SCIENCE

4. BIOSPHERE - part of the world in which life

● HYPOTHESIS - an assumption or idea that
is validated and tested through an
experiment
● INDEPENDENT VARIABLES (IV) -
multiplicated or changed to have an effect
on the dependent variable.
● DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV) - measure in
the experiment and what is affected by
independent variables
● SCIENTIFIC LAW - based on repeated
experimental observation that describes
some aspect of the world
● SCIENTIFIC THEORY - tested and widely
accepted model that helps explain and
predict natural facts and which is based on
observation, experiments and reason
● MODEL - aids in the visualization of
occurrences and objects that cannot be
observeddirectly
MEASUREMENTS :
Physical Quantity Unit Name (symbol)
Mass Kilogram, kg
Length Meter, m
Time Second, s
can exist
ROCKS AND MINERALS
I. IGNEOUS ROCKS - formed from the
cooling magma (a very liquid found
underneath the Earth’s surface) Ex.
Rhyolite, Granite, Basalt
II. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - formed from
pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-living
organisms Ex. limestone, conglomerate,
dolomite, shale
III. METAMORPHIC ROCKS - formed through
the alteration of preexisting rocks in
response to changing environmental
conditions, such as variations in
temperature, pressure, and mechanical
stress, and the addition or subtraction of
chemical components. Ex. marble, slate
● WEATHERING - by the action of rainwater,
extreme of temperature, and biological
activity
● EROSION - earthen materials are worn
away and transported by natural forces
such as wind and water
● LITHIFICATION - unconsolidated materials
are converted into coherent solid rocks, as
by compaction or cementation

Amount of Substance Mole, mol

WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Temperature Kelvin, K

Electric Current Ampere, A ● METEOROLOGY - concerned with the

Luminous Intensity Candela, cd
EARTH’S SPHERE
1. LITHOSPHERE - solid, outer part of the
Earth
2. HYDROSPHERE - total amount of water on
the planet.
3. ATMOSPHERE - layer or a set of layers of
gases surroundings planet or other
material body that is held in place
processes and phenomena of the
atmosphere, especially as a means of
forecasting the weather
● WEATHER - state of the atmosphere with
respect to wind, temperature, cloudiness,
moisture, pressure, etc
● CLIMATE - the long term and average
weather conditions for a specific region
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
❖ TROPOSPHERE
➢ closest to the Earth’s surface.
➢ Expanding up to about 10-15 km
above the Earth’s surface
➢ 75% of atmosphere’s mass
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➢ Wider at the equator than at the
poles
❖ STRATOSPHERE
➢ Layer lies directly above the
troposphere and is about 35 km
deep
➢ Extends from about 15 to 50 km
above the Earth's surface
➢ Warmer at the top than the bottom
❖ MESOSPHERE
➢ Expanding from 50 to 80 km above
Earth’s surface
➢ cold layer where the temperature
generally decreases with increasing
altitude
❖ THERMOSPHERE
➢ Extends from 80 km above the
Earth’s surface to outer space
➢ Temperature is hot and may be as
high as thousands of degrees as the
few molecules that are present in
the thermosphere receives
extraordinarily large amounts of
energy from the sun
❖ EXOSPHERE
➢ most external layer of the
atmosphere
➢ Least known
➢ Temperature exceeds 2000°C
ECOLOGY
● ECOLOGY - relation and interactions
between organisms and their environment
● ECOLOGICAL (or environmental)
FACTORS:
➔ BIOTIC - all living factors
➔ ABIOTIC - nonliving factors
● POPULATION - number of organisms of the
same species that live in a particular
geographic area
● COMMUNITY - group of organisms or a
population of different species occupying a
particular area
● ECOSYSTEM - all living organism in an area
as well as its physical environment
functioning together as a unit
● BLOME - can be classified according to the
plants and animals that live in it
SOLAR SYSTEM
● NEBULAR THEORY - nebula cloud made
from a collection of dust and gas. The sun,
planets, moons, and asteroids were formed
around the same time around 4.5 billion
years ago from a nebula
● PTOLEMAIC THEORY - state that the Earth
lay in the centre of the universe with the
sun, the moon, and the known planets
revolving around it in complicated orbits
● COPERNICAN THEORY - published in 1543
by Copernicus which stated that the earth
and the planets rotated around the sun
CHARACTERISTICS OF A PLANET
- It orbits a star
- It is big enough to have enough gravity to
force it into a spherical shape
- It is big enough that its gravity cleared
away any other objects of a similar size
near its orbit around the Sun
● ASTEROIDS
- Rocky objects in space that can be a
few feet wide to several hundred
miles wide
- Solar system orbit in belt between
Mars and Jupiter
● METEOROID
- small chunk of rock or iron that
travels through space
● COMET
- Ball of frozen gases, rock and dust
that is about the size of a small
town
- Comets orbit the sun
- Jets of gas and dust from comets
from long tails that can be seen
from Earth
● SOLAR ECLIPSE
- Moon passes between Earth and
the Sun, thereby totally or partially
obscuring Earth’s view of the Sun\
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● LUNAR ECLIPSE - layer of cellulose fiber gives the cell most
- Full moon passes partially or wholly of its support and structure
through the umbra of the Earth’s - Bonds with other cell walls to form the
shadow structure of the plant
● CELL MEMBRANE
- semi-permeable membrane that is
BIOLOGY
present within the cell wall
★ Bios means life
- thin layer of protein and fat
★ Logos means study
- important role in regulating the entry and
exit of specific substances within the cell
CELLS ● CENTROSOME
- Basic unit of life - small body located near the nucleus
- All living organisms are either single cells, - has a dense center and radiating tubules
or are multicellular organisms composed of - where microtubules are made
many cells working together ● CHLOROPHYLL
- molecule that can use light energy from
I. PLANT CELL sunlight to turn water and carbon dioxide
gas into sugar and oxygen his process is
called photosynthesis), usually colored
green
● CHLOROPLAST
- an elongated or disc-shaped organelle
containing chlorophyll Photosynthesis
takes place in the chloroplasts
● CYTOPLASM
- the jellylike material outside the cell
nucleus in which the organelles are located
● GOLGI BODY
II. ANIMAL CELL - a fattened, layered, sac-like organelle that
looks like a stack of pancakes and is
located near the nucleus
- packages proteins and carbohydrates
located into membrane-bound vesicles for
"export’ from the cell
● MITOCHONDRIA
- they are the double-membrane organelles
found in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cells
- provide energy by breaking down
carbohydrate and sugar molecules, hence
they are also referred to as the
● AMYLOPLAST
"powerhouse of the cell
- organelle in some plant cells that store
● NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
starch.
- membrane that surrounds the nucleus
- found in starchy plants like tubers and
● NUCLEOLUS
fruits
- an organelle within the nucleus is where
● CELL WALL
ribosomal RNA is produced
- (exists in plant cell only) a thick, rigid
membrane that surrounds a plant cell
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● NUCLEUS
3. Centriole Absent Present
- spherical body containing many
organelles including the nucleus 4. Lysosome Absent Present
- controls many of the functions of the cell
5. Vacuole One / Large Many / Small
(by controlling protein synthesis) and
contains DNA (in chromosomes)
● RIBOSOME III. CELL THEORY
- small organelles composed of RNA-rich 1) All living organisms are composed
cytoplasmic granules that are sites of of cells. They may be unicellular or
protein synthesis multicellular
● ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM 2) Cells are the fundamental building
(Rough ER) blocks used to create tissues,
- a vast system of interconnected, organs, and entire functioning
membranous infolded and convoluted organisms
sacks that are located in the cell's 3) Cells arise from pre-existing cells
cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the
outer nuclear membranes) Rough ER is IV. BIOMOLECULES
covered with ribosomes that give it a rough ● CARBOHYDRATES
appearance. - Composed of elements
● SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM ( carbon, hydrogen, oxygen
Smooth ER) - building blocks of
- A vast system of interconnected. monosaccharides
membranous infolded and convoluted - Ex. Sucrose (table sugar),
tubes that are located in the cell's maltose, amylase
cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the ● FATS/LIPIDS
outer nuclear membrane). The space within - set of chemical molecules
the ER is called the ER lumen Smooth ER resulting from fatty acids
transport materials through the cell and exhibit high solubility in
● VACUOLE apolar solvents (organic)
- a large, membrane-bound space within a and low solubility in polar
plant cell that is filled with fluid. Most plant solvents (water).
cells have a single vacuole that takes up - Ex. waxes, oils, and
much of the celt. It helps maintain the cholesterol
shape of the cell ● PROTEINS
● LYSOSOME OR CELL VESICLES - The building blocks of
- (exists in Animal Cell only) round proteins are called amino
organelles surrounded by a membrane and acids.
containing digestive enzymes. This is where - A large class of biological
the digestion of cell nutrients takes place. molecules consisting of
chains of amino acids is
DIFFERENT BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL called polypeptides.
CELLS - Ex. amylase, actin and
myosin.
STRUCTURE PLANTS ANIMALS
● NUCLEIC ACIDS
1. Cell Wall Present Absent - chain of nucleotides which
stores genetic information in
2. Chloroplast Present Absent biological systems.
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-It creates DNA and RNA,
which store the information
needed by cells to create
proteins.
- stored in multiple sets of
three nucleotides, known as
codons.
V. CELLS ACCORDING TO COMPLEXITY
● Prokaryotic cells
- simple, single-celled
organisms without
membrane-bound -
organelles or nucleus.
- Ex. bacteria
● Eukaryotic cells
- contain a nucleus and
organelles, and are enclosed
by a plasma membrane.
- Ex. fungi, plants, and
animals
VI. CELL TRANSPORT
● PASSIVE TRANSPORT
- movement of ions and other
atomic or molecular
substances across cell
membranes without need of
energy input. Moves
particles through the
concentration gradient.
● ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- movement of molecules
across a membrane from a
region of their lower
concentration to a region of
their higher concentration.
Particles move against the
concentration gradient.
● DIFFUSION
- net movement of molecules
from a region of high
concentration to one of
lower concentration
● OSMOSIS
- process where solvent
molecules move through a
semipermeable membrane
from a dilute solution into a
more concentrated solution
(which becomes more
dilute).
VII. CELL REPRODUCTION
● MITOSIS
- single cell divides resulting
in generally two identical
cells, each containing the
same number of
chromosomes and genetic
content as that of the
original cell.
● MEIOSIS
- reduces the chromosome
number by half, creating four
haploid cells, each
genetically distinct from the
parent cell that gave rise to
them.
BOTANY
- branch of biology that deals with the study
of plants, including their structure,
properties, and biochemical processes.
➢ TYPES OF PLANT CELLS
A. Parenchymal
★ Structure: cube-shaped, loosely
packed, thin-walled, relatively
unspecialized, contain chloroplasts
★ Functions: photosynthesis, cellular
respiration, storage
★ Example: food storage tissues of
potatoes
B. Collenchymal
★ Structure: elongated, irregularly
thickened walls
★ Functions: support, wind resistance
★ Example: strings running through a
stalk of celery
C. Sclerenchyma
★ Structure: very thick cell walls
containing lignin
★ Functions: support, strength
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★ Example: tough fibers in jute (used
to make rope)
➢ PLANT TISSUES
A. Meristematic tissues - mass of young,
immature and undifferentiated cells, which
remain young forever and divide
throughout the life of the plant.
a. Eumeristems - formed from pre
formed meristems; always keeps
dividing and never loses its power
of division.
b. Psuedomeristems - formed from
differentiation of permanent tissues
like cambium and cork cambium.
B. Permanent tissues
a. Epidermis - outermost,
protoderm-derived layer of cells
covering the stem, root, leaf, flower,
fruit, and seed parts of a plant. Its
waxy cuticle provides a protective
barrier against mechanical injury,
water loss, and infection.
b. Periderm - outer covering that
replaces the epidermis of certain
plants
c. Vascular tissues - arrangement of
multiple cell types in vascular plants
which allows for the transport of
water, minerals, and the products of
photosynthesis to be transported
throughout the plant. It has 2 types
namely:
1) Xylem - specialized type of
vascular tissue created in
vascular plants to transport
water and nutrients from the
roots of a plant to the tips of
the leaves.
2) Phloem - responsible for
transporting organic food
materials (e.g. sucrose) from
the photosynthetic organ
(leaf) to all the parts of the
plant.
➢ DIFFERENT PLANT PARTS
ROOT
- part of a plant which attaches it to the
ground or to a support
- conveying water
- nourishment to the rest of the plant via
numerous branches and fibers.
STEM
- main body or stalk of a plant or shrub
- rising above ground but occasionally
subterranean
LEAF
- flattened structure of a higher plant
- green and blade-like
- attached to a stem directly or via a stalk.
FLOWER
- seed bearing part of a plant
- reproductive organs (stamens and carpels)
- surrounded by a brightly coloured corolla
(petals) and a green calyx (sepals).
FRUIT
- fleshy product of a tree or other plant that
contains seed and can be eaten as food.
➢ PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND TRANSPIRATION
- Photosynthesis - is the process by which green
plants and certain other organisms transform light
energy into chemical energy. During
photosynthesis in green plants, light energy is
captured and used to convert water, carbon
dioxide, and minerals into oxygen and energy-rich
organic compounds.
- Transpiration - is the process in which plants
release the water inside it in the form of moisture
or water vapor. Parts of plants like stems, small
pores on leaves, flowers evaporate the water to
the atmosphere.
- Respiration - constitutes a series of
enzyme-driven reactions that allow plants to turn
the stored energy of carbohydrates made via
photosynthesis into a form of energy they can use
to power growth and metabolic processes.
Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 →6CO2 + 6H2O
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➢ PLANT TAXONOMY
A. Taxonomy - is the science of
naming, describing and classifying
organisms and includes all plants,
animals and microorganisms of the
world.
B. Classification - is the arrangement
of plants into categories that have
similar characteristics. These
categories called taxa are arranged
into a hierarchy to form a
classification system. The smallest
taxonomic unit is the species.
C. Botanical nomenclature - is the
formal, scientific naming of plants.
A plant's scientific name is a
binomial, that is, it is composed of a
generic name (genus) and a specific
epithet.
GENETICS
● GENETICS - is the study of how traits are
passed from parents to their offspring.
● HEREDITY - is the passing of genetic
factors from parent to offspring (or from
one generation to the next)
● VARIATION - is the differences between
organisms caused by alternate forms of
DNA.
present in a living thing, and both are
expressed. Instead of one trait being
dominant over the other, both traits appear.
● Law of Incomplete Dominance - refers to
a circumstance in which the two copies of a
gene for a particular trait, or alleles,
combine so that neither dominates the
other. This creates a new phenotype or set
of observable characteristics caused by the
interaction of genetics and environment.
Mendel's law
➔ Law of Independent Segregation-states
that the two alleles for each trait segregate,
or separate, during the formation of
gametes, and that during the formation of
new zygotes, the alleles will combine at
random with other alleles. The law of
segregation ensures that a parent, with two
copies of each gene, can pass on either
allele.
➔ Law of Independent Assortment - states
that different genes and their alleles are
inherited independently within sexually
reproducing organisms. During meiosis,
chromosomes are separated into multiple
gametes. Genes linked on a chromosome
can rearrange themselves through the
process of crossing-over

The laws above can be illustrated using

GENE SEGREGATION AND INTERACTION
monohybrid and dihybrid cross:

● Dominant Allele - An allele or a gene that

a. Monohybrid cross
is expressed in an organism's phenotype,
- cross determines the allele combinations of
masking the effect of the recessive allele or
offspring for one particular gene only.
gene when present.
● Recessive Allele - is a variety of genetic
Monohybrid crosses can be calculated according
code that does not create a phenotype
to the following steps:
● Law of Dominance - states that when two
alleles of an inherited pair is heterozygous,
Step 1: Designate characters to represent the
then, the allele that is expressed is
alleles. Capital letter for the dominant allele, lower
dominant whereas the allele that is not
case letter for recessive allele
expressed is recessive
● Law of Codominance - occurs when two
versions, or "alleles," of the same gene are
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Step 2: Write down the genotype and phenotype
of the parents. This is the P generation (parental
generation)
Step 3: Write down the genotype of the parental
gametes These will be haploid as a result of
meiotic division
Step 4: Use a Punnett grid to work out the
potential gamete combinations As fertilization is
random, all combinations have an equal
probability
Step 5: Write out the genotype and phenotype
ratios of potential offspring This is the F,
generation (first filial generation) Subsequent
generations through interbreeding labeled F₂, F₁,
etc.

b. Dihybrid cross
- A cross between two parents that differ by
two pairs of alleles (AABB x aabb) MOLECULAR BASIS OF HEREDITY

Let's look at a dihybrid cross that Mendel
performed.
Parental Cross: Yellow, Round Seed x Green,
Wrinkled Seed
F1 Generation: All yellow, round
F2 Generation: 9 Yellow, Round, 3 Yellow,
Wrinkled, 3 Green, Round, 1 Green, Wrinkled
Let's diagram the cross using specific gene
symbols.
Seed Color: Yellow G; Green = g
Seed Shape: Round W, Wrinkled = w
The dominance relationship between alleles for
each trait was already known to Mendel when he
made this cross. The purpose of the dihybrid cross
was to determine if any relationship existed
between different allelic pairs.
● Chromosome - is a string of DNA wrapped
around associated proteins that give the
connected nucleic acid bases a structure.
● DNA - also known as deoxyribonucleic
acid. is a molecule that contains the
instructions an organism needs to develop,
live and reproduce. These instructions are
found inside every cell, and are passed
down from parents to their children.
● RNA - also known as ribonucleic acid, are
single-stranded nucleic acids composed of
- nucleotides. RNA plays a major role in
protein synthesis as it is involved in the
transcription, decoding, and translation of
the genetic code to produce proteins.
“CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY “
Replication is the process of making an identical
copy of a section of duplex (double-stranded)
DNA, using existing DNA as a template for the
synthesis of new DNA strands. In humans and
other eukaryotes, replication occurs in the cell
nucleus.
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The process of DNA replication can be
summarized as follows:
1) DNA unwinds at the origin of replication.
2) New bases are added to the
complementary parental strands. One new
strand is made continuously, while the
other strand is made in pieces.
3) Primers are removed, new DNA nucleotides
are put in place of the primers and the
backbone is sealed by DNA ligase.
Transcription - is the process of RNA synthesis,
controlled by the interaction of promoters and
enhancers. Several different types of RNA are
produced, including messenger RNA (mRNA).
which specifies the sequence of amino acids in the
protein product, plus transfer RNA (IRNA) and
ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which play a role in the
translation process.
Four Steps of Transcription
1) Initiation - the DNA molecule unwinds and
separates to form a small open complex.
RNA polymerase binds to the promoter of
the template strand.
2) Elongation - RNA polymerase moves along
the template strand, synthesizing an mRNA
molecule.
3) Termination- in prokaryotes there are two
ways in which transcription is terminated.
In Rho-dependent termination, a protein
factor called "Rho" is responsible for
disrupting the complex involving the
template strand, RNA polymerase and RNA
molecule
4) Translation- after transcription the RNA
molecule is processed in a number of ways:
introns are removed and exons are spliced
together to form a mature mRNA molecule
consisting of a single protein-coding
sequence.
The steps in translation are:
1) The ribosome binds to mRNA at a specific
area.
2) The ribosome starts matching tRNA
anticodon sequences to the mRNA codon
sequence.
3) Each time a new tRNA comes into the
ribosome, the amino acid that it was
carrying gets added to the elongating
polypeptide chain.
4) The ribosome continues until it hits a stop
sequence, then it releases the polypeptide
and then RNA.
5) The polypeptide forms into its native shape
and starts acting as a functional protein in
the cell.
Reverse transcription - is a technique used by
researchers to generate a complementary strand
of DNA (cDNA) from RNA. The technology is based
on a retroviral mechanism whereby the enzyme
reverse transcriptase can reverse transcribe RNA
into DNA. This is especially helpful when scientists
only have tissue and want to study gene sequence.
MUTATION
- changes in the genetic sequence, and they
are a main cause of diversity among
organisms. These changes occur at many
different levels, and they can have widely
differing consequences.
Types of Mutation
1. Substitution - is a mutation that exchanges
one base for another (i.e., a change in a
single "chemical letter" such as switching
an A to a G). Such a substitution could:
● change a codon to one that encodes
a different amino acid and causes a
small change in the protein
produced. For example, sickle cell
anemia is caused by a substitution
in the beta-hemoglobin gene, which
alters a single amino acid in the
protein produced.
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● change a codon to one that encodes
the same amino acid and causes no
change in the protein produced.
These are called silent mutations.
● change an amino-acid-coding
codon to a single "stop" codon and
cause an incomplete protein. This
can have serious effects since the
incomplete protein probably won't
function.
2. Insertion -are mutations in which extra
base pairs are inserted into a new place in
the DNA
3. Deletion - are mutations in which a section
of DNA is lost, or deleted.
4. Frameshift - since protein-coding DNA is
divided into codons three bases long,
insertions and deletions can alter a gene so
that its message is no longer correctly
parsed. These changes are called
frameshifts.
Animal Development
I. Animal Tissue
- is a tissue is a group of connected
cells that have a similar function
within an organism
The four basic types of animal tissue are:
1) Epithelial tissue - made up of layers of
tightly packed cells that line the surfaces of
the body for protection, secretion, and
absorption. Examples of epithelial tissue
include the skin, the lining of the mouth
and nose, and the lining of the digestive
system.
2) Muscle tissue made up of cells contain
contractile filaments that move past each
other and change the size of the cell. There
are three types of muscle tissue, smooth
muscle which is found in the inner linings of
organs; skeletal muscle, which is attached
to bone and moves the body; and cardiac
muscle which is found only in the heart.
3) Nervous tissue- made up of nerve cells
(neurons) that together form the nervous
system, including the brain and spinal cord.
4) Connective tissue is made up of many
different types of cells that are all involved
in structure and support of the body. Bone,
blood, fat, and cartilage are all connective
tissues. Connective tissue can be densely
packed together, as bone cells are, or
loosely packed, as adipose tissue (fat cells)
are.
II. Stages of Animal Development
1) Gamete formation (n + n) - eggs and
sperm are produced in specialized tissues
2) Fertilization - the plasma membrane of the
egg and sperm fuse; then the nuclei fuse =
2n
● Zygote (2n) - the first cell of the
new animal
3) Cleavage-mitotic cell divisions begin,
converting the zygote to a multicellular
organism
● Morula - solid ball of cells
● Blastula- hollow, fluid-filled ball of
cells
4) Gastrulation - major cellular reorganization
into 2 or 3 tissue (germ) layers:
● Ectoderm: skin, nervous system
● Endoderm: lining of gut and
internal organs
● Mesoderm: muscles, bones, heart
● Gastrula: Early embryo with 3 tissue
layers. All cells have the same DNA;
however, different cells now begin
to "turn on" (or "express") different
genes:
Cell differentiation - different cells begin
to express tissue-specific or organ-specific
genes to make heart, brain, etc.
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Morphogenesis - these cells then undergo a. Climate is the nonliving parts of the
cell divisions, cell migration, or environment that can often have a
programmed cell death (PCD), for example, major influence on living organisms.
to allow fingers to form. Abiotic factors include water,
1. Organ formation - sets of cells sunlight, oxygen, soil and
become specialized for a specific temperature.
function: heart, liver, brain. b. Water all living organisms need
2. Tissue specialization - cells within water. Plants must have water to
organs rearrange and specialize into grow.
tissues. c. Atmosphere is the main source of
energy on Earth, which makes it an
extremely important abiotic factor.
Ecosystem and Ecology
Sunlight is necessary for
photosynthesis, the process by
Ecology-branch of biology that studies how
which plants convert carbon dioxide
organisms interact with their environment and
(CO2) and water to oxygen (O2) and
other organisms. Every organism experiences
sugar - food for the plants that later
complex relationships with other organisms of its
becomes food for animals.
species, and organisms of different species.
d. Soil mostly made up of small
particles of rock (sand and clay)
Ecosystem - describes a single environment and
mixed with decomposed plants and
every living (biotic) organism and non-living
animals. Plants use their roots to
(abiotic) factor that is contained within it or
get water and nutrients from the
characterizes it. An ecosystem embodies every
soil.
aspect of a single habitat, including all interactions
e. Temperature strongly influenced by
between its different elements.
sunlight. Temperature plays an
important role for animals that
COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM cannot regulate their own body
temperature, such as reptiles.
A. Biotic - the living things that shape an
ecosystem. BIOME
a. Autotrophs (Producers) - convert
Biome is a large geographical area of distinctive
energy into food, some using
plant and animal groups which are adapted to that
photosynthesis.
particular environment.
b. Heterotrophs (Consumers) - rely
upon autotrophs (producers) for
Terrestrial Biomes
food.
c. Decomposers - also called
1) Tropical rainforest - a forest with a high
detritivores, break down chemicals
rate of precipitation and high humidity,
from consumers and producers into
usually located near the equator.
simpler forms that are used again.
2) Temperate forest - most notable because
they go through four seasons. Leaves
B. Abiotic - are the nonliving parts of the
change color in autumn, fall off in the
environment that can often have a major
winter, and grow back in the spring; this
influence on living organisms. Abiotic
adaptation allows plants to survive cold
factors include water, sunlight, oxygen, soil
winters.
and temperature.
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3) Desert - extremely dry area of land with
ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS
sparse vegetation. It is one of Earth's major
types of ecosystems, supporting a
● Symbiosis - the close relationship of two
community of distinctive plants and
dissimilar organisms
animals specially adapted to the harsh
● Mutualism - a symbiotic relationship where
environment.
both organisms benefit
4) Grassland wide expanses of land filled
● Commensalism - a symbiotic relationship
with low growing plants such as grasses
where one organism benefits and one does
and enough to not form a desert.
not benefit but is unharmed
wildflowers. The amount of rain is not
● Parasitism - a symbiotic relationship where
enough to grow tall trees and produce a
one organism benefits and one is harmed
forest, but it is enough to not from a desert
● Competition - when two or more
5) Taiga - is a forest of the cold, subarctic
organisms rely on the same environmental
region. The subarctic is an area of the
resource
Northern Hemisphere that lies just south of
● Predation behavior of one animal feeding
the Arctic Circle. It is one of the three main
on another
forest biomes. The other two are the
temperate forest and the tropical
rainforest. The taiga is the driest and FOOD CHAIN
coldest of the three.
6) Tundra treeless regions found in the Arctic The food chain is the feeding relationship
and on the tops of mountains, where the between the different organisms that make up our
climate is cold and windy, and rainfall is ecosystem.
scant. It is the coldest of all the biomes.
Levels of Food Chain:
FIVE BIOLOGICAL KINGDOMS
1. Primary Producers - organisms that are
capable of producing their own food from
01. -Monera prokaryotic; unicellular and
such substances as carbon dioxide and
colonial, including the true bacteria
turning it into energy with the help of
(eubacteria) and cyanobacteria (blue-green
sunlight. These are plants and algae.
algae).
2. Primary Consumers those who feed on the
02. Kingdom Protista - unicellular protozoans
first trophic level, the autotroph biomass,
and unicellular & multicellular
form the second trophic level.
(macroscopic) algae with 9+ 2 cilia and
3. Secondary Consumers animals that eat
flagella (called undulipodia).
herbivores; these are called secondary
03. Kingdom Fungi - haploid and dikaryotic
consumers. An example is a snake that eat
(binucleate) cells, multicellular, generally
rabbits. So, snakes are secondary
heterotrophic, without cilia and eukaryotic
consumers.
(9+ 2) flagella (undulipodia).
4. Tertiary Consumers carnivores that
04. Kingdom Plantae - haplo-diploid life
consume other carnivores are called
cycles, mostly autotrophic, retaining
tertiary consumers like Killer whales. Killer
embryo within female sex organ on parent
whales hunt seals and sea lions. These are
plant..
carnivores that kill fish, squid, and octopus.
05. Kingdom Animalia - multicellular animals,
5. Quaternary Consumers - typically
without cell walls and without
carnivorous animals that eat tertiary
photosynthetic pigments, forming diploid
consumers. Also known as apex predator
blastula.
SCIENCE
or alpha predator or apical predator, they
are predators residing at the top of the
food chain upon which no other creatures
prey.
6. Decomposers - break down dead plants
and animals. They also break down the
waste of other organisms. They are an
important element in the food chain
because they keep up a continuous flow of
nutrients for the primary producers.

Energy Transfer - how the energy is transferred

from one trophic level to another
Food Web - a network of food chains or feeding
relationships by which energy and nutrients are
passed on from one species of living organisms to
another.