Chapter 3

CHAPTER 3
PHONOLOGY: THE SOUND

PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE
Ms./ Mr.
Table of contents
01 | Phonemes & 02 | Phonological
allophones rules
03 | Syllables 04 | Phonological
Analysis
(Advanced)
PHONOLOGY is ...
● Study of patterns of sounds
in a language
● How those different sounds
are related & combined
THE PRINCIPAL AIMS OF
PHONOLOGY:
(1) Discover sound patterns – both simple and
complex
(2) Find out the general principles underlying the
patterns of sounds across all languages
(O’ Grady et al. 2001)
PHONEMES &
ALLOPHONES
1.1. Defining Phonemes & Allophones
In the physical world the native speaker
and hearer actualize and are sensitive to
sounds, but what they feel themselves to
be pronouncing and hearing are
“phonemes.”
(Sapir 1933, cited in Fromkin et al. 2007:261)
Phonemes: basic form
of a sound stored in
speakers’ mind
Þ Phonemes = abstract mental representations of sounds & be

associated with one/ more sounds
Ex: fish /fɪʃ/ => /f/, /ɪ/, /ʃ/: phonemes
Allophones: various ways that each sound or
each phoneme is actually pronounced in
different phonetic environments.
Example:
till [tɪl] => All contain
still [stɪl] the sound /t/
bitter [ˈbɪt.ər]
BUT: [t] pronounced slightly
different in each of the words
Example:
till [tɪl]: aspirated t
still [stɪl]: unaspirated t
bitter [ˈbɪt.ər]: flap (very fast ‘d’
sound)
Example:
We can say that:
[th], [t] and [r] are allophones ALLOPHONES:
of the same phoneme /t/ Different ways of
=> 3 different ways of pronouncing a single
pronouncing the phoneme phoneme depending
/t/ in different phonetic on the context in
environments. which it occurs
Can you summarize the main differences
between phonemes and allophones?
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN:
Phonemes Allophones
Ø Mental representations Ø Realizations, or ways of
of sounds in speakers’ pronunciation, of a single
minds phoneme in a variety of
Ø Abstract phonetic contexts
Ø Concrete
When a phoneme is associated with more than
one allophone à allophones must be
phonetically similar
[th], [t] and [r]: differ in aspiration and
voicing >< produced at the same place
and by the same manner of articulation
=> Described as alveolar stops
1.2. Distribution of Phonemes & Allophones
Distribution of a sound = Possible phonetic
environments
i.e. various positions in a word
where the sound can occur
A. Distribution of phonemes:
Phonemes = contrastive sounds
Þ In contrastive distribution
Þ Replacing one with the other in a word
à change the meaning of the word (i.e.

creating a different word)
A. Distribution of phonemes:
Ex:
/t/ & /d/: 2 different phonemes in English
→ Interchange 2 sounds → a change in a word’s meaning
Minimal pair: a pair of sounds with distinct meanings that differ only
in one sound in the same position.
Ex:
Tick & pick
Cat & cap
Stray & spray
If 2 sounds occur in a minimal pair, they:

→ are contrastive sounds
→ represent different phonemes in the language
Table 3.1. shows more examples of minimal pairs.
B. Distribution of allophones:
Ø Allophones of a given word → cannot
create different words
Ø Allophones: non-contrastive (b/c
interchanging them → not result in a

change of a word’s meaning)
Ex: [th] & [t] in English: non-contrastive
sounds (not contrast meaning)
Allophones:
Þ non-contrastive sounds
Þ In complementary distribution
(=mutually exclusive)
Þ Not appear in the same phonetic
environment
Ex: Consider the distribution of the English allophone
[th] & [t] in (6) & (7) respectively:
[th] & [t]: + not appear in the same position in a word
+ in complementary distribution:
[th]: always occur word-initially
[t]: usually found after /s/
Þ No minimal pairs in English in which the two sounds
contrast.
Allophones of a single morpheme:
Þ Sometimes occur in free variation (=appear in the
same phonetic environment >< not cause a difference
in a word’s meaning)
Ex: when producing /t/ in word-final position
Þ Pronounced as an unaspirated [t]
Þ Pronounced with lips closed & [t] sound unreleased
(unreleased )
The words in (8) may be pronounced in 2 alternative ways:
Unaspirated [t] and unreleased occupy the same position in

a word (appear word-finally)
Þ Not contrast meaning Þ not create different words
Þ Be in free variation
1.3. Variations in Sound Patterns across Languages
A. The voiceless stops in English and Thai:
Ex: The aspirated & unaspirated voiceless stops in
English & Thai:
* In English:
• Not create a difference
Aspirated [ph] & unaspirated [p]
b/w 2 words
Aspirated [th] & unaspirated [t] • Not form minimal pairs
Aspirated [kh] & unaspirated [k] • Be in complementary
distribution
Ex: The aspirated sound: appears at the beginning of a
word >< unaspirated counterpart: occurs after/s/
Þ Aspiration in English distinguished allophones, not phonemes.

* In Thai: The aspirated & unaspirated voiceless stops:
occur in many minimal pairs in Thai:
• Contain the same tone &
almost identical sounds
• Differ only in that one begins
with an aspirated voiceless
stop >< the other begins with
the unaspirated counterpart
Þ Aspiration in Thai is contrastive.

Þ [ph] & [p]: create different words Þ 2 separate phonemes in Thai.
Conclusion:
ÞThe voiceless stops [p], [t], [k], [ph], [th], & [kh] in English
& Thai: have different functions.
+ In English: represent the phonemes [p], [t], [k]
+ In Thai: represent the phonemes [p], [t], [k], [ph], [th], &
[kh]
(Fromkin et al. 2007)
B. The liquids in English & Korean:
* In English: There are minimal pairs in which the two liquids
[l] & [r] contrast.
Ex: light /laɪt/ >< right /raɪt/
low /ləʊ/ >< row /rəʊ/
• In Korean: [l] & [r] are not contrastive sounds & do not
form a minimal pair
• Þ be in complementary distribution: [r] always
appears between 2 vowels >< [l] never occurs in this
position
B. The liquids in English & Korean:
Þ In English: [l] & [r] = different

phonemes
Þ In Korean: [l] & [r] = allophones of
a single phoneme
1.4. Rules of Allophonic Variation in American English
1.4. Rules of Allophonic Variation in American English
PHONOLOGICAL RULES
WHAT ARE PHONOLOGICAL RULES?
PHONOLOGICAL RULES: tell how a single phoneme is pronounced
differently in different environments
Two levels of phonological representations:

v Phonemic representations: + consist of phonemes
+ » speakers’ mental representations
of sounds
v Phonetic representations: + contain allophones
+ reflects what speakers know about
the actual pronunciation of each
individual sound in a specific position
in a word
WHAT ARE PHONOLOGICAL RULES?
NATURAL CLASS: a group of sounds in a language that share one or
more phonetic properties “to the exclusion of all other sounds in
that language”
(Stewart, Jr. and Vaillette 2001:77)
Ex: + the sounds [m, n, ŋ] in English: nasal consonants

+ the sounds [ɔː, ɒ, uː, ʊ] in English: rounded vowels
PHONOLOGICAL RULES
Table 3.3. presents the major kinds of processes that are found in
many languages including English.
Table 3.3. Major phonological processes
Process Operation
Assimilation A sound becomes more similar to a neighboring sound.
Dissimilation A sound becomes less similar to a neighboring sound.
Insertion A sound is inserted.
Deletion A sound is deleted.
Metathesis The order of sounds is reversed.
Strengthening A sound becomes stronger.
Weakening A sound becomes weaker.
2.1. Assimilation
A. Assimilation: causes a sound to become more similar
to a neighboring sound in terms of one or more of its
phonetic properties.
B. Types of assimilation:
*** Regressive assimilation: a sound influences its
preceding sound.
*** Progressive assimilation: a sound influences its
following sound.
2.1. Assimilation
Ex:
Vowel nasalization rule Þ vowels become nasalized when they
precede nasal consonants within the same syllable
Þ Regressive assimilation
2.1. Assimilation
Ex:
Possessive marker voicing rule Þ the voicing feature moves forward
from the voiced consonant to the following possessive marker.
Þ Progressive assimilation
2.2. Dissimilation
A. Dissimilation: causes a sound to become less similar to a
neighboring sound in terms of one or more of its phonetic
properties.
B. Ex: fricative dissimilation rule: fifth/fθ/& sixth /sθ/ (ending with
consecutive fricatives)
Þ The fricative /θ/ becomes dissimilar to the preceding fricatives –
[f] or [s] – by changing its manner of articulation into the stop [t]
2.3. Insertion
A. Insertion: a sound is added to the phonetic representation of a
word.
B. An inserted segment = a vowel/ a consonant
C. The process of inserting a vowel or consonant Þ epenthesis
D. Ex: word insertion process: include a [ə] insertion rule
Regular past formation of verbs in English
Þ When a regular verb ends with an alveolar stop [t] or [d] Þ a
[ə] is inserted before the past tense suffix [d] Þ [əd]
2.3. Insertion
D. Ex: consonant insertion process: voiceless stop insertion rule
Þ insert a voiceless stop having the same place of articulation
as the nasal between a nasal consonant and a voiceless fricative
2.4. Deletion
A. Deletion: a sound, either a vowel or consonant, is removed from
the phonetic representation of a word.
B. Ex: [ə] deletion rule: an unstressed schwa [ə] is often deleted
when the preceding syllable contains a stressed vowel.
2.4. Deletion
A. Deletion: a sound, either a vowel or consonant, is removed
from the phonetic representation of a word.
B. Ex: [g] deletion rule: [g] is deleted when it precedes a final
nasal consonant.
2.5. Metathesis
A. Metathesis: a process which changes the order of sounds in a
string.
B. Ex:
+ in children’s speech: spaghetti Þ pesghetti
+ in adults’ speech: prescribe Þ perscribe
2.6. Strengthening
A. Strengthening: makes a sound become stronger Þ fortition
B. Ex: An aspiration rule: voiceless stops in English are aspirated
when they appear at the beginning of a stressed syllable
2.7. Weakening
A. Weakening: causes a sound to become weaker or softer Þ
lenition
B. Ex: a flapping rule: In American English: an alveolar stop – [t] or [d]
Þ Pronounced as a flap when it appears b/w a stressed vowel & an
unstressed vowel.
2.8. Conclusion of Phonological Rules
Classifications of phonological rules:
Ø Obligatory rules: rules that all speakers of a language under
specific conditions always apply in their speech
Þ Achieve a native accent
Þ Ex: voiceless stop aspiration
Ø Optional rules: rules which apply in the speech of some, not all,
speakers of a language.
Þ Occur more often in rapid, casual speech
Þ Variation in speech
Þ Ex: The English flapping rule
Classifications of phonological rules:
Ø Obligatory rules
Ø Optional rules
Applying more than one rule to a word in actual speech:
Ex: prince
SYLLABLES
3.1. The Internal Structure of Syllables
A. Syllables:
+ a phonological unit that is made up of one or more phonemes
+ the bigger unit of phonological representation than phonemes &
allophones
B. Elements in a syllable:
+ A nucleus: the core of the syllable (usually a vowel) Þ most
sonorant & audible sound
+ An onset: a consonant preceding the nucleus
+ A coda: a consonant following the nucleus
Þ Nucleus + coda = rime

A. Syllables:
+ Every syllable must have a nucleus.
+ The nucleus may/ may not be preceded by an onset/ followed by
a coda.
B. Some examples of syllable structures commonly found include:
+ Minimum syllable: a syllable = a single vowel Þ acts as the nucleus:
about /əˈbaʊt/
+ A syllable = one onset consonant + a nucleus vowel: easy /ˈiːzi/
+ A syllable = a nucleus vowel + one coda consonant: at /æt/
+ A syllable = one onset consonant + a nucleus vowel + one coda
consonant: barley /ˈbɑːli/
C. Consonant clusters: Sequences of adjacent consonants
occurring initially or finally in a syllable
Ex: play /pleɪ/, lists /lɪsts/
The internal structure of a syllable:
3.2. Phonotactic Constraints on Syllables
Sounds do not appear randomly in syllables.
Þ Restrictions on what sounds and sound sequences can occur in
the onset, nucleus, & coda positions.
Þ PHONOTACTIC CONSTRAINTS = restrictions on:
v distribution of sounds in various positions in syllables
v possible combinations of sounds into sequences
v permissible syllable types
+ Some of the restrictions = universal tendency

Ex: Most preferred syllable type = CV Þ all languages
+ Other restrictions = language-specific
Ex: + Hawaiian syllables: never end with a coda + syllables = V & CV
+ Russian: complex onset sequences fsl- & mgl- allowed
(fslux ‘aloud’ & ‘mgla ‘fog’)
Phonotactic constraints in English:
A. English onsets:
Ø A syllable with one onset Þ any consonant sound except

for [ʒ] & [ŋ] can act as the onset.
Exception: Jacques (French) & Nguyen (Vietnamese)
Ø A syllable with two onsets Þ initial two-consonant clusters

are of two main types (Roach 2000)
Phototactic constraints in English:
A. English onsets:
+ One type: consist of [s] as first initial consonant + one of a
small set of consonants
3.2. Phototactic Constraints on Syllables
+ The other type:
begins with one
of a set of 15
consonants + a
liquid/ glide as
the second initial
consonant.
Onset position = <= 3 consonants
Þ /s/ + a voiceless stop /p/, /t/, or /k/ + a liquid/ glide / l/
, /r/, /w/ , or /y/
Table 3.18 shows all 3-consonant clusters tat can be in the
onset position in English.
B. English codas:
Ø A syllable with one coda consonant Þ any consonant

sound can serve as the coda, except for [h], [r], [w] & [y]
Ø A syllable with two coda consonants Þ final two-

consonants are of two main types (Roach, 2000)
B. English codas:
+ One type: contains one of a small set of consonants [s, m, n,
ŋ, l ] as first final consonant.
B. English codas:
+ The other type: contains one of a small set of consonants [t,
d, θ, s, z] as second final consonant.
Coda position = <= 4 consonants
Ex: syllables ending with 3-consonant & 4-consonant clusters:
Coda position = <= 4 consonants
Ex: syllables ending with 3-consonant & 4-consonant clusters:
Syllable shapes in English:
3.3. Accidental & Systematic Gaps
A. Accidental gaps: forms that are permitted but have not yet
been used as words Þ conform to the phototactic
constraints in English
Ex: snoob, splick, hent, krist
B. Systematic gaps: non-occurring forms resulting from the

violation of phonotactic constraints in a language
Ex: sequences /rs/ & /bp/ (rsick & bpeel)
3.3. Accidental & Systematic Gaps
Accidental & Systematic gaps Þ an important factor in
deciding the form of borrowed words.
+ Borrowed words corresponding to accidental gaps

Þ More readily accepted by speakers
Þ Ex: taco (Spanish) & Zen (Japanese)
+ Borrowed words corresponding to systematic gaps

Þ Usually have to be adjusted before becoming part of the
language’s lexicon
Þ Ex: Greek words – stop cluster [pt] → first onset consonant
[p] = deleted: pterodactyl & Ptolemy
SYLLABLE STRUCTURE
ONSET CODA
WORDS PEAK
Post- Post -
Pre-initial Initial Pre- final Final Post - Post -
initial final 1
/s/ /n, 7/ /l,m,n,7,s/ /h,n,r,j/ final 2 final 3
/l,r,w,j/ /s,z,t,d,8/
split s p l i: t
scream
bank
next
helped
PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
(ADVANCED)
Phonological Analysis
To determine whether the sounds in questions are phonemes or
allophones, follow the guidelines below step by step:
1. Look for minimal pairs to show that the sounds are in contrastive
distribution.
Þ the sounds = a minimal pair Þ separate phonemes
Þ No minimal pair Þ go to the next step.
2. Check whether the sounds appear in different environments.
Þ the sounds = in complementary distribution Þ allophones of a
single phoneme Þ go to the final step.
3. Write a phonological rule describing the phoneme & phonetic
environment for each of its allophones.
Illustration of procedure
1. Do [m] & [n] represent different phonemes or allophones of the
same phoneme in English?
2. Do [m] & [n] represent different phonemes or allophones of the
same phoneme in English?
Illustration of procedure
Examples:
1. meet /miːt/ - neat /niːt/ Þ a minimal pair
Þ /m/ & /n/: different phonemes in English
2. Lateral liquids: clear l [l] & dark l [ɫ]
Þ Check whether [l] & [ɫ] are in complementary
distribution
Þ Make a list of all the phonetic environments of
each sound.
+ [l]: always occurs before a vowel (beginning of a
word/ after initial consonant)
+ [ɫ]: always occurs after a vowel (end of a word/
before final consonant)
Þ [l] & [ɫ] = in complementary distribution
Þ [l] & [ɫ] = allophones of the same phoneme
Some Cautious Issues
1. Allophones of a single phoneme = phonetically similar (= share most
phonetic features)
Ex: [ŋ] & [h]: always appear in different environments:
+ [ŋ]: only appear at the end of a syllable: sing, song
+ [h]: only appear at the beginning of a syllable: house, heat
Þ [ŋ] & [h]: not in complementary distribution Þ Not allophones of the
same morpheme
Þ [ŋ] & [h]: different phonemes
2. Allophones: may be in free variation:
Ex: the unaspirated [t] & unreleased [t ̚]̚ = in word-final position
Þ Either way of pronunciation: not change the meaning of ‘let’
Þ Allophones of the same phoneme
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS
Thank you!
Do you have any questions?

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Chapter 3 - Phonology

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PHONOLOGY: THE SOUND

Þ Phonemes = abstract mental representations of sounds & be

Þ Replacing one with the other in a word

à change the meaning of the word (i.e.

If 2 sounds occur in a minimal pair, they:

interchanging them → not result in a

Þ Pronounced with lips closed & [t] sound unreleased

Unaspirated [t] and unreleased occupy the same position in

Þ Aspiration in English distinguished allophones, not phonemes.

Þ Aspiration in Thai is contrastive.

Þ In English: [l] & [r] = different

Two levels of phonological representations:

Ex: + the sounds [m, n, ŋ] in English: nasal consonants

Þ Nucleus + coda = rime

+ Some of the restrictions = universal tendency

Ø A syllable with one onset Þ any consonant sound except

Ø A syllable with two onsets Þ initial two-consonant clusters

Ø A syllable with one coda consonant Þ any consonant

Ø A syllable with two coda consonants Þ final two-

B. Systematic gaps: non-occurring forms resulting from the

+ Borrowed words corresponding to accidental gaps

+ Borrowed words corresponding to systematic gaps

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