with rice.
Uses:
 Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder that can be used in processed foods or in paper
industry.
 Glucose syrups are liquids which are used in the food industry for their sweetening power.
 Sweetening power in beverages.
 Bulking agent/ texture in dairy products.
 Moistening in bakery products.
 Thickening, binding agent in soups and sauces.
 Browning effect in caramels.
 Cooling effect in chewing-gum.
 It is used as an additive for food processing, food starches are typically used as thickeners and stabilizers
in foods such as puddings, custards, fillings, and salad dressings, and to make noodles and pastas.
 In the pharmaceutical industry, starch is also used as an excipient and as binder.
 The biggest industrial non-food use of starch is an adhesive in the papermaking process.
 Starch can be applied to some garments before ironing or in laundering, to stiffen cloth.
 Used in food manufacturer in cosmetics, textiles, construction materials and other industrial uses
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Structure and Composition of Starch
 It is present into vegetable cells and contains two types of homopolysaccharides, amylose and
amylopectin.
 Amylose is an unbranched homopolysaccharide formed by about 5-600 glucose units, linked by a-

(1- 4) glycosidic bonds. It has a helix structure with six glucose units for turn, is soluble in water and
places in the core of the starch granules.
 Amylopectin represents about 80% of polysaccharides taken up with diet. It is branched molecule
formed by thousands of glucose units, up to 50000, that in main chain, are joined by a-(1- 4)
glycosidic bonds, approximately every 25-30 glucose units a branch point or lateral chain is present,
formed by glucose units as well, joined to the main chain by a-(1-6) glycosidic bonds, glucose units
on the lateral chain, from 16 to 25, are linked again by a-(1- 4) glycosidic bonds. The branches
prevent the formation of a helica l structure while allow the creation of spongy reticular structures.
Figure 4.3 Structure and Composition of Starch
Classification of Starch
Native Starch- refers to the starches as originally derived from its plant source. Depending on whether they
are obtained from maize, wheat, potato or pea, native starches present different characteristics according to the
size and structures of the starch granules and depending on their amylose and amylopectin composition. Native
starch is a powder obtained from plants containing starch. It is used as a thickening agent and a stabilizer. Good
examples of this include custard, desserts, sauces and many forms of instant foods. The most common native
starches are corn, rice, wheat, potato and waxy maize.
Modified Starch- Modified starches are those with structures altered by treatment with physical or chemical
agents. Modified starch, also called starch derivatives, are prepared by physically, enzymatically, or chemically
treating native starch to change its properties. Modified starches are used in practically all starch applications, such
as in food products as a thickening agent, stabilizer or emulsifier; in pharmaceuticals as a disintegrant; as binder in
coated paper. Modified starches are obtained from native starches as a result of physical, enzymatic or chemical
processing methods. Wet and dry chemical processes, drum drying and extrusion methods are all used. The
properties of native starch such as its freeze-thaw stability, acid or alkali resistance or even its shear stability can
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be changed by means of these processes. Depending on the raw materials used starch is used for different
applications.
Slowly Digested Starch- Amylose contains 500 to 20,000 molecules of glucose connected together in a
straight chain. The chain twists into a helix and then two chains bond together, forming a structure that resists the
digestive enzymes trying to break the glucose molecules apart. As a result, resists the digestive enzymes trying to
break the glucose molecules apart. As a result, amylose is slowly digested and absorbed, which is why it's called a
slowly digestible starch. Amylose can help keep your blood sugar balanced because it does not cause a large spike
in blood sugar levels. About 20 to 30 percent of the natural starch in plants consists of amylose.
Rapidly Digested Starch- Amylopectin is significantly larger than amylose, with a structure made up of millions
of glucose molecules that branch out and form a crystalline structure. Its glucose units are easily cleaved during
digestion, which makes it a rapidly digestible starch. Amylopectin can boost your blood sugar temporarily, but it is
followed by a hunger-producing drop in blood sugar. About 70 to 80 percent of the total natural starch in plants is
made up of amylopectin.
Resistant Starch- Resistant starch (RS) is any starch or starch digestion products that are not digested and
absorbed in the stomach or small intestine and pass on to the large intestine. RS has been categorized into four
types:
 RS1 – Physically inaccessible or undigestible resistant starch, such as that found in seeds or legumes and
unprocessed whole grains.
 RS2 – Resistant starch is inaccessible to enzymes due to starch conformation, as in high amylose corn
starch.
 RS3 – Resistant starch that is formed when starch-containing foods are cooked and cooled, such as
pasta. Occurs due to retrogradation, which refers to the collective processes of dissolved starch becoming
less soluble after being heated and dissolved in water and then cooled.
 RS4 – Starches that have been chemically modified to resist digestion.
Starch Reactions on Foods
Carbohydrates come in various forms, and each form reacts differently when exposed to heat. The two forms
of carbohydrates that are of interest from a basic food science perspective are sugar and starch.
Caramelization- When exposed to heat, sugar will at first

melt into a thick syrup. As the temperature continues to rise, the
sugar syrup changes color, from clear to light yellow to a
progressively deepening brown. This browning process is called
caramelization. It is a complicated chemical reaction, and in
addition to color change, it also causes the flavor of the sugar to
evolve and take on the rich complexity that we know to be
characteristic of caramel. Different types of sugar caramelize at
different temperatures. Granulated white sugar melts at
320°F/160°C and begins to caramelize at 338°F/170°C.
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Maillard reaction- In foods that are not primarily sugar or
starch, a different reaction, known as the Maillard reaction, is
responsible for browning. This reaction involves sugars and amino
acids (the building blocks of protein). When heated, these
components react and produce numerous chemical by-products,
resulting in a brown color and intense flavor and aroma. It is this
reaction that gives coffee, chocolate, baked goods, dark beer, and
roasted meats and nuts much of their rich flavor and color.
Gelatinization- Starch, a complex carbohydrate, has

powerful thickening properties. When starch is combined with
water or another liquid and heated, individual starch granules
absorb the liquid and swell. This process, known as
gelatinization, is what causes the liquid to thicken.
Gelatinization occurs at different temperatures for different
types of starch. As a general rule of thumb, root-based
starches (potato and arrowroot, for instance) thicken at lower
temperatures but break down more quickly, whereas cereal-
based starches (corn and wheat, for example) thicken at
higher temperatures but break down more slowly. High levels
of sugar or acid can inhibit gelatinization, while the presence
of salt can promote it.
Gelation- The process of forming a gel that occurs after the gelatinization process and during cooling is called
Gelation. Example: The cooling of Jell-O after preparation of the mixture.
Dextrinization - The breakdown of starch molecules

to smaller, sweetier tasting molecules (dextrin) by
enzymes, acid or dry heat. Dextrin are partially
hydrolyzed starches that are prepared by dry roasting
starch. In home kitchens, dextrinization is achieved by
toasting of flour for polvoron, rice flour for kare-kare sauce
and bread slices for breakfast
Retrogradation - When cooled, gelatinize amylase containing starches

set into a rigid gel. Retrogradation is a reaction that takes place when
the amylose and amylopectin chains in cooked, gelatinized starch
realign themselves as the cooked starch cools. When native starch is
heated and dissolves in water, the crystalline structure of amylose and
amylopectin molecules is lost and they hydrate to form a viscous
solution. If the viscous solution is cooled or left at lower temperature for
a long enough period, the linear molecules, amylose, and linear parts of
amylopectin molecules retrograde and rearrange themselves again to a
more crystalline structure. The linear chains place themselves parallel and form hydrogen bridges. In viscous
solutions the viscosity increases to form a gel. At temperatures between –8 and +8 °C the aging process is
enhanced drastically.
Retrogradation can expel water from the polymer network. This is a process known as syneresis. A small
amount of water can be seen on top of the gel. Retrogradation is directly related to the staling or aging of bread,
and Retrograded starch is less digestible.
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Syneresis- It is characterized by the expulsion of moisture from the gel. This reaction occurs in all kinds of
gels, puddings, jellies, custards, gelatin, agar
Retroradation- It is defined as the reassociation of the linear amylase chains by hydrogen bonding. The rate
of staling is dependent on the product formation, the baking process and the storage conditions.
Hydrolysis: Starches undergo hydrolysis during cooking or processing and during storage of food. Prolonged
heating of starches with acid will promote hydrolysis. This can happen when cooking an acidic food, such as
pineapple resulting in reduced viscosity or firmness of the pie filling.
Functional Properties of Starch
Starch plays various roles in food, a typical multi-tasker.

 Thickeners in gravies, sauces and pudding. It absorbs
water and become a gel when cooked.
 Colloidal stabilizers
 Moisture retainer
 Gel forming agents
 Binders
 Package
Flavor carriers Flavor carriers: its ability to trap oils and

fats, which absorb flavoring substances more efficiently.
Starches: are added to processed meats (luncheon
meats, hot dogs, sausages, etc.) as a filler, binder,
moisture, retainer, and fat substitute.
Table 4.2 Functions of Starch and Application in Filipino Dishes
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Properties of Starch:
 Flavor: starch (a white powder) is not sweet in flavor.
 Solubility: starch is insoluble in cold water.
 Hygroscopic: this property relates to how starch absorbs moisture from the air e.g. biscuits soften if they are
not kept air tight.
 Hydrolysis: hydrolysis is a chemical breakdown of a molecule by adding water to produce smaller molecules.
Disaccharides become monosaccharaides partly due to hydrolysis.
 Starch particles do not dissolve in liquid instead they form a suspension.
 Stirring or agitating the liquid keeps the particles suspended.
 If the suspension is not stirred the particles form to the bottom forming lumps.
 When the liquid reaches 60 C the starch grains begin to absorb the liquid.
 At 80 C the particles break open and release starch making the mixture thick and viscose, this is called
gelatinization.
 Gelatinization is complete is complete when liquid reaches 100 C. the thickened liquid now forms a gel. On
cooling the gel solidifies.
Common Problems in Starch Cookery:

1. Thinning of Gel. This problem is usually encountered when using acid or acid ingredients such as lemon or
vinegar.
2. Weak Gel. Weak gel results if there is too much liquid in relation to the starch.
3. Skin Formation is due to loss of water from the starch and protein molecules near the surface of the mixture.
To reduce this problem, cover container of the starch gel with a waterproof cover.
4. Scorching.This can be avoided by temperature control and constant stirring so the starch granules do not
settle at the bottom of the cooking pan.
5. Raw Starch Flavor.This is due to ungelatinized starch
Lesson 18. ALIMENTARY PASTES AND LOCAL NOODLES
Alimentary pastes or pastas in Italian refer to a family of macaroni products of varying sizes and shapes (See
Figure 4.4). The most popular ones are spaghetti, macaroni, vermicelli, egg noodles and lasagna. Macaroni may
assume the shape of stars, shells, bows, alphabets, etc. Alimentary pastes are called noodles collectively by
consumers.
Figure 4.4 Types of Pasta
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Kinds of Noodles
Miki. These flat, yellowish noodles is made from a dough mixture of wheat flour, lye, salt, water and fat. The
dough is flattened to desired thickness and cut into strips of desired length and boiled. The noodles are drained and
oil is applied on the surface.
Sotanghon. These long, thin, wiry translucent noodles also called cellophane noodles are made from mung
bean starch. Mongo beans are first soaked in water and ground into a slurry then shaped into large balls, the size
of a basketball, cooked briefly in boiling water and then is extruded into thin strands by machine. It is subjected to
freezing (0oF) for 3-4 hours and then dried under the sun for 6 hours before packaging.to keep it white and glistening,
dried sotanghon is bleached with burning sulfur.
White Bihon. These thin noodles are made from rice and corn or rice only. The rice and corn are soaked,
ground, drained then further ground finer in stone rollers. At this point, cornstarch is added. The resulting galapong
is shaped into oval balls about the size of a large bowling ball. It is precooked briefly, kneaded then extruded. The
strands fall directly into a tub of boiling water to cook. The cooked noodles are then dried.
First class bihon is made entirely from white rice which is well polished. Strands of bihon are boiled until the
noodles float to the surface of the water. These are cooled and wound around bamboo poles into rectangular shape
about 10 inches long by 6 inches wide, then dried and packed in 2 or 3 sheets.
Fresh Bihon. Fresh bihon is prepared in the same way as described above except for the omission of the
drying process. Therefore, being quite moist it is thick and it does not keep long. It is used in pansit palabok or
pansit luglug.
Pancit Canton. These egg noodles are made from flour, duck’s eggs, salt and soda. The dough is rolled, cut
then steamed or boiled, air dried then keep fried in hot oil before packaging.
Miswa. Made from cassava and wheat flour, these thread-like white noodles can be cooked almost instantly.
It is also called “hairy noodles”. This product is salted so this has to be taken into consideration when seasoning a
soup prepared with it. This is the least expensive of all the noodles mentioned here.
Instant Noodles. This product is very popular in this country and is marketed under several brands and with
various flavorings. It is usually packed with the flavoring in a separate packet. The instructions in the label
recommend cooking in boiling water for two minutes. Its manufacture is very similar to pancit canton but automated
modern equipment is used. The strands of noodle are “curled” to make it more compact prior to deep fat frying.
Proper Cooking of Noodles
Pastas are usually packaged with the manufacturer’s tested cooking methods written on the label. Use 8 to
10 times as much water as pasta for cooking. Add 1 teaspoon salt and 1 teaspoon oil to the boiling water. The
addition of oil prevents foaming and sticking of the noodles. When the water is boiling vigorously, gently put pasta
and continue boiling with occasional stirring for uniform cook. Cook up to the al dente stage which means that the
noodles are firm and chewy. There is hardness of its core without any raw starch flavor and the pieces can be cut
easily with fork and not mash up when mixed with other food. The shape is retained and the pieces do not stick
together.
For a household recipe, cooking time is about 20 minutes. When the al dente stage is reached, pour
noodles over a colander or strainer and drain. Rinsing in water will help prevent sticking.
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Principles of cooking pastas are the same as for cereals and starchy pastas. There should be enough water
to gelatinize the starch completely. Noodles swell to twice their uncooked starch granules. Retention of shape is
imperative. Overcooking will result in a mash.
Dried bihon and sotanghon may be quickly washed with water to remove dust, just before cooking. The noodle
may be cut into shorter strands. Cook the noodle in boiling broth until tender. This method of cooking allows the
noodle to be thoroughly heated thus preventing early spoilage. It should not be soaked in water prior to cooking.
Miswa with its fine, fragile strands is best cooked by dropping into the boiling broth or stock. Do not wash
miswa. Remove pot immediately from heat; stir gently to distribute miswa and keep covered for about 5 minutes. It
should be served immediately, otherwise, miswa gets mushy and the mixture becomes thick and sticky.
Canton which is precooked by frying in deep fat needs less liquid and shorter time for cooking compared to
bihon and sotanghon.
For guisados, all three local noodles are best cooked in meat stock (chicken and/or pork) that is well-seasoned
with soy sauce or patis as desired, together with salt and pepper. Avoid too much grease. Noodles may also be
fried. Crisp noodle dishes are very popular in Thailand.
READINGS:
Nutritional aspects of cereal. By Brigid Mckevith. June 2004. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net
https://www.slideshare.net/starch-cookery
WATCH:
How It’s Made-Cereal
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HPpMV_vcVEg)
Milling Rice
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pIaxP-t_eu8)
Work with a partner and complete the following activities:
1. Summarize the principles of cereal cookery, using rice as an example.

2. Illustrate dextrinization of starch in preparing polvoron.
3. Interview 5 individuals on what characteristics of cooked rice they prefer.
4. Give examples of recipes to illustrate the roles of starch.
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UNIT 5 – FLOURS AND FLOUR MIXTURE
YEAST BREAD
QUICK BREADS, CAKES AND PASTRIES
OVERVIEW:
In our rice-eating country, bread was not a part of the diet until the Spaniards introduced it. The role of bread
in the Western culture is the parallel of rice in our own. Many rituals and metaphorical roles have been attributed to
bread all throughout history. Archaeological evidence indicate that bread had been developed in Egypt around 4000
B.C. While most of human lifestyles have changed dramatically since, bread making has remained essentially the
same.
Flours are powdered products made from milling or grinding cereal grains, root crops, legumes and other
starchy foods. It has been extended to other powdered products but the use of the word flour unqualified means
wheat flour. In this unit, this meaning is used. Other types of flours are specified with appropriate descriptive terms
to indicate their source or nature. Thus, we can have rice flour, camote flour, potato flour, ube flour, peanut flour
and even leaf flours and fish flours.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Identify the market forms of flour
 Differentiate the different mixing process
 Explain the different steps in bread making.
 Describe the characteristics of good quality breads.
 Differentiate yeast breads and quick breads
 Identify the cooking methods of cakes and pastries
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 19. KINDS OF WHEAT
The common wheats are classified into four major categories: hard red spring, soft red winter, soft white
winter, and soft white spring. Winter wheats are planted in regions where winter is mild while spring wheats are
planted in places where winter are severe. Winter wheats start growing in the fall, lays dormant during winter and
matures in early spring while spring wheats are planted in spring and are harvested in late summer.
Wheat classes are differentiated by such factors as protein content, vitreosity or translucency of the kernel,
kernel color and kernel hardness. Kernel hardness or softness is generally influenced by protein content but may
not be always positively correlated because of such factors as selective breeding and environment under which the
wheats are grown. Hard red spring and hard red winter wheats yield flours of high to intermediate protein contents
(9.6-14.8%) and with gluten strength suitable for bread production. Soft wheats are superior for cakes and cookies,
while durum wheats are for pasta production.
In the Philippines, wheat was introduced by the Spaniards. It was grown in places which were relatively cold
particularly in Calatagan, Batangas. Flour so produced were initially intended only for the production of hosts used
in communion during masses, however, excess production were made into bread and pastries, which explains the
Spanish terms used for baked products such as pan de sal, ensaymada, barquillos, etc.
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Wheat growing in the Philippines had been abandoned since the coming of the Americans because it was
relatively cheaper to just import flour products. Today, flour is milled in this country from imported wheat.
Lesson 20. MARKET FORMS OF WHEAT FLOUR
In the Philippines, the wheat flours available to the consumers are: bread, all-purpose and cake flours, self-
rising and whole wheat flours. In other countries, several other wheat flours are found in the grocery shelves.
1. Whole Wheat Flour. Also called graham or entire wheat flour, this contains the components of wheat kernel
in its original proportion. It is more nutritious than refined white flour although it does not keep as well
because of the fat content of the germ.
2. Bread Flour. This is milled from hard wheat and blends. It is fairly high in its protein content which ranges
from 12 to 14 percent, hence its other name strong flavor. It is sometimes called hard flour because it is
made chiefly from hard wheats other than durum wheat. It has an off-white color and a granular texture.
Bread flour is most suitable for baking yeast-leavened breads.
3. All purpose Flour. Sometimes referred to as family or general purpose flour. It is used for practically all
cooking purposes. Its characteristics are intermediate between bread and cake flours.
4. Cake Flour. This is also known as soft flour, i.e. it is made from soft wheat. It is referred to as weak flour,
denoting its lower protein content which is about 7-8 percent. It is so finely milled that it feels velvety when
rubbed between the fingers. It is usually made from the most refined white flour streams. Also, it is often
highly bleached with chlorine making it the whitest of the flours. With its higher starch and lower gluten
content, cake flour is suitable for delicate, fine-textured cakes.
5. Pastry Flour. This is also white flour with characteristics midway between cake and all-purpose flours. It is
specially prepared for commercial bakers for pies and cookies. For household cooking, use all-purpose flour
when a recipe calls for pastry flour.
6. Enriched Flour. Specified levels of nutrients as required by law are added to white flour.
7. Self-rising Flour. This is white flour to which sodium bicarbonate or baking soda plus an acid salt, usually
calcium phosphate, are added as leaveners.
8. Gluten Flour. Dried extracted gluten is mixed with wheat flour in proportions that will yield about 41 percent
protein in the gluten flour.
9. Semolina Flour. It is a high-gluten flour made from hard durum wheat. It has a rather coarse texture, yellow
color, and is high in gluten protein. The high gluten content means the flour is especially well suited for
making pasta, but this flour is also a common ingredient in bread and baked goods as well as couscous.
10. Instantized or Quick-mixing Flour. Instant flour is flour processed by moistening and then redrying the
flour to form agglomerates that do not lump or pack.
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Lesson 21. NON-WHEAT OR COMPOSITE FLOURS
Flours made from grinding or milling grain kernels other than wheat, root crops and legumes are collectively
referred to as non-wheat flour. One or more of these flours may partially replace wheat flour for cooking purposes
and the resulting flour mixture is called composite flour.
Market Forms of Non-Wheat Flours
1. Rye Flour. This is obtained from sifting rye meal. Of the non-wheat flours, rye flour approaches the quality
of wheat flour for bread-making but is still inferior to it since it lacks the gluten-forming proteins of wheat
flour.
2. Buckwheat Flour. It is a finely ground product obtained from sifting buckwheat meal. It is used in making
buckwheat pancakes.
3. Corn Flour. It is obtained by milling and sifting yellow or white corn. The tortillas of the Mexicans are
unleavened corn cakes using corn flour as the basic ingredient.
4. Potato Flour. Made by white potatoes which are then dried and ground, this makes good quality doughnuts
and fairly acceptable cookies.
5. Rice Flour. This is prepared by milling white rice.
6. Soy Flour. There are two kinds: the full-fat and the low-fat soy flour. The former is made from dehulled
soybeans while the latter is prepared from defatted soybeans or soybeans from which most of the oil has
been previously extracted. Soy flour has a strong beany flavor. Although it has a high protein content than
most legumes, it does not have the gluten potential of wheat flour.
7. Waxy Rice Flour. Also known as sweet rice flour, which is marketed in the USA as Mochiko flour, it is
ground from waxy rice or the malagkit type. Since it is a 100 percent amylopectin, it is useful as stabilizer in
frozen products.
8. Other Flours. Gluten-free grains, while coconut, cottonseed, sunflower, peanut, sweet potato, purple yam
or ube, mungbean and other root crops, seedoils or legumes can all be converted to non-wheat flours.
Lesson 22. COMPOSITION OF WHEAT FLOURS

Table 5.1 Percent Protein of Various Wheat Flours
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Gluten: The protein portion of wheat flour with the elastic
characteristics necessary for the structure of most baked products.
Knead: To work the dough into an elastic mass by pushing,

stretching, and folding it.
 When wheat flour is mixed with water, an elastic network

forms when two types of protein in flour, gliadin and
glutenin combine to yield the protein complex gluten.
 Gluten is both elastic and plastic, and has the ability to
expand with the inner pressure of gases such as air, steam,
or carbon dioxide.
 The two major steps of gluten formation involve hydrating
the flour mixture and kneading the dough.
 The greater the protein content in the flour, the more water
will be absorbed, because gliadin and glutenin absorb
about twice their weight water.
Figure 5.1 Gluten is formed from the combination of two wheat flour proteins:
gliadin and glutenin
Figure 5.2 Glutenin’s elasticity (left), plus gliadin’s fluidity and stickiness (center) combine to form gluten’s
consistency (right), which is ideal for preparing baked products.
*Starch is one of the compounds in flour that strengthens the baked item through gelatinization, and is one of the
factors that contributes to crumb.
Crumb: The texture of a baked product’s interior.
Kneading
 It is used extensively in bread-making and briefly for biscuits and pastries.
 It stretches the dough to increase gluten strength.
 Distributes the yeast throughout the dough mass.
 Redistributes the air bubbles, increasing fermentation and CO2 gas production.
Too much kneading will break the gluten strands, resulting in a sticky, lumpy dough with little elasticity.
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Figure 5.3 Dough is developed by kneading
Figure 5.4 Kneading realigns protein molecules. The physical pressure of kneading stretches out the gluten molecules cross-
linked by sulfide bonds. Sheets of gluten (far right), give dough a smooth, fine texture
Lesson 23. FLOUR MIXTURE INGREDIENTS
Sugar
 Functions of sugar in flour mixtures include the following:
 Sweetening such as cakes, sweet breads
 Increases the volume of cake and cookies by:
 Incorporation of air into the fat during creaming.
 Contributes to volume in bread by:
 Providing food for the yeast.
Too much sugar (over 12%) results in a proportional decrease in volume.
 Raises the temperature at which gelatinization and coagulation occur, which gives the gluten more time to
stretch, thereby further increasing the volume of the baked product and contributing to a finer, more even
texture.
 Increases moistness and tenderness and also helps delay staling, thus improving the shelf life of baked
products.
 Helps to brown the outer crust of baked products through caramelization and the Maillard reaction.
Too much/ too little sugar:
 Baked products made with too much sugar may fall, have a lower volume, a gummy texture and an
excessively browned crust.
 Too little sugar results in dryness, reduced browning, lower volume, and less tenderness.
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Figure 5.5 Excess sugar decreases cake volume and results in
a gummy texture
Salt/Flavorings
Small amounts of salt are added to flour mixtures for:

 Flavoring
 Producing a firmer dough
 Improving the volume, texture and evenness of cell structure.
 Prolong shelf-life.
Too much/too little salt:
 Excess salt produces a firm dough with a low volume (because of partially inhibited fermentation),
dense cells and a too salty taste.
 Too little salt produces a flowing, sticky dough with a low volume, uneven cell structure, lack of color,
and a bland taste.
Figure 5.6 Too much salt inhibits yeast activity, reducing the amount of
carbon dioxide gas produced and decreasing the volume of the loaf.
Liquid
 Hydrate the flour and gelatinize the starch.
 Gluten formation.
 Solvent for the dry ingredients.
 Activates the yeast.
 Provides steam for leavening, and allows baking powder or soda to react and produce carbon dioxide gas.
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Too much/too little liquid:
 Excess liquid may result in a very moist baked item with low volume. Too little liquid may produce a
dry baked product that is low in volume and stales quickly.
Fat
 Fat performs many functions in baked goods. It
acts as a:
o Tenderizer
o Improve volume
o Structure
o Flavor
o Color
o Resistance to staling
o It also plays a role in heat transfer
Too much/too little fat:

 Fat incorporated into the flour mixture
interferes with the development of gluten,
creating a more tender crumbThe higher
fat content the shorter gluten strands,
and the softer and more easily handled.
 Adding too much fat (over 20% of the
flour's weight) make the baked product
too short and results in a lower volume
because of an insufficient gluten structure. Figure 5.7 Fat influences the volume and texture of loaf bread
 Too little fat makes a better resistant to expansion during leavening and results in a tougher crumb.
Eggs
Eggs are added to some flour mixtures:

 Structural integrity
 Leavening
 Color
 Flavor
 Added nutrient content
Too much/ too little egg:
 Excess eggs causes a tough, rubbery
texture in the baked product.
 Too little egg causes insufficient volume,
and inferior structure strength, color, flavor,
and nutrient content. Figure 5.7 Egg influences the volume and texture of loaf bread
Leavening Agents
Baking soda: A white chemical leavening powder consisting of sodium bicarbonate.

 Up to ¼ teaspoon of baking soda is required for each cup of flour.
 Only used when flour mixture included acid ingredients.
Baking powder: A chemical leavener consisting of a mixture of baking soda, acid(s), and an inert filler such as
cornstarch.
 Is not necessary included acid ingredients because the acid has been already added.
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Yeast
The ability of yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), which are naturally found in air, water, and living organisms, to
produce carbon dioxide through fermentation. Yeasts are available in several forms, and are classified on the basis
of their activity (active and inactive).
Preparation of Baked Goods
 Flour mixture are either dough or batter depending on their flour-to- liquid ration.
 Dough: A flour mixture that is dry enough to be handled and kneaded.
 Batter: A flour mixture that contains more water than a dough and whose consistency ranges from pourable
to sticky.
 Doughs are classified according to their moisture content into stiff or soft doughs.
 Batters, like doughs, are also classified according to their moisture content, and may be either pour or drop
batters.
Figure 5.8 Batters can be spread, poured or piped
Figure 5.9 Doughs and batters are flour mixtures that differ in their liquid content and general use
Lesson 23b. MIXING PROCESS
Mixing is simply combining into a homogenous mass the various ingredients needed to form the product. In
bread making, such mixing results in a dough or batter. Two conditions must be met to bring this about (1) the right
proportion of ingredient and (2) a homogenous distribution of these ingredients throughout the mass.
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Bread in its simplest form require but four ingredients: flour, water, yeast and salt.
Straight Dough Method
The straight dough method is a single-step process in which all the dough ingredients are mixed into a single
batch. Mixing is carried to the point where the dough becomes smooth in appearance. Beyond this stage, the dough
is overmixed where the dough becomes sticky and difficult to handle. The dough is fermented for 2 to 4 hours,
afterwhich it is divided into loaves of proper weight, proofed then baked.
Sponge and Dough Method or Sponge Method
In this method, the fermentation takes place in 2 stages. The first is the pre-ferment called the sponge in
which part of the dough is used. This is subsequently combined with the rest of the dough ingredients for final
development.
Muffin Method
Dry ingredients are sifted together in a bowl. In another container, eggs are beaten. Then the oil or melted fat
is added to the beaten eggs. The liquid mixture is now added gradually to the bowl of dry ingredients. The extent of
mixing depends on the product to be prepared, e.g. pancake batter needs less mixing than muffin batter.
Pastry Method
Dry ingredients are sifted together in a bowl and the fat is mixed lightly or cut into the dry ingredients. Liquid
is added last. This is suitable for pastry and biscuit making.
Conventional Cake Method
Fat and sugar are creamed together. Beaten eggs are added to the fat-sugar mixture. Dry ingredients
previously sifted together are then added alternately with liquid ingredients. A modification of this conventional
method is used for lighter and more delicate cakes. The egg yolks and whites are separately beaten. The yolks are
creamed with sugar and the beaten egg whites are folded in the last step.
One-bowl Method
This is also called single-stage method because the dry ingredients, melted fat and oil and most of the liquid
are mixed in one blend. The beaten eggs are added at the end of the mixing when the last portion of liquid is added.
Cake mixes use the one-bowl method and are best blended in a machine.
Storage of Flour and Flour Mixtures
 Flour should be stored in best-proof containers and kept in a cool, dry place.
 White flour will keep in such conditions for about a year.
 Whole-grain flours should be refrigerated and can be held for only about three months.
 Flour should be kept cool to prevent the activation of its natural enzymes.
 Kneaded flour mixtures can be frozen; after defrosting, they are ready to be shaped and baked.
 Extended frozen storage can lead to a gradual loss of dough strength, which is why frozen dough's
have a relatively short shelf life.
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Figure 5.10 How bread stales
Lesson 24. YEAST BREADS
Preparation of Yeast Breads

 When breads are leavened with carbon dioxide produced by baker’s yeast, they are known as yeast
breads.
 Yeast bread is prepared by mixing the ingredients into a dense, pliable dough that is kneaded,
allowed to rise by fermentation, and then cooked.
 The fundamental ingredients of any yeast bread are:
Flour
Liquid
Sugar
Salt
Yeast
Fat (optional)
Eggs (optional)
 The four best-known methods for mixing yeast breads are:
Straight dough
Sponge
Batter
Rapid
Figure 5.11 First fermentation rise for dough. Shaped dough placed in a humid, warm, undisturbed place for rising (left);
risen dough ready for punching (right)
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Figure 5.12 Kneading Dough
Kneading develops the dough's gluten to its maximum potential. Another way to determine if kneading is complete
is to stretch some of the dough into a “gluten window.”
 Yeasts are very sensitive to temperature extremes.

 Optimal fermentation temperatures:
 Activated at 68 to 100°F (20 to 38°C)
 Slowing down below 50°F (10°C)
 Dying if exposed to temperatures
at or above 140°F (60°C)
 Punching Down— Second Rising

- Once the dough has risen to
double its size, it is punched down
and left to rise a second time.
 Shaping
- After the bread has risen, it is
ready for shaping
Figure 5.13 Punching down the dough allows excess gas to

escape and redistributes the ingredients
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 Proofing is the final rising that occurs in the pan or on a baking sheet, and it has an important effect
on the quality of the finished bread.
 Proof: To increase the volume of shaped dough through continued fermentation.
.
Figure 5.14 Overproofing produces a low-volume bread due to

collapsing cells and the escape of fermentation gases
 Oven spring: The quick expansion of dough during the first ten minutes of baking, caused by
expanding gases.
Figure 5.15 Fermentation gases produce the pores of the baked bread
 Crumb: The cell structure appearing when a baked product is sliced. Evaluation is based on cell size
(called “open” if medium to large, or “closed” if small), cell shape, and cell thickness (thin walls occur
in fine crumb, while thick walls predominate in a coarse crumb).
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Figure 5.16 Crumb quality depends on cell size
 The simplest yeast bread is made from:

– Flour
– Water
– Yeast
 This basic formula has evolved into more complicated varieties.
 Varieties that include loaf breads:
– White
– Whole-wheat
– Sourdough
– Malt bread
Storage of Yeast Breads
Fresh
 If it is not going to be consumed right away, it should be completely cooled before being wrapped and stored
in a dry, cool place at room temperature.
 Unfortunately, staling starts as soon as the bread leaves the oven.
 Staling is best prevented by keeping the bread away from air.Several techniques include:
 Wrapping breads in plastic or paper bags
 And/or freezing
Refrigerated
 Bread should be refrigerated immediately in the warm temperatures and moist humidity of tropical regions.
Frozen
 Freezing is one of the best ways to maintain some of the texture and flavor of freshly baked bread.
 Most breads can be frozen for two or three months.
 The bread should be wrapped in heavy-duty aluminum foil and dated.
 Frozen bread should be removed from the freezer and thawed at room temperature in the wrapper.
Lesson 25. QUICK BREADS, CAKES AND PASTRIES
 Quick Breads such as Biscuits, scones and muffins can be prepared faster, such as their name suggests.
 Quick breads use chemical leaveners (baking soda/powder) rather than organic ones (steam or yeast), and
therefore, don’t require a rising period.
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Basic Method One:
Straight Dough Method
 All of the ingredients are combined at once and blended into a

batter using the straight dough method.
 Corn bread and blueberry muffins are examples of quick breads
made with the straight dough method.
Basic Method Two:
Creaming Method
 In the creaming method, fat

and sugar are creamed together
to produce a very fine crumb and
a dense, rich texture. A yellow
butter cake is an example of a
cake using the creaming
method.
Basic Method Three:
Two Stage Method
 The Two-stage method is used to prepare high-ratio cakes.

 High-ratio cakes are so named because they contain a higher
amount, or ratio, of sugar and liquid to the flour in the recipe. In
the two-stage method, the emulsified shortening, which
spreads easily, is combined with dry ingredients. One half of
the liquid is then added and blended. The remaining liquid is
gradually added to the mixture. High-ratio cakes made using
the two-stage method have a very fine crumb, and are quite
moist. Devil’s food cake is a cake pre-pared with the two-stage
method.
Basic Method Four:
Foaming Method
 In the foaming method, a foam of whole eggs, yolks, or whites

provides the structure for cakes with the lightest texture, such
as angel food cake and chiffon cakes.
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Cookies
There are six makeup methods of cookies.

 Dropped
 Bagged
 Rolled
 Molded
 Icebox
 Bar
Dropped Cookies
 Dropped cookies such as chocolate chip and
oatmeal, are made from a soft dough and dropped
from a spoon or scoop onto a cookie sheet.
Piped Cookies
 Bagged cookies, made by forcing soft dough through
a pastry bag, including Lady fingers, macaroons and
tea cookies.
Rolled Cookies
 Rolled cookies are made more often at home then in

commercial kitchens because they take a lot of work. These
cookies, including decorated sugar cookies and shortbread, are cut
from stiff dough that has been rolled out on a baking board.
Molded Cookies
 Molded cookies are molded by hand into

any shape from a stiff dough. Peanut
butter cookies are an example of molded
cookies.
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Icebox Cookies
 Icebox cookies are made form dough that has been

rolled into logs and chilled, to be sliced just before
baking. Butterscotch icebox cookies and chocolate
icebox cookies are examples.
Bar Cookies
 Bar cookies are made by baking three or four bars the

length of the baking pan, which are then sliced into the
bars. Brownies are usually made using the sheet
method, in which the batter is poured into the entire
baking pan and then sliced into individual squares or
rectangles after baking. Other types of cookies
prepared with the sheet method include butterscotch
brownies or Blondie's.
Cookie Causes
Too Crispy= low moisture + high sugar
Too Soft= high moisture + low fat/sugar, do not refrigerate
Chewiness= use pastry flour or cake + bread flour
Separated dough- ingredients used cold (ALWAYS bring
ingredients to room temperature when making cookies)
Mixing Methods for Cookies

Creaming method- adds air, prevents dough from spreading
(do not let dough get warm)
Foaming method- whipped eggs and sugar, like Biscotti
Icings
Icings (frostings) are sweet coatings for cakes and other baked
goods. Icings have three main functions:
 They improve the keeping quality of the cake by
foaming a protective coating around it.
 They contribute flavor and richness.
 They improve appearance.
Icing should not overwhelm the flavor of the cake.
Pies, Croissants, and Pastries

 Pies are made using the 3-2-1 dough. It is called this
because it is made of three parts flour, two parts fat
and one-part water (by weight).
 Baking Blind is the procedure used for pre-baking a
pie shell. The dough is pre-pared, rolled, placed in the
pan and then pierced with a fork.
 The Roll-in dough method is used for Danish,
croissant, and puff pastry. Some guidelines to help you
work with this dough:
 Keep the dough chilled.
 Use a sharp knife when shaping and cutting
edges.
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 Do NOT run the roller over the dough's edge.
 Chill puff pastry items before baking them.
 Save puff pastry scraps for use in other small
items.
 Phyllo dough is used to pre-pare baklava, a dessert
made of thin pastry, nuts and honey.
 Pate a choux is made by combining water or other
liquid, butter, flour, and eggs into a smooth batter.
Examples are éclairs and cream puffs.
 Profiteroles, which are small round pastries made
from pate a choux filled with ice cream.
READINGS:
www.slideplayer.com/floursandflourmixture
www.slideplayer.com/quickbreadscakesandparties
WATCH:
Baked Bread: How Flour is Made
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8vLjPctrcU)
The Journey: Wheat into Flour

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PYP6AnNQjNo)
Understanding Different Flours and When to Use Them- Kitchen Conundrums with Thomas Joseph
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pkEp26sck58)
1. Why is yeast called a biological leavener? What are the differences between yeast breads and quick breads?
Give examples.
2. What are the types of baking powders sold locally?
3. List down products made with flour mixtures that are fried or steamed.
4. How does overmixing and undermixing affect each of the following?
a. sponge cake b. pancake c. muffin d. pie crust e. cream puffs
5. Give a specific brand for each type of cookie.
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UNIT 6 – FISH AND MEAT COOKERY
OVERVIEW:
Fish is an aquatic vertebrate animal with fins for swimming and gills for breathing. It has scales and a set of
paired & unpaired fins. It is available in lakes, sea, oceans, pond, river etc. Fresh water fishes are tastier than the
sea water fish. Fish and shell fish are commonly known as seafood. It gives attractive and colorful dishes. Fish is
classified as a white soft meat which provide variety of dishes. It is very delicate to handle and needs to apply
delicate cooking method with different flavors. It is highly perishable and so its cooking time is also so less. In
France, it is also called as a Fruit de mer, means fruit of the sea. It can be eaten raw, cooked or pickled. Fishes are
easily digestible which contains 5gm protein per ounce. It may be cooked by following cooking methods as- boiling,
poaching, grilling, baking, frying etc. It contains high protein and some of them are rich in oils than magnesium,
calcium, iron, phosphorus etc.
Meat refers to the muscle of animals used as food. It includes glands and organs of these animals such as
tongue, liver, heart, kidney and so on. The three animals commonly domesticated for meat in most countries of the
world are ox for veal and beef, sheep for lamb and mutton and pig for pork. Veal is the meat from calf while beef is
the meat from older ox. Similarly, lamb is meat from young sheep while mutton is the meat from the older animal.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Discuss the fish sources and production in the Philippines

 Explain the nutritional importance of fish
 Distinguish the structure and composition of meat
 Explain the nutritional importance of meat
 Identify the different methods of meat cookery
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 26. FISH SOURCES AND PRODUCTION IN THE PHILIPPINES
The term fish encompasses a wide assortment of aquatic animals. Generally, fish refers to vertebrate or
finfish. On the basis of anatomical differences another class are shell fish which have instead of a skeleton or
vertebrae, a hard shell on the outside of the soft tissues. They are crustaceans and mollusks. Crustaceans like
crabs, lobsters, and shrimps are encased in a chitinous armour which, being segmented gives the creature power
of locomotion. On the other hand, mollusks have soft unsegmented body in a calcified shell. Most mollusks are
bivalves- abalone, clams, mussels (tahong) and oysters. The snails are mollusks although not a bivalve. Other
mollusks include octopus, cuttlefish, squids and sea cucumber.
Finfishes are broadly classified into three groups: (a) rounded demersal fish which live on or near the sea bed
and which include round fish like cod, haddock, whiting; (b) flat demersal fish such as sole, plaice and many more;
(c) Pelagic fish which swim near the surface of the sea and include those fish known as “fat fish”. This simply means
that the oil of the fish is distributed all over the body, instead of being concentrated in the liver, as it is with demersal
fish. Pilchards, mackerel and sprats are pelagic fish.
Fish are aquatic resources. Those obtained from salt water are called marine fish, those from lakes, ponds,
river and other inland bodies of water are called inland fish. Most fish are caught in the open seas and their
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availability is not dependent on man’s productive efforts, unlike in agriculture or farming, but rather on his ability to
detect and catch large school of fishes. However, man has learned to culture some marine fish. In the Philippines,
bangus and tilapia are the foremost example of fishes raised in fish ponds. Recently, bangus has also been cultured
in pens in Laguna lake. The culturing of fish and other aquatic resources is called aquaculture.
The Philippines is naturally endowed with 18, 417 kilometer coastline, 1,666.4 square kilometers of marine
territorial waters and 26,597,000 hectares of coastal area. About 2,400 fish species inhabit Philippine waters.
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources data gives the area of inland fisheries at 1.46 million ha.
composed of brackish water fish ponds, fresh water fish ponds, lakes, rivers and irrigated paddy fields.
In the last decade 1980’s there was a proliferation of prawn farms notably in the Panay and Negros Islands,
Mindoro, Zamboanga and Pangasinan. This was triggered by the Japanese market demand for this product. Prawn
farming however experienced a down trend in the 1990’s. Many of the prawn farms have since been converted to
bangus farms.
Other fish species that are currently being farmed or cultured are lapu-lapu, danggit, gurami and hito.
Cultured shellfish include oyster and mussels.
Lesson 27. NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF FISH
Fish is an excellent source of protein, and is interchangeable with meat in both quantity and quality. Fish is
rich in fat, provides energy and is easy to digest. Marine fishes are a good source of iodine and phosphorous but
low in iron and in calcium. Canned fish which undergoes pressure processing at 15 lbs. steam pressure contain an
appreciable amount of calcium because the bones are rendered edible.
Fats of fish are rich in unsaturated fatty acids which are readily digestible. Fish fats are also rich in the fat-
soluble vitamins A and D.
A contemporary interest in fish fat is due to its content of omega 3 fatty acids which is alleged to have many
health benefits. Fish may indeed contain materials of health benefits. These are some facts:
1. Fish products are low risk, safe and approved foods.

2. Evidence of longevity in countries high in fish diet have been presented.
3. Fish and shellfish are sources of high quality protein.
4. Overall fat levels are low and saturated fatty acids are low in relation to total fatty acids.
5. Cholesterol content is low at 30-50 percent mg/100 g except in crustaceans.
6. Fish and shellfish are unique sources of omega 3 fatty acids which are not provided by other foods.
Lesson 28. FINFISH
Structure and Composition
A typical finfish is shown in Figure 6.1. in a regular sized fish such as bangus, bisugo, and tilapia, the
edible portions consists of the fleshy meat on either side of the vertebral skeleton. The tail, fins, head and entrails
are usually discarded as waste but with some people, these parts or some of those parts may be consumed. Also
for small types of fish such as dilis, biya and some goby, the whole fish is edible. In the case of bangus, it was
found that the fleshy edible portion ranged from 54 to 65 percent of the whole weight of the fish which increases
with increasing whole weight until the bangus reaches 600 grams. More than this live weight, the percent edible
portions remains relatively constant at 63 to 65 percent.
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The fleshy edible portion of fish is made up of muscular tissues, small amounts of connective tissues and fat.
It contains 72 to 84 percent moisture, 15 to 25 percent protein, 0.1 to 5.7 percent fat, and 1 to 3.5 percent ash (Food
Composition Table Recommended for use in the Philippines, 1990).
The muscular tissues actually consist of bundles of muscle fibers which are threadlike cells. These muscle
fiber bundles are arranged between sheets of connective tissues called myocommata. These layered white muscle
bundles are called myotomes which are actually the blocks of fish meat that comes off as the fish is picked with the
fork (Figure 6.2). On the side of the on the side of the fish is a small portion of red muscle which is actually the dark
meat one finds on the skin. This portion contains a red pigment called myoglobin hence the color.
The arrangement of muscle fibers in fish is shown in Figure 6.2. the W-shaped segments are called the
myotomes which have one forward and two backward flexors. The myotomes are one cell deep and the muscle
cells are roughly perpendicular to the surface of the myotome. The myotomes are connected to one another by thin
layers of collagenous connective tissues called myosepta (myocommata). (Foegeding, E, et.al., 1996).
The myocommata contains the protein collagen which swells and shrinks upon heating in the presence of
moisture. This collagen shrinkage allows the tenderization of fish even with slight cooking. There is less collagen in
fish than in beef, pork and poultry. Furthermore, fish collagen shrinks and becomes more soluble faster. For these
reasons, fish cooks much faster than beef, pork and poultry. During cooking, collagen is converted to gelatin.
Fish have both red and white muscles as do land animals. Small areas of red muscles are found even in
white meat species such as tanguigui and blue marlin. The quantity of red muscle which contain more myoglobin
increases as the activity level of the fish increases. Active fish like tuna have darker meat; but even in tuna there is
still a distinct marker muscle which is usually located near the spine or just under the skin at the sides.
The fish contains fat although its percentage varies with different fishes but in general it is much less in fish
than in pork, carabeef, beef and chicken. Fat in fish is highly prone to oxidative deterioration due to the highly
unsaturated nature of its fatty acids. The undesirable odor of dried fish stored for long periods is due to this oxidative
deterioration which is also called oxidative rancidity.
Figure 6.1 A Typical Finfish
Source: http://aquaticnation.org/library/Lib_Gen_Fishbodypart01.php
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Figure 6.2 Arrangement of Muscle Fiber
Source: https://www.necropsymanual.net/en/teleosts-anatomy/skeleton-and-musculature/
The composition of fish varies with season. It also varies according to habitat. Fish raised in ponds differ in
composition from fish caught in the wild. Such variations are attributed to fish diet. Maturity is another factor affectinf
fish composition.
Using this classification, bangus (5.7% fat) and talakitok (6.1%fat) would be considered as fat fish.
Determination of Fish Quality
The traditional method of testing fish

freshness by the housewife is still the most reliable
procedure for determining fish quality. It simply
involves the use of one’s sensory organs which are
one’s sight, sense of smell and touch. The criteria
of freshness are: a mild seaweed-like odor that is
not objectionable; the eyes are clear and full, not
sunken; the skin is shiny and tight while the gills
are bright red; the flesh is firm. This method
although reliable, could become cumbersome and
unreliable when evaluating large quantities of fish
at one time such as for canning in food factories.
Hence, new methods of testing freshness of fish
are being devised or developed but none has been
pinpointed to be a reliable sole index of fish quality
at a present time. These are mostly physico
chemical methods.
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Market Forms of Fin Fish
a) Live Fish. These are fishes which can be marketed alive because they live long after catch. Good examples
of these are dalag and hito. Hito has an extra breathing organ while dalag can use atmospheric air for
respiration. Live fish have the advantage of being exempted from deteriorative changes during handling and
marketing. Hence, there is no need of putting them in ice provided they are kept alive. They are usually killed
only shortly before cooking. Live dalag or tilapia need not be scaled or eviscerated if broiled or baked shortly
after death. Many seafood specially restaurants maintain aquariums from where customers can choose the
fish they want cooked.
b) Whole or round fish. Most fresh fish is distributed in local market fish stalls as whole or round fish. Shortly
after catch, fish is chilled in ice to prevent spoilage. This must be eviscerated prior to cooking or storage in
the chiller or freezer. They are usually scaled prior to cooking. But if the fish is intended for broiling,
paksiw,daeng or drying, scaling is not necessary.
c) Drawn Fish. This is a whole fish with the entrails removed. Preparation for cooking involves scaling and
cutting as needed. Most frozen fish in modern supermarkets are available in this form.
d) Dressed Fish. Dressed fish has been scaled and eviscerated. Often the head, tail and fins are also removed.
e) Fillets. These are the two meaty sides of the fish cut from the backbone. The skin may not be removed. A
fillet cut from one side of the fish is called a single fillet. A butterfly fillet consists of two single fillets held
together by uncut flesh and skin in the belly portion of the fish.
f) Deboned. This is the form most convenient in the case of bangus. Bangus has many intermuscular bones
particularly near its tails so that eating it can be quite cumbersome and even dangerous for children. Filleting
it would still contain these small bones. Hence, the process of deboning bangus has gained popularity. The
preparation is relatively simple involving a pair of clinical forceps. It takes about 10 minutes per fish for the
experienced worker. The deboned bangus is sold frozen oftentimes marinated and ready-to-cook.
g) Steaks. These are cross section slices of dressed large fishes e.g. tangigui and tambakol. A portion of the
backbone is usually the only bone in a fish steak. Steaks one half to two thirds of an inch thick are usually
best. Each steak is usually a single serving portion. Steaks cut away from the visceral cavity are solid slices
and are preferred by some customers.
h) Sticks. These are fillets or steaks cut further into smaller uniform pieces like sticks hence the name. they are
usually breaded and frozen.
i) Flaked. Fish meat separated from the whole fish is called flaked fish. Labahita is commonly made into flaked
fish.
Figure 6.3 Market Forms of Fish
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Fish Cookery
Fish is generally cooked for consumption but some fish delicacies are raw. Japanese sashimi and sushi are
common examples. The Philippine counterpart is the Visayan, kinilaw, which is “cooked” in vinegar but receives no
heat treatment.
Raw fish has a translucent flesh. During cookery, this becomes opaque and the muscles are easily flaked.
These are the indications of doneness by moist and dry methods. Cooking beyond this stage may cause
overcooking, i.e., disintegration or drying up. Care must also be taken that fish does not lose its shape.
In the Philippines, there are various fish which may be classified for either dry or moist heat method of
cookery. Some fish recipes are a combination of both.
Dry Heat Cookery. This include broiling, baking, frying and toasting. In dry heat cookery of fish, it is important
to avoid overcooking, otherwise the fish would be dry and loses its acceptability. The skin must be crisp but the
flesh must be moist and juicy.
Broiling or Ihaw is usually done over smoldering charcoal and is conveniently done outdoors or in an open
shed. Fish to be broiled may be wrapped in fresh banana leaves to prevent it from scorching. Aluminum foil may be
used but it should be loosely wrapped otherwise the fish would be moist-cooked in its own juices. In this case, it is
no longer considered dry cookery. Freshly caught fish are best for broiling and they need not be eviscerated.
to
Baking is done in an oven with a temperature from 135o to 177oC (270o to 350oF). Baked fish looks best.
With head and tails intact. To prevent drying, oil may be sprinkled or basted on the surface. The abdominal cavity
may be stuffed with herbs and spices before baking.
Frying is cooking in oil. Refined coconut oil is the most commonly used oil for this purpose because it is the
least expensive in the Philippines. Frying is a dry heat method of cookery because it involves no addition of water
and the moisture of the fish does not mix with the oil but rather passes off as steam. Small fish weighing about a
hundred grams or less may be fried in one piece. Larger fish are usually cut to pieces prior to frying. The common
frying procedure in the Philippines is pan frying, that is, frying in a small amount of oil just enough to cook one side
of the fish. To completely fry it, the fish must be turned over with a pair of tongs or turner. Deep-fat frying is frying
in enough oil to completely submerge the fish. Fish may be breaded prior to frying. Chilling breaded fish prior to
frying results to added crispness to the crust while maintaining moistness of the flesh.
Toasting is easily done in a round bottom frying pan or wok without the addition of water or oil. Dried anchovies
or dilis may be toasted in a kawali or wok prior to serving.
Moist Heat Cookery. Moist heat cookery of fish involves water as added water or its oven. Examples of this
type of cookery are paksiw, sinigang and pesa. It is very important that the fish is not overcooked in moist heat
cookery otherwise it disintegrates, loses its shape and also its eye appeal. One sign of overcooked fish by this
method is the falling off the eyes.
Paksiw na isda is cooking fish in vinegar, some water, sliced ginger, salt, pepper and other spices. It is
actually a form of pickling. It is served the best after the vinegar has penetrated the fish for some time. Due to its
acidic nature it does not spoil easily.
Sinigang na isda is cooking fish in considerable amount of water, some vegetables and an acidifying agent
such as unripe tamarind. Kangkong is the commonly used vegetable for this recipe. The liquid portion is large
enough to serve as soup out of it.
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Pesa is usually dalag cooked in rice washing, ginger and considerable amount of water to make a thin
porridge. Vegetables and onion are also added.
Cooking fish in gata (coconut milk) is very common in the Bicol region.
Sinaing or pangat is a specialty of Batangas. Tulingan or tuna are eviscerated and arranged in a claypot
(palayok), seasoned with salt and acidified with a souring agent such as vinegar, sampaloc or kamyas. It is then
cooked slowly in its own juice til dry but not burnt. Since fish is high in moisture, no addition of water is necessary.
Large claypots full of tulingan are seasonally available in some fish markets. Provided the fish is sold within two
days, the fish has high acceptability. This method of cooking fish could be applied to other fish. In the home, small
fish arranged in not more than two layers and wrapped in banana leaves may be cooked with or without a souring
agent.
Steaming is another moist heat method of cookery appropriate for cooking large fish such as lapu-lapu,
pompano and apahap. Plain water may be used for steaming but the fish will acquire better flavor if herbs and
vegetables are added to the water to make an aromatic broth.
Fish wrapped with aluminum foil and cooked in an oven without the addition of water would be considered
as moist heat cookery. This is actually a form of braising.
Some local fish recipes involve both frying and moist cookery, e.g., sarciado, escabeche,dalag in
pinakbet,bangus in tausi, relleno, and quekiam.
Preservation of Finfishes
A. Drying
B. Smoking
C. Freezing
D. Canning
Lesson 29. SHELLFISH
Shellfish can be classified into: crustaceans, mollusks and cephalopods
a) Crustaceans- shellfishes with hard shells over the back of the body and along the claws but have softer
shells covering the lower part of the body and legs. Crabs, lobsters and shrimps are crustaceans.
During cooking, an interesting color change in most crustaceans occur from their natural dull, dark blue-
green color to an attractive orange color. This change is due to the release of the orange pigment
astaxanthin, one of the many carotenoids found in food.
Crabs. In the Philippines, the various types of crabs commonly served on the table are alimango or
mangrove mud crab, alimasag or blue crab and the small talangka. The talangka or kap-i is unique for its small
size, about 1/6 the size of a regular crab. It is a fresh water crab obtained from rivers. Its shell covering the lower
part of the body is soft enough to be eaten. Hence, its edible portion includes its lower shell. The carapace or hard
shell contains “fat” or aligi. It is called taba ng talangka and is prepared as a sauce. Due to the laborious and
painstaking procedure of its preparation, it is prized as delicacy. The bigger crabs alimango and alimasag, also
contain aligi which is normally eaten with the meat.
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Shrimps and lobsters. Shrimps are more common because lobsters are all expensive and are marketed
mainly to restaurant and hotels. Like crabs, some shrimps such as hibe and alamang are also small and would
normally be eaten whole with their shells. Suahe is a salt water shrimp while ulang and tagunton are fresh water
shrimps.
b) Mollusks- There are two types of mollusks: the univalves with only one shell and bivalves with two shells.
The shells of mollusks are usually hard all over so that they are not in any case eaten. Examples of a univalve
is kuhol while example of bivalves are clams (halaan, kabibi and tulya), oysters (talaba) and mussels
(tahong). Tahong is a salt water mussel that is now cultured. Its meat is considered more delicious than that
of oysters by many people.
Market Forms of Shellfish
1. Live. Crabs, clams, mussels, oysters, snails and lobsters should be alive if purchased in the shell except for
boiled crabs and lobsters. Ideally, shrimps should also be marketed alive.
Filipino consumers generally prefer female crabs over male ones because the former contain aligi. The
female crab has a rounded apron which is the small loose shell running to a point at about the middle of the
under shell; while the male crab has a narrow, more pointed apron. Fat crabs also contain more aligi. A live
crab is indicated to be fat if its claws do not have sharp teeth, rather the teeth are sunken in the claws like
molar teeth in humans.
2. Whole. Most shrimps marketed locally are whole i.e. in the form in which they were caught but are no longer
alive with the head and thorax intact. Filipinos are generally fond of eating shrimp head dishes as it is
considered more flavorful.
3. Shucked. These are bivalves or mollusks which have been removed from the shell. Oysters, clams and
scallops may be sold in this form. Fresh shucked oysters have a translucent appearance. They become
opaque with standing.
4. Headless. Most shrimps, prawns and lobsters for exports are marketed in the headless form i.e. the head
and thorax are removed. The head is removed mainly because it is the main source of bacterial spoilage
during transport and also because it does not appeal to most foreign palates.
5. Cooked Shellfish. Shrimps, crabs and lobsters may be cooked in the shell prior to marketing.
6. Cooked Meat. The meat of shrimps, crabs and lobsters may be marketed cooked, usually in cans.
Patis and Bagoong. These are fermented products manufactured by salting finfishes or tiny shrimps, called
alamang with about 1/3 its volume of solar salt and allowing the mixture to ferment for months. The fermentation
action appears to be due to the hydrolyzing action of visceral and/or bacterial enzymes on the fish proteins. Patis is
the fish protein hydrolysate resulting from fermentation. It is the clear supernatant liquid that may be scooped from
the upper portion of the fermenting mixture after a few months. It has a yellow amber to brown color. The
disintegrated fish flesh that settles in the bottom is the bagoong. It may be said that bagoong is a by-product of
patis. Patis and bagoong are well-accepted sauces in many parts of the Philippines and the other Southeast Asian
countries.
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Lesson 30. MEAT COOKERY
The preeminence that has been attributed to meat in our diet throughout history is probably due to the fact
that meat is thought to readily provide our nutritional needs since the animal sources closely resemble humans
biochemically. Nutritional studies indeed show that meats are high-grade protein sources versus plants. The low
consumption of meat by countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America was considered to be the reason for the
widespread incidence of malnutrition in the countries.
Meat
 refers to the edible flesh of animals
 animal flesh that is eaten as food
Composition: Meat consists of:
 Water – 75%
 Protein – 19%
 Intramuscular fat – 2.5 %
 Carbohydrates – 2.3%
Red Meat
The color depends on the concentration of myoglobin in
muscle fiber.
When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen reddish color appears. Red and White Meat
Redness depends on species, animal age, and narrow muscle fibres.
Examples: Red meats: Beef, veal, lamb, mutton, carabeef
White Meat
White meat may also refer to any lighter colored meat. It is believed that white meat is healthier than red meat
Examples: pork, poultry and game, fish and shellfish
Meats from Diff. Animals

 Pork – pig/hog
 Beef – cow/cattle
 Chevron – goat
 Venison – deer
 Lamb (less than 1 yr.) mutton- sheep (more than 1 yr)
 Carabeef - carabao
Structure of Meat:
1. Lean Tissue – consist of one or more muscles which is made up of many bundles of muscle fibers.
2. Connective Tissue – Surround the fibers and unites them in bundles.
a) Collagen – arranged in parallel, do not stretch, color is white, disintegrate in hot water
b) Elastin – yellowish portion, do not tenderize while cooking
3. Fat – around or between muscles
Composition of Meat:
Water- Water is about 75% of muscle tissue. Shrinkage can be a big problem in cooking meat which result to loss
of weight and loss of profit.
Protein - About 20% of the muscle tissue is a protein. Protein coagulates when it is heated. This means firmer and
loses moisture. Coagulation is related to doneness.
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Fat- 5% of the muscle tissue is fat. A beef carcass can be as much as 30% fat.
 Juiciness – Marbling is fat deposited within the muscle tissue. Juiciness depends on how much marble
contains in the meat.
 Tenderness – Marbling separates muscle fibers, making them easier to chew.
 Flavor – Flavor depends on the marbling.
Figure 6.4 Structure of Beef
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Figure 6.5 Structure of Pork
Beef- It is the meat of domesticated mature cattle usually over 12 months of age. It is usually bright, cherry red in
color with creamy white fat.
Cattle is the collective name for all domesticated oxen.
Cattle are classified as:

o Bulls – male cattle, usually not raised to be eaten.
o Calves – young cows or bulls prized for their meat.
o Cows – female cattle after the first calving, raised principally for milk and calf production.
o Steers – male cattle castrated prior to maturity and principally raised for beef.
Veal
o Calves under the age of nine months. (8-16 weeks)
o Lighter in color than beef,
o More delicate flavor
o More tender.
o Meat from calves slaughtered when they are older than five months is called calf.
o Deeper red, with some marbling and external fat.
o A veal carcass weighs in a range of 60 to 245 pounds (27- 110 kg.)
Variety Meats/ Organ Meats

 Sweetbreads – these are the thymus glands of veal and lamb.
 Liver, heart, kidney, and tongue of beef, veal, lamb and pork.
 Tripe – the inner lining of the stomach of ruminant (cud-chewing) animals. – blanket tripe - tuwalya –
honeycomb tripe – libro-libro or librilyo
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 Brains
 Chitterlings – cleaned intestines
 Oher innards – include the lights (lungs), melt (spleen) and mesentery (abdominal membrane)
 Pork / beef blood
Basic Beef Cuts
 Head  Ulo ng baka

 Chuck  Batok
 Ribs  Costillas/tadyang
 Short Loin  Cadera
 Rump  Tapadera
 Round  Pierna corta
 Hind shank  Kenchi
 Short Plate  Kabilugan
 Flank  Camto
 Brisket  Puntay pecho
Pork Products
 Ham – comes from pork leg. It is usually cured and smoked.
 Bacon – is smoked pork belly meat
Pork Carcass Basic Cuts
 Head  Ulo ng Baboy

 Picnic  Kasim
 Jowl  Batok/Kalamnan
 Blade Roast  Costillas
 Fore Shank/ Hind Shank  Pata
 Spare Ribs  Tadyang
 Ham  Pigue
 Shank  Bias
 Foot  Kasim
 Picnic Shoulder  Liempo
 Side Belly
Changes in Meat after Death

 Muscle is pliant, soft, gel like, sticky, immediately after death
 A few minutes to 1 hr. – muscle shortens, become rigid, hard, inflexible. Should not be cooked at this time
 After a few days – gradual tenderization, after freezing. This is the time to cook the meat
Market Forms of Meat
 Fresh Meat – this is meat immediately after slaughter, without undergoing chilling or freezing.
 Chilled Meat – is meat that has been cooled to a temperature just above freezing (1-3°) within 24 hours after
slaughter.
 Frozen Meat – are meat cuts frozen to an eternal temperature of 20°C (-40°C).
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 Cured Meat – are meat products that have been treated with a curing agent solution like salt, sodium nitrate
(salitre), sugar, and spices.
 Canned Meat – are cooked meat products and only requires to be reheated.
 Dried Meats – dehydrated meats
Effects of Cooking Meats

 Changes in pigment – myoglobin from bright red color to grayish brown.
 Changes in meat protein- Decrease in length of fiber causing shrinkage. Excessive heating makes the meat
tougher, stringy and rubbery.
 Fat melts, causing shrinkage
 Loss in moisture
 Heat converts collagen into gelatin. This requires more heat
 Long cooking develops better flavor
Factors Influencing Flavor

 Flavor is due to decomposition of protein and oxidation of fat. Saltiness and sweetness of the blood. The
distinctive flavor of animal is affected by specie, sex, age, amount of exercise, degree of ripening.
 The older the animal the stronger the flavor.
 More exercised animals have tougher meat
 The more varied the feed, the more distinctive its flavor.
Six Stages of Doneness:

 very rare - red, juices blood, soft, jelly-like
 rare -raw red portion of meat is small, around is pink brown outer surface, juices are red
 medium rare –interior portion is rich pink. Meat is plump and firm
 medium – modified rose, pink juices are less
 medium well – pink color disappears, juices are clear gray, firm to touch
 well - gray inside and out, shrunken, little or no juice appear, brown and dry.
Storage of Meats: Fresh Meats

 Check purchases as soon as it arrives to ensure the quality.
 Do not wrap tightly, bacteria and mold thrive in moist. Allow air to circulate to inhibits the growth of bacteria.
 Do not open vacuum packed meats until it is ready to use.
 Store at 32⁰ to 36⁰ F
 Store fresh meat in the coldest part of the refrigerator (40°F/5°C or lower).
 Use refrigerated fresh meats within 3-4 days. Ground meats and variety meats are more perishable than
other meats, use them within 1-2 days.
 Refrigerator cured & smoke meats, sausages, and ready to serve meats, unless the label says otherwise.
Leave them in their original wrappers.
 Freeze meats for longer storage. (0°F/18°C or colder) for maximum keeping quality.
o you can freeze luncheon meat, hotdog, and ham up to 2 months.
o Ground meats will keep for 3 months. –
o Pork cuts for 6 months –
o Lamb will keep up to 9 months.
o Beef will keep for a year
Principles of Cooking
 To improve its palatability quality.
 To increase tenderness
– Elastin – is very tough and elastic, and cooking cannot soften it.
– Collagen – also tough and elastic, but cooking can soften and tenderize it.
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Methods of Tenderizing Tough Meat Cuts:
 Mechanical Method Elastin can be broken down by:
 Pounding/beating – Slicing thinly
 Grounding
 Marinating – involves soaking meat in a solution called marinade which contains acid, such as vinegar,
lemon/calamansi juice or tomato juice that helps tenderize meat
 Use of proteolytic enzymes that tenderize meats –
 Papain – from papaya
 Bromelin – from pineapple
 Ficin – from figs
 Aging - when animals are slaughtered, their muscles are soft and flabby. Within 6-24 hours, rigor mortis sets
in, causing the muscles to contract and stiffen
 During cooking, heat coagulates the proteins in the, muscle fibers.
 Cooking meats at too high temperature or for too long will make it tough and dry.
 Meats cuts cooked in liquid will fall apart. This is due to over coagulation of the proteins.
Nutritional Importance of Meat
Lean meat is an important source of high quality protein which amounts on the average to 18% of the meat.
It has been the major protein source in many Western diets.
Meat can be regarded as an important source of vitamins B1 and B2, pork exhibiting much higher percentage
of B1 than other meats. It is also an excellent source of iron and phosphorous. Liver is especially rich in iron and is
a concentrated source of Vitamin A. it also contains the unsaturated fatty acids although plant sources are better.
READINGS:
http://ihmgwlbtk.blogspot.com/2019/02/fish-cookery
https://www.slideshare.net/meat-meat-cookery
WATCH:
How to Test Steak Tenderness/Doneness
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yu1fm-9uUVc)
How to cook the perfect steak for every temperature
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7mBuHr2TxU)
1. When eating at home, at a social gathering or in a restaurant, identify the various recipes which finfish and
shellfish are prepared. Classify them also as to dry or moist heat methods of cookery.
2. Make your own bagoong at home. Make sure you do not use tin cans as your fermentation vat as these
would be corroded by the salt. Use glass jars and plastic cup or film to cover. Take pictures of you while
cooking and the finished product.
3. Why is salitre in curing meats no longer allowed? What is curing salt?
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UNIT 7 – POULTRY AND EGG COOKERY
OVERVIEW:
Birds that are raised for human consumption are called poultry. Poultry products are usually less expensive
than many meat products and may be adapted to a wide variety of dishes. You may also use a wide variety of
cooking techniques to cook poultry. Before you cook poultry, you will need to understand the eight factors for making
the right choice: kind, market form, class, style, color, odor, inspection, and grading. You will also need to know how
to safely handle and store poultry.
Eggs are poultry products from chicken, duck and quail that are eaten as food. Chicken egg is the most widely
consumed type of egg in the world while duck egg is the next most popular. Other eggs like those of the reptiles
bayawak and turtle used to be consumed as food in some parts of the Philippines. In the island of Palawan, eggs
of the wild bird tabon is considered a prized delicacy. Today, the consumption of eggs of wild birds and reptiles are
banned for environmental preservation because these animals have become endangered species.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Identify different kinds, classes, and market forms of poultry.

 Explain how poultry is inspected and graded.
 Describe how to handle, store, and prepare poultry for cooking.
 Identify the principles in egg cookery.
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 31. NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY
Poultry consumption in the Philippines has increased markedly in the last decade. This is evidenced by the
popularity of chicken dishes in restaurants all over the country notably the lechon manok, the Bacolod inihaw as
well as the fried chicken offerings of various fast food franchises such as Jollibee’s Chicken JoyTM, Max’s Fried
ChickenTM and many others. A quick survey of the carinderias all over the country will always reveal a chicken dish
or two as regular offerings. In addition, manufactured products such as chicken tocino, chicken nuggets, chicken
ball are available in most supermarket and town markets.
Poultry, like fish and red meat, contains an abundance of high quality proteins. The mineral and vitamin
content of poultry is similar to that of fish and red meats. Generally, young poultry contains less fat and therefore
fewer calories than most meats especially if skin is removed. Therefore, poultry is a good source of protein for
people on a diet. Fat of poultry resides mainly under the skin so that a fatty chicken may be stripped off its skin to
make it less fatty.
Lesson 32. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF POULTRY MEATS
Poultry meat has distinct dark and white muscles. The dark muscles are those which are more active. Hence,
wild birds, which are very mobile, consist only of dark meat. Dark chicken meat is richer in riboflavin, poorer in niacin
and has more fat and connective tissues than white meat does not develop any pink color even after thorough
curing. In contrast to many cultures, Filipinos generally prefer dark chicken over the white. Chicken fat is yellow
mainly because of the presence of carotenoids, xanthophyll and carotene. This is directly related to the chicken
feed used. The higher the carotene in the feed, the more yellow the chicken fat.
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Figure 7.1 Poultry Classifications
Lesson 33. PREPARATION OF POULTRY FOR COOKING
In the Home
In the rural areas, poultry is still slaughtered in the home just before it is cooked, a ritual that is associated
with guests and relatives coming for a visit. The steps are as follows:
1. Slaughter and bleeding. Proper handling prior to slaughter is essential to prevent bruising and injury to the
bird. Live birds are not fed 8 to 24 hours prior to slaughter to allow easier removal of entrails. This also
improves the flavor and tenderness of the meat. Water may be given to live animals though. Weight of the
animal at this stage is called live weight.
Slaughter is done with the least struggle of the fowl in order to effect proper draining of its blood. Blood is a
good medium for bacterial growth hence it should be drained well. Slaughtering therefore is done by slitting
the large or jugular vein in the animal’s throat with one big stroke, using a sharp knife. The bird is then held
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by the feet or placed in a killing funnel upside down to restrict the movement of the struggling bird. Bleeding
may take about 1 to 3 minutes.
2. Scalding. The bled birds are then scalded by dipping in hot water at about 60oC (140oF) for 30 to 75 seconds
depending upon the size of the bird. Scalding is done to facilitate removal of feathers and pin feathers. Pin
feathers are those which have not quire emerged. Care must be taken that the hot water does not reach
71oC (160oF) since at his temperature poultry skin may be torn and the meat becomes doughy and
discolored. Ducks are scalded at 66o to 71oC (150o to 160oF) for 1- ½ to 2- ½ minutes. A thermometer would
be most handy in this step.
3. Defeathering. Feathers are then removed by rubbing, not by picking. The poultry at this stage is called
dressed poultry. Dressed weight is approximately 70 to 75 percent of the live weight.
4. Evisceration. It is done by slitting the abdominal cavity and pulling out the entrails in one piece. When this is
accomplished, the poultry is called drawn poultry. Some of the poultry viscera are edible and in fact
considered as choice parts among Filipino consumers.
The head and feet are cut off cleanly and the oil glands are removed. The head and feet are also edible. At
this stage, the poultry is classified as ready-to-cook. Its weight is approximately 50 percent of the live weight.
The gizzard, heart and liver are edible parts of the viscera which must be carefully separated from the rest
of the entrails.
Commercial
The commercial dressing of poultry follows the same basic steps described earlier with the use of mechanical
equipment capable of dressing up to 10,000 birds per hour.
The birds are transported from farms in crates loaded on large ten wheeler trucks. The transport is done in
the evening or before dawn when temperatures are coldest. This prevents temperature stress on the birds which
can cause death during transport.
At the dressing plant the birds are allowed to rest. They are given a shower to dissipate heat as well as to
remove surface dirt and droppings on the cages. The birds are then shackled by their feet on the moving conveyor
which carries them to the stunner. The stunner is a shallow vat of water which is electrically charged. As the chicken
pass through they are stunned to unconsciousness. Slitting follows. Slitting cuts the jugular veins but keeps the
throat intact so that the birds are completely bled before death occurs. If the birds die before complete bleeding,
blood clots will remain along the veins and arteries. When this happens, the shelf life of the dressed chicken is
shortened. It also makes the meat look unsightly. After bleeding, the birds are scalded. The temperature of scalding
is a critical point in the process. High scalding temperatures make the skin color too white and also makes it
susceptible to tearing. Filipino consumers prefer darker, yellower skin which is achieved at lower scalding
temperature. The feathers are then plucked in a machine equipped with rubber fingers.
Evisceration follows. The gizzard, liver and heart are separated from the rest of the viscera. A separate line
cleans this. At this point, the head and feet are also removed.
Chilling follows. The internal temperature of birds should be lowered to 4oC (40oF). The chilled birds are then
packed and dispatched as chilled fresh chicken or brought to a blast freezer.
Poultry dressing is subject to continuous inspection by the government meat inspector. A veterinarian of the
National Meat Inspection Commission (NMIC) of the Department of Agriculture monitors the whole operation from
start to finish.
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Lesson 34. MARKET FORMS OF POULTRY
Poultry is available in many market forms, classes, and styles. Market form is the form poultry is in when it
is purchased. Fresh poultry works well when the poultry is to be cooked within one to two days. Frozen poultry may
be kept for up to six months.
 Live Poultry
 Whole Poultry or Galantina
 Dressed Poultry
 Ready-to-cook
 Poultry parts
Judging Quality
You need to be familiar with what makes a poultry product acceptable, or of good quality. There are two main
ways to judge quality in poultry:
 Color Poultry color should vary from cream to yellow. It should not be purple or green from bruising or
spoiling. Dark wing tips are also a sign of spoilage. Do not use poultry that is spoiled.
 Odor Poultry should not have a strong odor, or feel sticky under the wings or around the joints. A strong odor
and sticky feel indicate, or show, that the poultry is spoiled. Discard any spoiled poultry immediately.
In the US, all poultry must be federally inspected by the USDA to see that it is processed in sanitary conditions
and is safe to eat. The poultry should also be free from visible signs of disease. Poultry that passes inspection
earns the USDA Inspection Stamp of Approval. However, poultry must be properly handled and stored to stay
fresh and safe.
Most poultry should also be graded. USDA inspection is required for poultry, but grading is optional. The
poultry grading system uses letters to show the level of quality. The highest grade poultry can receive is an A. Grade
A poultry is higher quality and is a more consistent product. For a bird to earn Grade A, it must:
 Be plump and meaty.
 Have clean skin with no blemishes, tears, cuts, or bruises.
 Have no broken bones.
 Have all feathers plucked and removed, including pin feathers.
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Birds that do not meet these standards receive grades B or C. Lower-quality birds that receive these grades
are used to make processed poultry products where the presentation is not as important, such as chicken fingers
or turkey pot pies.
Lesson 35. HANDLING AND STORAGE
Fresh and frozen poultry must be handled very carefully to avoid illness or spoilage. Fresh poultry is highly
perishable, which means that it can quickly spoil if not handled properly. Once you receive fresh poultry, place it in
cold storage or pack it in ice until you are ready to use it. If the poultry will not be used within two to three days, it
should be frozen immediately. You can store frozen poultry for up to six months at or below 0°F (–18°C). Make sure
to keep frozen poultry in its original packaging. When you remove it from the freezer to thaw, keep it in its packaging
until it is completely defrosted. Never refreeze poultry. If you will be preparing and serving a whole bird, you will
want to truss it. Trussing involves tying the legs and wings against the bird’s body. It allows for even cooking and
creates an attractive final product.
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Lesson 36. POULTRY COOKING PRINCIPLES
A variety of moist and dry methods can be used to prepare poultry. This makes poultry one of the most
versatile food products served. Most poultry products are low in fat and can quickly become dry and overcooked.
Learning how to best apply proper cooking methods will help you create a moist final product. Using lower
temperatures and longer cooking times can produce moist results. Cooking with low heat, however, has
disadvantages. It does not brown the surface of poultry well. Cooking at high temperatures causes the fat in skin to
render, or melt. This creates a well-browned and crispy skin that seals in juices. The presence or absence of bones
affects moisture and flavor during the cooking process, or series of actions. Bones actually help the bird retain some
of its moisture.
Roasting and Baking. Roasting and baking poultry are

essentially the same process. Many chefs use the term “roasting”
when cooking whole birds and “baking” when cooking parts of a
bird. Roasted or baked poultry should be golden brown on the
outside and tender and juicy on the inside. Using the proper
cooking temperature makes all the difference. (See Figure 7.2)
The goal is to make the skin crispy and brown without drying out
the meat. Often, a poultry recipe will direct you to start cooking
using a high temperature. Then, you will be directed to lower the
temperature to finish cooking. This technique promotes even
cooking and seals in juices to prevent the meat from drying out.
To help whole poultry retain moisture during roasting, you should
baste it during the last stage of the cooking process. To baste,
spoon the fat drippings that have collected in the pan over the bird
every 15 to 20 minutes. Baste only larger birds, like turkeys. You
do not have to baste a duck or a goose. Because these birds have
a high fat content, basting will make them too juicy and may make
them taste greasy. Roast them on a rack so the fat will drip into
the pan, away from the bird. Some kinds of poultry, such as guineas and squabs, have very little fat. They can
benefit from barding, or wrapping poultry in a layer of fat before cooking. This helps the bird retain moisture while it
cooks. Another way to keep poultry juicy during cooking is to oil the skin prior to the cooking process. This helps
prevent the skin from drying out and locks in moisture.
Table 7.1 Variable Heat Different kinds of poultry require different roasting temperatures
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Searing. Your recipe may call for you to sear poultry before it is roasted or baked. Searing means to brown the
poultry’s surface quickly over high heat, usually in a hot pan. Searing is also done by dredging, or coating poultry
parts in seasoned flour and then browning them in a skillet. Searing helps seal in juices. This is commonly done
with chicken parts. For example, chicken is first cooked at 450°F (232°C) for 15 minutes. This allows the surface to
brown. The heat is then reduced to 325°F (163°C). Then, the chicken finishes cooking in a 325°F to 350°F (163°C
to 177°C) oven.
Broiling and Grilling. Broiled or grilled poultry can make a very attractive dinner plate. The food should have a
well-browned surface and crosshatch grill marks, set at a 90-degree angle. Smaller birds or poultry pieces are ideal
for broiling or grilling.
Frying Poultry. There are three ways to fry poultry: panfrying, deep-frying, and pressure-frying. All three usually
require that the food first be coated with a seasoned flour mixture or batter.
Pan-Frying. In pan-frying, the poultry is dipped in a batter or seasoned flour mixture that will turn golden brown and
crispy when the food is done. Poultry should be juicy and flavorful, not oily or greasy. When pan-frying, the
temperature of the fat or oil should be below the 400°F (204°C) smoking point, when the oil is so hot that it smokes.
Cooking at the proper temperature will help avoid an oily taste. Always brown the presentation side first.
Deep-Frying Poultry, especially chicken, is often deepfried in fat. The poultry pieces are coated prior to frying.
Common coatings include batter, flour, egg, and cracker or cereal crumbs. Deep-fried chicken should be cooked at
325°F to 350°F (163°C to 177°C). The cooking time will depend on the size of the chicken pieces and the meat
color. Dark meat takes longer to fry than light meat, and should be cooked separately. There should never be more
than one layer of chicken in a frying basket. Otherwise, the oil will cool and the product will be greasy.
Pressure-Frying uses the same frying principle, or rule, as other frying methods but uses a commercial pressure
fryer. A pressure fryer cooks foods more quickly and at lower temperatures than other frying methods. Foods that
are pressure-fried are extra crispy on the outside and juicy on the inside. This makes them less greasy than other
fried foods. You can pressure-fry any food that you would deep-fry.
Sautéing is a method of cooking poultry in an open pan until it is brown and juicy. Sautéing requires little fat.
Simmering and Poaching is commonly used to cook whole, young, tender birds. Simmering is used for older,
tougher birds. For simmering, poultry is cut into pieces. Because these two cooking methods do not create strong
flavors, it is important that the poultry be seasoned when it is cooked. Use flavorful stock as the cooking liquid or
add a mirepoix or bouquet garni. In both simmering and poaching, the liquid should completely cover the poultry.
The broth created during cooking can be especially flavorful. You can reserve some of the liquid for later use with
other recipes such as gravies or sauces.
Braising is a cooking method that starts with dry-heat cooking and ends with moist heat cooking. Braised poultry
should always be accompanied by the liquid in which it was prepared. Like poultry that is simmered or poached,
braised poultry gets a boost of flavor during cooking from its cooking liquid. Seasonings can be added to the liquid
during cooking. The liquid may be reserved for use in sauces.
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Stuffings. A stuffing, or seasoned food mixture often made with bread, can be an excellent addition to a poultry
dish. However, the FDA Model Food Code says that all parts of stuffed food must be cooked to 165°F (74°C),
including the stuffing. Although the flesh of the bird may reach a safe temperature, the stuffing may not. Bacteria
can quickly multiply in the stuffing inside the bird’s cavity, or hollow interior. By the time the stuffing fully cooks, the
poultry is often dry. To be safe, prepare the stuffing for whole poultry separately.
Plating Poultry. How poultry is presented on the plate that you serve to a customer is important. Dishes can be
garnished in the kitchen area, or poultry can be sliced and served at tableside. Although many recipes suggest
serving stuffing with poultry, there are other choices. Some side dishes include vegetables, casseroles, wild rice,
potatoes, and pasta. Common garnishes for poultry include vegetables, fruits, and nuts.
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Lesson 37. EGG COOKERY
Figure 7.2 Parts of an Egg
Source: https://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/eggs/eggcomposition.html
Egg
 Belong to the meat group

 Contain nutrients: protein, fat, vitamins A, B, D, K, iron
 Two large eggs equal a serving
 Each egg contains approximately 80 calories
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Table 7.2 Composition of an Egg
Table 7.3 Egg Nutrient Chart
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Table 7.4 Egg Size Classification
Table 7.5 Recommended Storage Time for Eggs
Figure 7.3 Eggs are graded for both size and quality
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Figure 7.4 Egg Size
Table 7.6 Comparison of Chicken and Duck Eggs

Chicken Duck
 Smaller size, average wt: 50 g  Large size, average wt: 65 g

 Thin-shelled  Thick-shelled
 Yolk color yellow due to xanthophyll, a  Yolk color orange to red due to capxanthin and
carotenoid echinenone
 Albumen has greenish tinge due to a high  Albumen is clear white due to low riboflavin
riboflavin content content
 Appropriate for frying  Not appropriate for frying due to rather fishy
 Not appropriate for balut-making due to thin odor and taste
shells  Appropriate for balut-making due to thick shells
 High incidence of yolk darkening  Low incidence of yolk darkening
Cookery
1. Eggs cooked in the shell

2. Eggs cooked out of the shell
 Poached eggs- are broken out of the shell and carefully dropped into boiling water
 Fried eggs
 Scrambled eggs
3. Eggs are used in cookery as thickening/binding agents. They are used as thickening agents in custards,
leche flan, etc.
4. Eggs also function as food color, as in lumpia wrapper. They also improve the texture, making the wrapper
easier to cut with fork during eating.
5. Eggs are used as leavening agents by producing foams sufficiently stable to be incorporated in various food
mixture or to be baked alone.
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Preservation
 Refrigeration
 Saltcuring
 Pickling
 Oil coating
Storage of Eggs in the Home
Eggs deteriorate after they are laid, but since they are actually constructed to protect a living organism, i.e.,
the chick germ, nature has so provided that eggs may last for about seven days at room temperature. For longer
periods, they should be stored in the refrigerator. Storage in a closed container prevents loss of moisture and carbon
dioxide.
At home, never wash eggs in water to prevent the breakage of the cell membranes. Simply remove the dirt
with damp cloth.
There are many abnormalities of eggs but the most common are:
Double yolk eggs- These eggs have two yolks which is brought about by two ova ripening simultaneously and
dropping into the funnel. This is common in pullets when they start laying.
Meat spots- are inside the egg either in the yolk or albumen. Normally they are degenerated blood clots coming
from the ovary which form on the yolk or the oviduct which form on the albumen.
Blood spots- This comes about as a result of internal bleeding occurring in blood vessels of the ovary or oviduct. If
the bleeding occurs in the ovary the blood spots are seen yolk and if bleeding is in the oviduct, blood spots are seen
in the albumen. This condition is common with birds that lack Vitamin A.
Soft shelled eggs- This is caused mainly by inadequate amount of calcium, phosphorous and vitamin D in the diet.
Practically eggs with soft shells can easily break when being handled or even when birds lie on them. They can also
be easily damaged by microbes and therefore cannot keep for long.
Small eggs/yolkless eggs-This arises out of a stimulus produced by foreign matter for example blood clot coming
from the ovary. In the process albumen is added onto the foreign matter. Pieces of membranes, feathers and so
forth being transported up through recto-peristalsis can stimulate production of an egg.
An egg within an egg-The egg goes through all the processes of egg formation and for unknown reasons it is forced
back to the magnum, where it stimulates formation of an egg. The whole process of egg formation is repeated on
its membrane thus forming an egg within the egg. If the formed egg falls back to the uterus and break it causes
peritonitis and may cause death of the bird. The yolk my also fall back into the uterus and this will also cause
peritonitis. The condition is mainly prevalent in birds that have not been vaccinated against fowl typhoid.
Foreign matters in an egg- Feathers are the most common foreign objects in an egg. This includes any other foreign
material coming into the funnel through recto-peristalsis.
Eggs with pale yolk- This is mostly seen in birds with deficiency in carotene or anemic birds. It can be corrected by
feeding birds with the correct diet.
Rotten newly laid egg- Such eggs are laid by over fattened birds or birds with defects or diseases in the oviduct. If
fertilized eggs overstay in the oviduct, the embryo starts to develop due to the high body temperature of the bird.
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But if the egg had not been fertilized the temperatures initiate microbial activities thus it starts to rot. Also if the vent
is too small eggs overstay and start to rot.
Off flavors in eggs- Flavors acquired from various diets given to the bird. For example, too much fish meal will bring
about fish flavor.
Dirty eggs- This comes about from laying boxes being too dirty. Environments full of feces, moist or wet laying boxes
all results in dirty eggs.
READINGS:
https://nscpolteksby.ac.id/ebook/files/Ebook/Hospitality/CulinaryEssentials(2010)/Chapter22PoultryCookery.pdf
https://www.livestockkenya.com/index.php/blog/poultry/8-11-abnormalities-of-eggs
1. Incorporate a method of cookery in your own style of preparing poultry.

2. List 10 recipes for poultry classifying each under dry-heat or moist heat method of cookery.
3. What are the edible eggs in the Philippines other than duck and chicken egg?
4. Interview a balut-vendor. Learn how balut and penoy are differentiated.
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UNIT 8 – MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS
OVERVIEW:
Milk is the normal lacteal secretion of the mammary glands of all mammals whose natural purpose is to
nourish the young of the particular species. It is termed as “man’s most nearly complete food” and it’s the only
natural source of nourishment of mammals in the early stages of life. It is rich in the important nutrients needed by
the young for growth and development.
Milk from certain animals are used for human consumption. In most countries, the cow is the principal source
of milk. The buffalo is also a principal source of milk in India and in the Philippines. Goat and sheep are also common
milk sources.
Milk and milk products in the food industry comprise a wide range of raw materials and manufactured items.
Some of the more important fluid milk products are specialty milks, cream and cheese. Milk components are used
in other well-known dairy products like butter and cheese. Milk can be treated and modified to produce milk varieties
like condensed milk, fermented milk, and skim milk, each having individual functional and nutritional attributes.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Identify the different market forms of milk

 Enumerate the different milk products and milk substitutes
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 38. COMPOSITION OF MILK
The chief constituents of milk are water, sugar as lactose, fat, protein and ash. The composition of milk varies
according to species, breed and the diet of the animal. Various dairy products have different amounts of constituents
also, depending on the process, the milk components involved, added ingredients, and other factors.
Milk fat is composed of mixed triglycerides and more than 19 fatty acids. Substances associated with fat
include vitamins A, D, K and E, carotene, cholesterol and phospholipids. Fat content of milk varies with species as
well as with breed and feed. Animals bred in temperate countries produce milk which vary in composition from those
bred in tropical countries.
Milk protein is mainly casein (80 percent) in several forms with smaller amounts of whey proteins. The primary
carbohydrate in mammalian milk is lactose. An abnormality called lactose intolerance is the inability of certain
individuals to digest lactose.
Besides the vitamins associated with the fat, milk also contains the water-soluble vitamins, thiamine,
riboflavin, nicotinic acid, pantothenic acid, choline, biotin, B6 and B12. The enzymes in milk are phosphatase, lipase,
catalase, amylase and peroxidases.
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Lesson 39. MARKET FORMS OF MILK
There are many forms of milk in the market. In the Philippines, the following forms of milks are consumed,
and they are conveniently classified as either whole milk, skim milk, concentrated milk, toned milk, bacteria-
supplemented milk, evaporated, condensed and powdered whole milk, filled milk, and others.
Whole Milk
Whole milk is milk whose composition has not been altered from the time it was collected from the milk animal.
It may be raw, pasteurized or sterilized.
Raw Milk is a fresh whole milk that has not undergone any heat treatment. Availability of this milk form is
generally limited to families who own milking animals such as carabaos, goats or dairy cattle.
Pasteurized Milk is fresh whole milk which has been heated to temperatures high enough to kill pathogenic
microorganisms and to prolong its storage life; but not high enough to significantly alter the organoleptic qualities of
milk.
Sterilized Whole Milk is whole milk that has undergone heating at temperatures much higher than 100oC
(212oF) for a few seconds. The product treated in this manner is shelf-stable at ambient temperature if the container
is unopened. It retains most of the desirable qualities of fresh whole milk, having less chemical damage to important
nutrients and functional ingredients due to the short time of heating. The treatment is based on the simple
relationship that the higher the temperature, the shorter time will be required for microbial destruction. In the UHT
process, the product is rapidly heated to a temperature range of 135o-150oC in continuous flow, held at that
temperature for aseptically filled into sterilized containers in a sterile environment.
UHT milk is 100 percent natural milk with the same quality taste as pasteurized fresh milk but with a major
advantage of having a longer shelf life of 6 months or more.
The UHT (Ultra High Temperature) process has been applied to milk processing in this country. Milk so
processed is packed in laminated cartons called “Tetrabrik.TM”. or in plastic bottles.
Skim Milk
Skim milk has most of the fat removed thus reducing the fat content to about one percent of the whole milk.
Concentrated Milk
Evaporated Whole Milk. As the name implies, it is whole milk from which 50 to 60 percent of the water has
been removed. This is differentiated from recombined evaporated and evaporated filled milk. Evaporated milk can
be sterilized either before or after filling into cans. The latter method gives the milk caramelized cooked color and
flavor while the former does not.
Recombined Evaporated Milk. This is called evaporated because its water content is similar to that of
evaporated milk but it has not actually been evaporated in the sense described earlier. Rather, recombined
evaporated milk is made from imported dried skim milk and butterfat, reconstituted with water with the addition of a
stabilizer, usually carrageenan, to simulate the composition of evaporated whole milk. Recombined evaporated milk
is available in tin cans.
BTLE 30173 PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION Prepared by: Prof. Engeline C. dela Cruz 10
PUPSRC AUGUST 2020 0
Evaporated Filled Milk. This is similar to recombined evaporated milk with butterfat substituted by coconut,
corn oil, or other vegetable oils. Recombined and filled evaporated milk products are the more popular milk forms
because of their low cost. These are available in tin cans.
Sweetened Condensed Milk. This is pasteurized milk that is concentrated by evaporation and supplemented
with sucrose. Concentration and sugar addition is regulated and adjusted to give a sugar concentration of about 63
percent in the final product. The high concentration of sugar allows a longer shelf life of the opened cans at ambient
conditions. This illustrates the preservative effect of sugar, the resulting water activity (Aw) of condensed milk is
below that needed for growth of most spoilage microorganisms.
Due to the high proportion of added sugar, sweetened condensed milk cannot be satisfactorily reconstituted to
whole milk and thus has limited use in food preparation. It has an ability though, to undergo browning and gelation
with prolonged heating inside the sealed can at or above boiling temperatures of water. The resulting product is a
caramelized semisolid which can be used as filling for tarts, candies, cakes, and others. The combination of sugar
and milk solids is convenient in food manufacture. Sweetened condensed milk is largely used today by baking, ice
cream, and confectionery industries.
Dried Whole Milk. This is also called powdered whole milk. This is whole milk dehydrated to about 97 percent
solids by vacuum concentration and subsequently spraying the milk into a chamber of heated air (spray process)
or on the surface of heated metal cylinders (roller process). Powdered milk may be reconstituted to whole milk by
diluting one part of it by volume to four parts of water. Mixing in a blender or with an egg beater makes reconstitution
more effective. Dried milk obtained by the spray process is reconstituted with more ease than that obtained by the
roller process. Care must be taken when storing the opened container of dried whole milk because it has the
tendency to turn acid and/or form lumps when exposed to humid air. Dried whole milk is available in cans or cartons.
Dried Skim Milk/ Non-fat Dry Milk. Pasteurized, vacuum concentrated, and spray dried skim milk is known
as non-fat dry milk of NFDM. It entails the removal of fat and water from milk but its lactose, milk protein, and
mineral content remains in the same relative proportions as that of fresh milk. NFDM can be used as functional
protein ingredient in many foods, especially baked goods. It has better keeping qualities than dried whole milk
especially after opening the container because of the absence of fat which can develop rancidity.
Toned Milk
Toning is a process of altering the composition of natural milk to a standard composition of 3 percent fat
and 9 percent non-fat solids or other standard proportion preferred. Carabao milk with high fat content is toned
with the addition of dried milk solids. This product is produced by the Dairy Training Research Institute in Los
Baños (DTRI) and the Bureau of Animal Industry.
Bacteria Supplemented Milk
In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in live cultures in food. This is called probiotics which have
been demonstrated to have beneficial health effects. Microorganisms in milk are among this group. There are a few
strains of bacteria used to supplement milk and usually the milk is named after the bacteria used.
Acidophilus milk is made by adding concentrated cells of Lactobacillus acidophilus to cold, freshly
pasteurized milk to yield about 1 billion cells per 8 oz. of milk. Lactobacillus is a normal inhabitant of the GI tract.
High concentrations in the gut gives it competitive advantage over pathogens thus reducing the chances of such
pathogens to do harm.
Other health benefits attributed to probiotics include maintenance of healthy intestinal microflora,
improvement of lactose intolerance and digestibility of milk products, and stimulation of immune response.
In the Philippines, Lactobacillus casei-supplemented milk is being marketed under the YakultTM brand name.
This is the outcome of the work of a Japanese scientist, Dr.Shirota.
Lesson 40. STORAGE OF MILK
The various forms of canned evaporated milk should be stored in a cool, dry place. Once opened, evaporated
milk should be refrigerated if not used immediately. Otherwise, it can spoil after 36 to 48 hours or even shorter
during extremely warm weather. Furthermore, milk is a potentially hazardous food without refrigeration because it
can easily be contaminated by pathogens.
Sweetened condensed milk in opened cans keep longer than evaporated milk without refrigeration because
its sugar content serves as a preservative. Nevertheless, it is best to refrigerate them when the can has been
opened.
Dairy products are highly perishable, therefore, it is highly recommended that consumers observe the
following practices to preserve quality.
 Use proper container to protect milk from exposure to sunlight, bright daylight, and strong fluorescent light
to prevent the development of off-flavor and a reduction in riboflavin, ascorbic acid and Vitamin B6 content.
 Store milk at refrigerated temperatures 4oC (40oF) or below as soon as possible after purchase.
 Keep milk containers closed to prevent absorption of other food flavors in the refrigerator. An absorbed flavor
alters the taste, but the milk is still safe.
 Use milk in the order purchased.
 Serve milk cold
 Return milk container to the refrigerator immediately to prevent bacterial growth. Temperatures above 7oC
(44.6oF) for fluid and cultured milk products for even a few minutes reduces shelf life. never return unused
milk to the original container.
 Keep canned milk in a cool, dry place. Once opened, it should be transferred to a clean container and
refrigerated.
 Store dry milk in a cool, dry place and reseal the container after opening. Humidity causes dry milk to lump
and may affect flavor and color changes. If such changes occur, the milk should not be consumed. Once
reconstituted, dry milk should be treated like any other fluid milk. It should be covered and stored in the
refrigerator.
Lesson 41. MILK COOKERY
Many dishes use milk as an ingredient. When a recipe calls for milk, it normally means whole cow’s milk.
Hence, if evaporated milk is used, it needs to be diluted with an equal volume of water to consider it as equivalent
to whole cow’s milk unless the recipe calls specifically for evaporated milk. Milk is used in cookery as a highly
nutritious solvent.
In desserts such as leche flan, pudding and butter cakes, milk is mixed with other ingredients before baking
or steaming. In cream puff filling and in dishes such as chicken a la king and beef stroganoff, where milk is a major
ingredient, heating should be carefully regulated and stirring done constantly to prevent scorching. A double boiler
may be used to ensure even heating without scorching.
When cooking milk, particularly evaporated milk, coagulated material may form on the surface specially if the
cooking pan is not covered. This coagulated material formed on the surface of milk called scum is a tough membrane
and can retard further evaporation. It is composed mainly of casein. Scum formation may be prevented by constant
stirring.
Curdling is another problem that can happen in milk cookery. This is due to coagulation of casein which
occurs when the food is acidic. This is evident in tomato cream soup and even in coffee.
Milk Products
Products made from milk or with milk which are locally available include cream, cheese, fermented milk
products such as yoghurt, sour milk, flavored milk and the perennial favorite, ice cream.
Cream- is the portion of milk that contains most of its fat so it goes to the upper layer. It can be separated
from unhomogenized whole milk by allowing it to naturally separate into two layers, or by the use of a centrifuge.
There are three main types of cream depending upon the fat content.
(1) Light cream, a fluid product which contains about 18 percent milk fat. This is used in coffee, tea or
breakfast cereals.
(2) Medium cream, which contains 30-36 percent milk fat and is suitable for whipping
(3) Heavy cream, which contains 36-40 percent milk fat is thick and viscous. This is used as salad
dressing. This is the kind of cream that is popular in the Philippines.
Cheese- When milk casein is coagulated with an enzyme (usually rennin) and an acid (usually lactic acid), a
curd is formed. A product made from this curd, with or without further treatment of the curd by heat, pressure, salt,
and ripening (usually with selected microorganisms), is called cheese.
Table 8.1 Classification of Cheeses
Kesong Puti is a cottage cheesemade from carabao or goat milk coagulated by rennet or vinegar. It is
wrapped in banana leaves or polyethylene.
Most Filipinos are familiar with cheddar, which is of English origin, and Edam, of Dutch origin. The latter is
the quezo de bola which Filipinos associate with Christmas.
Table 8.2 Recommended Storage Times and Temperatures for Milk and Other Milk Products
The hard, ripened Italian cheeses Parmesan and Romano are available in grated form and packed in small
tins. Parmesan is popular for spaghetti sauce.
Mozzarella, a soft, melting cheese much favored in pizza pie is made from water buffalo milk.
Cheese Making
Cheddar Cheese Process
All types of cheese start with curdmaking and followed by various manipulations of the curd or whey. The
preparation of cheddar illustrates the cheese-making process and involves 7 steps.
1. Setting the milk. The start culture is added to pasteurized whole milk, acidity (as lactic acid) rises to 0.2
percent, rennet enzyme preparation is added to produce a curd.
2. Cutting the curd ̶ into desired sizes/cubes.
3. Cooking. Curd is heated to 38oC to increase rate of acid production, make curd cubes shrink, help expel
whey and toughen the curd cubes.
4. Draining whey and matting curd. The whey is drained from the cheese vat and the curds allowed to mat or
fuse together to form a continuous rubbery slab.
5. Milling and salting. The rubbery slabs of cheddar curd pass through a mill which cuts the blocks into small
pieces. These are spread and then sprinkled with salt. Salt draws out more whey, inhibit spoilage organisms
that may grow in the later stages of operation, and adds flavor to the final cheese.
6. Pressing. This determines the cheese’s final moisture content and consequently its microbial susceptibility
and texture as well as its final shape.
7. Curing and Ripening. During this period, bacteria in the cheese and enzymes in the rennet preparation
modify the texture, flavor, and color of the cheese due to fermentation of residual lactose and other organic
compounds. The acids, aroma compounds from partial hydrolysis of the milk fat and further breakdown of
fatty acids, as well as mild proteolysis of the proteins, all contribute to the characteristic flavor and aroma of
cheese.
Native Cheese or Kesong Puti Preparation
The native cheese is actually a semi-soft cheese with a water content of about 52 percent. It is made mainly
from carabao milk. Native cheese-making in the Philippines is an old cottage industry in Laguna, Bulacan and Cebu
provinces. There are two methods of preparing native cheese, according to the coagulation method.
Curing with rennet. This is done by the cheese-makers of Laguna, Cebu and Davao.
Coagulation by vinegar. Bulacan-style cheese precipitates at pH 4.6. The acidulating agent in this case is
vinegar.
All these types of native cheeses are sold wrapped in banana leaves and have very limited shelf life. An
improved process for kesong puti has been developed by the Dairy Training and Research Institute in U.P. Los
Baños and by Magnolia Dairy Products.
Yoghurt
Yoghurt is one of the oldest fermented milk known. It has been an important food item of people in the Middle
East.
Yoghurt may be made from whole, low-fat or skim milk. A mixed bacterial culture is added to the milk which
is then incubated at about 45oC (113oF) until the desired acidity and flavor is achieved. It is often flavored with fruit
bits of fruit flavor.
Frozen yoghurt, which is like sherbet, has become quite popular. Better Than Ice Cream TM (BTIC) Inc. has
pioneered in its manufacture in the Philippines.
Ice Cream
Ice cream is a frozen milk product made with milk fat (butterfat), and flavoring materials with the incorporation
of water and air. The flavoring materials can be fruits, nuts, chocolate, coffee or others. A good standard ice cream
would contain about 12 percent milk fat, 11 percent MSNF, 15 percent sugar, 0.2 percent stabilizer, 0.2 percent
emulsifier, a trace of vanilla, and the rest water. The amount of total solids depends upon market requirements
and/or ice cream variant. Ice cream quality is described by three factors namely, texture, body and overrun as well.
The smooth creamy texture desired in ice cream is achieved if the ice crystals are very small. The factors
affecting the crystallization of sugar in crystalline candies are the same factors that affect the ice crystal formation
in ice cream, namely, the nature of the ingredients and the rate of crystal formation. Sugar, milk, fat, and nonfat milk
solids all contribute to make the ice crystals small. The faster the ice crystallization, the more ice crystals are formed
and the finer the crystals.
Body refers to the firmness or resistance to melting. The presence of stabilizers enables the ice cream
and sherbets to withstand rapid melting due to small fluctuations in temperature. It also prevents the growth of ice
crystals during storage by acting as a shield between individual ice crystals which tends to coalesce during frozen
storage.
Overrun or swell means the increase in volume due to the incorporation of air by beating during the freezing
process. Too high overrun results I frothy ice cream, while too low results in coarse, heavy texture. Homemade ice
cream usually has 30-40 percent overrun while commercial ice creams have 80-100 percent. The higher percentage
of overrun in commercial ice cream is due to the better control of freezing conditions. Overrun is the reason why the
ice cream container should never be more than two thirds full before freezing.
Preparation at Home
Ice cream is prepared by chilling the mixture of cream and/or milk, cream, fruit and or other flavoring and a
stabilizer usually sago, gelatin or starch in an ice cream maker called garapinyera.
The ice cream maker has a freezing compartment equipped with an agitating device called a dasher which
can be set in motion by cranking the handle manually or by electrical means. This freezing compartment equipped
with a tight lid is set in a much larger bucket where the mixture of crushed ice and salt is placed. Salt is added to
depress the temperature of the melting ice. The brine is colder than ice thus enabling the withdrawal of heat from
the side of the ice cream mix container. Salt depresses the temperature of melting ice to a minimum of -21oC
(-5.8oF) for saturated brine. Ice cream begins to freeze at about -2.2oC (29.04oF). The proportion of salt to ice that
is efficient for home freezing is 1-part salt to 6 part crushed ice by weight.
Agitation should be slow before that mix reaches the temperature at which ice crystals start to form, but
should be vigorous and steady as soon as crystallization starts. This would ensure the formation of numerous fine
crystals.
Commercial Ice Cream
In commercial ice cream preparation, the freezing medium used is more efficient than brine allowing for a
better control of the freezing process. The steps involved are mixing of ingredients, pasteurization, homogenization,
aging, freezing with agitation and hardening.
The ingredients used are basically the same as in homemade ice cream with variations in formulation. A
wider variety of flavors is available for commercial use. Aside from gelatin, other stabilizers used are seaweed gums,
pectin, gum guar, gum karaya, and others. Commercial emulsifiers generally consisting of mono and diglycerides
are added in place of egg yolk.
Today when egg is used in ice cream, it should be pasteurized. Raw egg is considered a contaminant
because of the likelihood of it harboring Salmonella.
Milk Substitutes
Researchers have discovered and invented some food ingredients/products which could replace milk in a
variety of applications. These substitutes have nutritional values close to that of milk, and some of them have a big
advantage over milk, especially those products made for people with lactose intolerance.
Soymilk and other Soy Products. In most of Asia, particularly Japan and China, soy products have been an
essential part of the daily diet. The use of soy products as dairy substitutes is also not new. In the early 70s, soy
protein was used in infant formulas. Today, analogs of yogurt, sour cream, cheese, cream cheese, sweetened
condensed milk, and butter have been produced using soymilk and other soy products.
Soymilk is an aqueous extract prepared from mature soy beans. Its appearance and gross composition is similar to
low fat milk, but its color is slightly more yellow.
Whey is a major protein of milk. It is a by-product of cheese and casein manufacture. One kg of milk in
cheese production yields 0.83 kg whey. This large volume of whey prompts manufacturers to come up with methods
to utilize this still nutritious by-product, other than as animal feed. Dry whey powder can be used to make fruit
flavored whey drinks. Whey protein have been used in yoghurt, fruit juice beverages, Ricotta cheese and cream
cheese/spreads. Whey protein concentrates improve the quality of milk for manufacturing yoghurt and are used in
the formulation of infant formulas and follow-up mixtures. A.U.S. company has come up with sweet whey powder
with active cultures. It has replaced milk in cultured milk drinks, yoghurt mixes, snack foods, dessert mixes, food
supplements, and health formulations.
Infant Feed Formulas are formulated to be as close as possible to human milk in composition. It is usually a
powdered product containing milk components and other substances like soymilk and whey protein concentrates.
Doctors and nutritionists advise though, that breastmilk is still best for babies. Infant formula use should be limited
to the nourishment of infants who cannot be breastfed. Infant feed formulas are not classified as milk because they
have been considerably altered in composition.
READINGS:
WATCH:
How Cheese Is Made
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wxm8jTzU_8o)
The Milking and Pasteurization Process

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ad7RChNWjLo)
How Nespray is made

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=67jv7AeM_Wo)
Haagen-Dazs Nestle Dreyers Ice Cream Tulare, California Plant

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=10R1QQPgndY)
1. What are the two most widely used cheeses in the Philippines? Describe their process.
2. Sample a commercial ice cream for overrun. Explain how you will test the overrun
3. Look for other readings on lactose intolerance and remedies for it
UNIT 9 – FOOD GELS, FRUITS AND VEGETABLES, LEGUMES AND NUTS
OVERVIEW:
The culinary way of distinguishing vegetables from fruits is by virtue of use: vegetables are served with the
meal as viands or salads, while fruits are usually eaten as appetizer, as dessert or out of hand. Fruits are the fleshy,
juicy products of plants that are seed-containing. When ripe, they are edible without cooking. Vegetables are plants
or parts of plants such as roots, tubers, bulbs, stems, shoots, leaves, fruits, and flowers used raw or cooked, served
generally with an entrée or in salads but not as desserts.
Fruits and vegetables give color, flavor, and texture to our meals. In addition, they add precious vitamins
and minerals. How dull our meals would be without the unique crispness of vegetables, the rainbow brightness of
fruits, and their diverse and interesting flavors!
Food gels, fruits and vegetables, legumes and nuts are a huge part of food preparation. They add color,
texture and nutrients to our food. This unit will discuss on their composition and uses in food preparation.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Identify the different gel-forming substances used in foods

 Identify the different classifications of fruits and vegetables
 Analyze the composition and nutritive value of fruits and vegetables.
 Enumerate the different kinds of legumes and nuts
 Explain the functions of legumes and nuts
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 42. FOOD GELS
Gels have a characteristic texture that is not quite solid but is not liquid, a soft elastic consistency that is
obvious when eaten or touched but not easy to define in physical terms.
Gelatin is an animal product while agar is a plant product. Both are used as dessert which are very popular
in the country and are often confused with one another.
Table 9.1 Gel Forming Substances Used in Foods

Polymer Source Uses
dessert, jellies cake icing,
Gelatin animal skin & bones, fish confectionery, canned
scales & bones meat & fish
Agar pie filling (withstand high
seaweeds of different temperature)
species confectionery
canned meats & fish
dessert
Pectin citrus peel jams, jellies, preserves,
apple pomace confectionery
Carageenan seaweed instant desserts, sugar-
free dietetic jams
Giant kelp dessert gels, puddings,
Alginates pie filling, artificial fruits
for cakes & pies,
confectionery
Starch potato, rice, cassava, Puddings, custard pie
sago, arrowroot filling, confectionery
Gelatin
Commercial Manufacture of Gelatin
Gelatin is made commercially from bones and hides and other trimming from cattle, pigs and sometimes
buffalos. The raw material is pretreated with acid or alkali to remove impurities like fat, hair from hides and calcium
phosphate from bones. This also facilitates subsequent hydrolysis of collagen by heat. The acid serves as the
hydrolyzing agent during the heating process. As it cools, gelatin is formed. The resulting broth is drawn off, filtered
and evaporated. The gel is dried into a glossy brittle sheet of pure gelatin. Subsequent granulation or pulverization
follows.
In the Philippines, gelatin is available as plain gelatin in powdered form or sheets. It can also be obtained
as gelatin dessert formulation with added sugar, acid, flavor, and color.
Characteristics and Uses of Gelatin Gels
The amount of pure gelatin needed to gel a liquid is 1.5 to 2 percent (%). One tablespoon or 1 gram of
dried gelatin per half liter of water is the proportion commonly used. Gelatin is more easily dispersed if it is
hydrated with tap water first before adding the hot water. The gelatin should be uniformly dispersed in order to get
a good quality gel.
Gelatin dispersion set at around 10oC to 16oC thus in tropical conditions, refrigeration is necessary for
gelatin dispersions to gel. The gel softens at 26oC, so gelatin preparations are not stable at room temperature for
a prolonged period of time.
Fruit acids, salts, acid and sugars affect the gelation capability of gelatin. Acid weakens the gel and at
high concentration can completely prevent gelation. It is important to add only enough acid to produce food flavors
otherwise, a higher gelatin concentration should be used.
Salts strengthen, while sugars weaken gelatin gel.
Raw pineapple, papaya and kiwi because of its proteolytic enzyme, can prevent gelation altogether due
to breakdown of gelatin molecules.
It is thus important to use cooked pineapple, papaya or kiwi fruits if they are to be used with gelatin.
Gelatin gels has characteristics similar to jelly; it is clear, quivers when shaken, and gives a clean cut
with a knife or spoon.
Gelatin is an excellent stabilizer for aerated products. It is capable of forming very stable foams in a
variety of confectionery products. It is used as a foaming agent in marshmallows, some types of nougat, and in
some whipped salads and desserts. Gelatin possesses high surface activity to promote aeration and on cooling its
gelling properties can stabilize the aerated structure.
Excellent organoleptic qualities and a neutral taste, which allows subtle flavors to be preserved, have
earned gelatin its status as a key ingredient in a wide range of dairy products. A remarkably versatile ingredient,
gelatin can contribute melt-in-the-mouth texture, gelled or aerated structure, and good stability to a variety of dairy
and other food products.
Gelatin improves the eating characteristics of both low-fat and skimmed milk yoghurt, ‘extending’ the
natural gelling properties of cultured milk to give a texture approaching that of full-fat yoghurt. Recent breakthrough
in gelation technology is even creating new opportunities for cheese manufacturers to produce low-fat cheese
without compromising crucial organoleptic qualities.
Gelatin plays also an integral part in gum manufacture, pan coating in sweets, and licorice production.
Gelatin’s diverse functional properties make it as an ideal ingredient for use in cream pastes, e.g. in stabilizing ice
cream.
It is also used in jellied meat production. Here, gelatin simulates a packaging material by embedding the
meat or fish in, protected by a gelatin-based jelly which aids slicing and lends a smooth mouthfeel to the product. It
also helps absorb excess meat juices and lends form and structure to the product.
Nutritive Value
Gelatin is a protein but it does not contain some of the essential amino acids. Hence, it is an incomplete
protein and therefore cannot be used as one’s only source of protein. In fact, gelatin is the only food from an animal
source that does not contain a complete protein. At any rate, is serves as a highly acceptable and easily digested
protein supplement even eaten as a dessert considering the fact that many desserts contain mostly of
carbohydrates.
Agar
Agar is the gel-forming extract of the edible algae, Gelidium, Gracilaria, and other red algae. It is
insoluble in cold water but soluble in boiling water. A one percent solution of agar forms a firm gel. These algae
are actually seaweeds. Gracilaria and Gelidiela are both used as sources of gulaman in the Philippines. Hypnea is
also a good source of agar.
Because of similarity with gelatin as a dessert agar is sometimes called a vegetable protein.
Commercial Manufacture of Agar
The seaweeds are cleaned, washed, and added to boiling water. When the water boils again, it is
acidified with sulfuric acid to pH 6.0. The mixture is boiled for one to two hours. Other seaweeds which form soft
gels are added and the mixture is simmered for another 12 hours.
A solution from the second extraction of a previous batch is added. As the solution cools, the seaweed
residue settles in the bottom and the supernatant portion is decanted into a series of filters and appropriate tanks
and finally into shallow wooden trays. These are allowed to freeze and thaw repeatedly. The resulting product
when dried and cut is the familiar gulaman bar.
Market Form and Storage
Gulaman is sold in the dried form in bars, strips, and flakes. It has good keeping quality as such. However,
it must be stored in cool dry place
Characteristics and Uses
Gulaman is dispersed using hot water in a similar manner as gelatin. Five to six grams of dried gulaman
in half liter of water is the usual proportion used in the preparation of gulaman gels. The dispersion is allowed to
cool and set at room temperature.it sets at 40oC. refrigeration is not necessary to set gulaman because its gelling
temperature is much higher than that of gelatin. Enzymes from fresh pineapple which is proteolytic does not affect
gulaman gels because gulaman is not a protein.
Gulaman gel is rather cloudy and is brittle so that it breaks easily and does not give a clean cut unlike
that of gelatin or jelly.
Gulaman is widely used in dessert. In the food industry, purified agar is used as a suspending, stabilizing,
thickening or gelling agent in candies, jellies, flans, canned foods, bakery and dairy products.
Carageenan
Carageenans are important ingredients in the food industry because of its ability to form gels that do not
undergo syneresis, so are freeze-thaw stable. Like agar, carrageenan reacts with milk proteins to form a thick
pourable gel which is particularly useful in the formulation of chocolate milk drinks. Carrageenan keeps the cocoa
particles suspended in the drink so as not to settle at the bottom of the glass. It is also used as a stabilizer in ice
cream, in the preparation of ham loaf, poultry rolls, hamburger and similar products.
Lesson 43. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS
Classification of Vegetables
 According to Parts of Plant Used
Some typical parts of plants used as vegetables are: bulbs (garlic, onions), flowers (broccoli, cauliflower),
fruits (pumpkins, squashes, tomatoes), leaves (lettuce, spinach), roots (beets, carrots), seeds (beans, corn, peas),
stalks (celery), stems (asparagus), and tubers (Irish potatoes, yams).
1. Roots are underground parts of plants. Good examples of these vegetables are apulid tsina or water
chestnut, kamote or sweet potato, kamoteng kahoy or cassava, karot or carrot, gabi or taro, labanos or
radish, remolatsa or beats, singkamas or yam bean, tugi or spiny yam, ubi or violet.
2. Tubers are short, thickened, fleshy parts of an underground stem such as Jerusalem artichokes, patatas or
potatoes.
3. Bulbs are underground buds that send down roots and are made up of a very short stem covered with
layers. Included in this group are chives, garlic, leeks, onions and shallots.
4. Seeds are parts from which a new plant will grow. They are referred to as pulses or legumes and include
beans such as munggo or mung bean, broad beans, garbansos or chick peas, paayap or cow peas, frijoles,
kidney beans, lentils, patani or lima beans, pinto beans, mecan peas or soybeans, wax beans and white
beans.
5. Stems and shoots are stalks supporting leaves, flowers, or fruits. These include kintsay or celery, tangkay
ng gabi or taro petioles, labong or bamboo shoots, malunggay or horseradish, rubarbo or rhubarb,
Ubod or coconut pith, or palmetoo heart.
6. Leaves include alugbati or Malabar night shade, dahoon ng ampalaya or bitter melon leaves, talbos ng
kamote or sweet potato tops, kangkong or swamp cabbage, letsugas or lettuce, mustasa or mustard, petsay
or Chinese cabbage, talinum or Philippine spinach, dahong sili or pepper leaves, wansuy or Coriander
leaves, sibuyas na mura or spring onion or shallots, leeks and scallions, all members of the onion family,
different only in size of stems.
7. Fruits include ampalaya or bittermelon, upo or bottle gourd, sayote or chayote, pepino or cucumber, talong
or eggplant, langkang hilaw or unripe jackfruit, okra,patola or sponge gourd, kalabasa or squash, kamatis
or tomatoes, siling hindi maanghang orsweet pepper, siling labuyo or cayenne pepper, siling maanghang or
chili pepper.
8. Flowers are exemplified by koliplower or cauliflower, bulaklak ng kalabasa or squash flower, katuray or
Sesban flower.
 According to Chemical Composition
 Carbohydrate-rich – such as seeds, roots, and tubers

 Protein-rich – include seeds such as legumes and pulses. To name a few: the mungbeans and the
soybeans.
 Fat-rich – such as nuts, olives, and avocado
 High moisture content – such as kabuti or mushrooms, kamatis or tomatoes, kintsay or celery, koliplower
or cauliflower, labanos or radish, letsugas or lettuce, repolyo or cabbage.
 According to Nutritive Value
Vegetables may either be sources of protein, vitamins or minerals. They are most commonly sought for
because of their vitamin A, vitamin B, or vitamin C content.
Flavor Components of Fruits and Vegetables
Flavor is a composite of taste, odor, touch, sight, and even sound. For example, a palatable flavor in
mango is not due to the sweet taste of its sugar alone, but to the pleasant aroma, the smooth pulp, the yellow-
orange color, and the distinct carabao mango taste, different from other local and foreign varieties.
Sugar is the best known flavoring substance in fruits. Other changes which take place with such
compounds as acids, tannins, and sulfuric compounds, affect the acceptability of the fruits.
Enzymatic browning is also common among fruits
Selection of Vegetables
A trip to the market can be a rewarding experience especially if you can make your own selection of fresh
perishable vegetables.
The proper selection of vegetables will ultimately result in very tasty and appetizing dishes. Thus, it is
important that one must know how to select and prepare vegetables.
1. Vegetables should be washed very carefully in a detergent solution then rinse well under cool, running water
especially if they are to be eaten raw. Leafy vegetables are washed most effectively in a 1% detergent
solution splashing the leaves up and down in a solution then rinsing off three times. Potatoes and the like
are scrubbed using a vegetable brush. Soaking time should be reduced to a minimum to obtain a maximum
retention of water-soluble nutrients.
2. All vegetables should be thoroughly inspected for blemishes, decayed parts and worms. These should be
removed.
3. Vegetables should be cut according to the dish requirement. If vegetables are to be deep-fat fried, they
should be cut into portions of 0.62 cm (1/4 inch) thickness such that they will be cooked before they darken
on the surface. This applies to fried vegetables like sweet potatoes and eggplant that are used for tempura.
If they are to be made for panning or are stir-fried, they should be cut into thin pieces so they will cook quickly
without burning. This applies to onions, leeks, green or red pepper, celery, mushroom, cabbage and a host
of other vegetables that could be stir-fried.
4. When pairing, pare as thinly as possible to minimize wastage. If possible, a vegetable peeler should be used
since they only cut skin deep.
5. Vegetables should be prepared just before cooking. Essential vitamins and minerals will be lost if vegetables
are allowed to soak in water long before they are cooled. Similarly, when cooking, use only a small amount
of water. The cooking pan must be covered to shorten cooking time and to prevent the unnecessary loss of
volatile flavors. Stirring the vegetable will accelerate the loss of some vitamins, especially vitamin C, since
stirring incorporate air.
6. Vegetables taste best when they are cooked tender crisp. Hence, short cooking time is a must.
7. Finally, vegetables should be served as soon as they are cooked. Long standing of cooked vegetables
reduces its appeal and its nutrient content.
8. To ensure food safety, vegetables that will not require cooking should be prepared using a separate
chopping board from those used for uncooked foods.
Ways of Cooking Vegetables

 Boil
 Fry in either shallow fat or in deep fat
 French-fry
 Broil
 Braise
 Steam
 Pressure cook
 Oven-steam or bake
 Bake
 Stir fry or saute
Selection of Fruits
When buying fresh fruits, the consumer should take into consideration the variety of the fruits, its
freshness, its size, and maturity. Fresh fruits can easily be detected by visual inspection. It should also be free from
bruises and blemishes especially if it is to be stored. Bruised areas are the most prone to spoilage.
1. Different varieties of fruits are usually sold in the market. One buys them for the purpose for which they are
intended.
2. Selecting for size and shape of the fruit depends on one’s personal desire. It would be best if the fruits are
uniform in size and shape.
3. Some fruits are usually consumed at different stages of maturity and degrees of ripeness. Thus, one buys
an unripe papaya to use in tinolang manok.
4. Select fruits high in Vitamin C.
Preparation of Fruits
Fruits are usually eaten fresh or raw. So, in this case, the only preparation necessary is washing them
under cold, running water. In this way, almost all of the vitamins and minerals are intact. It is important, however,
that cut fruits that have been prepared long before a meal is served will discolor and will lose its appeal to the
consumer.
Some fruits are boiled or fried. Certain fruits may be baked. Other fruits, like the citrus family, are usually
made into juices. This is served cold but everyone knows that a hot kalamansi juice is very soothing and
therapeutic to a sore throat. Aside from this, citrus peels are sometimes candied and dried. The candied peels
are usually incorporated in baked products especially fruit cakes.
Mangoes, too, aside from being eaten raw, are also made into juice. Other fruits which make good juices
are tamarind, guyabano,pineapple and santol. However, these fruit juices are usually produced on commercial
scale.
Still other fruits, aside from being consumed raw or fresh, are candied. This is especially so in the case
of sour fruits like kamias, sampaloc, santol and strong-flavored fresh like langka, mango and durian.
Also another common way of utilizing fruits is to make them into a jelly or jam. this is one way of
preserving the fruits for later use.
Table 9.2 A Guide to Selection of Vegetables
Table 9.3 A Guide to Selection of Fruits
Table 9.3 A Guide to Selection of Fruits (continued)
Table 9.4 Seasons and Uses of Common Philippine Fruits
Table 9.4 Seasons and Uses of Common Philippine Fruits (continued)
Lesson 44. LEGUMES AND NUTS
Legumes and nuts are good meat substitutes. A cup of cooked garbanzos or boiled mature peanuts or
chick peas will provide 8 grams of protein just as well as a breast of chicken or a match-box sized slice of lean beef
or pork.
Kinds of Legumes
1. Chicken peas or garbanzos

2. Cowpeas or paayap
3. Green peas or gisantes
4. Kidney beans or abitsuwelas
5. Lentils
6. Lima beans or patani
7. Mung beans or munggo
8. Soy beans or utaw or balatong
Kinds of Nuts
 Almond  Filbert nut

 Beech nut  Hazel nut
 Brazil nut  Hickory nut
 Butter nut  Macadamia
 Cashew nut or kasuy  Peanut
 Chestnut or kastanyas  Pecan nut
 Coconut  Pili nut
 Pine nut
 Pistachio nut
 Walnut
Functions of Legumes and Nuts

 As protein sources
 As meat substitute
 As binders
Processing and Preservation Method
Legumes
Soybean is being noted for its high protein content. Soybeans can be made into tofu, soy sauce and soya
milk products. The common fermented soy products include:
 Fermented whole  Bean cheese, salted or tahure

soybeans/ soybean  Soybean paste or miso
curd or tawsi  Soy sauce or toyo
 Geerlig’s cheese or  Tempeh
taho  Soy flour
 Nato or Natto flavored
taho
 Soybean cheese, hard
curd or tokwa
 Soybean cheese, soft
curd or tofu
Nuts
Peanuts, although more commonly used for its fat, have been found to produce products of high protein.
Among these are:
 Peanut flour
 Peanut protein isolates
 Peanut milk
 Peanut butter
 Salted peanuts
 Peanut candies
 Peanut bakery sweets
READINGS:
WATCH:
Tips and Tricks to Gelatin Success - Kitchen Conundrums with Thomas Joseph
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kJgcZzGLLPA)
1. Create your own gelatin dessert using agar agar. Include pictures.
2. What factors might influence the time for cooking a given vegetable?
3. How can browning of fruits be prevented?
4. How can some legumes and cereals complement each other? Give five palatable combinations for a family
of modest means.
UNIT 10 – FATS AND OILS
OVERVIEW:
Fats and oils are chemically the same, but in common usage, fats are solid while oils stay liquid at
room temperature. They belong to the chemical class of compounds called lipids. Fats and oils are obtained from
both animal and plant sources; only those from plants are cholesterol free.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Identify the market forms of fat

 Explain the uses of fat in food preparation and its storage
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 45. CLASSIFICATION OF FAT
Appearance
 Visible fats are those easily seen and feel greasy like butter, seed oils, and pork fat.
 Invisible fats are those which are hidden and are not easily recognized as oil or grease such as in egg
yolk, avocado, and lean meat.
Source
 Fats in the diet are derived from either animal or plant (vegetable) sources.
Culinary Purpose
 Table use – as spreads like butter and margarine on bread
 Cooking – specifically as frying medium
 Shortening – for cakes and pies
 Salad dressing – such as in mayonnaise and French dressing
Table 10.1 Functions of Fats in Foods
Functions of Fats in Food
 Shortening: A fat that tenderizes, or shortens, the texture of baked products by impeding gluten
development, making them softer and easier to chew.
 Emulsion: A liquid dispersed in another liquid with which it is usually immiscible (incapable of being mixed).
 Surfactant: Surface-active agent that reduces a liquid’s surface tension to increase its wetting and blending
ability.
 Creaming: In an emulsion, the collection and rising of the lighter phase, usually oil, to the top of the mixture.
 Creaming is a process that achieves temporary emulsion status.
 Stabilizers may be added to an emulsion to decrease the tendency of the emulsion to separate, which
creates a viscosity similar to soft yogurt; this is referred to as a semi-permanent emulsion
 Permanent emulsions are very viscous and stable, to the point that they do not separate.
 Plasticity
 The plasticity of fat is its ability to hold its shape but still be molded or shaped under light pressure.
 Flavor
 The flavor developed in certain foods by fats is very difficult to duplicate.
 Texture
 Fats also contribute texture.
 Appearance
 Foods are made more appealing by pigments located in a food’s natural fats.
 Satiety or Feeling Full
 Fats induce a sense of fullness, or satiety.
Lesson 46. MARKET FORMS OF FAT
Butter
 Butter can be purchased in a number of forms. Choices are influenced by:

 Taste
 Texture
 Other options may include:
 Compound or flavored butter
 Powdered butter
 Clarified butter
 Brown or black butter
 Clarified butter: Butter whose milk solids and water have been removed and thus will not burn.
 Smoke point: The temperature at which fat or oil begins to smoke.
 Butter can be purchased in a number of forms. Choices are influenced by:
 Taste
 Texture
Margarine
 Standard stick margarine must contain at least 80% fat, about 16% water, and 4% milk solids.
Shortenings
 Shortenings are plant oils that have been hydrogenated to make them more solid and pliable.
Oils
 Many different types of oils are available for food preparation purposes, and the type of oil used depends on
the desired outcome.
 Many refined oils are without any distinguishing characteristics.
 Unrefined, cold-pressed oils, such as peanut and olive oils, have the full flavor of the plants from which they
were pressed.
 Winterizing: A commercial process that removes the fatty acids having a tendency to crystallize and make
vegetable oils appear cloudy.
 Hydrogenation: A commercial process in which hydrogen atoms are added to the double bonds in
monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids to make them more saturated.
Lard
 These animal sources of fat are primarily saturated fat:
 Lard, which is the fat from swine.
 Tallow is also an animal fat, but it is derived from beef cattle or sheep.
 Suet is the solid fat found around the kidneys and loin of beef and sheep.
Cocoa butter
Fat replacers
 Substitutes physically resemble fats, are often lipid based, and usually replace the fat in foods on a one-to-
one basis to duplicate the functional properties of fat.
 Fat mimetics are water-soluble, often protein or carbohydrate based, and imitate the mouthfeel of fat.
 Fat-soluble substitutes and extenders replace the weight added by fat.
Lesson 47. FAT IN FOOD PREPARATION
Table 10.2 Preserving Frying Oils
Table 10.3 Problems in Deep-Fat Frying Oils and their Causes
Table 10.4 Comparison of Dietary Fats
Other ways to reduce the amount or modify the type of fat in the diet include:
 Fruit preserves and honey
 Mustard, ketchup, or low-fat salad dressing or mayonnaise
 Purées of fruits such as plums, dates, apples, and figs
 Crumb crusts
 Double-crust pies can be converted to one-crust pies.
 A nonfat condiment such as salsa, relish, or chutney
Table 10.5 Replacing Fatty Ingredients in Recipes
Storage of Fats
Storage of fat depends on its type.

 Fats such as butter and margarine are best stored in the refrigerator.
 Shortenings and most oils are usually stored at room temperature and should be kept tightly covered in a
dark spot on the cupboard shelf.
 They will keep longer if refrigerated.
 Olive oil has a shorter shelf life than most vegetable oils and should be refrigerated fairly soon after opening
 Rancidity: the chemical deterioration of fats, which occurs when the triglyceride molecule and/or the fatty
acids attached to the glycerol molecule are broken down into smaller units that yield off-flavors and odors.
 There are two basic types of rancidity:
 Hydrolytic rancidity
 Oxidative rancidity
 Hydrolytic Rancidity: Fats become rancid when exposed to water, usually the water found frozen on food
to be fried.
 Oxidative Rancidity: Fats can also become rancid when they are exposed to the oxygen in air.
 Flavor reversion: The breakdown (oxidation) of an essential fatty acid, linolenic acid, found in certain
vegetable oils, leading to an undesirable flavor change prior to the start of actual rancidity.
 The two most commonly used oils:
 Cottonseed
 Corn
Preventing Rancidity
 Rancid products have reduced shelf lives and must be discarded.
 In the past, cereal manufacturers incorporated predominantly saturated fatty acids into their products to
reduce the risk of rancidity.
 Avoid Oxygen and Heat:
 Pack items which are high in unsaturated fatty acids in vacuum packs or nitrogen to prevent
contact with oxygen.
 Antioxidants:
 Added to foods containing large amounts of unsaturated fats to prevent rancidity.
READINGS:
https://slideplayer.com/slide/4376215/fatsandoils
1. How does fat differ from oil?

2. What is visible fat? invisible fat?
3. Differentiate butter from margarine
UNIT 11 – SALADS AND SALAD DRESSINGS
FOOD SEASONINGS AND OTHER ADDITIVES
BEVERAGES
OVERVIEW:
Many have wondered where the word “salad” came from. Salad originated from the Latin word “sal” which
means salts. Way back in the days of Caesar, Romans ate greens sprinkled with salt. Salt was their only dressing
then. Hence, from the “sal” came salad. Salad is a term for a dish made of salad plants or greens, alone or in
combination with other food, plus a dressing. Salad dressing is usually an emulsion. It contains acid, usually vinegar
or lemon juice, fat, seasonings and sometimes other ingredients.
Food would be dull and unsatisfactory without food seasonings or condiments. Food seasonings are
additives which though added in very small amounts, give the dish distinctive flavor characteristics. Some food
seasonings may have flavors of their own. Others may be flavor potentiators or substances which have no
pronounced flavor of their own but are capable of enhancing the natural flavor of other foods.
Water and various forms of beverages play an important part in any meal. Pardon the pun, but without them
the meal would indeed be very dry. The term beverage applies to any drink which can relieve thirst, nourish the
body, stimulate the appetite and increase the amount of body fluids. For the Filipino, water is as important as wine
to the French or Italian. In this unit, fruit-flavored drinks, coffee, tea, and alcoholic drinks are discussed.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Identify and describe five different salad types

 Identify the four basic parts of salad
 Identify the major salad dressing ingredients
 Demonstrate photos of the different herbs and spices
 Enumerate the different types of beverages
 Discuss the different methods of preparing beverages
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 48. SALADS – TYPES OF SALADS
Classifications According to Their Function in The Meal
Appetizer Salads
 Serve as a first course
 Should stimulate the appetite
 Fresh, crisp ingredients
 A tangy, flavorful dressing
 Appetizing appearance
 Should not be so large as to be filling
Appetizer Salads
Accompaniment Salads
 Must be balance and harmonize with the rest of the meal
 Side-dish salad should be light and flavorful, not too rich
 Vegetable salads are often good choices
 Combination salads with a variety of elements are appropriate accompaniments to sandwiches
Accompaniment Salads
Main-Course Salads
 Should be large enough to serve as a full meal and
 Should contain substantial portion of protein
 Meat, poultry, and seafood salads, as well as egg salad and cheese, are popular choices
 Should offer enough variety on the plate to be a balanced meal, both nutritionally and in flavors and textures
 Attractive arrangements and good color balance are important
Separate-Course Salads
 Served after main course
 To refresh the diner after a heavy meal
 Must be very light and in no way filling
 Heavy dressings made from mayonnaise and
sour cream should be avoided
Dessert Salads
 Usually sweet and may contain items such as
fruits, sweetened gelatin, nuts and cream
Ingredients
Salad Greens
 iceberg, romaine, frisee, arugula
Vegetables, raw
 avocado, bean sprouts, carrots, tomatoes
Vegetables, cooked, pickled, and canned

 artichoke hearts, asparagus, beets
Starches
 dried beans, potatoes, rice, macaroni
Fruits, fresh, cooked, canned, or frozen

 apples, apricots, bananas, grapes, pineapple
Protein Foods
 meats, poultry, fish and seafood, luncheon meat
Miscellaneous
 gelatin (plain or flavored), nuts
Lettuce and other Salad Greens
Mild Greens
 iceberg, boston, lola rosa, romaine
Spicy Greens
 mizuna, arugula, watercress
Bitter Greens or Chicories
 endive, radicchio, frisee, chicory
Prepared Mixes of Greens

 mesclun, oriental mix, baby mix
Herbs and Flowers

 garden flowers, fresh herbs
Caring for Salad Greens
Salad greens should be kept properly chilled from the time

they arrive until they are ready to be plated
 Rinse greens thoroughly in plenty of cool water to remove all traces of dirt and sand
 Dry greens completely
 Store cleaned greens in tubs or other containers
 Cut or tear the lettuce into bite-sized pieces
Arrangement and Presentation
The structure of a salad
Base or Underliner
 They add greatly to appearance, give height and help to confine loose pieces of food
Body
 The main part of the salad
Garnish
 Edible decorative item added to give eye appeal
Dressing
 A seasoned liquid or semiliquid that is needed to the body of the salad to give it added flavor, tartness,
spiciness, and moistness
Figure 11.1 Arrangement and Presentation
Lesson 49. SALAD DRESSINGS
Salad dressings are liquids or semiliquids used to flavor salads. They are sometimes considered cold sauces
and they serve same function as sauces.
Salad dressing categories:
 Oil and vinegar dressings
 Mayonnaise-based dressings
 Cooked dressings
Ingredients
Most salad dressings are made primarily of an oil and an acid, with other ingredients added to modify the
flavor or texture
 Oils
-Corn oil, soybean oil, olive oil
 Vinegar
-White distilled vinegar, cider vinegar
 Lemon juice
 Egg yolk
 Seasonings and Flavorings
Emulsions
A uniform mixture of two unmixable liquids
 Temporary Emulsions
-Vinaigrette,simple oil and vinegar dressing
-Always separate after being shaken
-The harder the mixture is shaken, the longer it takes for it to separate
 Permanent Emulsions
-Mayonnaise, contains egg yolk, witch act as an emulsifier
-Other stabilizers are used in some preparations (gums, starches, gelatin)
Figure 11.2 Making Mayonnaise
Derivatives
 Vinaigrette
Italian Dressing, Herbed Vinaigrette, Citrus Vinaigrette
 Mayonnaise
1000 Island Dressing, Chantilly Dressing
 Other Dressings
Similar in appearance to mayonnaise, but it has a more tart flavor. Made with little or no oil and with a starch
thickener. Include dressings based on sour cream, fruit juice, and yogurt
Lesson 50. FOOD SEASONINGS AND OTHER ADDITIVES
Food additive is a substance or mixture of substances, other than a basic foodstuff, which is present in food
as a result of any aspect of production, processing, storage or packaging. Food additives may be intentional or
incidental. Intentional additives are those chemicals which are added on purpose to perform specific functions.
Incidental additives, on the other hand, are substances which may be present in finished foods in trace quantities
as a result of some phase of production, processing, storage or packaging. For example, an incidental additive
could be an agricultural chemical applied to crops which might be carried over into some processed foods.
Food Seasonings
Food seasonings add zest to our food. Filipinos have traditionally used varied spices, herbs and various
seasonings to enhance the flavor of our native dishes. Some regional foods use them to a greater extent than
others. For example, Muslims and Bicolanos makes use of a good number of spices and herbs which Indonesians
and Malaysians also use.
 Salt- It is the most common seasoning. It is available in solar salt, fine grained table salt or iodized. Salt may
also be combined with other seasonings to make garlic salt, celery salt, smoke salt and seasoned salt. Salt
may also be used in making pickles or in curing meat and fish.
 Spices and Herbs- Spices are pungent or aromatic natural

products of vegetable origin used as food flavorings. Herbs
are flowering plants whose stem above the ground does
not become woody and persistent. Their aromatic dried
leaves are used as flavoring agents. The description and
uses of various spices and herbs are given in Table 11.1.
Different parts of plant may be used as seasoning:
 Bark – cassia and cinnamon

 Buds and flowers – caper, clove and saffron
 Leaves – basil, bayleaf, chervil, chives, fennel, lemon
grass, marjoram, mint, oregano, pandan, parsley,
rosemary, sage, savory, tarragon and thyme
 Seeds – allspice, anise, caraway, cardamom, chili, pepper,
coriander, cumin, dill, fennel, mace, mustard, nutmeg,
pepper and sesame
 Roots – ginger and turmeric
 Combination of these parts – spices could of course be
blended to make such interesting variations as chili
seasoning, chili powder and curry powder. These are not a
single spice but one predominant spice could account for
the characteristic flavor. For example, curry contains
turmeric for the yellow color and cumin and ginger for
flavor.
Figure 11.3 Herbs and Spices
Sauces
Sauces used as food seasonings are as follows:
 Bagoong – salted salted and fermented shrimps or alamang, small fishes like dilis, padas or small sword
fish, tiny shell fishes or size, or eggs of banak, carpa, dalag and kanduli.
 Banana catsup – a combination of sugar, vinegar, banana puree and spices and color usually served as
accompaniment or sauce for meat and fish dishes. In Europe, this is called Manila Sauce.
 Tomato catsup – a sauce made with tomato puree, salt, sugar, vinegar and seasonings.
 Cayenne sauce – an extremely hot and pungent seasoning made from ground or crushed chili or cayenne
pepper.
 Chili sauce – a sauce made with red and/or green peppers, chili, onions, garlic, sugar, vinegar and salt.
 Heko – a condiment made by cooking bagoong and water for half an hour, then allowing to stand. The
sediment is heko.
 Patis – a clear amber liquid derived from hydrolysis of heavily salted fish (often dilis, galunggong, tamban).
The residue is called bagoong. It parallels other oriental fish sauces like nuoc mam of Vietnam or nam pe of
Thailand.
 Soy sauce or toyo – a deep brown sauce prepared from fermenting salted soybeans and wheat flour. It is
an indispensable flavoring and salting agent in many oriental dishes.
 Vinegar – product made by the action of acetic acid bacteria on a dilute solution of ethyl alcohol derived from
the fermentation of various sugary and starchy foods. The usual standard is 45 grain vinegar and has 4 to 5
percent acetic acid.
 Liver sauce – a sauce made from roasted ground liver with brown sugar, bread crumbs, vinegar, ground
pepper and other seasoning. This usually accompanies lechon or roast pork, but can be used with other
dishes as well.
 Worcestershire sauce – a thin, dark, pungent seasoning sauce, made with garlic, tamarind, soy sauce,
vinegar, inions and spices. This sauce is originated from Worcester, England.
 Tabasco sauce – a brand name for a very hot, sauce made with fermented Louisiana chili pepper, vinegar
and salt. It is used in flavoring meat sauces, salad oysters and other dishes.
Flavoring Extracts
Flavoring extracts are aromatic oils or essences or their imitations dissolved in dilute food grade ethyl alcohol
which are used extensively in cakes and desserts. Gulaman desserts use almond extracts. Vanilla, orange and
lemon extract are commonly used in cakes and icings.
Flavor Enhancers
While herbs and spices have pronounced flavors of their own, flavor potentiators or enhancers emphasize or
accent the natural flavor of other foods.
 Monosodium glutamate or MSG – is the first flavor potentiator discovered by a Japanese researcher in 1908.
MSG is available for home use in purified form and is often use to blend the flavors of meat, seafood and
vegetables.
 Nucleotides – This flavor potentiator was also discovered by a Jaoanese. Nucleotides are formed from
nucleic acids which is present in the nucleus of all living things. This product is used to enhance the flavor
of soups, sauces, gravies and it is capable of replacing part of the beef extract in some products. It also
gives body and smoothness to foods.
Types of Food Colorings
Food colors are used to improve and modify the color of foods. They must pass rigid tests and must be
certified to be safe for human consumption. When they have been found to be safe, they are referred to as “certified
colors”.
Color of a food may be due to naturally occurring pigments in the plant or animal tissues or it can be due to
added color. The main pigments of plants are classified as: carotenoids, chlorophylls, anthocyanins, anthoxanthins
 Natural Colors – Among the natural sources of food colors are turmeric, annatto, leaf chlorophyll, paprika or
pimiento, tomato sauce and saffron. Of the natural food colors, carotene enjoys the advantage of contributing
to the nutritional quality of the food in which it is added. It is also the most stable under ordinary cooking
conditions but is more soluble in oil than in water.
 Synthetic Colors – Synthetic food colors are available as fat-soluble dyes and water-soluble lakes. One must
guard against the use of certain colorings such as rhodamine, a red food coloring which is banned by FDA
but may still be used to color tocino.
Color Additives
Color additives are of two kinds: natural and synthetic. Natural colors use extracts from plants or animals.
Annatto, a natural color is extracted from the achuete plant. Betaine, a red color comes from beets. Caramel, a
brown color is obtained from heating sugar. Carotenes are extracted from carrots, chlorophyll from leaves of plants,
turmeric from the turmeric root and, cochineal (red) from a dried insect (Coccus catli). The carotenoid material from
the shells of shrimps and crabs are also extracted for use as food colors.
Artificial colors are coloring materials synthesized in laboratories. Safety of artificial food colorings has long
been suspected by consumer advocates, so it is prudent to refrain from using such synthetic food coloring especially
in home prepared foods.
Table 11.1 List of Natural and Synthetic Food Colors
NATURAL FOOD COLORS SYNTHETIC FOOD COLORS
annatto extract Allura Red – FD&C No. 40

beta apo carotenal Brilliant Black
caramel Brilliant Blue
fruit juices Fast Green-FD&C Green No. 3
paprika Orange B
beet powder Tartrazine-FD&C Yellow No. 5
canthaxanthin Amaranth-FD&C Red No. 2
carmine/cochineal Chocolate Brown
vegetable juices Citrus Red 2
saffron Indigotine-FD&C Blue No. 1
beta carotene Sunset Yellow-FD&C Yellow No.6
carrot oil Erythrocine-FD&C Red No. 3
curcumin
grape skin extract
turmeric
Table 11.2 Some Additive Used in Foods and their Functions
Lesson 51. BEVERAGES
Types of Beverages
Non-Alcoholic Beverages
 Bottled Water
 Distilled water. In simple terms, distilled water is collected after the process of distillation. Distillation involves
the condensation of water vapour after boiling impure water. Distillation results in the complete elimination
of all solid residues from the water. Therefore, distilled water is devoid of all minerals. Distilled water is great
for short term use and helps to detoxify the human body. It’s used in regions (deserts) where natural water
sources are few, and salt water must be converted to potable water to meet consumption requirements.
Usually, desalination plants need to add some minerals to the distilled water to make it usable for daily
consumption purposes.
 Mineral water. It originates from a natural source such as well or spring and contains traces of beneficial
minerals such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium. This makes mineral water a healthy option. Mineral
water is usually bottled and sold at a premium, and this makes it unaffordable to use on a daily basis. This
water does need to be purified further as you cannot be sure of its quality.
 Purified water. It is the purest form of water that is free of harmful contaminants but still has essential minerals
that were present at the water source. Purified water can be regular tap water that has been processed
through an ultraviolet filter or reverse osmosis filter in your home. Purified water undergoes additional
processes as compared to distilled or mineral water such as deionization and reverse osmosis. As purified
water is free of toxins, such as bacteria, viruses, and synthetic chemicals and rich in minerals, it is the ideal
form of water for daily consumption.
 Alkaline water. It is the water that has been filtered to increase the pH level of the water making it less acidic
and adding minerals rather than removing them.
Flavored waters are also available in supermarkets today. This was brought about by the recognition that water
is an uninteresting drink and the desire to add value to a basic material.
 Milk
 Fruit and vegetable juices and nectars. The Philippines is an exporter of tropical juices particularly pineapple
juice.
 Fruit nectar. It is the juice and the pulp of fruits with water and sugar added. Fruit juice is the filtered or
unfiltered juice of the fruits, whether sweetened or unsweetened.
 Fruit-flavored drink. These are drinks flavored with natural or artificial essences or extracts of fruits like
cherry, banana, orange, pineapple, etc. Designed for physically active people, fruit flavored sport beverages
(or isotonic drinks) are also gaining popularity.
 Coffee
 It is a natural product grown in many countries of the tropical and sub8tropical belt in South and
Central America, Africa and Asia. &t is grown at different altitudes in different basic climates and in
different soils and is looked upon as an international drink consumed throughout the world. Brazil
is the world’s largest coffee grower, Columbia is second, the Ivory coast third and Indonesia fourth.
The Philippines also grow coffee particularly Bukidnon and Batangas. The latter is known for its Kapeng
Barako.
Two species of coffee tree are commercially grown today, Coffee Arabica, the original source of the Arabian
beverage and Coffee Robusta which is more resistant to frost and disease and has tolerance for warmer climates
and lower elevations. Robusta however is rather neutral in flavor compared to Arabica and therefore less interesting.
Coffee is sold in the market in the following forms:
 Decaffeinated
 Espresso
 Instant or soluble
 Coffee substitutes
 Flavored coffee
Figure 11.4 Coffee Grinds
 Tea
 Tea was discovered by accident over 5000 years ago when leaves from a tea bush accidentally
dropped into some boiling water and delicately flavoured the liquid. Tea was originally drunk for its
medicinal benefits and it was not until the 1700s that it began to be consumed as the delicious
beverage that we know today. Tea is prepared from the leave bud and top leaves of a tropical
evergreen bush called Camelia sinensis. It produces what is regarded as a healthy beverage
containing approximately only half the caffeine of coffee and at the same time it aids muscle
relaxation and stimulates the central nervous system. It is regarded as a profitable beverage with
caterers serving more than 10 billion cups a year.
Market Forms of Tea:
 Black
 Green
 Oolong
 Instant or Soluble
 Jasmine
 Hot Chocolate. Nowadays chocolate is almost always made from pre-prepared (instant) powder. The quality
of the chocolate used is the essential factor in the end product – the better the brand, the better the result.
If good chocolate is to be served you must use a good product. The chocolate powder is mixed with hot (but
not boiled) milk before service, usually in the cups in which it is to be served
Depending on the kind of processing applied and its use, chocolate comes in various forms:
 Cocoa-powdered chocolate from which 50 percent of the fat or “cocoa butter” has been extracted
 Bitter Chocolate – solid or plastic mass obtained by grinding cocoa nibs and contain 50 percent
cocoa butter. This comes molded in squares and other forms
 Breakfast cocoa – contains not less than 22 percent cocoa fat
 Sweet milk cocoa – breakfast cocoa mixed with sugar in the proportion of about 40 percent cocoa
and 60 percent sugar
 Sweet milk cocoa – breakfast cocoa ground with sugar to which 12 percent whole milk solids is
added.
 Instant cocoa – a combination of cocoa, chocolate, powdered skim milk, and sugar.
 Synthetic Drinks. These may be either carbonated or non-carbonated. Non-carbonated synthetic drinks are
usually fruit-flavored drinks which come as powdered, as concentrates, or syrups, or as ready to drink juices
in flexible laminates like tetra-packs. However, carbonated beverages are made with pure carbonated water,
sugars, acids usually citric acid, natural or synthetic flavoring and coloring.
Alcoholic Beverages
 Malt Liquor. This is a beverage produced by fermentation of cereal like barley malt or from a mixture of malt
and rye. Malt beverages can be classified into the following:
 Beer is a light colored brew that is fermented from cereals and malts and flavored with hops. Heavily
roasted malt will give a burnt malt taste and hops which was historically added as an anti-bacterial
agent, gives a spicy, grassy or hay-like aroma. Some common types of beer are:
 Pale/Pilsen/Pilsener – pale gold color beer which has a slightly bitter taste
 Lager – beer made by bottom yeast fermentations of the strain Saccharomyces
carlsbergensis. It has a lower alcoholic content than ale
 Cervesa Negra – dark-colored beer
 Draft – contained in sterilized stainless steel barrel after undergoing flash pasteurization and
carbonation.
 Ale is a beverage made with top yeast instead of bottom yeast employed for beer.
 Porter or staut is very full-bodied, dark sweet rich brew made from fermenting partially charred malt.
 Wine. Classically, wine is produced only from grapes but today the term wine is extended to alcoholic drinks
from any fruit, which contains sufficient fermentable carbohydrate. Wine has an alcoholic content of 10-24
percent.
Wine may be classified according to their chemical composition as follows:

 Dry wine- wine containing a very small amount of sugar. This is actually served during a meal
because it is neither sweet nor heavy.
 Sweet wine- wine with discernible amount of unfermented sugar
 Sparkling wine- wine that effervesces when bottle is opened, releasing bubbles of carbon dioxide
 Coolers- blend of wine with fruit juice or soda water
 Distilled liquors or spirits. These are distillates from fruits or wines, or from grains or starch solutions, or from
a mixture of fruits and grains or from other aromatic substances. Among distilled liquors are:
 Brandy- spirit-distilled from the fermented juice of grapes or sometimes of apples, peaches or plums.
This usually contains 30-50 percent alcohol.
 Cognac- a brandy distilled from wine. It derived its name from Cognac, a district in France where it
is made.
 Armagnac- a brandy produced from continuous operations of the original and redistillation systems
in contrast with the separate batch operations at Cognac
 Gin- colorless beverage containing 40-50 percent alcohol which derives its flavor from added
essential oils rather than from product of fermentation
 Rum- distillate from fermented sugarcane juice, syrup or molasses.
 Vodka – a Russian liquor distilled from fermented wheat rye or potatoes
 Whiskey- distilled product from grain mash saccharified and fermented by special distiller’s yeast.
Three kinds of whiskey are:
 Bourbon- made basically from corn, sometimes with rye and malt
 Rye- made from a mixture of rye or barley malt
 Scotch- made primarily from barley.
 Philippine alcoholic beverage – The raw materials of all local alcoholic beverages would naturally be
those which could be found in abundance here in the Philippines like sugarcane and coconut. Among
native drinks are:
 Basi – fermented drink from sugarcane. This drink is very popular among the Ilocanos. Basing
babae is sweet wine while basing lalake is dry wine.
 Tuba – sweet fermented coconut sap which is milky in appearance obtained by tapping the
young, flowering spathe of the coconut palm.
 Lambanog – drink distilled from tuba. This is a by-product of coconut. Its alcohol content is
higher than that of tuba.
Preparation of Beverages
Preparation of Coffee
In brewing coffee, the best results are obtained if the beans are freshly toasted and ground. Roasted coffee
changes in flavor a few days after grinding so that if coffee cannot be stored fresh, the next alternative is coffee in
vacuum cans. In making coffee, the objective is to extract the maximum amount of flavoring substances but the
minimum amount of the bitter tannin. There are several methods of preparing coffee: drip method, steep method,
percolator method, and the vacuum method. These four methods are based on the same principle of bringing the
coffee in contact with hot water to extract the water-soluble constituents.
Preparation of Tea
In preparing tea, the goal, as in making coffee, is to extract as little tannin as possible with the maximum
flavor. Tea could be prepared in either Tea ball or tea bag method, or steep method.
Preparation of Chocolate/Cocoa
A cup of cocoa is made by mixing one tablespoon of cocoa or one ounce of chocolate, one tablespoon of
sugar, a few grains of salt and two tablespoons of water. This is made to boil in a small saucepan and stirred to
prevent scorching. Cooking the cocoa or chocolate and sugar with a small amount of water reduces the tendency
for the cocoa to settle and prevents a raw flavor that might be the result of uncooked cocoa starch. When a thick
paste is formed, hot milk is added.
READINGS:
https://slideplayer.com/slide/4537805/saladsandsaladdressing
https://slideplayer.com/slide/4515447/beverages
https://www.livpure.com/blog/did-you-know-the-difference-between-purified-water-distilled-water-and-mineral-
water
https://www.academia.edu/34472496/6NonAlcoholicandAlcoholicBeverage
WATCH:
The basics about: Coffee
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vFcS080VYQ0)
Everything You've Ever Wanted to Know About Coffee

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FM5_NoXW2Y0)
WINE | How It's Made

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3PInCVXBsS8)
Tea | How It's Made

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vAi1qBV5n7I)
1. Give examples (with pictures) of appetizer salads, salads that can accompany the main course at luncheon,
salads suitable for a main course at luncheon and salads that may serve as desserts.
2. Compile pictures of the different herbs and spices and indicate their names.
3. Show pictures of food seasonings and additives available in your home.
4. Prepare your own non-alcoholic beverage at home.
UNIT 12 – MEAL PLANNING
FOOD PRESERVATION AND PACKAGING
OVERVIEW:
Meal planning means planning diets which will provide all nutrients in required amounts and proportions i.e.
adequate nutrition. As the family’s well-being and health are depended on how well they are fed. It is a challenge
to every meal-planner to meet it and when well done, it proves to be a satisfying and rewarding experience. Besides
others factors such as digestibility, palatability, economy, family customs, related to religion, food fads etc, it also
determines whether the food can be actually supplied and utilized by the individual.
Packaging helps to control the immediate environment of a food product, it is useful in creating conditions
that extend the storage life of a food. Packaging materials commonly used for foods may be classified as flexible
(paper, thin laminates, and plastic film), semi-rigid (aluminum foil, laminates, paperboard, and thermoformed
plastic), and rigid (metal, glass, and thick plastic). Plastic materials are widely used in food packaging because they
are relatively cheap, lightweight, and easy to form into desired shapes.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
 Develop a meal plan

 Explain the importance of food preservation and packaging
COURSE MATERIALS:
Lesson 52. MEAL PLANNING
Factors to Consider in Meal Planning
1. Food budget- refers to the cost or amount of money needed for the food to be prepared
2. Facilities and equipment needed in the preparation of the food, e.g. cooking utensils, space
3. Time and energy needed- refers to the time needed to prepare the food and the expertise of the cook
4. Preference of those who will eat the food- refers to what the guests want to eat as well as their culture,
customs, beliefs and the occasion
5. Occasion and purpose- consider when the food will be served and why it will be served
Goals in Meal Planning
 Nutritionally adequate -balanced diet with go, grow and glow foods that
promotes good health and well-being
 Economically feasible - within the budget, reasonably-priced
 Aesthetically satisfying -aesthetic (beautiful, attractive, pleasing to the
eye and the senses) -colors, form, flavor are appealing
 Hygienically prepared
Parts of a Meal
Soup- liquid food usually served before the main course or at times,
together with the main course.
Salad- cold dish consisting of a mixture of food served with a dressing
Appetizer- small dish of food served at the beginning of the meal to
stimulate the appetite
Main course -main part of the meal -may be a one-dish meal or a
combination of different courses
Dessert- sweet dish eaten at the end of the meal
Characteristics of Meal Planning
First of all, it should be remembered that food has to be

palatable before it can become nutritious, as majority of people will
not eat something they do not like, even if it has excellent nutritive
value. We should remember that appetite is the pleasurable
anticipation of foods and depends not only on hunger but also on
taste, texture, appearance and attractiveness of the foods,
pleasantness of the surrounding and a cheerful frame of mind. Meal
planning thus is both an art and a science: an art in the skillful blending
of colors, texture and flavor: and a science in the wise choice of food for optimum nutrition and digestion.
Importance of Meal Planning
The meal planning helps to make the best use of the material, time and financial resources to obtain meals
that can help to meet the physical, social and psychological needs of the individual and families. It is very important
to plan family meals in order to fulfil the nutritional requirement of the family members. This is essential to keep
them strong, healthy, and free from any disease and deficiency of any kind. Meal planning is of utmost importance
because it economizes on time, labor and fuel. While planning meals, the methods of working can be carefully
throughout, so that there is maximum retention of nutrients and minimum losses Meals can be planned according
to the budget of the family. There can then be maximum utilization of money, if it is spent in the best possible way.
Once can have a rich diet without buying expensive foods. Meal planning encourages one to plan within the
family means. Meal planning allows one to select different foods from the same food group and avoid monotony.
Besides, use of variety of foodstuffs is important from nutritional points also. Meal planning determines the adequacy
of the diet, the kinds of foods purchased, its quality and cost, the way it is stored, prepared and served.
Meal planning for different meals in a day
1) Breakfast: It is very important meal as taken after 10-12 hours long gap between dinner and breakfast the next
day. It should be well planned, nutritious attractive and should provide1/3rd to 1/4th of the day’s requirements, but
don’t make it very heavy which would lead to lethargy. The school children usually miss breakfast and as a result,
they cannot concentrate on studies after some time.
Breakfast should include (1) Fruit or fruit juice (2) Cereal preparation (3) Protein food – eggs, sausages, milk.
2) Lunch: It is the main meal, hence an important meal. About 1/3rd of the total day’s requirements should be
provided. The members who are not at home for the lunch, should be given packed lunch, which should be
nutritious, easy to carry, attractive and with some variety.
(3) Dinner: it is also the main meal and should provide 1/3rd of day’s requirements and should make up for all
deficiencies in person’s meal.
Lesson 53. FOOD PRESERVATION AND PACKAGING
 Packaging has been with humans for thousands of years in one form or the
other. Packaging dates back to when people first started moving from place to
place.
 Originally, skins, leaves, and bark were used for food transport.
 Four thousand years ago, sealed pottery jars were used to protect against
rodents, and glass making was an important industry in Egypt.
 Tin-plating iron became possible in AD1200, and as steel replaced iron this
method became useful
 One hundred years ago there was little use for packaging in the food industries.
 Now, tremendous progress has been made in the development of diversified packaging materials and in the
packaging equipment.
 Over the last three decades, packaging has grown in volume and importance into one of the most significant
areas of food production.
Packaging performs five main functions

1- product containment
2- preservation and quality
3- presentation and convenience
4- protection during Distribution and Processing
5- provide storage history
Product Containment
 The first function of packaging is its capability of containment.
 The primary purposes of packaging are containment and protection.
 It is self-explanatory; liquids, semi liquids, and powders, as well as bulk solids, cannot be marketed without
suitable containers.
 Containment refers to holding goods in a form suitable for transport, whereas protection refers to
safekeeping goods in a way that prevents significant quality deterioration.
Preservation by Maintaining Quality
 The second function of packaging is to control the local environmental conditions to enhance storage life
and safety. The main purpose of food packaging is to protect the product from surroundings and maintain
the quality of the food throughout the product’s shelf life.
 Product shelf life is controlled by three factors: product characteristics, properties, storage and distribution
conditions of individual package.
 Reactions causing deterioration in foods include enzymatic, chemical, physical, and microbiological
changes. Additional problems include insects, pests, and rodents.
Nutritional Quality
 Packaging affects the nutritional quality of foods. Examples include peroxidation of polyunsaturated fats and
destructive oxidation of nutrients such as ascorbic acid,
Fatty acid peroxides are well established as causing health problems.
 As antioxidative nutrients such as vitamins C and E are lost.
Carotenoid pigments can also be oxidized, leading to loss of color as well as loss of their beneficial effects
in the body.
 Lipid hydroperoxides can also result in the formation of aldehydes and other compounds with off-flavors. In
addition to light barriers, use of UV absorber in the packaging material can decrease lipid oxidation.
Among all other functions of packaging, the protection of foodstuffs against light plays a key role particularly during
storage, transport, and sales display.
Barrier Properties
 To achieve the best from packaging, it is important to know product characteristics, properties of individual
package, storage, and distribution conditions.
 Barrier properties include permeability of gases (such as O₂, Co₂, N₂, C₂H₄), water vapor, aromas, and light.
These are vital factors for maintaining the quality of foods.
 Packaging materials cannot be chosen solely on the basis of their barrier properties.
 Factors such as proccessability , mechanical properties and chemical resistance and interaction with product
and Environmental factors, such as temperature, relative humidity, and light intensity must also be taken
into account.
 Now various types of active substances can be incorporated into the packaging material to improve its
functionality and give it new or extra functions.
 Now various types of active substances can be incorporated into the packaging material to improve its
functionality and give it new or extra functions.
Presentation and Convenience
 Food labels are intended by law to provide the information that consumers need to be able to make the
necessary decisions about those purchases of food.
 It is important to display the product in an attractive manner to the potential buyer.
 A cleverly designed and beautifully produced packaging can help sell a product, which is an essential
ingredient of an effective marketing campaign. The packaging helps in distinguishing products on the shelf,
which is a trait especially important when marketing low-fat or nutritional products.
 For a package to be effective, it must present the product well and should do its own publicity.
 Changes in society, such as diminishing population pattern, increasing average age, smaller families, more
leisure time, as well as improvements in the quality of life, standard of living, and general level of education,
may also demand specific function of packaging.
 Eating styles, such as ready-to-eat meals, snacks, and microwaveable ready meals, have been changed
over the years, which need innovation in packaging.
 Packaging should meet the future demand of meeting eating style of the society.
 For children, the packaging might represent innovation or fun.
Protection during Distribution and Processing

 The fourth function is to protect the product during transit to the consumer. Packaging is part of the
distribution process necessary to deliver goods to the consumer and facilitate handling and transportation.
 It also has affected international trade by making shipping of food products possible, allowing seasonal
products to be more accessible out of season.
 Packaging can handle better when there are challenges in food distribution chain, such as heat, humidity,
or dew.
 It is important to be aware of the distribution challenges and designing of package to suit it.
 In case of prepacked product, it should have the ability to stand the severity or type of process conditions,
such as flexible packaging during canning, microwaveable foods, ovenable , and retortable foods.
 Irradiated foods are usually prepacked prior to treatment by ionizing radiation.
 Protective packaging is a term applied to packaging primarily designed to protect the goods, rather than for
appearance or presentation.
Provide Storage History
 Time-temperature indicator (TTI) is effective for predicting microbial concentrations and other parameters
of food quality during shipping and storage.
 It helps in ensuring proper handling and provides a gauge of product quality for sensitive products in which
temperature control is imperative to efficacy and safety.
 TTI could be used in chilled foods to identify the temperature abuse during storage and distribution
 TTIs are tags that can be applied to individual packages or shipping cartons to visually indicate whether a
product has been exposed to time and temperature conditions that adversely affect the product quality.
Ideal Packaging
Packaging Categories
Primary Packaging
 surrounds the product and features labelling.
Secondary Packaging
 ease of manual movement of products.
Transit Packaging
 wrapping used to bundle the
boxes or crates for transport and
distribution.
 transit packaged products are
placed in shipping containers for
long-distance transportation and
distribution
Selecting the Right Material
Material selection is based on:

 technical properties (strength, flexibility, etc.)
 fitness for purpose (moisture barrier, cushioning, etc.)
 availability
 manufacturing capability
 cost
 environmental impact
 regulations
Types of Packaging Materials

From skins, leaves, and bark, tremendous progress has been made in the development of diversified
packaging materials and in the packaging equipment.
In general, packaging materials may be grouped into

1- rigid (wood, glass, metals, and hard plastics)
2-flexible structures. (Plastic film, foil, paper, and textiles)
Plastics
 Their foremost advantage is their wide diversity and extremely broad
spectrum of properties.
Plastics are relatively cheap, light, easily processed and shaped, and easy to
seal.
 Two major drawbacks are their permeability to gases and vapors, and
the possibility of their interacting with the product.
 For package sterilization, the material of choice is polypropylene (PP),
which is used as the outer and inner plies of the laminate with
polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) as the middle layer to provide an oxygen
barrier.
 Plastic Bags
 Plastic Closures
 Oven-Safe Containers
Metals (Steel, Tin, Aluminum)
 Steel, tin, and aluminum are used mainly for canned

foods and beverages. The most common use of
metals for packaging is in tin-coated steel and
aluminum cans.
 The principal advantages of metal cans are their
strength providing mechanical protection, effective
barrier properties, and resistance to high
temperatures providing stability during processing.
it is an advantage for light-sensitive products.
 disadvantage in that contents are: invisible, heavy mass, high cost, and tendency to interact with contents
and environment (internal and external corrosion)
 The critical concepts of canning are to ensure that the product in the can is stable and that the seal provided
by the metal is complete.
 Aluminum is used increasingly for canning due to its lightness, low cost, corrosion resistance, availability,
and recyclability.
 Aluminum is also used extensively in many non-canning applications such as foil packaging, caps,
convenience food containers and lids, yogurt tub lids, kitchenware, and laminates.
 Foil may be used for formed or semirigid containers. Aluminum foil is difficult to use on modern fast
packaging equipment because of creases, tearing, and marking effects
 The steel can provide almost perfect barrier protection and, due to its structural strength and ability to handle
pressure, can be retorted (cooked under pressure) after sealing.
Glass
Advantages:
 Glass containers used to be and still are considered a prestigious means of packaging, and serve for the
most expensive wines, liqueurs, perfumes, and cosmetics.
 It is highly inert, impermeable to gases and vapors, and amenable to the most diverse shaping. It is an
excellent oxygen barrier and completely neutral in contact with foods
 It has the advantage of transparency, but where required it can be given different desired colors.
 It has complete as well as selective light protection properties.
Disadvantages are:
 fragility, heavy mass, and high energy requirement during manufacturing.
 The main uses of glass for packaging are in milk bottles, condiments, baby foods, instant coffee, and drinks.
 Glass is not used for frozen products, or for ground or roasted coffee because of breakage costs and the
difficulty of vacuum flushing.
Timber, Cardboard, and Papers

 Pulp products are widely used in food packaging in the form of different kinds of
paper, paperboard, laminates, and corrugated board.
 The main advantages of paper are its low cost, low mass, relatively high stiffness,
and excellent printability;
 the main disadvantage is its high sensitivity to moisture, reflected in close
dependence on the relative humidity of the environment.
 The basic raw material for papermaking is cellulose.
 Timber
Wood is commonly used in box construction, but the use
of wood for individual packaging (such as cigars) has
decreased since the advent of plastics. Examples of timber
for packaging are cases, boxes, and casks for long-
distance transport.
 Cardboard
Choosing a carton for a specific job depends on the
capacity of the carton to meet the requirements for that job.
READINGS:
https://www.slideshare.net/denosmena/meal-planning-
36591791https://slideplayer.com/slide/4710266/foodpreservationandpackaging
https://www.slideshare.net/meal-planning-137941110
WATCH:
Food Preservation
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bnGaOFataws)
How to: Home Food Preservation and Canning

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqIa7SBeTPU)
1. Create a 3-day meal plan for your family (Breakfast, Lunch, Dinner)
2. Make your own packaging using a recyclable material.

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Republic of the Philippines

POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR

ENGELINE DELA CRUZ-ILUMIN, RND, MBA

COURSE TITLE PRINCIPLES OF FOOD PREPARATION

Week Topic Learning Outcomes Methodology Resources Assessment

Week 1 Review of the  Determine Orientation of

-Why is yeast called a

Salads and Online lecture Basic Foods -Give examples (with

Online lecture https://www.s

Prepared by: Reviewed and Approved by:

ENGELINE DELA CRUZ-ILUMIN, RND, MBA LENY V. SALMINGO, PhD

UNIT II – INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE

UNIT III – SUGAR AND SUGAR COOKERY

UNIT V – FLOURS AND FLOUR MIXTURE , YEAST BREAD,

UNIT VI – FISH AND MEAT COOKERY

UNIT VII – POULTRY AND EGG COOKERY

UNIT VIII – MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

UNIT IX – FOOD GELS, FRUITS AND VEGETABLES,

UNIT XI – SALADS AND SALAD DRESSINGS, FOOD

UNIT XII– MEAL PLANNING

Lesson 1. KITCHEN TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

Lesson 2. FOOD STORAGE, FOOD SAFETY & SANITATION

HOW FOOD BECOMES INFECTED BY BACTERIA

The following are some of the most common food-poisoning bacteria:

Guidelines for Storage

 Perishables, e.g. eggs, milk,

1. Roasting – to cook uncovered

Food Preparation Terms and

1. Blend - to thoroughly mix two

Lesson 4. TABLE OF EQUIVALENTS

Table 1.1 Liquid (Fluid or Volume Measurements (approximate)

Table 1.2 Dry Weight Measurements

Lesson 5. THE SCIENCE OF FOOD

Lesson 6. KINDS OF FOOD

II. Animal Products

Lesson 7. FOODS AND HEALTH

Lesson 8. CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF FOOD

Water is a remarkable substance. Its most important function is as a

Chemically, water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one

Sugars are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides or trisaccharides depending on the number of

Polysaccharides - a long chain of glucose molecules forms an important polysaccharide starch

Table 2.4 Classification of Protein and Food Sources

Useful application of enzymes in food:

Minerals and Trace Elements

Macro-minerals: Calcium, Chloride, Phosphorous, Magnesium, Potassium, Sulphur, Sodium

Figure 2.4 Alkaline and Acidic Foods Chart

Methods of Heat Transfer in Cooking

Lesson 9. FOOD ACCEPTANCE AND FOOD EVALUATION

The Sensory Attributes of Food:

Sensory Evaluation of Food

The following basic requirements are important in sensory evaluation:

Lesson 10. FORMS OF SUGAR

Sugars are sweet, crystalline organic compounds classified

Sugars According to Chemical Form

Disaccharides- These are sugars composed of two monosaccharide units.

Types of Sugar Used in Cooking

1. Crystalline or granulated sugar. It is highly refined, multi-

2. Caster sugar. It is super fine granulated white sugar,

3. Powdered or confectioner’s sugar. Confectioners’ sugar

4. Pearl sugar. It is nib sugar or hail sugar. Pearl sugar is a

6. Cane sugar. Cane sugar is produced solely from sugar

7. Demerara sugar: Demerara sugar is a variety of raw