CHAPTER 9

HOMEOSTASIS
9.1 Concept of Homeostasis 9.2 Negative Feedback
Mechanism in Controlling
Blood Glucose Level
Receptor

Control Center

Effector

9.0 HOMEOSTASIS

9.3 Human Homeostatic

Organ

Kidney

9.3 a) Describe the structure of

nephron

9.3 b) Urine Formation:

➢ Ultrafiltration
➢ Reabsorption
➢ Secretion

9.3 c) Describe the counter

current multiplier mechanism in
urine formation

9.3 d) Relate the regulation of

blood water content with ADH
9.1 CONCEPT OF HOMEOSTASIS

Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

(a) Explain the concept of homeostasis and describe the homeostatic control system.

a) Concept of homeostasis

Definition:
A process of maintaining a relatively constant internal environment1 inside a living
organism

Internal environment1 – refers to tissue fluid that surrounds cells, tissues or organs

Many animals exhibit homeostasis for a range of :

i. Physical properties – example body temperature of about 370C

ii. Chemical properties – example blood glucose concentration 90 mg/100 cm3 of
blood
IMPORTANCE

➔ able to adapt to the changes of external environment

➔ relatively constant internal environment enables the
chemical reactions to occur in cells
➔ Enable the organism to live in different habitats with wider
range of environmental conditions

➢ Homeostatic control system

3 basic components of the homeostatic control

Receptor

Control centre

Effector

Physiological control:
• Body can regulate its internal environment through feedback mechanisms
• The optimal level in a homeostatic control is known as the reference point or set
point
 Figure 9.1: Concept of homeostasis

Match the following components :

Receptor • receives information from receptors

• initiates the appropriate response to correct
the changes
• and send to effector through negative
feedback mechanism

Control • receives output from the control center and

Centre • produces a response of corrective
mechanism
• restore the condition back to normal

Effector • detect any changes in stimulus from the

reference point
• sends signals to a control center

9.2: NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic, students should be able to:

(a) Explain the negative feedback mechanism in controlling blood glucose

Definition:

A regulatory system in which any changes from the normal

condition will trigger the control mechanism that counteracts the
changes.
 a) Regulation of blood glucose level

Figure 9.2 a : The Islets of langerhans which secrete insulin and glucagon

Make sure that

you’re familiar with
these terms!!!

No. Term Explanation

i. Hyperglycemia Greek "hyper-" = high, over, beyond, above + "glykys" = sweet +
"haima" = blood.
ii. Hypoglycemia Greek "hypo" = under + "glykys" = sweet + "haima" = blood.
iii. Glycogenesis Greek "glykys" = sweet + "genesis" = origin.
iv. Glycogenolysis Greek "glykys" = sweet + "genes" = producing.+ “lysis” = loosing
v. Gluconeogenesis Greek "glykys" = sweet + "neos" = new.+ "genesis" = origin
vi. Glycosuria Greek "glykys" = sweet + “uria”= urine

State the correct terms for the following meaning given.

No. Meaning TERMS

1. Conversion of glucose becoming glycogen Glycogenesis
2. Breakdown of glycogen become glucose Glycogenolysis
3. Blood glucose level decrease above the normal range Hypoglycemia
4. The excessive glucose which secreted in urine Glycosuria
5. Conversion of fatty acids & amino acids becoming glucose Gluconeogenesis
6. Blood glucose level increase above the normal range Hyperglycemia
 Figure 9.2 b : Summary of homeostatic control of blood glucose level.

• Blood glucose level is regulated by the islet of Langerhans in the pancreas.

• The Islet of Langerhans cells act as receptor and control center

When concentration of blood glucose is When concentration of blood glucose is

HIGH (HYPERGLYCEMIA) LOW (HYPOGLYCEMIA)

- α cells secretes glucagons which

stimulates:
i. breakdown of glycogen to glucose
(glycogenolysis)
ii. convert other metabolites (eg fatty acid
and amino acid )to glucose
(gluconeogenesis)

- involves negative feedback mechanism

- β cells secretes insulin

- insulin binds to receptor on plasma
membrane of target cells and stimulates :
i. uptake of glucose from the blood
by muscle cells , liver and adipose
tissue
ii. glucose is converted to glycogen in
muscle cells and liver
glycogen is stored in liver
iii. glucose is converted to fat in adipose
tissue

- this tissue act as effector

- involves negative feedback mechanism
9.3 HUMAN HOMEOSTATIC ORGAN: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF
KIDNEY
Learning outcomes
At the end of this topic, students should be able to :

a) Describe the structure of nephron

b) Analyse the process in urine formation:
i. Ultrafiltration
ii. Reabsorption
iii. Secretion
c) Describe the counter current multiplier mechanism in urine formation
d) Relate the regulation of blood water content with ADH

a) The structure of kidney and its functional units

• Structure & function of kidney

Figure 9.3 (a): Human urinary system Figure 9.3 (b): A mammalian kidney
 Figure 9.3 (c): A nephron and associated blood vessels

NEPHRON

1. Tubular components 2. Vascular components

Renal Artery
Bowman’s capsule
Afferent arteriole
Proximal convoluted tubule
Glomerulus (capillaries)
Loop of Henle
Efferent arteriole
Distal convoluted tubule
Peritubular capillaries
Collecting duct & vasa recta

Renal vein
Exercise 9.3 (i) Identify the structure according to function given.

Tubular/ vascular
Function
component
Afferent arteriole Carries blood from renal artery into glomerulus

Glomerulus A network of capillaries between afferent and efferent arteriole.

A site for ultrafiltration of blood.

Efferent arteriole Carries blood from glomerulus into renal vein

Renal vein Carries blood away from kidney

Collecting Duct Collects the filtrate from DCT and drains into the renal pelvis

b) Urine formation

• Urine formation involves 3

processes:
i. Ultrafiltration
ii. Reabsorption
iii. Secretion

i. ULTRAFILTRATION

o The separation of large molecules from the small molecules by a very fine filter at
glomerulus
o Occur at renal corpuscle (consists of Bowman’s capsule and glomerulus)

CHARACTERISTICS:
Glomerulus
✓ dense network of
capillaries
✓ Consists of 1 layer of
endothelial cells with
pores
✓ Endothelial cells are
attached to a basement
membrane
✓ prevents Red Blood Cell
& plasma protein from
entering Bowman’s
capsule.

Figure 9.3 (d): Longitudinal section of renal corpuscle

 Bowman’s Capsule
✓ Consists of squamous
epithelial cell called
podocytes

✓ These cells have ‘foot-like’

extension that surround
the glomerulus.

✓ Opening between foot

processes that allow
filtrate to pass into the
capsule is call filtration
slits

Figure 9.3 (e): Three dimensional illustration of podocytes

and glomerular capillary

Figure 9.3 (f): Filtration membrane of the kidney

✓ Diameter of afferent arteriole is greater than diameter of efferent arteriole.
➢ Hydrostatic pressure increases
➢ Forces out H2O, glucose, amino acids, NaCl into Bowman’s capsule
➢ Remain in glomerulus : blood cells, platelets,plasma protein due to its large size

Factors increase the efficiency in ultrafiltration:

1. High hydrostatic pressure in glomerulus
2. Long and highly coiled glomerulus
3. High permeability of glomerulus to blood solutes
4. Large numbers endothelial cells with pores

ii. REABSORPTION

✓ The return of substances from the glomerular filtrate (useful substance) into
the peritubular capillaries
✓ About 80% of filtrate is reabsorbed at proximal convoluted tubule
✓ Occurs in:
i. Proximal convoluted tubule
ii. Loop of Henle
iii. Distal convoluted tubule
iv. Collecting duct

Figure 9.3 (g): Tubular reabsorption at the tubule

PART OF NEPHRON CHARACTERISTICS

Composed of simple cuboidal epithelium with a lot of:

Proximal Convoluted i. Microvilli – to increase the absorption
Tubule (PCT) ii. Mitochondria – supply energy for active transport to occur

Consist of :
Descending limb → lined with simple squamos epithelium
Loop of Henle Ascending limb → Thin segment - lined by simple squamous
epithelium
→ Thick segment→ lined with cuboidal
epithelium
 ✓ lined by simple cuboidal epithelial cells
Distal Convoluted ✓ inner surface is lined with few microvilli
Tubule (DCT) ✓ contains few mitochondria in order to provide energy for
active transport

Collecting Duct ✓ lined by simple cuboidal epithelial cells

Figure 9.3 (h): Reabsorption membrane of the kidney

Factors increase the efficiency of reabsorption:

i. Tubule wall is one cell thick
ii. Inner surface of the tubule has microvilli
iii. Epithelial cells of the tubule contain many mitochondria

PART OF NEPHRON CHARACTERISTICS

2 types of transport:
a) Active transport
- Glucose (100%)
Proximal convulated
- Amino acids (100%)
tubule Useful substance
- Vitamins (100%)
- NaCl (85%)

b) Passive transport
- Some ions - Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and potassium ion (K+ )
- Water by osmosis

- Water in the descending limb of Loop of Henle is drawn out by

Loop of Henle
osmosis into capillaries (vasa recta) surrounding the loop of
Henle
Distal convoluted tubule a) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from Posterior Pituitary
and collecting duct - Function : Increase the permeability of the distal tubule &
(under hormonal collecting duct to water
control) - More water is reabsorbed to peritubular capillaries by osmosis

b) Aldosterone from cortex adrenal

- stimulates the distal tubule to increase reabsorption of
sodium
Function : maintains the balance of salt and water in the body
fluids

iii. SECRETION

Waste substance is secreted from capillaries into the distal tubule e.g.: drug, H+,
NH+4, excess mineral salts

c) Counter current multiplier mechanism in urine formation

Counter current multiplier mechanism :

Fill in the blanks

TERMS
• Filtrate flow through the loop of Henle in opposite
direction
Counter current
• Filtrate goes down in the descending limb, and up in the
ascending limb

▪ Osmotic concentration of filtrate become progressively

higher in descending limb
Multiplier ▪ and become progressively lower in ascending limb

Characteristic of Loop
of Henle;

I. Descending Limb

✓ Thin walls
✓ Permeable to water
✓ Relatively
impermeable to
solutes

II. Ascending Limb

✓ Thick walls
✓ Impermeable to water
✓ Actively transports
NaCl into the
interstitial fluid

Figure 9.3 (i): Countercurrent multiplier mechanism body

Descending Limb
✓ In the interstitial fluid, the
concentration of solute
increase progressively from
cortex medulla to the
medulla of kidney

✓ This causes water in the

descending limb is drawn
out by osmosis.

✓ into capillaries (vasa recta)

surrounding the loop of
Henle.

✓ The loss of H2O causes

[NaCl] increase & at the tip
of Loop of Henle
produces the highest
concentration of filtrate Figure 9.3 (j): Urine concentration by countercurrent
multiplier mechanism`
Ascending Limb
✓ Thick segment → NaCl actively transported to medulla region
✓ Thin segment → NaCl diffuses out to medulla region
✓ As the fluid flows up the ascending limb, it continues to lose NaCl ions, & become less
concentrated.
✓The filtrate entering the distal tubule is hypotonic to the peritubular capillaries

In collecting duct :

i. Urea diffuses out to medulla region.

ii. [NaCl] and [urea] increased in
medulla.
Resulting :
✓ H2O diffuses out from descending limb
& collecting duct into capillaries by
osmosis.

✓ Urine becomes more concentrated as

it moves to renal pelvis
d) The regulation of blood water content with ADH

Regulation of blood water content

Osmotic pressure depends on [solute]

[solute] ↑ = blood osmotic pressure
↑

a) Blood osmotic pressure increases

(low water potential)

Low intake of water/salty

food/sweating

Blood osmotic pressure increased

Osmoreceptor at hypothalamus is
stimulated

Send impulse to posterior pituitary

gland

Posterior pituitary gland secretes more

ADH

ADH increased permeability of DCT &

collecting duct to H2O

More H2O reabsorbed into blood

Figure 9.3 (k): Regulation of urine
volume by antidiuretic hormone (ADH) capillaries by osmosis

Osmotic pressure of the blood will be

reduced by negative feedback &
concentrated urine is produced
b) Blood osmotic pressure decrease (high water potential)

Large amount of water is ingested /Low

salt intake

Drop in blood osmotic pressure

increased

Osmoreceptor at hypothalamus is not

stimulated

Posterior pituitary gland secrete less

ADH into the blood

Distal Tubule & Collecting Duct

becomes less permeable to ADH
permeability of collecting duct to H2O
Less H2O is reabsorbed into blood
capillaries

Osmotic pressure of the blood will be

increased by negative feedback & large
volume of dilute urine is produced

Figure 9.3 (l): Osmoregulation through the action of the hormone ADH
 Diabetes Mellitus Vs Diabetes Insipidus

Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes Insipidus

It is a pancreatic disorder
It is due to deficiency of insulin
There is rise in blood glucose level
(hyperglycaemia)
High glucose in the urine (glucosuria)
Urine produced is large volume of water
and sugar
It is hypothalamic disorder
It is due to deficiency of ADH
No rise in blood sugar level
Glucose is not excreted along with urine
Urine produced is very dilute and in large
volume

Concept check:

Which animal has longer

loop of Henle? Why?
- Kangaroo rat
− longer Loop of Henle will
create more hypertonic
medulla
− -more H2O can be
reabsorbed into blood

Figure 9.3 (m): Types of nephrone and the relationship with

urine concentration