Aircraft General Knowledge

Engines
Lesson 21: Gas Turbine Controls and Operation
Engine Starting
Requirements
• There must be a flow of compressed air
through the engine.
• Fuel must be supplied to the combustor.
• There must be a source of ignition
Engine Start Control Panel
• Usually a means to select the engine.
• Usually a means to isolate the igniters. There must
be a flow of compressed air through the engine.
• Fuel must be supplied to the combustor.
• There must be a source of ignition.
Engine Start Control Panel
• GRD: In ground start
• CONT: Continuous Ignition
• FLT: In flight Ignition
 Engine Starting
• The ground start sequence is mostly automatic and is initiated by selecting
and holding a start switch on for two to three seconds.
• A starter motor turns the HP compressor.
• Shortly after rotation begins, the ignition units are energised at their high
power setting.
• At about 15% RPM fuel is pumped into the combustor.
• Light-up occurs shortly after the fuel is introduced, indicated by a rise in EGT.
 Engine Starting
• The starter motor continues to help the engine to accelerate until
it reaches self sustaining speed (about 30% RPM).
• The igniters and starter-motor cancel automatically, shortly after
self-sustaining speed is reached.
• The engine continues to accelerate under its own power until it
stabilises at ground idle speed.
• The start sequence controller usually incorporates a time switch
and an over speed sensor.
•
Engine Start Sequence
Types of Starter Motor
• Electric: drives the engine through a reduction
gearbox. Power is normally transmitted to the
HP compressor shaft through the radial drive
shaft.
• Pneumatic: compressed air is directed onto a
turbine in the starter motor. The motor turns
the HP compressor via the drive shaft.
• Can use air ducted from a running engine or
from the APU or from an external air source.
The Normal Start Sequence
The Normal Start Sequence
• Starter motor engaged.
• HP core (N2) begins to turn.
• Igniters on.
• Fuel Flow.
• Light up.
• Engine accelerates to self sustaining speed and LP fan (N1)
begins to turn
• Starter motor disengaged automatically.
• Engine continues to accelerate to ground idle
Dry Start
Dry Start
• Fuel fails to flow to the engine. Light-up
does not occur. Indications:
• Low and stagnating RPM.
• No EGT rise.
• No fuel flow.
Hung Start
Hung Start
• The engine lights-up but fails to accelerate
properly. Indications:
• Low and stagnating RPM.
• Not able to reach idle speed
• Low fuel flow.
• High EGT.
Hot Start
Hot Start
• Light-up is followed by a very rapid rise in
EGT.
• Abort the start as soon as it is obvious
that EGT will exceed its maximum limit.
• Usually caused by excess fuel in the
combustor.
• Sometimes after a previous failed start.
Wet Start
Wet Start
• The engine fails to light-up, RPM stabilises at a
low value. Unburned fuel is sprayed into the
combustion chambers. Indications:
• Low and stable RPM.
• No EGT rise.
• Some indicated fuel flow.
• You must do a dry run or blow out before
attempting a re-start.
Dry Run
• HP shut-off valve closed.
• Igniters off.
• Run the engine using the start switch.
• This blows out excess fuel.
• Torching is likely if a dry run is not carried
out after a wet start.
Airborne Relighting
• Same conditions as a normal ground start: air flow,
fuel flow and a source of ignition.
• The forward speed of the aircraft is usually sufficient
to windmill the compressor.
• Re-light by activating the igniters with the HP shut-off
valve open.
• A successful re-light depends on airspeed and altitude.
• Usually need to be below 25 000ft or inside the re-
light envelope.
Gas Turbine Notation
• P0, T0: ambient pressure and temperature.
• P1, T1: compressor inlet.
• P2, T2: LP compressor delivery
• P3, T3: HP compressor delivery
• P4, T4: Turbine entry.
• P5, T5: HP turbine exit outlet.
• P6, T6: LP turbine outlet.
• P7, T7: exhaust.
Notation
 Engine Pressure Ratio
Thrust is indicated either by reference to N1 or by engine pressure ratio.

EPR is the ratio of jet pipe pressure to inlet pressure.

The amount of thrust produced for a given EPR value reduces with altitude.
 Engine Pressure Ratio
In identical atmospheric conditions EPR equates to the same level of thrust
irrespective of the engine’s condition or age.
EPR may over-read if the P1 sensor becomes blocked.
Thrust - Indications and Values
• Various thrust limits are normally specified:
• Max Take-Off: maximum thrust allowed, time-
limited.
• Max Continuous: maximum thrust that can be
used continuously.
• Go-around: a thrust value close to, but less
than, maximum thrust used for the go-around.
• Max Climb: used for a routine all-engines climb.
Handling Considerations
• Gas turbine engines are most efficient when operating
at high RPM and at constant thrust settings.
• Frequent changes in thrust increase engine wear and
thermal fatigue.
• To preserve engine life, when ambient conditions and
payload permit, a reduced, de-rated thrust take-off
procedure is often used.
• FADEC equipped aircraft are normally protected from
exceeding EGT. Engines without FADEC (or with a
failed FADEC) must be handled more carefully.
Engine Speed
• Usually measured as a percentage of maximum
RPM.
• On multi-spool engines N1 can be used to indicate
engine thrust.
• Changes in temperature and humidity affect the
relationship between thrust and engine speed.
• During flight the lowest speed the engine operates
at is Flight Idle.
• Flight Idle is faster than Ground Idle
Engine Temperature
• Regardless of where measured temperatures all
relate back to the temperature in the turbine
section:
• TGT: Turbine gas temperature.
• EGT: Exhaust gas temperature.
• TIT/ITT: Turbine inlet temperature
• TET: Turbine entry temperature,
• JPT: Jet pipe temperature.
Engine Internal Air Overheat
• Overheat sensors are positioned around the
engine and in the outlets of the vents.
• Measures the temperature of internal engine
air - NOT the gas flow.(i.e. Air to pressurize
Main bearing housings)
• Excessively hot internal air indicates a
serious engine malfunction.
• Engine overheat captions are usually
coloured red.
Oil Temperature
• Oil temperature is a good sign engine health .
• Steadily rising oil temperature with steadily
falling oil pressure could indicate trouble.
 Torque
• Used to measure power output
on a turbo-propeller engine.
• Indicated as inch pounds or, as
a percentage of total power.
• Measured either by hydraulic
or electronic sensors or strain
gauges in the reduction
gearbox.
Vibration
• Vibration levels are usually very low.
• Raised vibration levels can indicate
impending problems.
• High frequency vibration can indicate
serious damage.
• Vibration indicators display levels of
vibration on a scale of relative amplitude.
Vibration
• Vibration levels are usually very low.
• Raised vibration levels can indicate
impending problems.
• High frequency vibration can indicate
serious damage.
• Vibration indicators display levels of
vibration on a scale of relative amplitude.
Conventional Engine Instrumentation
First Generation Electronic Engine Displays
 Glass Cockpit Indications

• Boeing EICAS
The Upper Centre Display shows the
primary engine parameters with
warning messages when appropriate.
The lower Multifunction Display screen
optionally displays secondary engine
parameters or a series of status
messages.
EICAS
• EICAS data is supplied either by the Left or Right
computer. In automatic mode the Left computer controls
the display with the Right at standby.
• The EICAS system has three modes:
• Operational Mode. Primary engine parameters are
displayed on the top screen. The bottom screen is
either blank or displays secondary parameters.
• Status Mode. This mode is manually selected, normally
on the ground.
• Maintenance Mode. Only selectable on the ground.
EICAS Reversionary Modes
• Enough redundancy built into the display
sources and switching for each screen to
allow essential information to be redirected
to another screen.
• Separate engine indications panels used in
first generation systems are no longer
required.
ECAM

The upper or left screen

shows primary engine
information, alerts, memos
and status messages.

The lower or right, SYSTEM,

screen shows secondary
information and system
schematics.
Colour Coding Conventions
 No need a
starter during
windmilling!!!
•
4.Statement is wrong, because; EPR,sis the
ratio of jet pipe pressure to inlet pressure.

5. Statement is wrong, because; EPR may

over-read if the P1 sensor becomes
blocked.(NOT LOWER) – giriş basıncı sabit
kalır, çıkış basıncı artar.
EPR,sis the ratio of jet pipe pressure to
inlet pressure.
 Under flat rate OAT(generally
under 15 C), Trust Lever is
never positioned at max. Stop.

THRUST, thrust lever ile

ayarlandığı için flat rated
sıcaklıkta(soğuk havada)
thrust lever maximuma
getirilmemeli!!!