I‡cb ¯‹zj evsjv‡`k Db¥y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

BDwbU
12
cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v (Symbolic Logic)

f‚wgKv: hyw³we`¨vi Ab¨Zg cÖavb Av‡jvP¨ welq n‡jv hyw³i ˆeaZv ev A‰eaZv wbY©q|
†hgb-
hw` eb¨v nq, Zvn‡j `ywf©¶ †`Lv †`‡e|
eb¨v n‡q‡Q|
AZGe, `ywf©¶ †`Lv †`‡e|
GUv GKwU ˆea hyw³i D`vniY| ˆea hyw³i wbqgvejx m¤ú‡K© †gvUvgywU aviYv _vK‡jI
DwjøwLZ hyw³wUi ˆeaZv m¤ú‡K© wbwðZ nIqv m¤¢e| Ges Zv m¤¢e n‡q‡Q †KejgvÎ
hyw³wUi mij KvVv‡gvi Kvi‡YB| wKšÍz A‡c¶vK…Z RwUj hyw³i †ejvq ˆea hyw³i
wbqgvejx m¤ú‡K© ch©vß Ávb _vKv m‡Ë¡I hyw³wUi ˆeaZv ev A‰eaZv wbY©q `ytmva¨ n‡q
c‡o| †hgb-
hw` Avwg ivRv Wvb ev evw`‡Ki N‡i Pvwj, Z‡e †bŠKv Pvjv‡Z cviebv| hw` †bŠKv bv
Pvjv‡Z cvwi, Z‡e cvuP Pv‡j wRZ‡Z ciebv| Avevi hw` ivRv‡K Wv‡b ev †Kvb N‡iB
Pvjv‡Z bv cvwi, Z‡e hw` cÖwZØ›`¡x Avgv‡K nviv‡Z cv‡i, Z‡e Zvi GKUv cwiKíbv
_vK‡eB myZivs hw` cÖwZØ›`¡x Avgv‡K nviv‡Z cv‡i Ges Zvi †Kvb cwiKíbv bv _v‡K,
Z‡e Avwg cvuP Pv‡j wRZ‡Z cviebv|
cÖ`Ë hyw³wU †ek RwUj| Gi ˆeaZv ev A‰eaZv wbY©q †hŠw³Kfv‡e Am¤¢e bv n‡jI
ev¯Í‡e †ek Kómva¨| Giƒc RwUj hyw³i ˆeaZv ev A‰eaZv mn‡R I wbf©yjfv‡e wbY©‡qi
Rb¨ hyw³‡K cÖZx‡Ki gva¨‡g ms‡¶‡c cÖKvk Kivi cÖqvmx nb| Giƒc cÖZxKwfwËK
hyw³we`¨vB n‡jv cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v| Ab¨fv‡e ejv hvq, †h hyw³we`¨v we‡kl ai‡bi
cÖZxKZvi cÖeZ©b K‡i cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi Øviv hyw³i cÖKvk I g~j¨vqb‡K mnRZi K‡i|
Zv‡KB cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v e‡j| cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v‡K MvwYwZK hyw³we`¨v bv‡gI AwfwnZ
Kiv nq|
jvBe&wbR,RR©eyjx, †RfÝ, wm.Gm.cvm©, iv‡mj, †nvqvBU‡nW, †d«‡M, cÖgyL `vk©wbK I
hyw³we`MY cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi cÖ‡bZv| Z‡e cÖvPxb Kv‡jI mbvZbx hyw³we`¨vq Gwi÷Uj
I Zvui Abymvixiv hyw³i AvKvi, we‡klfv‡e mnvbygv‡bi AvKvi cÖ`k©‡bi †¶‡Î cÖZxK
e¨envi K‡ib| Gwi÷Uj mnvbygv‡bi cÖavb, AcÖavb I ga¨c`‡K h_vµ‡g P,S I M
Øviv cÖZxKvwqZ K‡i -Gi cÖ_g AvKvi †hfv‡e †`Lvb, Zv nj M-P, S-M, I S-P
GB BDwb‡U cÖZx‡Ki msÁv, cÖK…wZ, cÖZxK I ms‡K‡Zi cv_©K¨ cÖKvi‡f`, cÖZx‡Ki
ˆewkó¨, cÖZx‡Ki Dc‡hvwMZv, mbvZbx I cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi cv_©K¨,mZ¨Zv I ˆeaZv
BZ¨vw` m¤ú‡K© Av‡jvPbv Kiv n‡q‡Q|

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cvV 1

cÖZx‡Ki msÁv: cÖZx‡Ki cÖK…wZ, cÖZxK I ms‡KZ

D‡Ïk¨: GB cvV †k‡l Avcwb

● cÖZx‡Ki msÁv w`‡Z cvi‡eb|
● cÖZx‡Ki cÖK…wZ Ges cÖKvi‡f` m¤^‡Ü Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|
● cÖZxK I ms‡K‡Zi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|

12.1.1. cÖZx‡Ki msÁv

cÖZxK n‡jv †Kvb wKQyi ms‡KZ| wKšÍz ZvB e‡j cÖZxK I ms‡KZ m¤ú~Y© Awfbœ bq|
hyw³we`‡`i g‡Z B”QvK…Zfv‡e †Kvb wKQy‡K †evSvi Rb¨, wb‡`©k Kivi Rb¨ Ges cÖKvk
Kivi Rb¨ †h wPý ev ms‡KZ e¨envi Kiv nq Zv‡K cÖZxK (Symbol) e‡j| †hgb: †Kvb
†`‡ki cZvKv‡K H †`‡ki cÖZxK ejv nq| Gwi÷Uj cÖavb c`, AcÖavb c` I
ga¨c‡`i cÖZxK wn‡m‡e h_vµ‡g P, S I Me¨envi K‡i‡Qb|
12.1.2 cÖZx‡Ki cÖK…wZ I cÖKvi‡f`:
cÖZx‡Ki cÖK…wZ I cÖKvi‡f` m¤ú‡K© Av‡jvPbv Ki‡Z n‡j Zvi Av‡M ms‡KZ m¤ú‡K©
Avgv‡`i my¯úó aviYv _vKv evÄbxq| cÖZxK GK ai‡bi ms‡KZ|
ms‡KZ `y'ai‡bi n‡Z cv‡i-
1. ¯^vfvweK ms‡KZ (Natural Sign)
2. K…wÎg ms‡KZ (Artificial Sign)
¯^vfvweK ms‡KZ: †h ms‡KZ B”Qv wbi‡c¶fv‡e wb‡`©wkZ welq ev wµqvi m‡½
mv`„k¨hy³ A_ev wbweo m¤ú‡K© Ave× Zv‡K ¯^vfvweK ms‡KZ e‡j| †hgb †avuqv Av¸‡Yi
ms‡KZ, †g‡Ni Dcw¯’wZ e„wói ms‡KZ|
K…wÎg ms‡KZ: e¨envwiK myweav‡_© B”QvK…Zfv‡e Avgiv †h ms‡KZ e¨envi Kwi Zv‡K
K…wÎg ms‡KZ e‡j| †hgb UªvwdK c‡q†›Ui jvjevwZ Mvox _vgvi ms‡KZ Ges meyR evwZ
Mvox Pjvi ms‡KZ| Avgiv B‡”Q Ki‡j Zvi wecixZ A_©vr jvj evwZ I meyR evwZ‡K
h_vµ‡g Mvox Pjvi Ges _vgv‡bvi ms‡KZ wn‡m‡eI MY¨ Ki‡Z cviZvg| hyw³we`¨vq
Av‡jvPbvi myweav‡_© ms‡KZ‡K †e‡Q †bqv n‡q‡Q| Giƒc c~e© evQvBK…Z K…wÎg ms‡KZ‡K
cÖZxK ejv nq| mxwgZ cwim‡i n‡jI Gwi÷U‡ji hyw³we`¨vq cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi j¶Yxq|
Z‡e cÖZxKx ev MvwYwZK hyw³we`¨vq cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi e¨vcK| cÖZxK e¨env‡ii †¶‡Î †h
wZbwU wel‡qi cÖwZ j¶¨ ivLv cÖ‡qvRb †m¸wj n‡jv: K. cÖZxK L. cÖZxKvwqZ welq Ges
M. GKRb e¨vL¨vZv|
cÖwZ‡Ki cÖKvi‡f`: cÖZxK wewfbœ ai‡bi n‡Z cv‡i, †hgb-
1. kvwãK cÖZxK I AkvwãK cÖZxK
2. MÖvnK cÖZxK I aªæeK cÖZxK
3. Dcv`vb Ávcb cÖZxK I AvKvi Ávcb cÖZxK
4. msw¶ß cÖZxK I `„óvšÍg~jK cÖZxK

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5. cÖKvkag©x cÖZxK, wb‡`©kg~jK cÖZxK I cwieZ©b cÖZxK|

wb‡gœ ch©vqµ‡g wewfbœ cÖKvi cÖZx‡Ki e¨vL¨v †`qv nj|

1. kvwãK cÖZxK I AkvwãK cÖZxK: hLb †Kvb kã Øviv †Kvb welq ev e¯Íz ev ˆewkó¨ ev
†Kvb wµqv wb‡`©k Kiv nq ZLb †mB kã nj wb‡`©wkZ welq ev e¯Íz ev ˆewkó¨ ev wµqvi
cÖZxK| †hgb Ô†Pqvi' kã †Pqv‡ii cÖZxK| Ôgnr' kãwU gnr bvgK ¸‡Yi cÖZxK|
c¶všÍ‡i, kã e¨ZxZ †h wPý ev ms‡K‡Zi mvnv‡h¨ †Kvb wKQy wb‡`©k Kiv nq Zv‡K
AkvwãK cÖZxK e‡j| †hgb Bs‡iwR eY©gvjvi ÔP' ‡_‡K ÔV' ch©šÍ, MvwY‡Zi +,-,
×, ÷ BZ¨vw` wPý nj AkvwãK cÖZxK| ejv evûj¨ AkvwãK cÖZxKB hyw³we`¨vq cÖZxK
wnmv‡e e¨envi Kiv nq|
2. MÖvnK cÖZxK I aªæeK cÖZxK: †h cÖZxK wP‡ýi ¯’v‡b Ab¨ †Kvb we‡kl †kªYxi AšÍM©Z
†Kvb wKQyi cÖwZ¯’vcb Kiv hvq, Zv‡K MÖvnK e‡j| MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki gvb cwieZ©bkxj|
Gwi÷U‡ji iPbvq MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi _vK‡jI AvaywbK hyw³we`¨vq MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki
e¨envi e¨vcK|
aªæeK cÖZxK: hyw³ev‡K¨i AvKvi cÖKv‡ki Rb¨ †h me cÖZxK e¨envi Kiv nq, Zv‡`i
aªæeKcÖZxK e‡j| aªæeKcÖZx‡Ki A_© memg‡q AcwiewZ©Z _v‡K e‡j G‡`i aªæeKcÖZxK
e‡j|
†hgb ⊃, V, ≡ cÖf…wZ|
3. Dcv`vb Ávcb cÖZxK I AvKvi Ávcb cÖZxK: †h mKj aªæeKcÖZxK †Kvb hyw³ ev
mnvbygv‡bi Dcv`vb wbqš¿Y K‡i Zv‡`i‡K Dcv`vb Ávcb cÖZxK e‡j| c¶všÍ‡i, †h
mKj aªæeK‡Kvb hyw³ev‡K¨i AvKvi wbqš¿Y K‡i Zv‡`i AvKvi Ávcb cÖZxK e‡j|
4. msw¶ß cÖZxK I `„óvšÍg~jK cÖZxK: hyw³we` Rbmb cÖZxK‡K msw¶ß cÖZxK Ges
`„óvšÍg~jK cÖZxK bv‡g wPwýZ K‡i‡Qb| †hme cÖZxK †Kvb k‡ãi msw¶ß iƒc wn‡m‡e
e¨eüZ nq Zv‡`i msw¶ß cÖZxK e‡j| †hgb- FAO, ADB BZ¨vw`| ¸‡Yi cÖZxK (∞)
†hv‡Mi cÖZxK (+) BZ¨vw`‡KI msw¶ß cÖZxK wnmv‡e MY¨ Kiv nq| c¶všÍ‡i, eY©gvjv
†_‡K wbe©vwPZ cwieZ©bkxj cÖZxK mg~n‡K `„óvšÍg~jK cÖZxK e‡j| †hgb cÖavb, AcÖavb
I ga¨c‡`i cÖZxK wn‡m‡e h_vµ‡g P, S I M nj `„óvšÍg~jK cÖZxK|
5. cÖKvkag©x, cwieZ©b I wb‡`©kg~jK cÖZxK: cÖ‡dmi ÷vDU cÖZxK‡K cÖKvkag©x
cwieZ©b I wb‡`©kg~jK GB wZb †kªYx‡Z fvM K‡i‡Qb|
cÖKvkag©x: †h cÖZx‡Ki Øviv Avgiv †Kvb wel‡qi cÖwZ g‡bv‡hvMx nB Zv‡K cÖKvkag©x
cÖZxK e‡j| ÔAvKvk' kã Øviv AvKvk‡K cÖKvk Kiv nq| ZvB G‡¶‡Î ÔAvKvk' nj
AvKv‡ki cÖKvkag©x cÖZxK|
cwieZ© cÖZxK: †h cÖZxK †Kvb wKQyi cwie‡Z© e¨eüZ nq Zv‡K cwieZ© cÖZxK e‡j|
hyw³we`¨v I MwY‡Zi †¶‡Î G ai‡bi cÖZx‡Ki eûj e¨envi j¶Yxq|
wb‡`©kg~jK : †h cÖZxK gvbe g‡b †Kvb aviYv m„wói Kv‡R e¨eüZ nq Zv‡K wb‡`©kg~jK
cÖZxK e‡j|
12.1.3 cÖZxK I ms‡K‡Zi cv_©K¨: Avgv‡`i ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡b e¨eüZ fvlvq ms‡KZ I
cÖZxK‡K GKB A‡_© e¨envi Ki‡jI Df‡q Awfbœ bq| wb‡gœ cÖZxK I ms‡K‡Zi g‡a¨
cv_©K¨ †`qv nj:
1. cÖZxK Avgv‡`i ˆ`bw›`b Rxe‡bi e¨vL¨vi I e¨env‡ii Dci wbf©ikxj| wKšÍz ms‡KZ
e¨vL¨v ev e¨env‡ii Dci wbf©ikxj bq|

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2. mKj cÖZxK‡K ms‡KZ wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv Kiv hvq wKšÍz mKj ms‡KZ‡K cÖZxK wn‡m‡e
we‡ePbv Kiv hvq bv| †Kej K…wÎg ms‡KZ‡KB cÖZxK wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv Kiv hvq|
3. ms‡K‡Zi mv‡_ mvs‡KwZK wel‡qi m¤úK© cÖZ¨¶| wKšÍz cÖZx‡Ki mv‡_ cÖZxKvwqZ
welq m¤úK© cÖZ¨¶ bq, eis c‡iv¶|
4. †h‡nZz mKj ms‡KZB cÖZxK bq wKšÍz mKj cÖZxKB ms‡KZ, ms‡KZ‡K RvwZiƒ‡c
we‡ePbv Ki‡j cÖZxK‡K DcRvwZ wn‡m‡e we‡ePbv Kiv hvq|

mvims†¶c
cÖZxK ej‡Z †Kvb wKQyi ms‡KZ‡K eySvq| wKšÍz cÖZxK I ms‡KZ Awfbœ bq| †Kej
gvÎ B”Qvbyhvqx e¨eüZ K…wÎg ms‡KZ‡K cÖZxK ejv nq| AvaywbK hyw³we`¨vq
cÖZx‡Ki e¨vcK e¨envi j¶¨ Kiv †M‡jI Gwi÷U‡ji hyw³we`¨vq cÖZx‡Ki wKQy
e¨envi j¶¨Yxq| ms‡KZ `y'cÖKvi-¯^vfvweK I K…wÎg| AvaywbK hyw³we`MY cÖZxK‡K
kvwãK-AkvwãK, MÖvnK-aªæeK, Dcv`vb-AvKvi, msw¶ß, cÖKvkag©x BZ¨vw` †kªYx‡Z
wef³ K‡ib|

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I‡cb ¯‹zj evsjv‡`k Db¥y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqY -1
mwVK Dˇi cv‡k wUK (√) wPý w`b|

1. cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v Avgv‡`i Kx wkLvq?

K. hyw³i ˆeaZv ev A‰eaZv wbY©q
L. hyw³i mZ¨Zv ev wg_¨vZ¨
M. ZK© Ki‡Z wkLvq
N. AvPi‡Yi DbœwZ NUvq

2. cÖZxK Kv‡K e‡j?

K. †h †Kvb ms‡KZ‡K cÖZxK e‡j
L. ¯^vfvweK ms‡KZ‡K cÖZxK e‡j
M. †KejgvÎ K…wÎg ms‡KZ‡K cÖZxK e‡j

3. cÖZx‡Ki e¨vcK e¨envi j¶Yxq

K. Ava~wbK hyw³we`¨vq
L. Gwi÷U‡ji hyw³we`¨vq
M. b¨vq hyw³we`¨vq
N. Øvw›`¡K hyw³we`¨vq

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cvV 2

hyw³we`¨vq cÖZx‡Ki Dc‡hvwMZv Ges cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi ˆewkó¨

D‡Ïk¨: GB cvV †k‡l Avcwb Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb-

● hyw³we`¨vq cÖZxK †Kb e¨envi Kiv nq
● cÖZx‡Ki wK wK ˆewkó¨ Av‡Q
● cÖZxK wKfv‡e hyw³‡Z e¨envi Kiv nq
● cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi AvKviMZ ˆeaZv
● MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi

12.2.1 hyw³we`¨vq cÖZx‡Ki Dc‡hvwMZv:

GK_v wVK †h cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v mbvZbx hyw³we`¨viB GKwU DbœZ ms¯‹iY| AvaywbK
Kv‡ji hyw³we`&MY RwUj hyw³i ˆeaZv ev A‰eaZv wbY©‡qi †¶‡Î mbvZbx hyw³we`¨vi
mxgve×Zv KvwU‡q DVvi Rb¨ cÖZxK cÖeZ©‡bi gva¨‡g RwUj hyw³i ˆeaZv ev A‰eaZv
wbY©‡qi cÖqvmx nb Ges mdjKvgI nb| cÖZxK cÖeZ©‡bi gva¨‡g A‡bKUv hvwš¿Kfv‡e
mgq I †gavi AcPq bv K‡i AwZ mn‡RB wbf©yjfv‡e A‡c¶vK…Z RwUj hyw³iI ˆeaZv
ev A‰eaZv wbY©q Kiv m¤¢e nq| †h me Kvi‡Y hyw³we`¨vq cÖZx‡Ki cÖ‡qvM‡K ¸iæZ¡c~Y©
e‡j g‡b Kiv nq †m¸wj nj:

1. hyw³i ˆeaZv AvKviMZ| cÖZxK e¨env‡ii gva¨‡g hyw³i AvKvi wba©viY K‡i hyw³‡K
mywbw`©ófv‡e cÖKvk Kiv m¤¢e nq| Avi hyw³‡K mywbw`©ófv‡e cÖKvk Kiv m¤¢e n‡j hyw³i
ˆeaZv wbY©q mnR nq|
2. hyw³‡K cÖZxKvq‡bi gva¨‡g mywbw`©ó AvKv‡i cÖKvk Kiv †M‡j AwZ mn‡RB D³
AvKv‡ii †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨ wbqg cÖ‡qvM K‡i hyw³i ˆeaZv wbY©q `ªæZ, wbwðZ I mnR nq|
3. cÖZxK e¨env‡ii gva¨‡g mvaviY fvlvi A¯úóZv, `y‡e©va¨Zv I ب_©KZv RvZxq
†`vlµwU Ges fvlvi mxgve×Zv `~i Kiv m¤¢e nq|
4. cÖZxK e¨env‡ii gva¨‡g Avgiv hyw³i Abvek¨K AskUzKz ev` w`‡q mvia‡g©i cÖwZ
g‡bv‡hvMx n‡Z cvwi Ges hyw³i wm×všÍ mn‡R wbY©q Ki‡Z cvwi|
5. cÖZxK e¨envi K‡i Avgiv Kg mg‡q Ges †gavi AcPq bv K‡i m¤ú~Y© hvwš¿K
c×wZ‡Z hyw³i ˆeaZv ev A‰eaZv cÖgvY Ki‡Z cvwi|
6. cÖZxK e¨envi K‡i Lye mn‡RB `y‡Uv ePb ev hyw³i g‡a¨ we`¨gvb cv_©K¨ wbY©q Ki‡Z
m¶g nB|
12.2.2 cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi ˆewkó¨: Avcbviv Av‡MB †R‡b‡Qb †h, cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v
cÖPwjZ hyw³we`¨viB GKwU DbœZ ms¯‹iY| mbvZbx ev cÖPwjZ hyw³we`¨v fvlvi gva¨‡g
hyw³‡K cÖKvk K‡i| c¶všÍ‡i fvlvi cwie‡Z© MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki gva¨‡g cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v
hyw³‡K cÖKvk K‡i| †m wn‡m‡e ejv hvq, cÖZxK cÖ‡qvM hyw³i cÖKvkB nj cÖZxKx
hyw³we`¨v|

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I‡cb ¯‹zj evsjv‡`k Db¥y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

†hgb- me gvbyl nh cwikªgx|

me QvÎ nq gvbyl|
∴ me QvÎ nq cwikªgx|
G hyw³‡K cÖZx‡Ki mvnv‡h¨ †hfv‡e cÖKvk Kiv hvq, Zvn‡j
me M nq P gvbyl → M }
me S nq M QvÎ → S } Øviv cÖZxKiY Ki‡j
∴ me S nq P cwikªgx → P}
mv‡c¶ ev wgkª mnvbygv‡bi †¶‡Î cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi AviI msw¶ß AvKv‡i cÖKvk Kiv
m¤¢e| †hgb- hw` evsjv‡`‡ki ivRwbwZwe`iv mr nq, Zvn‡j evsjv‡`‡ki DbœwZ m¤¢e|
evjv‡`‡ki ivRbxwZwe`iv mr|
AZGe evsjv‡`‡ki DbœwZ m¤¢e|
G hyw³wU‡K cÖZxKvqb Ki‡j-
hw` p Zvn‡j q (evsjv‡`‡ki ivRwbwZwe`iv mr → P
p evsjv‡`‡ki DbœwZ m¤¢e → P)
∴q

DwjøwLZ hyw³wU ˆea Ges G AvKv‡ii †h †Kvb hyw³B ˆea| GK_v †_‡K GUvB cÖgvwYZ
nq †h, hyw³i ˆeaZv AvKviMZ| mgKvjxb hyw³we` wm, AvB, jyBm cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi
wbæwjwLZ wZbwU ˆewk‡ó¨i K_¨ D‡jøL K‡i‡Qb-
1. aviYv Ávcb wP‡ýi e¨envi
2. Ae‡ivnvZ¡K c×wZ
3. MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi

1. aviYv Ávcb wP‡ýi e¨envi: †h mg¯Í kã mivmwi †Kvb aŸwb cÖKvk K‡i Zv‡`i‡K
aŸwbÁvcb wPý e‡j| †hgb †hvM wPý ¸Y wPý BZ¨vw`| c¶všÍ‡i †h mg¯Í wPý
mivmwifv‡e †Kvb aŸwb cÖKvk bv K‡i avibv‡K cÖKvk K‡i Zv‡K aviYvÁvcb wPý e‡j|
†hgb +, ÷, × BZ¨vw`| cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vq avibvÁvcb wPýB AwaK gvÎvq e¨eüZ nq|
2. Ae‡ivnvZ¥K c×wZ: cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v Ae‡ivnag©x| G c×wZi gva¨‡g cÖZxKx
hyw³we`¨v Aí msL¨K wee„wZ‡Z Aí msL¨K wbqg cÖ‡qvM K‡i AwaK msL¨K wee„wZ cÖ`vb
K‡i _v‡K| AvaywbK hyw³we`MY cÖZxK e¨env‡ii gva¨‡g Ae‡ivn c×wZ‡Z AwaKZi
kw³kvjx K‡i Zz‡j‡Qb|
3. MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi: hw`I MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi cÖPwjZ hyw³we`¨vq I
cwijw¶Z nq, wKšÍz Gi e¨vcK e¨envi j¶ Kiv hvq cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vq| MÖvnK cÖZxK
e¨env‡ii gva¨‡g †Kvb hyw³‡K wbw`©ó AvKv‡i mvwR‡q ˆeaZvi wbqgvejx cÖ‡qvM K‡i
hyw³i ˆeaZv AwZmn‡RB wbY©q Kiv hvq| †hgb

hw` p, Zvn‡j q GLv‡b p, q nj MÖvnK cÖZxK

- q Ñ nj wb‡l‡ai cÖZxK
∴−p

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I‡cb ¯‹zj evsjv‡`k Db¥y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

hyw³i AvKviwU ˆea| Avkªq evK¨ Ges wm×v‡šÍi mZ¨Zv hvPvB bv K‡i Dc‡iv³ AvKv‡ii
MÖvnK cÖZxK m¤úbœ †h †Kvb hyw³i AvKviB ˆea e‡j we‡ewPZ n‡e|

mvims‡¶c
cÖZxK cÖeZ©‡bi d‡j hyw³i ˆeaZv wbY©q mnR nq| cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v AvKviMZ|
GKwU ˆeahyw³i mv`„k¨g~jK Ab¨hyw³I ˆea e‡j we‡ewPZ n‡e| cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vq
MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi e¨vcK| wm AvB jyBm cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi ˆewkó¨ wn‡m‡e
aviYv Ávcb wP‡ýi e¨envi, Ae‡ivnvZ¡K c×wZ I MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki e¨env‡ii K_v
e‡j‡Qb|

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb : 2
mwVK Dˇi cv‡k wUK (√) wPý w`b|
1. hyw³i ˆeaZv
K. e¯ÍzMZ
L. AvKviMZ
M. fvlvMZ
N. †KvbwUB bq
2. cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vq †Kvb ai‡bi wPý AwaK e¨eüZ nq?
K. aŸwb Ávcb
L. aviYv Ávcb
M. DfqwU
N. †KvbwUB bq|
3. cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v
K. Av‡ivnag©x
L. Ae‡ivnag©x
M. Ae‡ivn Ges Av‡ivnag©x
N. †KvbwUB bq

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I‡cb ¯‹zj evsjv‡`k Db¥y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

cvV 3

mbvZbx hyw³we`¨v I cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v

D‡Ïk¨: GB cvV †k‡l Avcwb Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb|

● mbvZbx hyw³we`¨v I cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi g‡a¨ †gŠwjK †Kvb cv_©K¨ Av‡Q wKÑbv|
● MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi
● G `y‡Uvi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ †`Lv‡Z wM‡q e¨vmb I Kbvi gšÍe¨

12.3.1 mbvZbx hyw³we`¨v I cÖPwjZ hyw³we`¨vi cv_©K¨:

bvgKiY †`‡L g‡b n‡Z cv‡i mbvZbx hyw³we`¨v I cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v m¤ú~Y© Avjv`v
welq| wKšÍz Avm‡j Zv bq| Df‡qiB Av‡jvPbvi welqe¯Íz hyw³i ˆeaZv wbY©q| mbvZbx
hyw³we`¨v hyw³ cÖ‡qvM K‡i fvlvi gva¨‡g| c¶všÍ‡i, cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v hyw³ cÖ‡qvM K‡i
MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki gva¨‡g| Aek¨ MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi Gwi÷UU‡ji hyw³we`¨vqI cvIqv
hvq| wKšÍz Zv wQj AZ¨šÍ mxwgZ AvKv‡i|
Avcbviv Av‡MB †R‡b‡Qb †h mbvZbx hyw³we`¨vq mxwgZ cwim‡i hyw³i c‡`i ¯’v‡b
MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi cÖPwjZ wQj| wKšÍz cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vq hyw³ev‡P¨i c` I †hvRK
Dfq †¶‡ÎB e¨vcKfv‡e cÖZx‡Ki e¨envi Kiv nq| †hgb-
hw` †`‡ki me RbMY wkw¶Z nq, Zvn‡j †`‡k MYZš¿ cÖwZwôZ nq|
evsjv‡`‡k MYZš¿ cÖwZwôZ nqwb|
∴evsjv‡`‡ki me RbMY wkw¶Z nqwb|
G‡¶‡Î c~e©M A_©vr Ô‡`‡ki me RbMY wkw¶Z nq' Gi cwie‡Z© p, AbyM A_©vr ‡`‡k
MYZš¿ cÖwZwôZ n‡e| Gi cwie‡Z© q, ‡hvRK Ôhw` Zvn‡j Gi cwie‡Z© Ô⊃' Ges bT_©K
wP‡ýi cwie‡Z© Ô∼' cÖZxK e¨envi Kiv nq Zvn‡j hyw³wUi AvKvi n‡e-

hw` p ⊃ q GLv‡b , ‡`‡ki me RbMY wkw¶Z nq→ p

∼q ‡`‡k MYZš¿ cÖwZwôZ n‡e → q
∴∼p bT_©K ev‡K¨i Kvi‡Y → ∼
cÖZx‡Ki e¨vcK e¨env‡ii cÖwZ j¶¨ †i‡LB e¨vmb I Kbvi e‡jb-ÒcÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi
BwZnvm msw¶ß| wKšÍz mbvZbx hyw³we`¨vi i‡q‡Q `xN© BwZnvm| Zv m‡Ë¡I G‡`i gv‡S
†h cv_©K¨, Zvnj µ‡gvbœwZi wewfbœ ch©v‡qi cv_©K¨, cÖvß eq¯‹ Rxe‡`‡ni mv‡_ åæ‡Yi
cv_©K¨, mbvZbx hyw³we`¨vi mv‡_ cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi cv_©K¨ A‡bKUv †Zgwb|Ó Gi A_©
nj cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v mbvZbx hyw³we`¨vi m¤úªmvwiZ, cwiewZ©Z, cwiYZ I DbœZ
ms¯‹iY| mbvZbx hyw³we`¨vi cwiYZ Ae¯’vB nj cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v| ZvB `y‡Uvi gv‡S
cv_©K¨ ¸YMZ bq| cwigvYMZ|

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mvims‡¶c
mbvZbx I cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi g‡a¨ †Kvb †gŠwjK cv_©K¨ †bB| cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v
mbvZbx hyw³we`¨viB GKwU DbœZ ms¯‹iY| mbvZbx hyw³we`¨v hyw³ cÖ‡qvM K‡i fvlvi
gva¨‡g| c¶všÍ‡i, cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v hyw³ cÖ‡qvM K‡i cÖZx‡Ki gva¨‡g| mbvZbx
hyw³we`¨vi BwZnvm `xN©, Acic‡¶, cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi BwZnvm msw¶ß|
`y‡Uvi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ ¸YMZ bq, cwigvYMZ|

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb : 3
mwVK Dˇi cv‡k wUK (√) wPý w`b|
1. cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v I mbvZbx hyw³we`¨vi cv_©K¨-
K. ¸YMZ
L. cwigvYMZ
N. e¯ÍzMZ
N. AvKviMZ
2. MÖvnK cÖZx‡Ki e¨vcK e¨envi j¶ Kiv hvq-
K. mbvZbx hyw³we`¨vq
L. Øvw›`¡K hyw³we`¨vq
M. cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vq
N. b¨vq hyw³we`¨vq
3. cÖZxKx hyw³we`MY cÖZxK e¨envi K‡ib-
K. c‡`i †¶‡Î
L. †hvR‡Ki †¶‡Î
M. c` I †hvRK Df‡qi †¶‡Î
N. ïaygvÎ wm×v‡šÍi †¶‡Î|

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I‡cb ¯‹zj evsjv‡`k Db¥y³ wek¦we`¨vjq

cvV 4

mZ¨Zv I ˆeaZv

D‡Ïk¨: GB cvV †k‡l Avcwb Rvb‡Z cvi‡eb

● mZ¨Zv I ˆeaZv Kv‡K e‡j?
● mZ¨Zv †Kvb †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨ Ges ˆeaZv †Kvb †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨
● hyw³i Avkªq evK¨ wg_¨v n‡qI hyw³ ˆea n‡Z cv‡i
● Aåvš— hyw³ Kv‡K e‡j?

12.4.1 mZ¨Zv I ˆeaZvi cv_©K¨:

Avcbviv Av‡MB †R‡b‡Qb †h, hyw³we`¨vi cÖavb Av‡jvP¨ welq n‡”Q hyw³i ˆeaZv wbY©q
Kiv Ges ˆea hyw³i wbqgvejx m¤ú‡K© ÁvZ nIqv|
†Kvb mnvbygvb ˆea bv A‰ea Zv wbf©i K‡i ˆeaZv (Validity) ej‡Z Avgiv wK eywS Zvi
Ici| ˆeaZv m¤ú‡K© Rvb‡Z n‡j Zvi Av‡M mZ¨Zv m¤ú‡K© Rvbv Avek¨K Ges mZ¨Zv
wKfv‡e ˆeaZv †_‡K c„_K †m m¤ú‡K© ¯úó aviYv _vKv Avek¨K|
mZ¨Zvi mv‡_ ˆeaZvi cÖavb cv_©K¨ n‡jv, mZ¨Zv ePb ev Dw³i †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨|
c¶všÍ‡i, ˆeaZv hyw³ ev b¨v‡qi †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨|
†Kvb eP‡bi †¶‡Î hLb mZ¨Zv K_vwU Av‡ivc Kwi ZLb D³ e³e¨‡K ev¯Í‡ei mv‡_
Abyiƒc nIqviB wb‡`©k K‡i _vwK| hw` e³‡e¨i gv‡S ev¯Í‡ei wgj ev AbyiƒcZv _v‡K
Zvn‡j e³e¨wU mZ¨ Avi AbyiƒcZv bv _vK‡j e³e¨wU wg_¨v| †hgb- hw` ejv nq,Ô26
gvP© evsjv‡`‡ki ¯^vaxbZv w`em' evsjv‡`k GKwU mvK©fy³ GKwU †`k, ZLb G‡`i Øviv
wea„Z e³e¨ ev¯Í‡ei mv‡_ Abyiƒc e‡jB Avgiv Rvwb| ZvB ePb¸wj mZ¨| wKšÍz hLb
ejv nq, Ôevsjv‡`‡ki ivRavbx Kzwgjøv' Ô`ya Kv‡jv' ÔZLb G‡`i Øviv wea„Z e³e¨
ev¯Í‡ei Abyiƒc bv nIqvq Avgiv wg_¨v e‡jB Rvwb| Aci c‡¶ †Kvb hyw³i †¶‡Î hLb
ˆeaZv K_vwU Av‡ivc Kwi ZLb Gi Øviv hyw³‡Z e¨eüZ ePb ¸wji mZ¨gvb wb‡q Avgiv
fvwebv| †Kbbv b¨v‡qi ˆeaZv eP‡bi mZ¨ wg_¨vi Dci wbf©i K‡i bv| b¨v‡qi †¶‡Î
Avgv‡`i wePvh© welq nj Avkªq evK¨ †_‡K wm×všÍwU wewam¤§Z (ˆeahyw³i wbqgvejx
AbymiY K‡i) fv‡e wbtm„Z n‡q‡Q wKbv Zv †`Lv|
hw` †`Lv hvq wm×všÍwU Avkªq evK¨ †_‡K wewam¤§Zfv‡e wbtm„Z n‡q‡Q, Zvn‡j hyw³wU‡K
ˆea ewj| Avi hw` †`wL, wm×všÍwU Avkªq evK¨ †_‡K wewam¤§Zfv‡e wbtm„Z nqwb Zvn‡j
hyw³wU‡K Avgiv A‰ea ewj|
†hgb- mKj `vk©wbK nq †`k cÖwg‡K| (Avkªq evK¨)
iv‡mj GKRb `vk©wbK (Avkªq evK¨)
∴ iv‡mj GKRb †`k †cÖwgK| (wm×všÍ)
G mnvbygvbwU ˆea| †Kbbv Gi wm×všÍwU AvkªqevK¨ †_‡K wewam¤§Zfv‡e wbtm„Z n‡q‡Q|
mnvbygv‡b e¨eüZ ePb¸‡jvi mZ¨Zv hvPvB Avgv‡`i KvR bq| †hgb, iv‡mj mwZ¨Kvi
A‡_© GKRb †`k‡cÖwgK wKbv †mUv Avgv‡`i we‡eP¨ welq bq| c¶všÍ‡i,

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hw` eb¨v nq Zvn‡j †`‡k `ywf©¶ †`Lv †`‡e| (Avkªq evK¨)

eb¨v nqwb| (Avkªq evK¨)
∴ †`‡k `ywf©¶ †`Lv †`‡ebv| (mZ¨ wm×všÍ)
G hyw³wU A‰ea| †Kbbv wm×všÍwU Avkªq evK¨ †_‡K wewam¤§Zfv‡e wbtm„Z nqwb| hw`I
ePb¸‡jv mZ¨| GLv‡b Avgiv eP‡bi mZ¨ wg_¨v hvPvB Kwi bv|
AZGe, ejv hvq mZ¨ Avkªq evK¨ wb‡q †hgb †Kvb hyw³ ˆea n‡Z cv‡i Avevi wg_¨v
Avkªq evK¨ wb‡qI †Kvb hyw³ ˆea n‡Z cv‡i| Avevi Avkªq evK¨ I wm×všÍ mZ¨ n‡qI
†Kvb hyw³ A‰ea n‡Z cv‡i| myZivs †Kvb hyw³ ˆea GKvi‡Y bq †h Zvi AšÍM©Z cÖwZwU
ePb mZ¨ eis G Kvi‡Y †h Avgiv Avkªq evK¨¸wj‡K mZ¨ e‡j a‡i †bB Zvn‡j
wm×všÍ‡KI Avgv‡`i mZ¨ e‡j a‡i wb‡Z n‡e|
bx‡Pi D`vniY¸wji w`‡K j¶ Kiæb Zvn‡j e¨vcviwU AviI cwi®‹vi n‡e|

1. hw` e„wó nq Zvn‡j gvwU wfR‡e| (mZ¨ Avkªq evK¨)

e„wó n‡q‡Q| (mZ¨ Avkªq evK¨)
∴ gvwU wf‡R‡Q (mZ¨ wmךÍ)

2. hw` eb¨v nq Zvn‡j km¨ nvwb n‡e| (mZ¨ Avkªq evK¨)

eb¨v nqwb (mZ¨ Avkªq evK¨)
∴ km¨ nvwb n‡ebv| (mZ¨ wm×všÍ)

3. hw` †Kv_vI †avqv _v‡K Zvn‡j †mLv‡b wmsn evm K‡i (wg_¨v Avkªq evK¨)
b`x‡Z †avqv _v‡K (wg_¨v Avkªq evK¨)
∴ b`x‡Z wmsn evm K‡i (wg_¨v wm×všÍ)
Dc‡iv³ 1 bs D`vni‡Y Avkªq evK¨ I wm×všÍ mZ¨ Ges hyw³wUI ˆea| 2q D`vni‡Y
Avkªq I wm×všÍ mZ¨ n‡qI hyw³wU A‰ea| 3q Dnvni‡Y Avkªq evK¨ I wm×všÍ wg_¨v
n‡qI hyw³wU ˆea|

12.4.2 AåvšÍhyw³:
Dc‡ii Av‡jvPbv †_‡K Avcbviv †R‡b‡Qb †h, hyw³i ˆeaZv wbY©‡qi †¶‡Î eP‡bi
mZ¨Zv A_ev wg_¨vZ¡ †`Lv wb‡gªv‡qvRb| ePb mZ¨ n‡qI ˆea n‡Z cv‡i, wg_¨v n‡qI
ˆea n‡Z cv‡i| Avevi mZ¨ I wg_¨vi mswgkªb _vK‡jI hyw³ ˆea n‡Z cv‡i| Z‡e hw`
†Kvb hyw³i Avkªq ev‡K¨ Ges wm×v‡šÍ e¨eüZ mKj ePbB mZ¨ nq Zvn‡j Zv‡K AåvšÍ
hyw³ (Sound Argument) e‡j| †hgbÑ
mKj gvbyl nq giYkxj| (mZ¨ Avkªq evK¨)
mKj ivRwbwZwe` nq gvbyl| (mZ¨ Avkªq evK¨)
AZGe, mKj ivRwbwZwe` nq giYkxj| (mZ¨ wm×všÍ)
12.4.3 hyw³i ˆeaZv AvKviMZ:
hyw³i ˆeaZv AvKviMZ, e¯ÍzMZ bq| hLb †Kvb GKwU AvKv‡ii hyw³‡K Avgiv ˆea e‡j
¯^xKvi Kie ZLb Zvi Abyiƒc AvKv‡ii †h †Kvb hyw³‡KB ˆea eje| hyw³‡Z e¨eüZ

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ePb¸wji mZ¨Zv ev wg_¨vZ¡ wb‡q fvebv| hyw³‡Z e¨eüZ evK¨¸wj wg_¨v n‡qI hyw³ ˆea
n‡Z cv‡i|
†hgb- mKj WvKvZB †`k †cÖwgK| wg_¨v
Wt Kvgvj †nv‡mb GKRb WvKvZ| wg_¨v
AZGe Wt Kvgvj †nv‡mb †`k †cÖwgK| mZ¨
DwjøwLZ D`vni‡Y Avkªq evK¨¸wj wg_¨v n‡qI hyw³wU ‰ea| †Kbbv hyw³i ˆeaZv wbY©‡qi
†¶‡Î eP‡bi e¯ÍzMZ mZ¨Zv we‡eP¨ welq bq Ges AvKv‡ii †h †Kvb hyw³B ˆea e‡j
we‡ewPZ n‡e|

mvims‡¶c
mZ¨Zv ev‡K¨i †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨,ˆeaZv hyw³ ev mnvbygv‡bi †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨| hyw³i
ˆeaZv eP‡bi mZ¨-wg_¨v‡Z¡i Dci wbf©i K‡ibv| hyw³‡Z e¨eüZ mKj ePb mZ¨
n‡j Zv‡K AåvšÍ hyw³ e‡j| †Kvb hyw³i mKj ePb mZ¨ n‡qI hyw³ A‰ea n‡Z
cv‡i| Avevi †Kvb hyw³i mKj ePb wg_¨v n‡qI hyw³ ˆea n‡Z cv‡i|

cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb: 4
mwVK Dˇi cv‡k wUK (√) wPý w`b|
1. mZ¨Zv wK‡mi †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨?
K. hyyw³i †¶‡Î
L. ev‡K¨i †¶‡Î
M. evK¨ I hyw³ Df‡qi †¶‡Î
N. c‡`i †¶‡Î
2. ˆeaZv wK‡mi †¶‡Î cÖ‡hvR¨|
K. ev‡K¨i †¶‡Î
L. hyw³i †¶‡Î
M. Df‡qi †¶‡Î
N. c‡`i †¶‡Î
3. hyw³ ˆeaZv wbf©i K‡i
K. Avkªq ev‡Ki mZ¨Zvi Dci
L. Avkªq ev‡K¨i wg_¨v‡Z¡i Dci
M. wewam¤§Zfv‡e Avkªq evK¨ †_‡K wm×všÍ wbtm„Z nIqvi Dci
N. Avkªq evK¨ mZ¨ I wm×v‡šÍi wg_¨v‡Z¡i Dci|
4. AåvšÍ hyw³ Zv‡KB e‡j hLb
K. hyw³‡Z e¨eüZ mKj ePbB wg_¨v
L. hyw³‡Z e¨eüZ mKj ePbB mZ¨
M. hyw³‡Z e¨eüZ ePb¸wj‡Z mZ¨-wg_¨vi mswgkªb nq

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N. Avkªq evK¨ mZ¨ Ges wm×všÍ wg_¨v nq|

BDwbU -12

msw¶ß Dˇii cÖkœ

1. cÖZxK Kx? 12.1.1
2. mZ¨Zv I ˆeaZvi cv_©K¨ Kiæb| 12.4.1
3. ms‡KZ I cÖZx‡Ki g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ †`Lvb| 12.1.3
4. cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi msÁv w`b| 12 f‚wgKv
5. cÖZxKx I mbvZbx hyw³we`¨vi cv_©K¨ D‡jøL Kiæb| 12.3.1
6. wewfbœ cÖKvi cÖZx‡Ki bvg wjLyb| 12.1.2
7. ¯^vfvweK ms‡KZ I K…wÎg ms‡K‡Zi g‡a¨ cv_©K¨ Kiæb| 12.1.2
8. ˆeaZv Kx? 12.4.1
9. AåvšÍ hyw³i msÁv wjLyb| 12.4.2
10. cÖgvY Kiæb-hyw³i ˆeaZv AvKviMZ| 12.4.3

iPbvg~jK Dˇii cÖkœ:

1. cÖZx‡Ki msÁv w`b| cÖZx‡Ki cÖK…wZ e¨vL¨v Kiæb| 12.1.1 Ges 12.1.2
2. cÖZxK Kx? hyw³we`¨vq cÖZxK cÖeZ©‡bi myweav¸‡jv Av‡jvPbv Kiæb| 12.1.1 Ges
12.2.2
3. cÖZxK Kx? cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi ˆewkó¨ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb| 12.1.1 Ges 12.2.2
4. mbvZbx I cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi cÖK…wZ I cv_©K¨ Av‡jvPbv Kiæb| 12.3.1
5. cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨vi msÁv w`b| Avcwb wK g‡b K‡ib cÖZxKx hyw³we`¨v mbvZbx
hyw³we`¨vi GKwU DbœZ ms¯‹viY? 12 f‚wgKv, 12. 2.2., 12.3.1 Ges 12.2.1
6. mZ¨Zv I ˆeaZvi cv_©K¨ Kiæb| cÖgvY Kiæb-ˆeaZv AvKviMZ| 12.4.1 Ges
12.4.2

DËigvjv
cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb -1 1.K 2.M 3.K
cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb -2 1.L 2.L 3.L
cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb -3 1.L 2.M 3.M
cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb -4 1.L 2.L 3.M 4.L
cv‡VvËi g~j¨vqb -4 1.L 2.L 3.M 4.L

GBP.Gm.wm †cÖvMÖvg.....................................hyw³we`¨v-1g cÎ.................................c„ôv # 241