Algoritmos e Logica de Programaao

Ajgfrhtlfs
bJþghnamb
Prfgralaçîf
Ajgfrhtlfsbjþghnas
mbprfgralaçîf
LarnhfAparbnhmfArtbrf
TaobssaNamao^nebddbr
©3015pfrBmhtfrabMhstrhcuhmfraBmunanhfoaj^.A.
]fmfsfsmhrbhtfsrbsbrvamfs.Oboeulapartbmbstapucjhnaçîfpfmbrásbrrbprfmuzhmafutraoslhthmambquajqubr
lfmffupfrquajqubrfutrflbhf,bjbtrýohnffulbnãohnf,honjuhomfdftfnþpha,gravaçîffuquajqubrfutrfthpf
mbshstblambarlazboalbotfbtraoslhssîfmbhodfrlaçîf,sblprèvhaautfrhzaçîf,pfrbsnrhtf,maBmhtfrab
MhstrhcuhmfraBmunanhfoaj^.A.
Prbshmbotb
SfmrhgfGajhomf
Thnb-PrbshmbotbAnamélhnfmbGramuaçîfbmbBmunaçîfCáshna
LárhfGehfIùohfr
NfosbjefAnamélhnf
AoaJunhaIaokfvhnCarmuneh
NalhjaNarmfsfSftbjja
MaohbjjyOuobsAomrambOfè
GrashbjbAparbnhmaJfurboçf
HsacbjNrhsthoaNeagasCarcho
JhmhaobNrhsthoaThvajmhohFjf
]eathaobNrhsthoa
]eathaobNrhsthoamfsâotfs
mfsâotfsmbNarvajefS
mbNarvajefShcbhrf
hcbhrf
Sbvhsîf]ènohna
SuyDjávhfmbFjhvbhra
Bmhtfrhaj
NalhjaNarmfsfSftbjja(Mhrbtfra)
JhmhaobNrhsthoaThvajmhohFjf(Gbrbotb)
BjlhrNarvajefma^hjva(Nffrmboamfr)
JbtìnhaCbotfPhbrfoh(Nffrmboamfra)
SboataIèsshnaGajmhof(Nffrmboamfra)
MamfsHotbroanhfoahsmbNatajfgaçîfoaPucjhn
MamfsHotbroanhfoahsmbNatajfgaçîfoaPucjhnaçîf(NHP)
açîf(NHP)
 Artbrf,Larnhf
Artbrf,LarnhfAparbnhmf
Larnhf Aparbnhmf
A754a Ajgfrhtlfsb
Ajgfrhtlfs b
bjþghnas
jþghnasmb
jþghnasmbprfgralaçîf
mbprfgralaçîf/
prfgralaçîf/
/Larnhf
LarnhfAparbnhmf
LarnhfAparbnhmf
Artbrf,TaobssaNamao^nebffbr.„Jfomrhoa9Bmhtfrab
MhstrhcuhmfraBmunanhfoaj^.A.,3015.
Mhstr hcuhmfraBmunanhfoaj^.A.,3015.
 314p.
314 p.
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H^CO875-52-233-0705-2
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1.Ajgfrhtlfs.3 .Prfgralaçîf.H.Ar tbrf,Lar

tbrf,Larnhf
nhf
Aparbnhmf...HH.
Aparbnhmf HH.^nebffbr,
HH.^nebffbr,
^nebffbr,TaobssaNamao.HHH.
TaobssaNamao.HHH. ]ìtujf.
NMM400
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3015
BmhtfrabMhstrhcuhmf
Bmhtfrab MhstrhcuhmfraBmunanhfoaj^.A.
MhstrhcuhmfraBmunanhfoaj^.A.
AvbohmaParhs,472„ParqubSbshmbonhajIfîfPhza
rqubSbshmbonhaj
NBP9540=1-100”Jfomrhoa”PS IfîfPhza
b-lahj9bmhtfra.bmunanh
b-lahj9bmhtfra.bmunanhfoaj@krftfo.nfl
foaj@krftfo.nfl.cr
Eflbpagb9ettp9//www.krftfo
Eflbpagb9 ettp9//www.krftfo.nfl.cr/
ettp9//www.krftfo .nfl.cr/
ûlárhf
Rohmamb1|Jþghnambprfgralaçîf 7
^bçîf1.1-Mbdhohçòbsmbjþghna 8
^bçîf1.3-Bjblbotfsduomalbotahsmbprfgralaçîf 3=
^bçîf1.>-Sbprbsbotaçòbsmbajgfrhtlfs >8
Rohmamb3|Bjblbotfsmbajgfrhtlfs 22
^bçîf3.1-Bxbnuçîfsbqubonhajbbstruturasmbmbnhsîf 27
^bçîf3.3-Bstruturasmbrbpbthçîf 7>
^bçîf3.>-Bstruturambmamfs 83
Rohmamb>|Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf 11>
^bçîf>.1-HotrfmuçîfàjhoguagblN 11
112
2
^bçîf>.3-BstruturasnfomhnhfoahsbljhoguagblN 1>
1>>
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^bçîf>.>-BstruturasmbrbpbthçîfbljhoguagblN 12
121
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Rohmamb=|Apjhnaçòbsmbprfgralaçîf
Rohmamb=| Apjhnaçòbsmbprfgralaçîf 148
^bçîf=.1-Prfgralaçîfbduoçòbsnflvbtfrbs
^bçîf=.1- Prfgralaçîfbduoçòbsnflvbtfrbs 17
171
1
^bçîf=.3-Prfgralaçîfbduoçòbsnfllatrhzbs 15
155
5
^bçîf=.>-Sbnurshvhmamb 301
301
Pajavrasmfautfr
Narfajuof!
^biacbl-vhomfàmhsnhpjhoambajgfrhtlfsbjþghnambprfgralaçîf.
^biacbl-vhomfàmhsnhpjhoambajgfrhtlfsbjþghnambprfgralaçîf.
È prfvávbj qub vfné iá tboea sb mbparamf nfl ula jhoma
nfostruçîf,ulbmhdìnhfdacujfsfqublahsparbnbulafcrambartb,
nfostruçîf,ulbmhdìnhfdacujfsfqublahspa rbnbulafcrambartb,
nbrtf6TbiafnasfmfLA^P(LusbumbArtbmb^îfPaujf),ulafcra
maarquhtbtaJhoaCfCarmh.Bssafcrabonaotapbjfpjaobialbotfb
aumánhablqubdfralcasbamfsfsnájnujfslhounhfsfs.]ajfcra
bstásuspbosapfrquatrfnfjuoas,jhgamaspfrulavhgaqubpbrnfrrb
bstásuspbosapfrquatrfnfjuoas,jhg amaspfrulavhgaqubpbrnfrrb
tfmffprèmhf,tblnflfmbstaqubulvîfmbjuzhlprbss hfoaotbb
ulpè-mhrbhtfmbfhtflbtrfs.
Bod
odhl
hl,, f qub bs
bsssa gra
raom
ombb fcr
craa tb
tbl
l a vbr
br nf
nfll ajg
jgf
frhtl
rhtlf
fs b
jþghnambprfgralaçîf6Blalcfsfsnasfs(fcrassfdhsthnamasb
prf
prfgra
gralaç
laçîf îf),
), sîf
sîf obn
obnbss
bssárh
árhfs
fs pja
pjaobi
obial
albotf
botfss b ul pbo
pbosal
salbot
botff
jþghnfparaasuanfostruçîf.AsshlnflffprfibtfmfLA^Ptbvb
ul
ulaa pjaot
jaotaa nf
nfl
l tf
tfm
mfs fs
fs sbu
buss ná
nájn
jnu
ujf
jfs
s para
ra qub
ub ne
nebg
bgas
asssb af
rbsujtamfdhoaj,ulprfgralambnflputamfrp
rbsujtamfdhoaj,ulprfgralam bnflputamfrprbnhsasbrpbosamf
rbnhsasbrpbosamfb b
bstruturamfparaajnaoçarfsbufcibthvf,usaomfnflfhostrulbotf
ajþghnambprfgralaçîfpfrlbhfmbajgfrhtlfs
ajþghnambprfgralaçîfpfrl bhfmbajgfrhtlfs..
Para f su
Para sunbs
nbssf
sf ma
ma nfl
nflprb prbbos
bosîf îf mbs
mbstb
tb la
latbr
tbrhaj
haj,
, va
valfs
lfs mhvmhvhmh
hmh--
-jf
-jf bl
bl qu
quat
atrf
rf uo
uohm
hmam
ambs
bs,
, na
nama
ma ul
ulaa nf
nfl
l fc
fcib
ibth
thvf
vfs
s bs
bspb
pbnìnìdh
dhnf
nfss b
nf
nflp
lpbtbtéon
éonha
has
s qu
qub
b rb
rbsu
sujtjtal
al bl
bl ap
aprb
rbom
ombr
br b assh
asshlh
lhja
jar
r a jþ
jþgh
ghna
na,, fs
ajgfrhtlfsbfsbjblbotfsmbprfgralaçîf.
Oa
Oa pr
prhl
hlbh
bhra
ra uo
uohm
hmam
amb,b, vf
vfné
né hr
hrá
á nf
nflplprb
rbbo
bombmbr
r b sb
sbrárá na
napa
pazz mb
rbajhzarajþghnambprfgralaçîf.Jþg
rbajhzarajþghnambprf gralaçîf.Jþghnabssaqubmbs
hnabssaqubmbsbovfjvbrábl
bovfjvbrábl
vfné,ajuof,eachjhmamb
vfné,ajuof, eachjhmambs smbbonfotrarsfjuçòbs
mbbonfotrarsfjuçòbsparafsparafslahs
lahsmhvbrsfs
mhvbrsfs
pr
prfc
fcjb
jbla
las.
s. Ah
Ahom
oma a ob
obst
sta
a uo
uohm
hmam
amb, b, vf
vfné
né bs
bstu
tuma
mará
rá fs
fs nf
nfon
onbht
bhtfs
fs mb
ajgfrhtlfsbsuasnarantbrìsthnas.
Oasbguomauohmamb,vfnéhráaoajhsarbapjhnarfsbjblbotfsmb
ajgfrhtlf
ajgfrh tlfs;
s; taj
taj apr
aprbom
bomhza
hzamf
mf f nfo
nfomu muzhr
zhrá
á a rbs
rbsfjv
fjvbr
br prf
prfcjb
cjbla
lass mb
anfrmfnflasnarantbrìsthnasmaprfgralaçîf.
anfrmfnflasnarantbrìsthnasmaprf gralaçîf.
Oauohmambtrés,vfnéhránflprbbombrbapjhnarfsnfonbhtfs
mb
mbprf
prfgra
grala
laçîfçîf uth
uthjhz
jhzaom
aomf fa
ajho
jhogua
guagblgbl N,
N,pa
para
rahss
hssf,
f, sbr
sbrá
áprb
prbnhs
nhsf
f
tracajearnflabstruturambnfomhnhfoahsbmbrbpbthçîf.
Bbonbrraomf,auohmambquatrftblnflffcibthvfapjhnara
prfgralaçîfuthjhzaomf9vbtfrbs,
prfgralaçîfuthjhzaomf9vbtfrbs,latrhzbs,duoçòbsbrbnurshvhmamb.
latrhzbs,duoçòbsbrbnurshvhmamb.
Asuambmhnaçîfbsbupftbonhajsbrîfdatfrbsmbnhshvfsparanrhar
prfgralasqubpfssalsfjunhfoarmhvbrsfsprfcjblasmfsbumhaamha.
Èhssf!]umfluhtfdasnhoaotb!
Cfosbstumfsbcfasfrtb!
Rohmamb1
Jþghnambprfgralaçîf
Nfovhtbafbstumf
Narf
Narfaju
ajuof,
of, hoh
hohnha
nhalfs
lfs bss
bssa
a uohma
uohmamb
mbap
aprbs
rbsbota
botaomf
omf a vf
vfné
né
as mbd
bdho
hohç
hçò
òbs
bs mb jþ
jþgghn
hnaa, fs bjbl
bjblbobotf
tfss du
duom
omalalbo
bota
tahs
hs para
pr
prfg
fgra
rala
laçîçîf
f b as
as rb
rbpr
prbsbsbo
bota
taçò
çòbs
bs mf
mfs
s ajgf
ajgfrh
rhtl
tlfs
fs.
. Qu
Quao aomf
mf
dajalfsbljþghna,várhfspbosalbotfsofsvélàlbotb,adhoaj
mbnfotas
mbnfotas,f ,fofss
ofssfmhaè
fmhaèrfmb
rfmbamfmbjþghna
amfmbjþghnab bprfnb
prfnbmhlbomhlbotfs tfs
ajgfrìtlhnfs.Tfnémbvbbstarsbpbrguotaomf9nflfa
ajgfrìtlhnfs.Tfnémbvbbstarsbpbrgu otaomf9nflfasshl6 sshl6
Hlagho
Hlag hob
b vf
vfnéné of
of hoì
hoình
nhf
f mf
mf sbsbu
u mh
mha9
a9 vf
vfné
né prprbnh
bnhsa
sa anfr
anfrma marr
paramarhoìnhfasuastarbdas,nbrtf6Hssfèulajþghnasbguhma
mbulanfomhçîf.Apþsbstarnbrtfmbqubanfrmfubmbqub
f mh
mha
a ho
hohn
hnhf
hfu,u, f pr
prfs
fssb
sbguguhlhlbobotf tf agfr
agfraa è ula
ula sbqu sbquéo éonha
nha mb
ajg
ajgfrh
frhtlf
tlfs, s, qua
quaomfomf par
para a nam
nama a tar
tarbda
bda eav
eavbrábrá ula
ula rft
rfthoa
hoa.. Pfr
bxblpjf9vfnéhrásbjbvaotar
bxblpjf9vfnéhrásb jbvaotar,,nfjfnarf
nfjfnarfnehobnehobjf, jf,hraf
hrafcaoebhr
caoebhrf, f,
trfn
trfnar
ar mb
mb rf
rfup
upa, a, tf
tfla
lar r na
nadèdè b sb
sb pr
prbp
bpar ararar pa
para
ra ma
mar
r ho
hoình
ìnhf
fàs
às
tarbdas
tarbda smfmf mha
mha..Pbr
Pbrnbcnbcbbqu
qub bulajgf
ulajgfrht rhtlfè
lfèulnfoiulnfoiuot uotfmb
fmb
hos
hostru
truçòb
çòbs s qu
qub b mbv
mbvblfblfs s daz
dazbr
br pa
para
ra rba
rbajhzjhzar
ar ula
ula açî
açîf6f6 Pfh
Pfhss
bo
botî
tîf,
f, tu
tumf
mf hs
hssf
sf è lu
luhthtf
f dadasn
snhoa
hoaototb
b b vfné
vfné hrá
hrá ap
apjhjhna
nar
r bs
bssasass
mbdhohçòbsoaprbparaçîfbprfgralaçîfmbnflputamfrbs.
Luhtfcbl,aparthrmbstauohmambvfnéhránflprbbombrb
sbrnapazmbrbajhzarajþghnambprfgralaçîfofsbumhaamha.
Pa
Para
ra ta
taot
otf,
f, va
valf lfss af
af of
ofss ssf
f nf
nfot
otbx
bxtf tf mb
mb ap
aprbrbom
omhzhzag
agbl bl
nflaKrfVBogboearhas,ulablprbsambrboflboaárbamb
bogboearhanhvhj,dalfsapfrsuaalpjaárbambatuaçîf,qub
mbsbovfjvbmbsmbulshlpjbsprfibtfatèfsblprbbomhlbotfs
mbsbovfjvbmbsmbulshlpjbsprfibtfatèfsblprbbom hlbotfs
lahsarrfiamfs.Fsbogboebhrfsmablprbsarbajhzalmhvbrsfs
nájnujfslatbláthnfsb,oalahfrhamasvbzbs,dazblusfmb
najnujamfrasbpjaohjeasbjbtrýohnas.
Tfné,
Tfné , pf
pfrt
rtam
amfr
fr mb
mb ul
ul pb
pbos
osal
albobotf
tf nf
nflp
lput
utan
anhf
hfoa
oaj,j, df
dfhh
nfotratamf para dazbr partb mbstb thlb mb bogboebhrfs,
pfrèl,ulalhssîfdfhmamapbjfsbugbstfrmhrbtf9nrharul
pbosal
pbos albo
botf
tf jþ
jþgh
ghnf
nf pa
parara qu
qub
b fs
fs bogb
bogboe
oebhbhrf
rfs
s du
dutu
tura
ralb
lbot otb
b
R1-Jþghnambprfgralaçîf
R1-Jþghnamb prfgralaçîf  7
pfssalpprrfgra
ral
larffsssb
sbus vbrsbrsfsn nu fsl laatbl t nfs.
Blhssîfmamaèlhssîfqubmbvbrásbrnul
Blhssîfmamaèlhssîf qubmbvbrásbrnulprhma! prhma!
Of
Of pr
prhl
hlbh
bhrf
rf lf
lflb
lbot otf,
f, vfné
vfné mb
mbvb
vbrá
rá trac
tracaj
ajea
ear
r nf
nfl
l sbus
sbus
nfjbgasbogboebhrfsfusfmajþghnaparasfjuçîfmbprfcjblas,
nfjbgasbogboebhrfsfusfmajþghnaparasfjuçîf mbprfcjblas,
aapjhnaçîfmajþghnaofmhaamhabfranhfnìohfjþghnf.
Bl sbguhma, vfné hrá aprbsbotar as mbdhohçòbs b a
hvarhávbhs,nfostaotbsbsbusfpbramfrbs.
lpfrtãonha mfs ajgfrhtlfs, asshl nf nfl lf a uthjhzaçîf mb
Para dhoajhzar a lhssîf, vfné mbhxará mb dfrla njara
nf
nflf
lf du
duon
onhf
hfoa
oa a jhog
jhogua
uagb
gbl
l oa
oatu
tura
raj,j, as
as nara
narantb
ntbrì
rìst
sthn
hnas
as mf
mfss
djuxfgralas,psbumfnþmhgfsbapjhnarathvhmambspráthnaspara
sfjuçòbsmbprfcjblasmbjþghna.
Pfhscbl,atbotb-sbaf
Pfhscbl,atbotb-sbafsnfonbhtfsqubsbrî
snfonbhtfsqubsbrîfaprbsbotamfs
faprbsbotamfs
bsbiasblprbbxpjframfrmbnfoebnhlbotfs.
Cfasfrtbbþthlfsbstumfs!
5 R1-Jþghnamb
prfgralaçîf
 .
Mbdhohçòbsmbjþghna
Mhájfgfacbrtf
Narfajuof,
A sht
shtuaç
uaçîf
îf-pr
-prfcj
fcjbla
bla mbs
mbsta
tasbç
sbçîf
îf tbl
tbl pf
pfr
r fc
fcibth
ibthvf
vf tra
tracaj
cajear
ear f
ranhfnìohfjþghnfmbsbovfjvhmfmuraotbfmbsbovfjvhlbotfmf‚Oîf
pfmbdajtar“.AKrfVBogboearhas,ulablprbsambrboflboaárba
mabogboearha,anacfumbnfotratá-jf,btîfcrbvbiájebdfhmama
ulalhssîf9aiumarfssbusnfjbgasbogboebhrfsabonfotrarula
dfrlaqubpfssaaiumá-jfsoabxbnuçîfmfsnájnujfslatbláthnfs
mbsbovfjvhmfsoaslahsmhvbrsasárbasmabogboearha.Parahssf,vfné
mbvbrámbsbovf
mbvbrámbsbovfjvbrnflfs
jvbrnflfsbogboebhrfsfpbos
bogboebhrfsfpbosalbotfjþghnf
albotfjþghnfpara
para
fmbsbovfjvhlbotfmb sfdtwarbsparasfjuçòbsmfsnájnujfs.
Nf
Nflf
lf pf
pfotf
otf mb pa
parth
rthma,
ma, vf
vfné
né mbv
mbvbrá
brá tra
traca
cajea
jear
r f pbo
pbosal
salbot
botff
jþghnfmfsnfjbgasbogboebhrfs.Parataj,tbrámbaiumá-jfsarbsfjvbr
jþghnfmfsnfjbgasbogboebhrfs.Parataj,tbrámb aiumá-jfsarbsfjvbr
fprfcjblabonfotramfblulmfssbtfrbsmablprbsa9ulrfcý
tbla
tbladuoçîfmb
duoçîfmbblphjear
blphjearlatbrhahs
latbrhahsnfl
nflas
assbguhotb
sbguhotbs
snarantb
narantbrìsthnas9
-Fslatbrhahslahspbsamfsoîfpfmbldhnarsfcrbfslatbrhahs rìsthnas9
lahsjbvbs.
- As phjeas (P1
P1,, P3 b P>) mbvbl
bl tbr of
of láxhlf > dhjbh
bhrras mb
latbrhahs.
-Fgajpîfmhspòbapboasmb>jfnahs(A,CbN)mblfvhlbotaçòbs
mfslatbrhahs,fombmbvbltraoshtarbdhnarmhspfstfsofùjthlfjfnaj
(N)parafprþxhlfprfnbssfmbjfg
(N)parafprþxhlf prfnbssfmbjfgìsthnamablprbsa
ìsthnamablprbsa..
Aprfpfsta,botîf,ènrharulalaobhrambfthlhzarftracajef
mfrfcýparaqubbjbrbajhzbatarbdauthjhzaomfalbofrquaothmamb
pf
pfss
ssìv
ìvbj
bj mb
mb pa
pass
ssfs
fs b,
b, nf
nfos
osbq
bqub
ubot
otbl
blbo
botb
tb,
, ul
ul lb
lbof
ofr
r tb
tblp
lpf
f oa
bxbnuçîfmfprfnbssf.
Dhgura1.1|Sfcþthnfvbtfrláquhoa
A C N
Dfotb9
Dfotb9 Drbbphk.
Drbbphk. Mhspf
Mhspfoìvb
oìvbj
j bl9
bl9 :aerbd<‘
:aerbd<‘ettp
ettp9//cr
9//cr.drb
.drbbphk
bphk.nfl/
.nfl/vbtf
vbtfrbs-g
rbs-graths
raths/rfcft
/rfcfthnf-v
hnf-vbtfr-
btfr-
laquhoaV71=804.etl‘?MbshgobmcyDrbbphk:/a??.Anbssfbl912
laquhoaV71=804.etl‘?M bshgobmcyDrbbphk:/a??.Anbssfbl912fut.3017.
bshgobmcyDrbbphk:/a??.Anbssfbl912 fut.3017.
Agfra nebgfu f lflbotf mb nfoebnbr as mbdhohçòbs b

apjhnaçòbsmajþghnaparaasfjuçîfmbstbprfcjblabmbfutrfsqub
apjhnaçòbsmajþghnaparaasfjuçîfmbstbp rfcjblabmbfutrfsqub
hrîfsurghr.Prbparamf6Talfsjá!
Oîfpfmbdajtar
Narfrf aju
juof
of,, iá
iá hl
hlaaghohof
fu qub para ra rb
rbssfjv
jvbr
br ul
ul prfcj
rfcjbl
blaa eá
hoùlbraspfsshchjhmambs,qubparanebgaraulùohnfjugarbxhstbl
mh
mhvb
vbrs
rsfs
fs na
nalh
lhoefoefs6 s6 Bo
Botî
tîf,
f, pb
pbos
osar
ar nf
nfl
l jþjþgh
ghna
na è tb
tbr
r ul
ulaa fr
frmb
mbll
mbranhfnìohf,nrharnrhtèrhfsparanebgarafsbufcibthvfoflbofr
tblpfpfssìvbjbnflflbofrbsdfrçf.
Obst asbçî
Obsta sbçîf,f,valfs
valfsofs
ofsnfon
nfonbotbotrar
rarbl
blbot
botbomb
bombr rfs
fspbos
pbosalbo
albotfs tfs
jþghnfsbmbdhohçòbsqubfspbrlbhal.
Pfhscbl,prhlbhralbotbvalfsmbdhohrfqubèjþghna9‚Ajþghna
èaartbmbpbosarnfrrbtalbotbfuajþghnaèulbstumfmfslfmf
èaartbmbpbosarnfrrbtalbotbfu ajþghnaèulbstumfmfslfmfss
ajþghnaèulbstumfmfslfmf
nfrrbtfsmfpbosalbotf“(^FASB^,30
nfrrbtfsmfpbosalbotf“(^F ASB^,301=,p.1).^
1=,p.1).^bguomfDfrcbjjf
bguomfDfrcbjjfob ob
(3002, p. 1)
(30 1),, ‚p
‚pfm
fmblblf fs rb
rbja
janh
nhf
foa
oar
r a jþ
jþgh
ghna
na nf
nfll a nf
nfrr
rrbç
bçîîf mf
pbo
pbosa
salbo
lbotf,tf, pfh
pfhssul
ula amb
mbsusuas
as prb
prbfnu
fnupaç
paçòbs
òbs è mbt
mbtbrl
brlhoa
hoar
r qu
quahs
ahs
fpbraçòbssîf
fpbraçòbssîfvájhmasbquahsoîfsîf
vájhmasbquahsoîfsîf,dazbomfaoájhsbsmasdfrl
,dazbomfaoájhsbsmasdfrlas as
bjbhsmfpbosalbotf“.]blfs,ahoma,qub‚jþghnaèanhéonhaqub
bstumaasjbhsbfsnrhtèrhfsmbvaj hmambqubrbgblfpbosalbotfba
mblfostraç
mblfostraçîf,
îf,fu
fusbia,nhéonhamfs
sbia,nhéonhamfsprhonìp
prhonìphfs
hfsdfrlahsm
dfrlahsm
dfrlahsmfranhfnìohf“.
franhfnìohf“.
(ACB;^NAJYH]]H;^FRYADHJEF,3001,p.11)
^blprbqubvfnépbosambdfrlafrmboamabmbotrfmarazîf,
bstápbosaomfmbdfrlajþghna,oblsblprbvfnétbráflbslf
pbosalbotfqubfsfutrfs,pfrèl,ffcibthvfmbstbpbosalbotfoa
sualahfrhaèajnaoçarulfcibthvf.
10 R1-Jþghnambprfgralaçîf
R1-Jþghnamb prfgralaçîf
Dhgura1.3|Pbosalbotfjþghnf
Dfotb9:ettps9
Dfotb9:ettps9//phxacay.
//phxacay.nfl/pt/pbosamfr-b
nfl/pt/pbosamfr-bl-ula-pbrma
l-ula-pbrma-nfoshmbrb-138==81/?.
-nfoshmbrb-138==81/?. Anbssf bl9
>0sbt.3017.
Quaomfvfnépbosabl pfrnbotagbl,vbljfgfofpbosalbotf9
 x
‚ajgulanfhsapfrnbl“fu‚ “(blqub‚x“èuloùlbrfquajqubr
100
mhvhmhmfpfrnbl).Nbrtf6Bssbranhfnìohfèjþghnf,pbjfdatfmbqub
vf
vfné
né mb
mbsb
sbia
ia bo
bonf
nfot
otra
rar
r ul
ul où
oùlb
lbrf
rf qu
qub
b sbrá
sbrá us
usam
amf
f para
para rbs
rbsfj
fjvb
vbrr
futrfpbosalbotfjþghnf,pfrbxblpjf9
TfnégaoeaS$2.000,00pfrlésbtbráulmbsnfotfmb11%mb
TfnégaoeaS$2.000,00pfrlés btbráulmbsnfotfmb11%mb
HO^^sfcrbbssbvajfr.Nflfmbvbrábstruturarbssbprf
HO^^sfcrbbssbvajfr.Nflfmbvbrábstruturarbssbprfcjbla6Pbja
cjbla6Pbja
jþghna,bvhmbotb!
Rlamassfjuçòbsèrbsfjvbrprhlbhrfquaotfè11%9
11
<0,11
100
Blsbguhma,lujthpjhnarfsbu
Blsbguhma,lujthpjhnarfsbusajárhfpbjfva
sajárhfpbjfvajfrbonfotramf9
jfrbonfotramf9
2.00
2.000
0,0
,00
0⋂ 0,1
,11
1< 2
220
20,00
0,00
Tajfrbonfotramf,nbrtf6
Agfraqub
Agfraqubvfnébonfotrfufvajfr
vfnébonfotrfufvajfrmapfrnbotagbl,vfnépfmbrá
mapfrnbotagbl,vfnépfmbrá
ap
apjhjhna
nar
r pa
para
ra sfla
lar r fu su
succtrtraahr
hr of
of sbu
bu sa
sajá
járh
rhf
f. A jþ
jþg
ghna
hna mbdbdho
hohm
hmaa
bra bo
bra bonf
nfot
otra
rar
r f mb
mbsnsnfo
fotftf mb
mb HO
HO^^^^,
, bo
botîtîf
f vf
vfnéné mb
mbvb
vbrá
rá bd
bdbt
btua
uar
r a
suctraçîf
suctra çîf mf
mf sbu
sbu sa
sajár
járhf
hf pbjf
pbjf va vajfr
jfr ma
ma pfr
pfrnbo
nbotag
tagbl
bl bon
bonfotfotram
rama.
a.
Tbianflfdhnfu9
S$2.000,00„S$220,00<S$=.=20,00
Dhoajhzao
Dhoajhzaomf
mf f ofs
ofssf
sf pbo
pbosa
salbo
lbotf
tfjþg
jþghnf
hnf,
, f sbu
sbu sa
sajár
járhf
hf sbrá
sbrá mb
S$=.=20,00.
]umfluhtfjþghnf!
Asshlhjb
^b
^bgu
guom
omf
f Dfrc
Dfrcbj
bjjf
jfob
ob (3
(300
002)
2),
, f sbr
sbr eu
eula
laof
of tb
tbl
l a napa
napanh
nhma
mamb
mb
       ,  ,   
mb
mbtb
tbrl
rlho
hoam
amf
f hmh
hmhfl
fla
a b gra
gralá
láth
thna.
na. Pbos
Pbosao
aomfmf as
assh
shl,
l, sb
sbia
ia qu
quaj
aj dfr
dfr f
hmhflafranhfnìohf,sbguhráalbslajh oeambpbosalbotf.
Pfmblfsmhzbrqubhssfanfotbnbnflajþghnambprfgralaçîf
quaomf
mf usalfs f lbs
bsl
lf ranh
nhf
fnìohf par
para prfgra
gralar hoù
oùl
lbras
jhoguagbosmbprfgralaçîf.
Ajþghnapfmbsbruthjhzamaparavárhfsfutrfspbosalbotfs,vbiasþ9
Ajþghnapfmbsbruthjhzamapara várhfsfutrfspbosalbotfs,vbiasþ9
-]fmflalìdbrfèulaohlaj.
-]fmfnanefrrfèullalìdbrf.
-Pfrtaotf,tfmfnanefrrfèulaohlaj.
Tbiaqubobssbbxblpjfbspbnìdhnfalcfsfspbosalbotfssîf
vájhmfs.
AjþghnambGbfrgbCffjb
^bguomf Ajvbs (301=), Gbfrgb Cffjb dfh ul latbláthnf b
dhjþsfdfqub,ofsènujfUHU,mbdbombuahmbhambqubfranhfnìohf
eulaof
eul aof pf
pfmbr
mbrha
hasbr
sbr bxp
bxprbs
rbssf
sf bl
bltbr
tbrlfs
lfs la
latbl
tbláth
áthnfs
nfs,
,pfr
pfr lbhf
lbhf
majþghnadfrlajmbsbovfjvhmapbjfsgrbgfs,lahsprbnhsalbotbpbjf
majþghnadfrlajmbsbovfjvhmapbjfsgrbgfs,lahsprbnhsa lbotbpbjf
dhjþsfdfArhstþtbjbs.
Dhgura1.>|
Dhgura1.>|GbfrgbCffjb
GbfrgbCffjb(1512-154=)
(1512-154=)
Dfotb9:ettps9//upjfam.whkhlbmha.frg/whkhpbmha/nf
Dfotb9:ettps9//upjfam .whkhlbmha.frg/whkhpbmha/nfllfos/n/nb/G
.whkhlbmha.frg/whkhpbmha/nfllfos/n/nb/GbfrgbVCffjbVnf
llfos/n/nb/GbfrgbVCffjbVnfjfr.ipg?.
bfrgbVCffjbVnfjfr.ipg?.
Anbssfbl9>0
Anbssfbl9>0 sbt.30
sbt.3017.
17.
Pfrlbhfmbssbranhfnìohffrhghofu-sbaÁjgbcrambCffjbfuÁjgbcra
Cffjbaoa.Èsachmfqubbssbthpfmbájgbcraèblcasamfoajþghna
choárha.Nflfasshl6Ajþgh
choárha.Nflfasshl6Ajþghnachoárha
asshl6Ajþghnachoárhapfssuhmuas
nachoárhapfssuhmuas rbprbsbotat
rbprbsbotathvhmambs,
hvhmambs,
‚dajsf“b‚vbrmambhrf“fu‚0“b‚1“.
Blrbjaçîfafssbusfpbramfrbs,sîfm
Blrbjaçîfafssbusfpbram frbs,sîfmbdhohmfsAOM,FSbOF
bdhohmfsAOM,FSbOF],
],
fusbia,B,FRbOÎF,fomb(‚B“)èanfoiuoçîf,(‚FR“),amhsiuoçîf
b(OÎF),aobgaçîf.
Bxpjhnaomflbjefr,vbrblfsqub9
-
-Nfoiuoçîf(‚B“)„
Nfoiuoçîf(‚B“)„sflbotbsb
sflbotbsbas
asmuas
muasrbprbsb
rbprbsbotathvh
otathvhmambsdfrbl
mambsdfrbl
vbrmambhras,arbspfstasbrávbrmambhra.
-Mhsiuoçîf(‚FR“)„^bpbjflbofsulambsuasrbprbsbotathvhma mbs
dfrvbrmambhra,arbspfstasbrávbrmambhra.
- Obgaçîf (OÎF) „ Quaomf ula rbprbsbotathvhmamb dfr
vbrmambhra,arbspfstasbrádajsa,bquaomfularbprbsbotathvhmamb
dfrdajsa,arbspfstasbrávbrmambhra.
Parabotbombrlbjefrbstajþghnavalfsaoajhsara]acbja1.19
Parabotbombrlbjefrbstajþghnavalfsaoa jhsara]acbja1.19
]acbja1.1|]acbjaTbrmamb„‚vbrmambhrf“fu‚dajsf“
]acbja1.1|]acbjaTbrmamb„‚vbrmambhrf“fu‚dajsf“
A C A (‚B“) C A (‚FR“) C OÎF A OÎF C

Tbrmamb Tbrmamb Tbrmamb Tbrmamb Dajsf Dajsf
Tbrmamb Dajsf Dajsf Tbrmamb Dajsf Tbrmamb
Dajsf Tbrmamb Dajsf Tbrmamb Tbrmamb Dajsf
Dajsf Dajsf Dajsf Dajsf Tbrmamb Tbrmamb
Dfotb9bjacframapbjfautfr.
Agfravalfsapjhnaratacbjavbrmambusaomfoùlbrfschoárhfs,
nfodfrlblfstraa]acbja1.39
]acbja1.3|]acbjavbrmamb„‚0“fu‚1“

1 1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 1
Tbrblfsagfraajgulasapjhnaçòbs
Tbrblfsagfraajgulasapjhnaçòbs,nflfhjustraa]acbja1.>9
,nflfhjustraa]acbja1.>9
R1-Jþghnamb prfgralaçîf  1>
]acbja1.>|Apjhnaçîfmatacbjavbrmamb
Duoçîf Fpbramfr Bxblpjf Sbsujtamf
Obgaçîf OÎF OÎF (4?>) Dajsf
Nfoiiu
uoçîf B (2?1) B (7?5) Dajsf
Mhsiiu
uoçîf FR (5?8) F R (8
 ? 5) Tbrmambhrf
Talfspbosaroanfostruçîfmbtrhãogujf,bparatajnfostruçîf
oîfpfmblfsusarquajqubrlbmhma,fusbia,vfnémbvbfcbmbnbr
àssbguhotbsnfomhçòbs9
-Oanfostruçîfmbultrhãogujfèfcrhgatþrhfqubalbmhmamb
quajqubrulmfsjamfssbialbofrqubasflamaslbmhmasmfs
futrfsmfhsjamfsblahfrqubfvajfracsfjutfmamhdbrboçabotrb
bssaslbmhmas.
Ftbstbjþghnfdhnarha9
(a:c+n)B(c:a+n)B(n:a+c)
Ajtbroathvalbotb,ftbstbpfmbrhasbr9
(a?|c-n|)B(c?|a-n|)B(n?|a-c|)
Fcs.9Dfraluthjhzamfslþmujfs(‚|...|“)paraqubasuctraçîfmfs
jamfsoîfsbiaulvajfrobgathvf.
AoajhsbftrhãogujfmaDhgura1.=9
Dhgura1.=|]rhãogujfrbtãogujf
c
a
n
Fomb9
a<5c<10n<2
a<5c<10n <2
(a:c+n)B(c:a+n)B(n:a+c)
1= R1-Jþghnambprfgralaçîf
(a:c+n) (c:a+n) (n:a+c)

(5:10+2) (10:5+2) (2:5+10)
B B
(5:12) (10:1>) (2:15)
Tbrmamb Tbrmamb Tbrmamb
Ajtbroathvalbotb9
(a?|c-n|)B(c?|a-n|)B(n?|a-c|)
(a?|c-n|) (c?|a-n|) (n?|a-c|)

(5?|10„2|) (10?|5„2|) (2?|5„10|)
B B
(5?2) (5?>) (5?3)
Tbrmamb Tbrmamb Tbrmamb
Ao
Aoaj
ajhs
hsao
aomf
mf fs
fs rb
rbsu
sujt
jtam
amfs
fs,
, vf
vfné
né pf
pfmb
mb pb
pbrn
rnbc
bcbr
br qu
qub
b tf
tfmamas
s as
rbprbsbota
rbprbs botathv
thvhma
hmambs
mbs sî
sîf
f vbr
vbrma
mambh
mbhras
ras b pf
pfr
r bst
bstb
b lft
lfthvf
hvf fs
fs va
vajfr
jfrbs
bs
atrhcuìmfsdfrlalultrhãogujf.
Sbdjhta
^b
^bguo
guomf
mf Df
Dfrcb
rcbjjjjfo
fob
b (3
(300
002)
2),
, a jþ
jþgh
ghna
na pf
pfr
r lb
lbhf
hf ma nf
nfoi
oiuoç
uoçîf
îf è
rbprbsbotamapbjajbtra‚B“bsflbotbpfmbassulhrulvajfrvbrmambhrf
rbprbsbotamapbjajbtra‚B“bsflbotbpfmb assulhrulvajfrvbrmambhrf
sbtfmfsfsnasfsrbjanhfoamfsdfrblvbrmambhrfs.Pfrbxblpjf9^b
nefvbrbrbjalpbiar,vfnédhnablnasa.Quaomfvfnédhnablnasa6
Blquajqubrulamasshtuaçòbsvfnévahdhnarblnasa,pfhsblalcas
Blquajqubrulamasshtuaçòbsvfnévah dhnarblnasa,pfhsblalcas
asshtuaçòbsanfoiuoçîf
asshtuaçòbsanfoiuoçîf‚B“hlpjhna
‚B“hlpjhnaqubsîfvbrmambhras.
‚B“hlpjhnaqubsîfvbrmambhras.
Bsblumalfsadrasb9^bnefvbrfurbjalpbiar,vfnédhnablnasa.
Bsblumalfsadrasb9^bnefvbrfurbjalpbiar,vfnédhnablnasa.
Quaomfvfnédhnablnasa6
Qubþthlf!Agfraqubvfnéiánfoebnbfrbjanhfoalbotfnfl
ajþghnambCffjb,valfsaprfduomarulpfunflahsbnfoebnbra
Jhoguagblprfpfshnhfoaj.
Jhoguagblprfpfshnhfoaj
Af
Af ap
aprb
rbsb
sbot
otar
arlf
lfs
s ula
ula jhjhog
ogua
uagb
gbl
l dfrl
dfrlaj
aj,
, prbn
prbnhs hsal
alfs
fs
hohnhajlbotb dfrobnbr fs nflpfobotbs cáshnfs ma
jhoguagbl, nealamfs mb ajdacbtf, para bl sbguhma
dfrobn
dfro bnbr
br as
as rbgr
rbgras
as mb
mb dfr
dfrla
laçîçîf
f ma
ma jh
jhog
ogua
uagb
gbl,l, ta
talc
lcèl
èl
nealamasmbgraláthna.(^HJTA,3004,p.5)
^bg
bguo
uommf ^hjhjva
va (3004)
(30 lfss fs sb
4),, usalf guho
sbg hotbs bjbl
tbs bjblbotfss qub
botf
rbprbsbotalfsnfobnthvfs9
-Fnfobnthvfuoárhf (obgaçîf,jé-sb9OÎF).
¬
-Fnfobnthvfchoárhf ∧ (nfoiuoçîf,jé-sb9B).

-Fnfobnthvfchoárhf mhs uo îf jé-sb9FR .

-Fnfobnthvfchoárhf (hlpjhnaçîf,jé-sb9^B...BO]ÎF).
↓
-Fs
-Fs
Fsbjblbot
bjblbotfs
fsmb
mbpfotuaçîfsîf
pfotuaçîfsîfrbprbsb
rbprbsbotamfspbjfs
otamfspbjfs
otamfspbjfsparéotbsbs.
paréotbsbs.
Tbiaajguosbxblpjfsmbapjhnaçòbs
Tbiaajguosbxblpjfsmbapjhnaçòbsmbdþrlujasoa]
mbdþrlujasoa]acbja1.29
acbja1.29
]acbja1.2|Prfpfshçòbs
]fl è ul gatf B ]fl naça ratfs

p  ∧ q
Ibrry è u l ratf fu Ibrry dfgb m b ] fl
p  ∥ q
Fl
 ar b stá n ajlf botîf vfu o avbgar
 ↓
p q
vah nefvbr oîf vah nefvbr
p  ¬ q
Dhgura1.2|Latrhzbsmbnfobnthvfsjþghnfs
A ∧C C < 0 C < 1 A ∥C C < 0 C < 1

A < 0  0 0 A < 0  0 1
A < 1  0 1 A < 1  1 1
A C C < 0
↓ C < 1 ¬
A
A<0   1 1 A < 0  1
A<1  0 1 A < 1  0
Dfotb9^hjva(3004,p.12).
Hlpfrtaotb9
Blofssasapjhnaçòbsnflprfpfshçòbsvalfsusarbljbtras
lhoùsnujas p, q, r b s para nflpfr as dþrlujas ma jhoguagbl
prfpfshnhfoaj,bA,C,NbMsbrîfarbprbsbotaçîfmasdþrlujas.
Bxblpjf9 (q q),obstbdfrlatfpfmblfsmhzbrqub(A
↓ ¬ C),fu ↓

< < ¬
,     .
Tbiaagfraa
Tbiaagfraasprbnbméonhaspararbs
sprbnbméonhaspararbsfjvbrasprfpf
fjvbrasprfpfshçòbs9
shçòbs9
]acbja1.4|Prbnbméonhas
Fpbramfrbs Prbnbméonhas
¬ 1ª
∧ 3ª
∥ 3ª
↓
>ª
Bxpjhna
nao
omf9 Pr
Prhhlbhralbotb sbr
bráá rbsfjvhma a ‚Obgaçîf“, bl
sbguomfa‚Nfoiuoçîf“b‚Mhsiuoçîf“(qubtélflbslfoìvbjmb
prbnbméonha)bpfrùjthlfa‚Hlpjhnaçîf“.
Quaomf tbl alchguhmamb, qub è f nasf ma nfoiuoçîf b
mhsiuoçîf,sbráaoajhsamffqubbsthvbrlahsàmhrbhta,fusbia,sbrá
rbajhzamaulaassfnhathvhmambàmhrbhta.
Aoajhsaomfaprfpfshçîfacahxf9
r∧  ¬
s ↓
r∥  ¬
s∧  ¬
r
^bomfqub9
r<Tbrmamb
s<Dajsf
1¹9Hsfjalfsas‚obgaçòbs“nflparéotbsbs
r ∧ ( s)
¬ ↓
r ∥ ( s) ∧ ( r)
¬ ¬
3¹9Hsfjalfsas‚Nfoiuoçòbs“b‚Mhsiuoçòbs“
(r ∧ ( s))
¬ ↓
(r ∥ (( s) ∧ ( r)))
¬ ¬
Sbsfjvbomf9
(r ∧ ( s))
¬ ↓
(r ∥ (( s) ∧ ( r)))
¬ ¬
(v
(vbrmamb
brmamb b (oîf da
(oîf dajs
jsf)) hl
f)) hlpj
pjhna
hna (v
(vbrmamb
brmamb fu
fu ((
((oî
oîf
f da
dajs
jsf)
f) b (o
(oîf
îf
vbrmamb)))
(vbrmambbvbrmam
(vbrmambbvbrmamb)hlpjhna(vbrmambfu
b)hlpjhna(vbrmambfu((vbrmamb)b(dajsf)))
((vbrmamb)b(dajsf)))
(vbrmamb)hlpjhna(vbrmambfu(dajsf))
(vbrmamb)hlpjhna(vbrmamb)
Tbrmamb
rbspfstasbr vbr a b.
Pbsquhsblahs
A
Avhmb
vhmbfau
faujaa
jaa sbguhr
sbguhr mbl
mblfos
fostratra mbdfrla
mbdfrla shl
shlpjb
pjbs
sa
ajþ
jþghn
ghna
aprf
prfpf-
pf-
shnhfoajbatacbjavbrmambapjhnamablvárhfsbxblpjfsbapjhnaçòbs.
Bxhstbl
Bxhstb l vár
várhas
has fut
futras
ras vhm
vhmbfa
bfauja
ujass rbj
rbjanh
anhfoa
foamas
masa
a bss
bssb
b assuot
assuotf,
f,fiqu
fiqub
b à
vfotambparabxpjfrarbamquhrhrnfoebnhlbotf
vfotambparabxpjfrarb amquhrhrnfoebnhlbotf..
amquhrhrnfoebnhlbotf
Sanhfnìohfjþghnf(Prfpfshçòbsbtacbjavbrmambauja >).Mhspfoìvbj
bl9:ettps9//www.yfutucb.nfl/watne6v<rir-SqDL>un?.Anbssfbl9
1fut.3017.
Pfhscbl,vbiaa
Pfhscbl,vbiaasbguhotbapjhnaçîf
sbguhotbapjhnaçîfusaomfaprf
usaomfaprfpfshçîf9
pfshçîf9
(r ∧ s)
Talfsdazbrularbprbsbotaçîfmadþrlujaanhlanfoshmbraomf
asadhrlaçòbsacahxf9
‚Nur
‚Nurhthca
hthcaè
ènapht
naphtajmfParaoá
ajmfParaoá“è
“èrbprb
rbprbsbota
sbotamfpfr‚r“,fsbuvajf
mfpfr‚r“,fsbuvajfrr
jþghnfè9Taj(r)<Tbrmamb
‚^îfPaujfèlahfrqubNurhthca“èrbprbsbotamfpfr‚s“,fsbu
vajfrjþghnfè9Taj(s)<Tbrmamb.Botîf9
‚NurhthcaènaphtajmfParaoá“∧ ‚^îfPaujfèlahfrqubNurhthca“
 r s
Pfmblfsnfonjuhrqub9
(r ∧ s) bquhvajba (A
A∧ C)
Aprhlbhradþrluja( r)èvbrmambhrabasbguomadfrluja(
)èvbrmambhrabasbguomadfrluja( s ) è
vbrmambhra,pfrtaotf,arbspfstadhoajè vbrmambhra.
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Tbiaagfraajguosbxblpjfsmbprfpfshçòbs
Tbiaagfraajguosbxblpjfsmbprfpfshçòbsb
boîfprfpfshçòbs9
b oîfprfpfshçòbs9
Bjaèprfdbssfra.
Obstbnasfblbsp
Obstbnasfbl bspbnìd
bnìdhnf
hnf oîf
oîf rbtrat
rbtrata
aula
ula prf
prfpfs
pfshçî
hçîf,pfhsoîf
f,pfhsoîf
nfosbguhlfsatrhcuhroboeulvajfrjþghnfparabssbthpfmbmbnjaraçîf.
nfosbguhlfsatrhcuhroboeulvajfrjþghnfparabssbthpfmbmbnjaraçîf.
10?30
Èulaprfpfshçîf,pfhsfvajfrjþghnf
Èulaprfpfshçîf,pfhsfvajfrjþghnfènfoshmbramf
ènfoshmbramfdajsf.
dajsf.
Lárnhfèprfdbssfr.
Èulaprfpfshçîf,pfhsmbhxanjarfquajèaprfdhssîfmfLárnhf,
talcèlnarant
talcèlnarantbrhzamfpfr
brhzamfpfrnjasshdhnarsb
njasshdhnarsbè
èvbrmambhrffudajsf.
èvbrmambhrffudajsf.
Efibvahnefvbr6
Oîfnarantbrhzaprfpfshçîf.Drasbshotbrrfgathvasoîfrblbtbla
vbrmambhrffudajsf.
^bguomf ^hjva (3004), oa mbdhohçîf mb dþrluja, f usf mb

paréotbsb
paréotbsbs
s è fc
fcrhg
rhgatþ
atþrhf
rhf qu
quaom
aomf
f sb
sbus
usal
alfs
fs nfo
nfobnt
bnthvf
hvfs
s cho
choárh
árhfs
fs,,
pfrèl,oapráthnapfmblfsusaracrbvhaçòbsqubpfmblsucsthtuhr
fsparéotbsbs,vbiaajgulasshtuaçòbs9
-Fsparéotbsbsqubdhnallahsbxtbrofsmbuladþrlujapfmbl
-Fsparéotbs bsqubdhnallahsbxtbrofsmbuladþrlujapfmbl
sbr fl
sbr flht
hthm
hmfs
fs.
. Pf
Pfr
r bxb
bxblp
lpjfjf9
9 pf
pfmb
mblflfss bs
bsnr
nrbv
bvbr
br p ∧ q ∧ ¬r ∧ ¬s
bl vbz mb ((p ∧ q) ∧ ¬r) ∧ ¬s ; fs
¬s; fs pa
paré
réot
otbs
bsbs
bs bs
bstî f ajho
tîf ajhoea
eamf
mfss
àbsqubrma.
Qu
Quaoaomf
mf tb
tbl
l rb
rbpb
pbth
thçî
çîff mf
mf nf
nfob
obntnthvf , pfmb
hvf
↓ mbl
lfs oîf usar
oîf
fs pa
paréot
réotbsb
bsbs.
s. Bxb
Bxblp
lpjf9
jf9 pf
pfmbl
mblfsfs bsn
bsnrbv br p q rblvbzmb
rbvbr↓ ↓
p (q r).
↓ ↓
Oamùvhma,sbadþrlujadhnarnjara,mbhxbfsparéotbsbs
Oamùvhma,sbadþrlujadhnarnjara,mbhxbfsparéotbsbs..
Luhtfcbl,hssfèsþfnflbçfmfofssfaprbomhzamf.Agfra
qu
qub
b vf
vfné
né iá
iá nf
nfoe
oebn
bnb
b f ra
ranh
nhfn
fnìo
ìohf
hf jþ
jþgh
ghnf
nf,
, è ef
efra
ra mb
mb pb
pbos
osar
ar bl
prathnar.Cfasfrtbbatèaprþxhlasbçîf!
R1-Jþghnamb prfgralaçîf  18
^bllbmfmbbrrar
Nebgfu
Nebg fu f lf
lflb
lbot f mb
otf mb trazbr
trazbr à tf
tfoa
oa a shtu
shtuaç
açîf-prf
îf-prfcjbla
cjbla ma
sbçî
sbçîf.Mbral-
f.Mbral-jeba
jebalhss
lhssîfmbaiumar
îfmbaiumarfsfssbus
sbusnfjbgasbogboe
nfjbgasbogboebhrfs
bhrfs
nflajgulasshtuaçòbsvhvbonhamasofmhaamhamablprbsa.Para
hssf,vfnémbvbrámbsbovfjvbrnflfsbogboebhrfsfpbosalbotf
jþghnfparaabjacfraçîfmba
jþghnfparaa bjacfraçîfmbajgfrhtlfs.
jgfrhtlfs.
 -       
frgaohzarfslatbrhahsrbnbchmfsbmhstrhcuì-jfs.
Bodhl,frfcýmbvbráblphjearfslatbrhahsrbnbchmfs,passaomf
pfrtrésárbasbspbnìdhnas(A,CbN),blqubAèfjfnajfombfs
latbrh
latb rhah
ahs
s bo
bonf
nfotr
otral
al-s
-sb
b bl
blph
phje
jeam
amfsfs b N è f jfna
jfnajj fo
fomb
mb mb
mbvb
vbrî
rîf
f
bstarblphjeamfsofdhoajmfprfnbssf.
Jb
Jblc
lcraraom
omf
f qu
qub
b fs
fs la
latb
tbrh
rhah
ahs
s la
lahs hs pb
pbsa
samf
mfs
s oî
oîff pf
pfmb
mbll dhna
dhnarr
sfcrbfslatbrhahslahsjbvbs,bqubasphjeas(P1,P3bP>)mbvbltbr
sfcrbfslatbrhahslahsjbvbs,bqubasphjea s(P1,P3bP>)mbvbltbr
ofláxhlf>dhjbhrasmblatbrhahs.
Aprfpfstabotîfènrharulalaobhrambfthlhzarftracajefmf
rf
rfcý
cý pa
para
ra qub
qub bjb
bjb rb
rbaj
ajhzb
hzb a ta
tarb
rbda
da ut
uthjhjhz
hzao
aomf
mf a lb
lbof
ofr
r qu
quao
aoth
thma
mamb
mb
pf
pfss
ssìv
ìvbj
bj mb
mb pa
pass
ssf
bxbnuçîfmfprfnbssf.f sb
sb,
, nf
nfos
osbq
bqub
ubot
otbl
blbo
botb
tb,
, ul
ul lb
lbof
ofr
r tb
tblp
lpf
f oa
Luhtfcbl,parasfjunhfoarbssbprfcjblavfnévahuthjhzaralbsla
jþghnaapjhnamaofbxblpjfnjásshnfmatfrrbmbEaoþh.
Dhgura1.4|Sfcþthnfvbtfrláquhoa
A C N
Dfotb9Drbbphk.Mhspfoìvbjbl9:aerbd<‘ettp9//cr.drbbphk.nfl/vbtfrbs-graths/rfcfthnf-vbtfr-
laquhoaV71=804.etl‘?MbshgobmcyDrbbphk:/a?.Anbssfbl912
laquhoaV71=804.etl‘?M bshgobmcyDrbbphk:/a?.Anbssfbl912 fut.3017.
Talfsjá,
Prhlbhrf,lfvbraprhlbhraphjea(P1)mfsbubspaçffrhghoaj(A)
paraftbrnbhrfbspaçf(N).
^bguomf,lfvbrasbguomaphjea(P3)mfsbubspaçffrhghoaj(A)
parafsbguomfbspaçf(C).
]brnbhrf,lfvbraprhlbhraphjea(P1)mftbrnbhrfbspaçf(N)para
fsbguomfbspaçf(C).
Quartf
Quar tf,
, lf
lfvb
vbr
r a tb
tbrn
rnbhr
bhra
a ph
phje
jea
a (P
(P>)
>) mf
mf sb
sbu
u bs
bspa
paçf
çf fr
frhg
hgho
hoaj
aj (A
(A))
paraftbrnbhrfbspaçf(N).
Quhotf,lfvbraprhlbhraphjea(P1)mfsbgu
Quhotf,lfvbraprhlbh raphjea(P1)mfsbguomfbspa
omfbspaçf(C)para
çf(C)para
fbspaçffrhghoaj(A).
^bxtf,lfvbrasbguomaphjea(P3)mfsbguomfbspaçf(C)paraf
tbrnbhrfbspaçf(N).
^èthlf,lfvbraprhlbhraphjea(P1)mfbspaçffrhghoaj(A)paraf
tbrnbhrfbspaçf(N).
Luhtfcbl,prathqublahs,lumbasfrmbosbsbpfssìvbjnfjfqub
Luhtfcbl,prathqublahs,lumbasfrmbosbsbpfs sìvbjnfjfqub
lahsphjeas.
Avaoçaomfoapráthna
Anasapbrdbhta
Mbsnrhçîfmashtuaçîf-prfcjbla
Tfnébstáàprfnurambulanasaofvaparanflprarbrbsfjvbu
nfotratarulnfrrbtfrmbhlþvbhsparajebaiumarnflbssalhssîf,
parataotf,vfnéjebmbuajgulasmhnasmfqubsbrhasuanasahmbaj9
pbrtfmfnbotrfbnfltrésquartfsfulahs.
^bunfrrbtfrjebtrfuxbmuasprfpfstas9ulanasaadastamamf
nbotrf,
nbotrf, of
of bo
bota
taotf
otf,
, nf
nfl l trés
trés qu
quar
artf
tfs;
s; b ul
ulaa sb
sbgu
guom
omaa pr
prfp
fpfs
fsta
ta,,
ulanasaofnbotrfbnflmfhsquartfs.
Agfr
Ag fra
a qu
qubb vf
vfné
né iá
iá tb
tbl
l as
as nf
nfom
omhç
hçòb
òbs s ob
obnb
nbssssár
árha
has,
s, bjac
bjacfr
frb
b as
sbotboçasusaomfprfpfshçòbs.
Sbsfjuçîfmashtuaçîf-prfc
Sbsfjuçîfma shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
]blfsasbguhotbshtuaçîf9
p9Èulanasa.
q9Bstájfnajhzamaofnbotrf.
r9Prbnhsatbrtrésquartfs.
s9Anflpraèhmbaj.
Abquaçîfmadþrlujanfodfrlbaofssashtua
Abquaçîfmadþrlujanfodfrlbaofssashtuaçîfè9
çîfè9
ûasnfomhçòbs9(p ∧ q ∧ r) ↓
s
R1-Jþghnamb
prfgralaçîf  31
Nfomhçòbsnfjfnamaspbjfnfrrbtfr9
(p ∧ q ∧ r) ∥ (p ∧ q ∧ r)
¬ ¬
Pfmblfsnfonjuhrqubaprfpfstamfnfrrbtfr
Pfmblfsnfonjuhrqubaprfpfstamfnfrrbtfr oîfèanflprahmbaj .
Daçavajbrapboa
1.AÁjgbcrambCffjbfuÁjgbcraCffjbaoaèblcasamaoajþghnachoárha,
pfrtaotf,pfssuhmuasrbprbsbotathvhmambs,‚dajsf“b‚vbrmambhrf“fu‚0“b
. l rb aç
aç f afs sbus fpbra frbs s f b o fs ,  b , fu
sbia,B,FRbOÎF,fomb(‚B“)èanfoiuoçîf,(‚FR“),amhsiuoçîfb(OÎF),
aobgaçîf.
Pfmblfsmhzbrqub9
 H.Nfoiuoçîf(‚B“)
H.Nfoiuoçîf(‚B“)„^b „^bpbjflbofs
„^b pbjflbofsulamb
pbjflbofs ulambsuasrbprbsbotathv
ulamb suasrbprbsbotathvhmambsdfr
suasrbprbsbotathv hmambsdfr
vbrmambhra,a
vbrmambhra,arbspfstasbrá
rbspfstasbrávbrmambhra.
vbrmambhra.
 HH
HH.. Mh
Mhsi
siuo
uoçî
çîf
f (‚
(‚FR
FR“)“) „ ^f
^flb
lbototb
b sb as
as muas
muas rb
rbpr
prbs
bsbo
bota
tath
thvh
vhma
mambs
mbs dfrb
dfrbl l
vbrmambhras,arbspfstasbrá
vbrmambhras,a rbspfstasbrávbrmambhra.
vbrmambhra.
HHH.
HHH.Obgaçîf
Obgaçîf (OÎF) „ Quaomf ula rbprbsbotat rbprbsbotathvhmam
hvhmambb dfr vbrmambhra,
a rb
rbsp
spfs
fsta
ta sbrá
sbrá dajs
dajsa
a b quao
quaomf
mf ula
ula rbpr
rbprbsbsbo
bota
tath
thvh
vhma
mamb
mb dfr
dfr da
dajs
jsa,
a, a
rbspfstasbrávbrmambhra.
Asshoajbaa
Asshoajbaajtbroathvanfrrbta
a)^flbotb jtbroathvanfrrbtanfodfrlba
a)^flbotbaadhrlaçî
aadhrlaçîfHbstánfnfodfrlbasadhrlaçòbs
rrbta. sadhrlaçòbsanhla9
fHbstánfrrbta. anhla9
c)AsadhrlaçòbsH,HHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
n)AsadhrlaçòbsHHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
m)^flbotbaadhrlaçîfHHHbstánfrrbta.
m)^flbotbaadhrlaçîf HHHbstánfrrbta.
b)AsadhrlaçòbsHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
3. ^b
^bgu
guom
omf
f Dfrc
Dfrcbjj
bjjfo
fob
b (300
(3002)
2),, f sbr
sbr eu
eula
laof
of tbl
tbl a na
napa
panh
nhma
mambmb mb
mb sb
bxprbssarpbja
bxprbssarpbjabsnrhtafu
bsnrhtafupbjadaja
pbjadajab,jþghnf,
b,jþghnf,sbcasbhablulmbtbrlhoamf
b,jþghnf,sbcasbhablulmbtbrlhoamf
hmhfl
hmhflab
abgral
graláthna
áthna.Pbosaomf
.Pbosaomf asshl
asshl,sbia
,sbiaquajdfrf
quajdfrfhmhfl
hmhfla,f
a,franhf
ranhfnìoh
nìohf
f
sbguhráalbslajhoeamb pbosalbotf.
^bguhomfbssajhoeambranhfnìohf,aoajhsbas
 H.Larnhf
H. Larnhf
Larnhfè
èprfdbssfr.
èprfdbssfr. sbotboçasacahxf9
HH.10„2
HHH.
HHH.X?10
X?10
Asshoajbaajtbroathvanfrrbtaqubnfrrbspfombau laprfpfshçîf9
a)^flbotb
aadhrlaçîfHbstánf
fHbstánfrrbta.
rrbta.
c)AsadhrlaçòbsH,HHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
n)AsadhrlaçòbsHHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
m)^flbotbaadhrlaçîfHHHbstánfrrbta.
m)^flbotbaadhrlaçîf HHHbstánfrrbta.
b)AsadhrlaçòbsHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
>.‚Af apr
‚Af aprbsb
bsbota
otarlf
rlfs
s ul
ula
a jho
jhogua
guagbl
gbl dfr
dfrlaj
laj,, prb
prbnhs
nhsalf
alfs
s hoh
hohnha
nhajlb
jlbotb
otb
dfrobnbrfsnflpfobotbscáshnfsmajhoguagbl,nealamfsmbajdacbtf,
parablsbguhmadfrobnbrasrbgrasmbdfrlaçîfmajhoguagbl,talcèl
nealamasmbgraláthna“.(^
nealamasmb graláthna“.(^HJTA,3004,p.
HJTA,3004,p.5)
5)
Daçaajbhturamasadhrlaçòbs acahxf
acahxfbasrbprbsbotb
basrbprbsbotbmbdfrla
mbdfrlarbmuzhma.
rbmuzhma.
‚Lárnhfè
‚LárnhfèprfdbssfrbKa
prfdbssfrbKarhoaèbl
rhoaèblprbsárha“.
prbsárha“.
Asshoajbaajtbroathvanfrrbta9
a)p ∧ q
c)p ∥ q
n) p ∥ q
¬
m)p ∥ q
 ¬
b)p ∥ q ∧ p
prfgralaçîf  3>
^bçîf1.3
Bjblbotfsduomalbotahsmbprfgralaçîf
Bjblbotfsduomalbotahsmbprfgralaçîf
Mhájfgfacbrtf
Narfajuof,anrbmhtfqubvfnéiásbnfoshmbrfuulLastbrnebd
oanfzhoea,uthjhzaomf-sbmbrbnbhtasfusam
oanfzhoea,uthjhzaomf -sbmbrbnbhtasfusamasparanrhaçî
asparanrhaçîfmbvárhfs
fmbvárhfs
thpfsmbpratfs.Pfmblfsmhzbrqubasrbnbhtaspfssublfslahs
varhamfshogrbmhbotbsblfmfsmbprbparfparasuabjacfraçîf.Botîf,
fcsbrvb9asrbnbhtas,nflsbushogrbmhbotbsblfmfsmbprbparf,
pfmblsbrnfoshmbramasulthpfmbajgfrhtlf,
pfmblsbrnfoshmbramasulthp fmbajgfrhtlf,ffcibtfmbssa
ffcibtfmbssaauja.
auja.
Blfutraspajavras9oîfsþvfné,naomhmatfaLastbrnebd,nfoebnb
fsajgfrhtlfs,lastalcèlsacbnflfbjbsduonhfoal!Pbosaomf
obssbbxblpjf,vfnévahnfoebnbrbnflprbbombrobstasbçîffs
nfonbhtfsbapjhnaçòbsmbvarhávbhs,nfostaotbsbfpbramfrbs,paraa
rbajhzaçîfmfslahsmhdbrbotbsthpfsm
rbajhzaçîfmfs lahsmhdbrbotbsthpfsmbajgfrhtlfs.
bajgfrhtlfs.
Jblcrb-sbquboaprhlbhrasbçîfmbstauohmambtracajealfsa
jþghnaofsbunfotbxtfmbranhfnìohf,agfranebgfuflflbotf
mb vfné
né nf
nfl lbç
bçaar a bs
bstr
tru
utu
tura
rar
r bs
bsssb pbo
bossalbo
botftf bl
bl df
dfrlrlaa mb
ajgfrhtlfs,nbrtf6
Pfhscbl,ablprbsaKrfVBogboearhasèulablprbsambrboflb
Pfhscbl,ablprbsaKrfVBogboearhasèulab lprbsambrboflb
oa ár
oa árba
ba mb
mb bo
bogb
gboe
oeararha
ha,
, da
dalf
lfsasa pf
pfrr su
sua
a al
alpj
pja
a ár
árba
ba mb
mb at
atua
uaçî
çîf,
f,
mbsbovfjvbomfmbsmbulshlpjbsprfibtfatèfsblp
mbsbovfjvbomfmbsmbulshlp jbsprfibtfatèfsblprbbomhlbotfs
rbbomhlbotfs
lahsarrfiamfs.
Jblcrb
Jblc rb-s
-sb
b qu
qub
b fs
fs bog
bogboboeb
ebhrf
hrfs
s ma
ma bl
blprprbs
bsa
a rba
rbajhjhza
zal
l mh
mhvb
vbrs
rsfs
fs
n ájnuj
najn
na jnu jf
ujamsfras
amfr l atbblpj
as pjaoátaohj
hnfhjeas s
easb,
b,bj
obtrý
arýohn
bjbt l ahf
ohnas rh.aMh
as. maotb
astb
Mhao  vbmb
zbssa
mbsss,adashtu
shztuaç
bl îf,
açîf us,fsb
 mrá
sbráb
obnbssárhfaiumá-jfsnflfmbsbovfjvhlbotfbpjaobialbotfmfs
ajg
jgffrhtl
rhtlf fs para ra rb rbaajhjhza
zar
r fs ná nájn
jnu ujf
jfss lalatbtbl
láthnf
thnfss uthjhthjhza
zammfs oa
bogboearha.
F sb
sbuu mb
mbsa sadh
dhf
f è nf nfjfjfna
narr mb
mb df
dfrl
rla a sh
shlp
lpjb jbs
s ul
ula a ma
mass gr
grao
aombmbss
dþrlu
dþrl uja
jass uth
thjhjhza
zama
mass pbjfs bjfs bobog gbo
boebebhrhrf fs, a Dþ
Dþrlrlu uja
ja mb Ce Ceaaskakara
ra
 3 
 ∓c ±  c ∓ =an  , para nájnujf mas raìzbs mb ula bquaçîf mb
 
 3a 
sbguomfgrau.Obssbnfotbxtfvfnémbvbráusarvarhávbhs,nfostaotbs
b fs
fs th
thpf
pfs
s mb
mb fp
fpbr
bram
amfr
frbs
bs.
. ]b
]bot
otb
b sb
sbr
r f la
lahs
hs mh
mhmá
máthn
thnf
f pf
pfss
ssìv
ìvbj
bj bl
suabxpjhnaçîf,paraqubsbiambdánhjbotbomhlbotfparafssbus
nfjbgasbogboebhrfs.
Fjá! vfné mbvb bstar aoshfsf para botbombr b nflbçar a
 ,  ,   
fsajgfrhtlfsqubfofrtbarîfparaassfjuçòbsmfslahsmhvbrsfs 
thp fsmb
thpfs mbprfc
prfcjbla
jblas.
s.Asshl
Asshlnflfsbrîf
nflfsbrîfa
acasb
casbparanrharfs
paranrharfsprfg
prfgralas
ralas
mbnflputamfrbs.
Mbdhohçîfmbajgfrhtlfs
^bguomf ^zwarndhtbr b Larkbozfo (188=), ajgfrhtlfs sîf

mbdhoh
mbdhohmf
mfs
s nf
nflf
lf f pr
prfn
fnbs
bssf
sf sh
shst
stbl
blát
áthn
hnf
f para
para a rbs
rbsfj
fjuç
uçîf
îf mb
mb ul
prfcjbla.DfrcbjjfobbBcbrspanebr(3000)mbdbomblqubajgfrhtlf
èasbquéonhambpassfsqubvhsa lathoghrulfcibthvfcblmbdhohmf.
Pfrdhl,âjhca(188>),CbrgbDhgubhrþ(1885)mbsnrbvblajgfrhtlf
nf
nflf
lf ul
ulaa sb
sbqu
quéo
éonh
nha
a fr
frmb
mboa
oama
ma mb
mb pa
pass
ssfs
fs qu
qub
b mbvb
mbvb sb
sbr
r sb
sbgu
guhm
hmaa
paraarbajhzaçîfmbulatarbda.
^bguhomfbssasmbdhohçòbsparaajgfrhtlfs,pfmblfsnrharaslahs
mhvbrsasrfthoasparahoùlbrasshtuaçòbs.Pfrbxblpjf9anflpramb
ulnarrfofvf9
1. Aoajhsar
Aoajhsara
a
arbaj
rbajobnbsshmamb.
rbaj obnbsshmamb.
3. Bsnfjebr
Bsnfjebra
a
alarna.
larna.
>. Bsnfjebr
Bsnfjebrf
flfmbjf.
f lfmbjf.
=. Bsnfjebra
Bsnfjebr a
alftfrhzaçîf.
lftfrhzaçîf.
2. Bsnfjebr
Bsnfjebra
a
anfr.
nfr.
4. Obgfnhara
Obgfnharadfrlamb
dfrlambpagalbotf.
dfrlambpagalbotf.
7. Pa
Paga
gar.
r.
5. Sbthrama
Sbthramamf
mfnarrf.
mfnarrf.
Pfmb-sb,talcèl,nrharulajgfrhtl
Pfmb-sb,talcèl,nrharulajgfrhtlfparafsp
fparafsprfnbmhlbotfsmb
rfnbmhlbotfsmb
drhtarulchdb9
1. Pbgaradrhghmbhra,a
Pbgaradrhghmbhra,anarob,ftblpbrf
narob,ftblpbrfbfþjbf.
narob,ftblpbrfbfþjbf.
3. Nfjfnarf
Nfjfnarftblpbrfoa
tblpbrfoanarob.
tblpbrfoa narob.
>. Anbombr
Anbombrf
fdfgf.
fdfgf.
=. Nfjfnara
Nfjfnaradrhghmbhraof
drhghmbhraofdfgf.
drhghmbhraofdfgf.
2. Nfjfnarf
Nfjfnarfþjbfoa
þjbfoadrhghmbhra.
þjbfoadrhghmbhra.
4. Aguarmarf
Aguarmarfaqubnhlbotfmf
aqubnhlbotfmfþjbf.
aqubnhlbotfmfþjbf.
7. Nfjfnara
Nfjfnaranaroboa
naroboadrhghmbhra.
naroboadrhghmbhra.
5. Bsnfjebrf
Bsnfjebrfpfotfma
pfotfmanarob.
pfotfmanarob.
8. Sbthrar a narob ma drh hmbhra uaomf bsta atho hr f
 .
10. Apagar
Apagarf
fdfgf.
fdfgf.
Pbrn
Pb rnbc
bcaa qub oî
oîf
f bx
bxhs
hstb
tb sflb
lbot
otb
b ula
la df
dfrl
rla
a mb rb
rbaj
ajhz
hzaar ul
ajgfrhtlf,vfnépfmbnrharfutrasdfrlasbsbqu
ajgfrhtlf,vfnépfmbnrharfutra sdfrlasbsbquéonhasparafctbrf
éonhasparafctbrf
lbslfrbsujtamf.
Parambsnrbvbrfduonhfoalbotfmbulajgfrhtlf,vfnépfmb
usarnflfcasbarbprbsbotaçîfmbduonhfoalbotfmfnflputamfr,
nfodfrlblfstraaDhgura1.4.
Dhgura1.4|Sbprbsbotaçîfmfduonhfoalbotfmfnflputamfr
Mb anfrmf nfl bssb lfmbjf, as botramas mfs ajgfrhtlfs

sî
sîf
f na
nara
rant
ntbr
brhz
hzam
amasas pb
pbjf
jfs
s bj
bjbl
blbot
botfs
fs (m
(mam
amfs
fs)
) a sb
sbrb
rbll df
dfro
robn
bnhmhmfs
fs
ho
hohn
hnha
hajl
jlbobotb
tb;
; f pr
prfn
fnbsbssa
salb
lbot otf
f sb
sbrá
rá mb
mbdho
dhohm
hmf
f pb
pbja
ja bx
bxbn
bnuç
uçîf
îf mas
mas
aç
açòb
òbs
s sf
sfcr
crb
b fs
fs ma
mamf
mfs
s mb
mb bo
botr
tram
ama
a b sf
sfcr
crb
b ma
mamf
mfss ho
hotb
tbrl
rlbm
bmhá
hárhrhfs
fs
gbramfsmuraotbbstabxbnuçîf,basaìmasbráasfjuçîfmfprfcjbla
gbramfsmuraotbbstabxbnuçîf,bas
fuffcibthvfathoghmf. aìmasbráasfjuçîfmfprfcjbla
Narfajuof,nebgfuflflbotfmbbotbombrasnarantbrìsthnas
ma
mas
slf
lfmhd
mhdhna
hnaçòb
çòbs
sb
bas
as sua
suas
sap
apjhn
jhnaçò
açòbs
bsof
ofmbs
mbsbov
bovfjv
fjvhlb
hlbotf
otf mb
mbul
ul
ajgfrhtlf.
Tarhávbhs
Pbosarblvarhávbhsèpbosarblajgfqubpfmbsfdrbrvarhaçòbs,
nbrtf6Brbajlbotbèhssflbslf!^bguomfJfpbsbGarnha(3003),ula
nbrtf6Brbajlbotbèhssflbslf!^bguomfJfpbs bGarnha(3003),ula
34
varhávbjè
varhávbjènfoshmbr
nfoshmbrama uljfnajqub
amaul jfnajqubarlazboaul
arlazboaulnfotbùmfbspbnìdhn
nfotbùmfbspbnìdhnf f
oalblþrhaprhonhpa
oalblþrhaprhon hpajjmf
mf nfl
nflpu
putam
tamfr.
fr. F
Fofl
oflb
bvbl
vbl mf
mf dat
datf
fmbqub
mbqub
bssbjfnajpfmbnfotbrvajfrbsmhdbrbotbs,a‚gfstfmfdrbgués“,hstfè,
mfprfgralamfr,mfusuárhfmfprfgrala,fumfprfgralablsh.Bl
futraspajavras,fsvajfrbspfmblvarharofjfnajmbarlazboalbotf,
pfrhssfbssbsjfnahsrbnbcbrblfoflbmb‚varhávbhs“.
Pbsquhsblahs
Ofshtbasbguhrvfnétbráafpfrtuohmambmbrbdfrçarfsbunfoebnhl
Ofshtbasbguhrvfnétbráafpfrtuohmambmbrbdfrçarfsbunfoebnhlbotf
fpfrtuohmambmbrbdfrçarfsbunfoebnhl botf
sfcrb
sfcrb aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhttlfs.
s. PBS
PBSBHSA
BHSA,
, Ao
Aoa
a Pa
Pauj
uja.
a. F qub è ajgfrhtlf. 3008.
Mhspfoìvbj
Mhspfoìvbj bl9 :ettps9//ww
:ettps9//www.tb
w.tbnluomf
nluomf.nfl.
.nfl.cr/prf
cr/prfgralan
gralanaf/30
af/3053-f
53-f--
qub-b-a gfr lf-. l ?. nbssfbl9 fu . .
Pa
Para
ra dh
dhxa
xar
r f aprb
aprbom
omhz
hzam
amf
f sfcr
sfcrb
b varh
varháv
ávbh
bhs
s b nfos
nfosta
taot
otbs
bs as
assh
shst
sta
a f vì
vìmb
mbf
f
mh
mhsp
spfo
foìvbìvbjj bl
bl9
9 :ett
:ettps
ps9/
9//w
/www
ww.y.yfu
fututucb
cb.n
.nfl
fl/w/wat
atne
ne6v
6v<v
<vp=p=igigUA
UAVC
VCC0C0?.
?.
Anbssfbl91>fut.3017
Talfsbotîf
Talfsbotîfaofssaprhlbhra
aofssaprhlbhraaoajfghasfc
aoajfghasfcrbvarhávbhs6
rbvarhávbhs6
Anrbmhtfqubvfnétboeaularlárhfbobjbeávárhasgavbtas.
Paraqubsbrvb
Paraqubsbrvbulagavbta6
ulagavbta6Rlagavbta
Rlagavbtaofsbu
ofsbunfotbx
nfotbxtfgbrajpfmb
tfgbrajpfmb
guarma
gua rmarr mhv
mhvbrs
brsfs
fs thp
thpfs
fs mb fc
fcibt
ibtfs
fs (rf
(rfup
upas,
as, jhv
jhvrfs
rfs,
, nfo
nfotas
tas,
, tfa
tfajea
jeas,s,
btn.),
btn.), as
assh
shl
l nfnflf
lf as
as va
varhá
rhávb
vbhs
hs pf
pfmb
mbll ar
arla
lazb zboa
oar
r vá
várh
rhfs
fs thp
thpfs
fs mb
ma
mamf
mfs.s. Tb
Tbia
ia ac
acah
ahxf
xf fs
fs thpf
thpfs
s mb
mb va
varh
rháv
ávbh
bhs
s qu
qubb sb
sbrî
rîf
f fs
fs fc
fcibt
ibtfs
fs mb
ofssfsbstumfs9
Tarhávbhsmfthpfoulèrhnf
^îf
^îf varhá
varhávbhs
vbhs qubarlazbo
qubarlazboalmamfs
almamfs oulèr
oulèrhnfs,
hnfs, nflf
nflf9 9ahmamb
ahmamb
mbulapbssfa,fprbçfmbulprfmutf,fsajárhfmbulduonhfoárhf,
mbulapbssfa,fprbçfmbulprfmu tf,fsajárhfmbulduonhfoárhf,
botrbfutrfsmamfsnarantbrhzamfspbjf
botrbfutrfsmamfs narantbrhzamfspbjfsoùlbrfs.
soùlbrfs.
Ahoma
Ahom a da
daja
jaom
omff mf
mf thpf
thpf ou
oulè
lèrh
rhnf
nf,
, pf
pfmb
mblf
lfss mh
mhvh
vhmh
mh-j
-jf
f bl
bl mu
muas
as
njassbs9
• Hotbhrf9 sî
sîf
f nar
narant
antbrhz
brhzam
amfs
fs pbj
pbjfs
fs oùl
oùlbrf
brfs
s hotb
hotbhrf
hrfs,
s, pfs
pfshth
hthvf
vfss
fuobgathvfs.
Bxblpjf9(110),(80),(„50),(„3).
• Sbaj9sîfnarantbrh
sîfnarantbrhzamf
zamfspfroùlbrfs
spfroùlbrfshotbhrfsbmbnhlahs
hotbhrfsbmbnhlahs(dra-
(dra-
nhfoahs),sbomfpfshthvfsfuobgathvfs.
Bxblpjf9(10,20),(„>0,33),(30).
Tarhávbhsmf
Tarhávbhsmf
smfthpfjhtbraj
thpfjhtbraj
^îf varhávbhs qub arlazboal jbtras, oùlbrfs b sìlcfjfs
bsp
bspbnh
bnhahs
ahs.. ^î
^îf
f nea
neala
lamfs
mfs mb nar
narant
antbrb
brbs
s fu,
fu, bl hog
hogjés
jés,
, str
strhog
hog.. Pfr
bxblpjf9(Larnhf,Karhoa>5,3017).
Tarhávbhsmf
Tarhávbhsmfthpfjþghnf
smf thpfjþghnf
^îfvarhávbhsqubpfmblassulhrulvajfrvbrmambhrffudajsf,
pfrbxblpjf9FNarjfstbldhjef6^hlfuOîf.
ANarfjèbogboebhra6TbrmambhrffuDajsf.
Tarhávbhsmf
Tarhávbhsmfthpfnfostaotb
smf thpfnfostaotb
^bguomfLaozaof(3000),ulanfostaotbpfmbsbrmbdhohmapfr
tu faqu fqub  xffubst vb ,fusb a,vfn atr u ulva frpara
aqubjavarhávbjbbjaoîfsfdrbajtbraçîfmuraotbnbrtfprfnbmhlbotf.
aqubjavarhávbjbbjaoîfsfdrbajtbraçîfmuraotbnbrtfprfnbmhlbotf.
PfmblfsnhtarnflfbxblpjffvajfrmbPh<>,1=,fpbrnbotua
Pfmblfsnhtarnflfbxblpjffvajf rmbPh<>,1=,fpbrnbotuajj
mbmbsnfotfmfHO^^<11%,botrbfutrfs.
Lu
Luht
htf
f cbl,
cbl, ag
agfr
fra
a qu
qub
b vf
vfné
né iá
iá nf
nfoe
oebnb
bnb fs
fs thp
thpfs
fs mb
mb va
varh
rháv
ávbh
bhs,
s,
valfsma
valfsmarsbquéonhanfoebnbomffs
rsbquéonhanfoebnbomffsthpfsmbfpbram
thpfsmbfpbramfrbs9
frbs9
Fpbramfrbsarhtlèthnfs
^bguomfDfrcbjjfobbBcbrspanebr(3000),pfmb-sbnealarmb
fpbramfrbsarhtlèthnfsfnfoiuotfmbsìlcfjfsqubrbprbsbotalas
fpbraçòbscáshnasmalatbláthna.Tbiaoa]acbj a1.7fsfpbramfrbs
nflassuasapjhnaçòbs9
]acbja1.7|Fpbramfrbsbapjhnaçòbs
Fpbramfrbs Duoçîf Bxblpjfs
+ Amhçîf X + x, 7 + 5 
„ ûctraçîf 10 „ 5, ofta „ bxtra
* Lujthpjhnaçîf 2 *2, ofta *=
/ Mhvhsîf 100/2, vajfr1/vajfr3

pft (x,y) Pftbonhaçîf Pft (>,>) <
 > b jbvamf a > (>>)
ram(x) Samhnhaçîf ram(32)<rahzquamramamb 32  ( )

32
lfm Sbstf m a m hvhsîf 10 l

 fm > rbsujta b l 1
Mhv Qufnhbotb m a m
 hvhsîf 12 m hv 2 rbsujta b l >
Dfotb9amaptamamb9DfrcbjjfobbBcbrspanebr(3000
Dfotb9amaptamamb9DfrcbjjfobbBcbrspanebr(3000).).
nf ^bbonh
nfov gunhfo
ovbo hom
homfaj,
 ,afs
foaj l bfp
fs sl
fpbraamfr
 rfrbs
bram bgbs
ra hr
mîf
b psb
hrîf rbnnf
sb bmlpfr
éonfrta
nflp hatar
srmmb
a otrf
mbotlrf
atbl
blá
mbá tul
mb h na
aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlf
f ma
ma lb
lbslslaa df
dfrl
rla
a mb
mb prprhf
hfrh
rhma
mamb
mbs,
s, nf
nflf lf hjus
hjustr
tram
amf
f oa
]acbja1.59
]acbja1.5|Prbnbméonhasbotrbfpbramfrbsarhtlèthnf
]acbja1.5| Prbnbméonhasbotrbfpbramfrbsarhtlèthnfss
Prbnbméonhasbotrbfpbramfrbsarhtlèthnf
Prhfrhmamb Fpbramfrbs
1ª Paréotbsbs l
 ahs hotbrofs
3ª pft b ra m
>ª *, /, mhv b lfm

=ª +b„  
Dfotb9DfrcbjjfobbBcbrspanebr(3000,
Dfotb9DfrcbjjfobbBcbrspanebr(3000,p.30).
p.30).
Quaomffsfpbramfrbsbsthvbrblmbotrfmalbslaprhfrhmamb,
vfné
vf né mb
mbvb
vbrá
rá ho
hohn
hnha
har
r a sf
sfju
juçî
çîf
f ma
ma bx
bxpr
prbs
bssî sîf
f ma
ma bs
bsqu
qubr
brma
ma pa
para
ra a
mhrbhta,pfrbxblpjf9
10+=„5
1=„5
4
]u
]umf
mf cbl
cbl atatè
è aq
aquhuh6
6 Ag
Agfr
fra
a vf
vfné
né va
vahh nf
nfoe
oebn
bnbr
br fs
fs fp
fpbra
bramfmfrb
rbss
jþghnfsbrbjanhfoahs.
Fpbramfrbsjþghnfs
Na
Narf
rf ajuo
ajuof,
f, oa
oa pr
prhl
hlbh
bhra
ra sb
sbçî
çîf
f mb
mbst
sta
a uo
uohm
hmam
amb
b tr
trac
acaj
ajea
ealf
lfs
s a
jþghnacffjbaoa.^bguhomfbstblbslfranhfnìohf,vfnéuthjhzaráfs
fpbramfrbsjþghnfspararbprbsbotarshtuaçòbsquboî fsîftratávbhs
pfrfpbramfrbsarhtlèt
pfrfpbramfrbs arhtlèthnfs;vbia
hnfs;vbiaoa]acbja
oa]acbja1.8fs
1.8fsfpbramfrbs
fpbramfrbsjþghnfs
uthjhzamfsofsajgfrhtlfs.
]acbja1.8|Fpbramfrbsjþghnfs
Fpbramfrbs Fpbramfrbs
Oîf Obgaçîf
B Nfoiiu
uoçîf
FR Mhsiiu
uoçîf
Dfotb9amaptamamb9Dfrcbjjf
Dfotb9amaptamamb9DfrcbjjfobbBcbrspane
obbBcbrspanebr(3000).
br(3000).
Agfravbiaatacbjavbrmambmfsfpbramfrbsjþghnfs9
]acbja1.10|]acbjavbrmamb
Tbrmamb Dajsf Dajsf Tbrmamb Dajsf Tbrmamb

Tbiafbxblpjfasbguhr9
^bftbrrbofdfrpjaof bmbotrfmbulnfomflìohf,nfostrufa
mbotrfmbulnfomflìohf,nfostrufanasa.
nasa.
A br uo
uota
taè
è9
9Qu
Quao
aomf
mfv
vfu
fun
nfo
fost
stru
ruhr
hra
ana
nasa
sa66
^flbotbsbftbrrbofdfrpjaof bmbotrfmbulnfomflìohf.
Agfra9
^bftbrrbofdfrpjaof fumbotrfmbulnfomflìohf,nfostruf
anasa.
Bagfra6Quaomfvfnénfostrþhanasa6
Blalcfsfsnasfs,sbftbrrbofdfrpjaofvfnénfostrþhanasa
fusbdfrmbotrfmbulnfomflìohf.
Fpbramfrbsrbjanhfoahs
^bguomf Dfrcbjjfob b Bcbrs rsppanebr (3000), fs fpbramfrbs
rbjanhfoahssîfuthjhzamfsoarbajhzaçîfmbnflparaçîfbotrbvajfrbs
mf
mf lb
lbsl
slf
f thpf
thpf pr
prhl
hlht
hthv
hvf,
f, fu
fu sb
sbia
ia,
, pf
pfmb
mbl
l sbr
sbr rbp
rbprb
rbsb
sbot
otam
amfs
fs pf
pfrr
varhávbhs,nfostaotbsbatèlbslfblbxprbssòbsarhtlèthnas
varhávbhs,nfostaotbsbatèlbslfbl bxprbssòbsarhtlèthnas..
Tbiaoa]acbja1.11fsfpbramfrbsrbjanhfoahs.
]acbja1.11|Fpbramfrbsrbjanhfoahs
]acbja1.11| Fpbramfrbsrbjanhfoahs
Fpbramfrbs Duoçîf Bxblpjfs
< Hguaj A<C
? Lahfr 7?2, x?y 

: Lbofr >:2, x:y 
?< Lahfr fu hgu aj x?<y
:< Lbofr fu hgu aj x:<y
:? Mhdbrbotb x :? y
Dfotb9amaptamamb9DfrcbjjfobbBcbrspanebr(3000
Dfotb9amaptamamb9DfrcbjjfobbBcbrspanebr(3000))
>0 R1-Jþghnambprfgralaçîf
Asshlhjb
Asprbnbméonhasbotrbtfmfsfsfpbramfrbstalcèlmbvblsbr
jbvamasblnfoshmbraçîf.
1.Bl
1. Bl prh
prhlbh
lbhra
rafrm
frmbl,
bl, mbv
mbvb-s
b-sb
bnfo
nfoshmshmbra
brar
rfs
fs par
paréot
éotbsb
bsbs
sla
lahshs
hotbrofs;
3.
3. Bl
Bl sb
sbgu
guom
omf,
f, fs
fs fp
fpbr
bram
amfr
frbs
bs ar
arht
htlè
lèth
thnf
nfs,
s, nf
nfos
oshm
hmbr
brao
aomf
mf a
sbguhotbrbgra9
3.1. Sbsfjvbrprhlbhrf
Sbsfjvbrprhlbhrfaslujthpjhnaçòbs
aslujthpjhnaçòbsfumhvhsòbs,
aslujthpjhnaçòbs fumhvhsòbs,mbpfhsa
fumhvhsòbs, mbpfhsa
amhçîffuasuctraçîf.
TbiaoaDhgura1.7asprbnbméonhasmfsfpbramfrbsarhtlèthnfs
TbiaoaDhgura1.7asprbnbméonhasmfsfpbramfrbsarhtlèthnfs9
Dhgura1.7|Prbnbméonhasmbfpbramfrbsarhtlèthnfs
Dhgura1.7| Prbnbméonhasmbfpbramfrbsarhtlèthnfs
>.
>. Bl
Bl tb
tbrn
rnbh
bhrf
rf,, fs
fs fp
fpbra
bramf
mfrb
rbs
s rbj
rbjan
anhf
hfoa
oahs
hs,, qu
qub
b fc
fcbm
bmbn
bnbl
bl af
afss
paréotbsbsb,oaauséonhambssbs,afpbraçîfèrbajhzamama
bsqubrmaparaamhrbhta;
=. B bl
bl quartf
tf,, fs fpbramfrbs bs jþghnfs, qub fcbmbnbl afs
paréotbsbsb,oaauséonhambssbs,afpbraçîfèrbajhzamama
bsqubrmaparaamhrbhta.
Dhqu
Dhqubl
bl at
atbo
botf
tfs
s pa
para
ra bs
bssa
sas
s rb
rbgr
gras
as cá
cásh
shna
nas,
s, pf
pfhs
hs bj
bjas
as sb
sbrî
rîf
f mb
graombvajhap
graombvajhaparaasfjuçîf
araasfjuçîfmfsprfcjbla
mfsprfcjblas. s.
Atrhcuhçîf
Atrh
Atrhcu
cuhç
hçîf
îf pf
pfmb
mb sb
sbr
r ut
uthjhjhz
hzam
ama
a bl
bl aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlfs
fs pa
para
ra mb
mbtb
tbrl
rlho
hoar
ar
ulvajfraulavarhávbjfuatèlbslfparaulabxprbssîf,bè

←
rbprbsbotamapfrulasbta( ).
A ←7
^hgohdhnaqub Atblfvajfr 7(fu Arbnbcbfvajfr 7).Hlpfrtaotb!
Asvarhávbhsmbvblsbrmflbslfthpfmfvajfrasbratrhcuìmf,fu
sbia,ulavarhávbjmfthpfhotbhrfs
sbia,ulava rhávbjmfthpfhotbhrfsþrbnbcbulvajfrmf
þrbnbcbulvajfrmfthpfhotbhrf.
thpfhotbhrf.
R1-Jþghnamb prfgralaçîf  >1
Nflbotárhfs
Blajguosnas
Blajguosnasfs,vfnépf
fs,vfnépfmbnrharnflbotárhfs(bxpjhna
mbnrharnflbotárhfs(bxpjhnaçòbs)oas
çòbs)oas
jhoeasmb
jhoeas mbnfla
nflaomfs
omfs mfsajgfrh
mfsajgfrhtlfs
tlfs uthjh
uthjhzaomf
zaomf (//),
(//), jblcraomf
jblcraomf qub
fqubbsthvbroadrbotbmas‚//“oîfsbráhotbrprbtamfpbjfajgfrhtlf.
Botramabsaìma
Pfmblfsmbsnrbvbrfssbguhotbsnflaomfsmbbotramabs
Pfmblfsmbsnrbvbrfssbguhotbsnfl aomfsmbbotramabsaìma9 aìma9
Nfla
Nf laom omf
f ‚bsnrbva“ „ uthjh thjhza
zamf
mf para
ra lfstra
trar ajgjgf
f oa
oa tb
tbja
ja mf
nflputamfr,nfoebnhmfnflfnfl
nflputamf r,nfoebnhmfnflfnflaomfmbsaìm aomfmbsaìma. a.
Nflao
Nf laomf mf ‚jbha“ „ ut
uthjhjhz
hzam
amf
f para
para ar
arla
lazb zboa
oar
r fs
fs ma
mamf
mfs
s mb
mb ul
ulaa
varhávbj,talcèlnfoebnhmfnflfnflaomfmbbotrama
varhávbj,talcèlnfoebnhmfnflfnf laomfmbbotrama..
Luhtfcbl,agfraqubvfnénfoebnbasmbdhohçòbsbapjhnaçòbs
paraasvarhávbhs,nfostaotbsbfpbramfrbs,valfstracajearajguos
ajgfrhtlfsoasuabstruturasbqubonhaj.
Jblcraomf qub a bstrutura sbqubonhaj mb ul ajgfrhtlf
nfrrbspfombàdfrlajhobarmbbxbnuçîf.
Nfoebçaagfraabstruturamfajgfrhtlf9
Hoìnhf//hoìnhfm
Hoìnhf//hoìnhfmfajgfrhtlf
fajgfrhtlffupartb
fupartbmbcjfnf
mbcjfnf
Tar//mbnjaraçîfmasvarhávbhs.
....
....//nfotbùmfmfajgfrhtlf.
....
....
dhl.//dhoajhzafajgfrhtlf.
Tbia
Tb ia f aj
ajgf
gfrht
rhtlf
lf a sb
sbgu
guhr
hr,
, qu
qub
b na
najn
jnuj
uja
a a lè
lèmh
mha
a ar
arht
htlè
lèth
thna
na mf
mfss
ajuofsmam
ajuofsmamhsnhpjhoambajgfrhtl
hsnhpjhoambajgfrhtlfbjþghnambprfg
fbjþghnambprfgralaçîf.
ralaçîf.
1. hoìnhf9
hoìnhf9//hoình
//hoìnhfmf
//hoìnhfmfajgfrhtlf
fmf ajgfrhtlf
3. rbaj9ofta1,ofta
rbaj9ofta1,ofta3,vajfrVmaVlèmha;//
3,vajfrVmaVlèmha;//varhávbhsmfth
3,vajfrVmaVlèmha;// varhávbhsmfthpfrbaj.
varhávbhsmfthpfrbaj.
>. narantbrb9oflb;
narantbrb9oflb;//varhávbj
//varhávbjmfthpf
//varhávbj mfthpfnarantbrb.
mfthpf narantbrb.
=. bs
bsnr
nrbv
bva9
a9 (‚
(‚Mh
Mhgh
ghtb
tb f of
oflb
lb mf
mf aj
ajuo
uof“
f“);
); nf
nfla
laom
omf
fmb
mb sa
saìm
ìma,
a, f
nfotbùmfmftbxtfsahráoatbjamfnflputamfr.
2. jb
jbha
ha9
9 (o
(ofl
flb)
b);
; //
// sb
sbrá
rá ar
arla
lazb
zboa
oamf
mf f nf
nfot
otbù
bùmf
mf ma
ma va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj
‚oflb“oalblþrhamfnflputamfr.
4.bsnrbva9(‚MhghtbaPrhlbhraOfta“);//nflaomfmbsaìma,f
7. jb
jbha
ha9
9 (o
(oft
fta
a 1);
1); //
// sb
sbrá
rá ar
arla
lazb
zboa
oamf
mf f nfot
nfotbù
bùmf
mf ma
ma va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj
"ofta1"oalblþrhamfnflputamfr.
5. bsn
bsnrbv
rbva9
a9 (‚M
(‚Mhgh
hghtb
tba
a^bg
^bguom
uoma
aOft
Ofta“)
a“);
;//
// nflaom
nflaomf
fmb
mbsa
saìma
ìma,
,ff
8. jb
jbha
ha9
9 (o
(oft
fta
a 3)
3);
; //
// sb
sbrá
rá ar
arla
lazb
zboa
oamf
mf f nfot
nfotbù
bùmf
mf ma
ma va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj
‚ofta3“oalblþrhamfnflputamfr.
10. Taj
TajfrV
frVma
maVlè
Vlèmhamha ← (ofta 1 + ofta 3) / 3 // obstb nasf è
atrhcuìmffrbsujtamfmabxprbssîf
atrhcuìmff rbsujtamfmabxprbssîf ‚(ofta1
‚(ofta1+ofta
+ofta3)/
+ofta 3)/3
3)/ 3 ‚
paraavarhávbj‚lèmha“
11. Bsnrbva9 (‚A lèm ha mf ajuof è9“; vajfrVmaVlèmha); //
obs b nasf a rasb ‚  l a f a uof 9“ sa r  oa b a f
nflputam
nflpu tamfr
frb
b f
frbs
rbsujt
ujtam
amf
f arl
arlazb
azboam
oamf
foa
oava
varhá
rhávbj
vbj ‚lè
‚lèmha
mha““
sbráaprbsbotamfjfgfàdrbotbmadrasb.
13. dhl.
Tbiaagfranf
Tbiaagfranflfdhnafajgfrhtlf
lfdhnafajgfrhtlfsblfsnflbotárhf
sblfsnflbotárhfs9
s9
hoìnhf;
rbaj9ofta1,ofta3,vajfrVmaVlèmha;
narantbrb9oflb;
bsnrbva9(‚Mhghtbfoflbmfajuof“);
jbha9(oflb);
bsnrbva9(‚MhghtbaPrhlbhraOfta“);
jbha9(ofta1);
bsnrbva9(‚Mhghtba^bguomaOfta“);
jbha9(ofta3);
vajfrVmaVlèmha (ofta
(ofta1
1+
1+
+ofta
ofta3)
ofta3)/
3) /3;
/3;
Bsnrbva9(‚Alèmhamfajuofè9“;vajfrVmaVlèmha);
dhl.
R1-Jþghnamb prfgralaçîf  >>
Sbdjhta
Quaomfdfrmbdhohrulavarhávbj, nuhmamfoa
nuhmamfoaeframa suahmbothdhnaçîf! 
eframasuahmbothdhnaçîf!
Jblcr
blcrb-
b-sb
sb9
9 vf
vfné
né oî
oîff pfmb
pfmb hohohn
hnha
har
r ul
ula
a va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj nf
nfl
l na
nara
rant
ntbr
brbs
bs
bspbnhahs(è,ç,î,&,%,#,@,*,-,botrbfutrfs)bxnbtf‚V“( Rombrjhob).).
Pbosaomfobssarbgra,quajadfrlanfrrbtaparambdhohrulavarhávbj
blulajgfrhtlf6
Parabonbrrarbstasbçîfmfjhvrf,valfshovbrtbrfsvajfrbsmb
muasvarhávbhsblulajgfrhtlf.
Hoìnhf9
Hotbhrf9A,C,HOTBS]B;//mbdhobasvarhávbhs
bsnrbva(‚ajgfrhtlfhovbrtbrvajfrbs“);//lfstraradrasboa
tbja,nflaomfmbsaìma
 ←;  r u  paraavar vb 
C ←300;//Atrhcuh300paraavarhávbjC
HOTBS]B ←A;//atrhcuhfvajfrmavarhávbjAparaavarhávbj
HOTBS]B
A ←C;//atrhcuhfv
C;//atrhcuhfvajfrmavarhá
ajfrmavarhávbjCparavarháv
vbjCparavarhávbjA
bjA
C ←HOTBS]B;//atrhcuhfvajfrmavarháv
HOTBS]B;//atrhcuhfvajfrmavarhávbjHOTBS]B
bjHOTBS]Bparaa
paraa
varhávbjC
bsnrbva("FvajfrmbAagfraè9",A);//Lfstraroa
bsnrbva("FvajfrmbAagfraè9",A);//Lfstraroatbjafofvf
tbjafofvf
vajfrmavarhávbjA
bsnrbva("FvajfrmbCagfraè9",C);//Lfstraroatbjafofvf
vajfrmavarhávbjC
dhl.
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Tbiaagfraulajgfrhtlfqubrbajhzafnájnujfmbulasaìmambmamfs9
AjgfrhtlfsaìmaVmbVmamfs
Tar
prbVuoht,prbVtft9rbaj
quaot9hotbhrf
Hoìnhf
>= R1-Jþghnambprfgralaçîf
prbVuoht9<32
quaot9<2
prbVtft9<prbVuoht*quaot
BsnrbvaprbVtft
Dhl.
Pbrnbc
Pbr nbca
aqub
qub a
ajho
jhogua
guagbl
gbl usamamhdbr
usamamhdbrb
bmabstum
mabstumama
ama atè
atè aquh,pfrèl
aquh,pfrèl,,f
f
ranhfnìohfoîfluma.
Fqublumfu,botîf6
Fajgfrhtlfhohnhanflapajavra‚ajgfrhtlf“buloflb.
Asvarhávbhssîf
Asvarhávbhssîfmbnjaramasaot
mbnjaramasaotbsmf
bsmfhoìnhf.
hoìnhf.
Adfrlambatrhcuhçîfèrbajhzamaatravès‚9<“.
Asmblahsshotaxbssîfsblbjeaotbs.
Asmblahsshotaxbssîf sblbjeaotbs.
Cb
Cbl,
l, hs
hssf
sf è apbo
apboas
as f nf
nflb
lbçfçf mf
mf qu
qub
b vf
vfné
né pf
pfmbmb da
dazb
zbr
r nf
nfll
ajgfrhtlfs.Blajgulasjhtbraturasvfnévahbonfotrarvárhasdfrlas
mbbsnrbvbrulajgfrhtlf,lasoîfsbassustb!Ajþghnasbrásblprb
a lbs
bsla
la. . Nasf tbtboe
oeaa mù
mùvvhm
hmaas, asshs
hsta
ta às
às vìm
ìmbf
bfau auja
jass, rb
rbaj
ajhz
hzb
b as
athvhm
athvhmam
ambs
bs-m -mha
hago
goþs
þsth
thnf
nfs
s b bx
bxbr
brnh
nhtb
tb nf
nfl
l asas pr
prè-
è- b pþ
pþs-s-au
auja
jas.
s. Cf
Cfaa
sfrtbbatèaprþxhlasbçîf!
sh
shtuNebga
eb
tuaç gal
açîf
îf-pl
-prffcjbl
rfcjsbla
afa^mf
bl
bl
mf  lb
 holbm
hoình mfmf
ìnhf
f  mb
mf jhvbrra
br
jhvrfrar.
rf, r. mb
, fo
fomb Tal
Talvf
fné
s rb
vfné rbs
 èsgf
ata
tar
rgboe
bogb
bo aoebh
ofs
of ssrf
bhrfa
rbsspfosávbj pfr nfotrhcuhr nfl fs sbus nfjbgas bogbo
rb boe
ebhrfs
boshoaomfajgfrhtlfsparasfjuçîfmbnájnujfslatbláthnfs.
F sb
sbu
u mb
mbsa
sadh
dhf
f è nr
nrha
har
r ul
ul aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlf
f ma
ma Dþ
Dþrl
rluj
uja
a mb
mb Ce
Ceas
aska
kara
ra
 ∓c ±
 c ∓ =an 
3
.Obssbnfotbxtf,vfnémbvbrátracajear
  .Obssbnfotbxtf,vfnémbvbrátracajearasvarhávbhs,
asvarhávbhs,
 3a 
nf
nfos
osta
taot
otbs
bs b fs
fs thpf
thpfss mb
mb fp
fpbr
bram
amfrfrbs
bs.
. ]b
]bot
otb
b sb
sbr
r f la
lahs
hs mh
mhmá
máth
thnf
nf
pfssìvbj
pfssìvbjoa
oasusua
abxp
bxpjhnjhnaçî
açîf,
f, pa
para
raqub
qub sbi
sbia
amb
mbdán
dánhj
hjbot
botbom
bomhlb
hlbotfotf a
sbusnfjbgasbogboebhrfs.
Para a sfjuçîf mf prfcjbla valfs botrar nfl ajgulas
nfostaotbs,fk6
Obssb lf
Obssb lbotf,
lflbotf, oîf
oîf hrb
hrblf
lfs
s tra
traca
cajear nfl
jear nfl nfo
nfomhnhfoahs
mhnhfoahs,
, pf
pfrr
bssblfthvffsvajfrbsatrhcu
bssblfthvffsvajfrbsatrhcuìmfsmbvblsbrl
ìmfsmbvblsbrlahfrbsqub‚0“.
ahfrbsqub‚0“.
Tfné mbv
Tfné mbvbrá
brá lf
lfstr
strar
ar as
as ap
apjhna
jhnaçòb
çòbs
s mas
mas va
varhá
rhávbh
vbhs,
s, nfo
nfosta
staotb
otbs
s b
fpbramfrbsofsnflbotárhfsmfajgfrhtlf.
Talfsjá9
hohnhf//SbsfjvbraDþrlujambCeaskara
rbaj9c3,x1,x3,mbjta,a,c,n;//mbdhohçîfmasvarhávbhsbfsbu
thpf,sbrîfbjas
thpf,sbrîfbjasqubarlazboarîf
qubarlazboarîffsvajfrbsma
fsvajfrbsmasfpbraçòbs.
sfpbraçòbs.
a ←1;//sbráatrhcuìmaàvarháv
1;//sbráatrhcuìmaàvarhávbj‚a“fvajfrmfthp
bj‚a“fvajfrmfthpfrbaj‚1“
frbaj‚1“
c ←„2;//sbráatrhcuìmaàvarhávbj‚c“fvajfrmfthpfrbaj‚„2“
n ←4;//sbráatrhcu
4;//sbráatrhcuìmaàvarháv
ìmaàvarhávbj‚n“fvajfrmfthpfrba
bj‚n“fvajfrmfthpfrbaj‚4“
j‚4“
bsnrbva(‚Mamfsfsvajfrbsa<1,c<„2bn<4“);
c3 ←c*c;//(èatrhcuìmfparac
c*c;//(èatrhcuìmfparac3fquamramf
3fquamramfmbc)
mbc)
mbjta ←c3-=*a*n;//(sbráatrhcuìmfpa
c3-=*a*n;//(sbráatrhcuìmfparambjtafrbsujtamf
rambjtafrbsujtamf
masfpbraçòbsarhtlèthnas.
bsnrbva("Bxhstblmuasraìzbs")
x1 ←(„c+ram(mbjta))/3*a
x3 ←(„c-ram(mbjta))/3*a
bsnrbva("PrhlbhrarahzU‘",x1)
bsnrbva("^bguomarahzU'",x3)
dhl.
lbofLu
Luht
bofrhtf
f cb
cbl,
b l,
qub
qu  jb
zbrf
zbrfjblc
 lcraraom
b ob
oblomf
l f
paqu
qub
rab
ra mbjoîf
oî
taf
bjta hgus
usal
 hguuaalfs
j afs nf
 zb nfom
zbrf .omhç
rf. Bhçòb
lòbs
 cs pa
para
vbra
rbvb
rb hrblf
hrblmb
mbjt
jta
fas
tracajearobssbnfotbxtf.
Lèrhtfsajarhaj
Tfnédfhrbspfosávbjpfrulgraomb
Tfnédfhrbspfosávbjpfr ulgraombprfibtfofsbtfrma
prfibtfofsbtfrmablprbsa
blprbsa
KrfV
KrfVBogbo
Bogboearha
earhasb
sbpfrbssblfthvf
pfrbssblfthvf sua
sua bquhp
bquhpbdfh
bdfhgrat
grathdhnam
hdhnamanfl
anfl
ul cý
ul cýou
ous
s mb
mb >0
>0%
% sf
sfcr
crb
b sb
sbus
us sa
sajá
járh
rhfs
fs.
. Pa
Para
ra ta
taj
j at
atrh
rhcu
cuhç
hçîf
îf,
, vf
vfné
né
prbnhsambulajgfrhtlfqubrbajhzbfnamastrfmfsnfjacframfrbs,
fsajárhfcrutf
fsajárhfcrutfbfamhnhfoajjhcbramf
bfamhnhfoajjhcbramfparabssbprf
parabssbprfibtf.
ibtf.
Sbsfjuçîfmashtuaçîf-prf
shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
hoìnhf
narantbrb9oflb;
rbaj9saj,cýous,tftsaj;
bsnrbva9(‚Botrbnflfoflbmfduonhfoárhf“);
jbha9(oflb);
bsnrbva9(‚Botrbnflfsajárhfcrutfmfduonhfoárhf");
jbha9(saj);
cýous ←saj*(>0/100);
tftsaj9 ←saj+cýous;
bsnrbva9( ^busajárhfnflcýous
^busajárhfnflcýoussbrámb9
sbrámb9 ;tftsaj);
;tftsaj);
dhl
1. ^bguo
^bguomf
mf Dfrcbjj
Dfrcbjjfo
fob
b b Bcbrspa
Bcbrspane
nebr
br (3000
(3000),
), fs fpbram
fpbramfrb
frbs
s rbjanhf
rbjanhfoa
oahs
hs
sîfuthjhzamfsoarbajhzaçîfmbnflparaçîfbotrbvajfrbsmflbslfthpf
prhlhthvf,fusbia,bjbspfmblsbrrbprbsbotamfspfrvarhávbhs,nfostaotbsb
atèlbslfblbxprbssòbsarhtlèthnas.
atèlbslfbl bxprbssòbsarhtlèthnas.
^bgu
^b guoomf
mf a mb
mbdh
dho
ohç
hçîîf mb
mb Df
Dfrc
rcbj
bjjf
jfo
ob b Bc
Bcbr
brsp
spaanebr
br (3
(30
000),
), ass
ssho
hoaajb
jb a
ajtbroathvanfrrbta9
a)Blajgfrhtlfsusalfs‚:?“pararbdbrbonharahguajmambbotrbasvarhávbhs.
a)Blajgfrhtlfsusalfs‚:?“pararbdbrbonha rahguajmambbotrbasvarhávbhs.
c)Fshoajmb‚?“bfshoajmb‚:“nfrrbspfomblàatrhcuhçîfbotrbasvarhávbhs.
n)Blajgfrhtlfsusalfs‚≢“pararbprbsbotarlahfrfuhguaj.
m)Ffpbramfrrbjanhfoaj‚:?“rbprbsbotaamhdbrboçabotrbasvarhávbhs.
b)Pfmbsbrmbdhohmfnflfhguajmambblajgfrhtlfffpbramfr‚<<“.
3. Aoajhsbfajgfrhtlf
Aoajhsbf ajgfrhtlfsbguhotb9
ajgfrhtlf sbguhotb9
hoìnhf
rbaj9árba,casblahfr,casblbofr,
rbaj9árba,casblahfr,casblbofr,ajtura;
ajtura;
bsnrbva9("MhghtbaCasblahfr");
jbha9(casblahfr);
bsnrbva9("MhghtbaCasb
bsnrbva9("MhghtbaCasblbofr");
lbofr");
jbha9(casblbofr);
bsnrbva9("Mhghtbaajtura");
jbha9(ajtura);
.......
.......
dhl.
F ajg
jgf
frh
rhtl
tlf f mbst
mbstaa qubs
qubstî
tîf
f najnu
jnuja
ja a árba
rba mf
mf tra
trapè
pèzh
zhf
f, sua
sua dþ
dþrl
rlu
uja
ja è
A <
(C+c) ⋂ e .Asshoajbaajtbroathvaqubnfrrbspfombàsjhoeasmfajgfrhtlf
3
qubbstîfdajtaomf.
a)
a) ár
árba
ba ←((casblbofr+casblahfr))/3
bsnrbva("A
bsnrbva("Aárbamf
árbamftrapèzhfè",á
trapèzhfè",árba)
rba)
c)
c) ár
árba
ba ←((casblbofr+casblahfr)/ajtura)*3
bsnrbva("A
rba)
←
n)
n) bsnrbva("A
ajtu
ajtura
ra ((casblbofr+ca
((casblbo
bsnrbva("Aárbamf fr+casblahfr)*casb)/3
sblahfr)*casb)/3
rba)
m)
m) ár
árba
ba ←((casblbofr)*ajtura)/3
bsnrbva("A
rba)
b) ár
b) árba
ba ←((casblbofr+casblahfr)*ajtura)/3
bsnrbva("A
rba)
.  a gfr lf a sbgu r na nu a a rba f n rnu f  < π ··rr . oa sb o a a
jhoeamasuabxbnuçîf.
1. ho
hoìn
ìnhf
hf
3. rbaj9árba,
rbaj9árba,p1,
p1,rahf;
p1,rahf;
>.jbha9(rahf);
=. bsnrbva9("mhghtbf
bsnrbva9("m hghtbfrahfmf
hghtbfrahfmfnìrnujf");
rahfmfnìrnujf");
2. p1 ←>.1=;
4. árba ←(p1*(pft(rahf,3));
7. bsnrbva9("Aárb
bsnrbva9("Aárbamfnìrnujfè9
amfnìrnujfè9",rahf);
amfnìrnujfè9",rahf);
5. dhl.
Blrbjaçîfafajgfrhtlfaprbsbotamf,pfmblfsadhrlarqub9
H. Oajhoea2
Oajhoea2mfajgfrhtlfè
mfajgfrhtlfèmbdhohmaulanfost
mfajgfrhtlfè mbdhohmaulanfostaotb.
mbdhohmaulanfostaotb.
HH.Oajhoea4mfajgfrhtlfèpfssìvbjsucsthtuhrpfr9árba ←(p1*(rahf
*rahf));
HHH. Ajhoea7bstábsnrhtamb
Ajhoea7bstábsnrhtambdfrlabrramabfnfrrbtfè9
dfrlabrramabfnfrrbtfè9bsnrbva("Aárba
dfrlabrramabfnfrrbtfè9bsnrbva("Aárba
mfnìrnujfè9",árba);.
Asshoajbaajtbroathvanfrrbta.
a)AsadhrlaçòbsHHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
a)AsadhrlaçòbsHHb HHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
c)AsadhrlaçòbsH,HHb HHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
n)AsadhrlaçòbsHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
n)AsadhrlaçòbsHb HHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
m)^flbotbaadhrlaçîfHbstánfrrbta.
b)AsadhrlaçòbsHbHH bstîfnfrrbtas.
^bçîf1.>
Sbprbsbotaçòbsmbajgfrhtlfs
Mhájfgfacbrtf
Na
Narf
rf aju
ajuof,
of, nebg
nebgal
alfs
fs à tbr
tbrnbhr
nbhra
a sbç
sbçîf
îf mbs
mbsta
ta uohma
uohmamb.
mb. Ofs
Ofssfsf
pr
prho
honh
nhp
paj nfnfl
lprf rfl
lhs
hsssf è qub vfvfné
né nf
nfoe
oebç
bçaa as na
nara
rant
ntbr
brìsìsth
thna
nass
mb ul
ulaa jho
jhogu
guag
agblbl oat
oatura
uraj,
j, f mbs
mbsbov
bovfjv
fjvhlb
hlbotf
otf mfs
mfs mha
mhagra
grala
las s mb
cjfnfs(djuxfgrala
cjfnfs(djuxfgralas)basapjhnaçòbsblpsbumf
s)basapjhnaçòbsblpsbumfnþmhgfs.
nþmhgfs.
Pfhscbl,pbosbqubvfnémbnhmhunfostruhrulanasabprbnhsfu
lfstrarparafarquhtbtffqubvfnépbosfunflfana sahmbajoasua
nfo
nfonbpç
nbpçîf,
îf,b
bbsta
bstasbrh
sbrha
aa
ajho
jhoguagb
guagbl
loatu
oaturaj.
raj.F
Farqu
arqu
arquhtbtfmbsboefuas
htbtfmbsboefuas
narantbrìsthnasmasuanasab,obssbnasf,trata sbmbuldjuxfgrala
fuatèlbslfmbulpsbumfnþmhgf.Apþsbssbsprfnbmhlbotfs,a
nasasbrhanfostruìma,bsbrharbajhzama
nasasbrhanfostruìm a,bsbrharbajhzamaaprfgrala
aprfgralaçîf.çîf.
Sbsgataomffnfotbxtfmbaprbomhzagblmasbçîfaotbrhfr,f
sbu
sbu gbs
gbstfr
tfr bst
bstá
á luh
luhtf
tf sat
sathsd
hsdbht
bhtf
f nfl
nfl f sbu
sbu mbs
mbsblp
blpboe
boef
f pbr
pbraot
aotb
b
sbusnfjbgasbogboebhrfs,bbstáluhtfnjarfqubfpbosalbotf
nflputanhfoajpbrlbhaabquhpb.
Agfra è f lflbotf mb vfné né aprbsbotar afs sbus nfjbgas
as
as mhdb
mhdbrb
rbot
otbs
bs df
dfrlrlas
as mb
mb bs
bstr
trut
utur
urar
ar as
as hmbh
hmbhas
as mbot
mbotrf
rf mf
mf nf
nfot
otbx
bxtf
tf
nf
nflplpututan
anhf
hfoa
oaj,j, fu
fu sb
sbia
ia,
, na
nara
rant
ntbr
brhz
hzar
ar a ut
uthjhjhz
hzaç
açîf
îf ma
ma jhog
jhogua
uagb
gbl
l
oaturaj,nrharbapjhnarfdjuxfgralabfspsbumfnþmhgfsb,pfrdhl,
rbajhzarathvhmambsparasfjuçòbsmbprfcjblasjþghnfs.
^bg
bguuho
hommf bs
bsssa jhjhoe
oeaa mb
mb pbo
bosa
sal
lbobotf
tf,, vfné
né prprf
fpýs afs
fs sbu
buss
nfjb
nf jbg
gas bo
bog gbo
boeb
ebhrhrf
fs qub ub bs
bsnr
nrbv
bvbs
bsssbl
bl,, bl
bl jhjhog
oguuagbl
bl oa
oatu
tura
raj,j,
djuxfgralasbpsbumfnþmhgfs,fnájnujfmadþrlujaqubnfovbrtba
tblpbraturabl
tblpbraturablgrausnbotìgram
grausnbotìgramfspara
fsparagrausDaerboebht.A
grausDaerboebht.Adþrluja
dþrluja
 8 ⋂n + 140
parabssanfovbrsîfè9 D < ,fomb‚D“èatblpbraturabl
2
Daerboebhtb‚n“èatblpbraturablnbotìgramfs.
^bia nr
^bia nrha
hath
thvf
vf b tb
tbot
otb
b mb
mbsb
sbov
ovfj
fjvb
vbr
r bs
bssa
sa at
athv
hvhm
hmam
amb
b nf
nfl
l a la
lahf
hfrr
njarbzapfssìvbj.
Cfasfrtbbcfosbstumfs!
Narf
rf aju
juof
of,, nebgaalf
nebg lfss à ùjthl
jthlaa sbçîf mbs
bçîf ta uoh
bsta mamb
ohm mb.
. Atè
tè f
prbsbotblflbotf,vfnébstumfuajþghnambprfgralaçîfbfs
duomalbot fsmb
duomalbotfs mbajgfrhtlfs,agfra
ajgfrhtlfs,agfrahrblfsbstumar
hrblfsbstumaras
asrbprbsb
rbprbsbotaçòbs
otaçòbs
masjhoguagbosqubsbrvhrîfmbcasbparadutura
masjhoguagbosqubsbrvhrîfmbcasbparaduturasprfgralaçòbs
sprfgralaçòbs..
Oasbguomasbçîfmbstauohmambmbboshof,vfnémbsbovfjvbu
eachjhmambsparaanrhaçîfmbajgfrhtlfs,botbombuasap jhnaçòbsmb
varhávbhs,atrhcuhçòbsbfpbramfrbs,bnflbçfuatbrulpbosalbotf
bstruturamfparaassfjuçòbsmbprfcjblas
bstruturamfparaassfju çòbsmbprfcjblas.Pfhscbl,ag
.Pfhscbl,agfravalfs
fravalfs
nfoebnbrasrbprbsbotaçòbsqubbovfjvblasjhoguagbos.
Jhoguagbloaturaj
^bguomfâotfs(3001),ajhoguagbloaturaj,oambdhohçîfgbraj,
èuladfrlambnfluohnaçîfbotrbaspbssfasmbmhvbrsasjìoguas,
pf
pfmb
mbom
omf
f sb
sbr
r da
daja
jama
ma,
, bs
bsnrh
nrhta
ta,
, gb
gbst
sthn
hnuj
ujam
ama,
a, bo
botr
trb
b fu
futr
tras
as df
dfrl
rlas
as mb
nfluohnaçîf.Ajhoguagbloaturajtblulagraombnfotrhcuhçîf
     ,
pf
pfmb
mb mh
mhrb
rbnh
nhfo
foar
ar mb
mb df
dfrl
rla
a shlp
shlpjb
jbs
s b bd
bdhn
hnhb
hbot
otb
b as
as mb
mbsn
snrh
rhçò
çòbs
bs mf
mfss
prfcjblasbsuassfjuçòbs.
Pararbdfrçarfsnfonbhtfsmbjhoguagbloaturaj,valfstflar
nfl
nflf
f bxbl
bxblpjf
pjf a fp
fpbra
braçîf
çîf mb mfh
mfhs
s va
vajfr
jfrbs
bs uth
uthjhza
jhzaomf
omf fs qu
quatr
atrfs
fs
fpbramfrbscáshnfsmalatbláthna.
 F pr
prfc
fcjb
jbla
la è f sb
sbgu
guho
hotb
tb9
9 f us
usuá
uárh
rhf
f mbvb
mbvbrá
rá bo
botr
trar
ar nf
nfl
l mfhs
mfhs
vajfrbs,bfnflputamfrrbtfroaráfrbsujtamfnflnamaulamas
fpbraçòbsarhtlèthnas(sfla,suctraçî
fpbraçòbsarhtlèthnas (sfla,suctraçîf,lujthpjhnaçîfbmhvhsî
f,lujthpjhnaçîfbmhvhsîf).
f).
Ta
Talf
lfs
s já!
já! Bx
Bxhs
hstb
tbl
l vá
várh
rhas
as df
dfrl
rlas
as mb
mb bs
bstr
trut
utur
urar
ar bs
bssb
sb pr
prfc
fcjb
jbla
la..
Tbiaasbguhrulamaslaobhra
Tbiaasbguhru lamaslaobhrasparaqubbjbpf
sparaqubbjbpfssasbrrbajhzamf
ssasbrrbajhzamf99
1. Hoìnhf.
3. Botrarnflfprhlbhrfvajfr.
>. Botrarnflfsbguomfvajfr.
=. Sbajhzarasflauthjhzaomffprhlbhrfvajfrlahsfsbguomf.
2. Sbajhzarasuctraçîfuthjhzaomffprhlbhrfvajfrlbofsfsbguomf.
4. Sbaj
Sbajhzar
hzara
alujt
lujthpjh
hpjhnaç
naçîf
îfuthj
uthjhzao
hzaomf
mff
fprhl
prhlbhr
bhrf
fvajf
vajfr
rvbzb
vbzbs
sf
f
fsbguomf.
sbguomf.
=0 R1-Jþghnambprfgralaçîf
7. Sba
Sbajhz
jhzar
ara
a mhv
mhvhsî
hsîf
f uth
uthjhz
jhzaom
aomf
f f prh
prhlbh
lbhrf
rfva
vajfr
jfr mhv
mhvhmh
hmhmf
mfpbj
pbjf
f
sbguomf.
5. Lfstraroa
Lfstraroatbjaf
tbjafrbsujtamfma
tbjafrbsujtamfmasfla.
rbsujtamfmasfla.
8. Lfstraroatbjafrbsujtamfmasuctraçîf.
10.. Lfstraroatbjafrbsujtamfmalujthpjhnaçîf.
10
11.. Lfstraroatbjafrbsujtamfmamhvhsîf.
11
13.. Dhl.
13
]raosnrbvbrajhoguagbloaturajbljhoguagblnflputanhfoaj
obnbsshtambulprèvhfbotbomhlbotf,qubpfstbrhfrlbotbpfmbrá
sfdrbrtraosdfrlaçòbsbldfrlambajgfrhtlfs,mhagralambcjfnfs
bpsbumfnþmhgfs.
Luhtfcbl,agfravalfsbstumarfduonhfoalbotfmfsmhagralas
Luhtfcbl,agfravalfsbstumarfduonhfoalbotfmfsmhag ralas
mbcjfnfs.
Mhagralambcjfnfs(Djuxfgrala)
^bguom
omf
f Laoz
ozaaof (3
(30
012), pfmblfs narantbr
brhhzar mhag
hagrala
mb cjfnfs nflf ul nfoiuotf mb sìlcfjfs grádhnfs bl qub
nama ul mbssbs sìlcfjfs rb rbsbota a òbs bs bnìdhnas a sbrbl
bx
bxbn
bnut
utam
amas
as pb
pbjf
jf nf
nflp
lput
utam
amfr
fr.
. Ta
Tajb
jb jblc
jblcra
rar
r qu
qub
b f mh
mhag
agra
rala
la mb
cjfnfsfudjuxfgralambtbrlhoaajhoeambranhfnìohfuthjhzamapbjf
prfgralamfrpararbsfjvbrprfcjblas.Afbsnrbvbruldjuxfgrala,
f pr
prfg
fgra
rala
lamfmfrr mb
mbvb
vb bs
bsta
tar
r nh
nhbo
botb
tb mb
mb qu
qub b fs
fs sìlc
sìlcfj
fjfs
fs ut
uthjhjhz
hzam
amfs
fs
mbvbl
mbvb l bs
bsta
tar
r bl
bl ea
earl
rlfofoha
ha b sb
sbr
r mb
mb dá
dánh
nhjj bo
botb
tbom
omhlhlbo
botf
tf.
. Pa
Para ra qu
qub
b
fsmhagr
fsmhagralas
alasmb
mbcjfn
cjfnfstboeal
fstboealnbrtanfbréonha,
nbrtanfbréonha,fs fssbus
sbussìlcfjf
sìlcfjfss
dfral pamrfohzamfs pbjf
dfr jf AO^H (Hosthtutf tf Ofrtb- b-A
Albrhnaof mb
Pamrfohzaçîf).
Tbiaagfraambdhohçîfmfsprhonhpahssìlcfjfsuthjhzamfsblul
mhagralambcjfnfsfudjuxfgrala9
Quamrf1.1|
Quamrf1.1|Mbsnrhçîfbshgohdhnamfsmb
Mbsnrhçîfbshgohdhnamfsmbsìlcfjfsof
sìlcfjfsof
sìlcfjfsofmhagralambcjfnfs
mhagralambcjfnfs
^ìlcfjf ^hgohdhnamf Mbsnrhçîf
Sbprbsbotafhoìnhffufdhl
]brlhoaj mbuldjuxfjþghnf.Blajguos
nasfsmbdhoblassuc-rfthoas.
Mbtbrlhoaabotramalaouaj
Botramalaouaj mfsmamfs,gbrajlbotbatravès
mbultbnjamf.
R1-Jþghnamb prfgralaçîf  =1
^ìlcfjf ^hgohdhnamf Mbsnrhçîf
Prfnbssalbotf Sbprbsbotaabxbnuçîfmb
açòbsmbprfnbssalbotf.
Lfstrafrbsujtamfmbula
Bxhchçîf açîf,gbrajlbotbatravèsma
tbjambulnflputamfr.
Sbprbsbotafsmbsvhfs
nfomhnhfoahsoasfpbraçòbs
mbtflamambmbnhsîfbjaçfs
Mbnhsîf
nfomhnhfoahspararbpbthçîf
mbajguostrbnefsmf
prfgrala.
Sbprbsbotaabxbnuçîfmb
uljaçfhonfomhnhfoajqub
Prbparaçîf pbrlhtbalfmhdhnaçîfmb
hostruçòbsmfjaçf.
Mbdhobulgrupfmb
Prfnbssfprbmbdhohmf fpbraçòbsrbjanhfoamas
aulasuc-rfthoa.
Sbprbsbotapfotfsmb
nfobxòbsbotrbtrbnefsmb
Nfobntfr prfgralas,qubpfmblsbr
apfotamfsparafutraspartbs
mfmhagralambcjfnf.
Sbprbsbotafsvìonujfs
Jhoea bxhstbotbsbotrbfssìlcfjfs
mbulmhagralambcjfnfs.
Dfotb9Amaptamfmb9Laozaof(3012).
A part
parthr
hr mf
mf lf
lflblbot
otf
f qu
qub
b df
dfr
r ut
uthjhjhz
hzao
aomf
mf fs
fs sì
sìlc
lcfj
fjfs
fs nf
nfl
l as
hostruçòb
hostru çòbs
smbj
mbjbs,
bs, vf
vfné
névah
vah ap
aprbo
rbombo
mbomfmf b mbs
mbsbov
bovfjv
fjvbom
bomf
fnam
namaavbz
vbz
lahsajþghnambjbsblrbjaçîfafs
lahsajþghna mbjbsblrbjaçîfafsprfcjblas.
prfcjblas.
Sbdjhta
^bguomf^fuza(3011),fsprfdhsshfoahsmaárbambBxatasdazblusfmb
^bguomf^fuza(3011),fsprfdhss hfoahsmaárbambBxatasdazblusfmb
djuxfgralasmbvhmf
djuxfgralasmbvhmfàsuadalhj
àsuadalhjharhmambnflmhagralas
harhmambnflmhagralasbsqubláthnfs,
bsqubláthnfs,
nfljhoguagbllatbláthna,cblnflfnflasbxprbssòbsgrádhnas.
Hs
Hssf
sf fn
fnfr
frrb
rb pfr
pfr na
naus
usa
a mf
mf ap
apbj
bjf
f vh
vhsu
suaj
aj qub
qub fs
fs djux
djuxfg
fgra
rala
las
s té
tél
l oa
dfrlaçîfmbssbsprfdhsshfoahs.
Bvfné,nflfvébssarbjaçîfmfsdjuxfgralasnflasuaárbambatuaçîf6
djuxfgralasnflasuaárbambatuaçîf6
=3 R1-Jþghnamb
prfgralaçîf
Talfs
Talf s rb
rbaj
ajhz
hzar ul djux
ar ul djuxfg
fgrala qu
rala qub
b rbs
rbsfjva f ná
fjva nájn
jnujf mb
ujf mb mf
mfhs
hs
vajfrbsbxhchomfsuasf
vajfrbsbxhchomfsuasfla,suctraçîf
la,suctraçîf,lujthpjhnaçîfbmhvhsîf
,lujthpjhnaçîfbmhvhsîf..
Paraullbjefrbotbomhlbotfmfdjuxfgrala,anflpaoebfs
nflbotárhfsmbbxbnuçîfparanamasìlcfjf.
Mhagrala1.1|Nájnujfmbmfhsvajfrbs
Fsìlcfjftbrlhoajmbuhoìnhfaf
mhagralambcjfnfs. Hoìnhf
Fsìlcfjfmbprfnbssalbotfmbdhohuas
varhávbhsqubsbrîfuthjhzamasofmhagra- vajfr1,vajfr3,
lambcjfnfs9vajfr1,vajfr3,sfla,suct, sfla,suct,
lujthbmhvh. lujth,mhvh
Fsìlcfjfbxhchçîf
Fsìlcfjfbxhchçîflfstraoa
lfstraoatbjafqub
tbjafqub Mhghtarf
fusuárhfmbvbdazbr. vajfr1
Fsìlcfjfmbbotramalaouajjhcbrapara
fusuárhfbotrarnflfprhlbhrfvajfr. Jbrfvajfr1
Fsìlcfjfbxhchçîflfstraoatbjaf Mhghtarf
qubfusuárhfmbvbdazbr.
qubfusuárhfmbvbdazbr. vajfr3
Fsìlcfjfmbbotramalaouajjhcbrapara
fusuárhfbotrarnflfsbguomfvajfr.
fusuárhfbotrarnflfsbguomfvajfr. Jbrfvajfr3
sfla vajfr1
vajfr1+
+vajfr3
+vajfr3
Fsìlcfjfmbprfnbssalbotfèrbajhzamf
nflasatrhcuhçòbsfsvajfrbsnajnujamfs suct vajfr1
vajfr1-
-
-vajfr3
vajfr3
parasuasrbspbnthvasvarhávbhs. lujth vajfr1
vajfr1*
*
*vajfr3
vajfr3
mhvh vajfr1
vajfr1/
/vajfr3
/vajfr3
Asflaè9sfla
Fsìlcfjfmbbxhchçîflfstraoatbjaf Asuctraçîfè9suct
rbsujtamfmbnamavajfrnajnujamf.
Alujthpjhnaçîfè9lujth
Amhvhsîfè9mhvh
Dhoajhzafprfgrala.
Dhl
Dfotb9Bjacframfpbjfautfr.
prfgralaçîf  =>
Asshlhjb
Ta
Tajb
jb fcsb
fcsbrv
rvar
ar aj
ajgu
guos
os pf
pfot
otfs
fs mb
mb at
atbo
boçî
çîf
f para
para a nf
nfos
ostr
truç
uçîf
îf mb
mb ul
djuxfgrala9
1. Bstaratbotfafsoìvbhs.
3. Fdjuxfgralambvb
Fdjuxfgralambvbnflbçarmbnhl
nflbçarmbnhlaparacahxf
nflbçarmbnhlaparacahxfbmabsqubrma
aparacahxfbmabsqubrmapara
bmabsqubrmapara
amhrbhta.
>. Nu
Nuhm
hmam
amf
f pa
para
ra oîf
oîf nr
nruz
uzar
ar as
as jhjhoe
oeas
as,
, pr
prho
honh
nhpa
pajl
jlbo
botb
tb as
as jhjhoe
oeas
as mb
djuxfsmbmamfs.
Paradhoajhzarfsmhagralasmbcjfnfs(djuxfgrala),valfsnrhar
ulashtuaçîfuthjhzaomfulafpbraçîfjþghnablqubadhoajhmambè
botrarnflulasboeaofshstbla.
Mhagrala1.3|Mhagralambcjfnfsnflusfmbmbnhsîf
Hoìnhf
Mhghtarasboea
^boea
D
Anbssf
^boea<Artb
obgamf
Anbssf
pbrlhthmf
Dhl
Dfotb9Bjacframfpbjfautfr.
== R1-Jþghnamb
prfgralaçîf
Pbsquhsblahs
Bxhs
Bxhstb
tbl
l várh
várhfs
fs sfdt
sfdtwa
warb
rbs
s para
para nrha
nrhaçî
çîf
f mb
mb djux
djuxfg
fgra
rala
las,
s, botr
mbstanalfsJunhmneart,ulgbramfrmbdjuxfgralafojhobbgratuhtf. botrb
b bjbs
bjbs
Mhspf
Mhspfoìvbj
oìvbj bl9 :ettps9//ww
:ettps9//www.ju
w.junhmnear
nhmneart.nf
t.nfl/pagb
l/pagbs/pt?
s/pt? Anbssf
Anbssf bl9
3>fut.3017.
Futrfsfdtwarbluhtfuthjhzamfèf‚Mha“.Tfnépfmb
Futrfsfdtwarbluhtfuthj hzamfèf‚Mha“.Tfnépfmbdazbrfmfwojfampbjf
hzamfèf‚Mha“.Tfnépfmb dazbrfmfwojfampbjf
jhok9mhspfoìvbjbl9:ettp9//mha-hostajjbr.mb/?.Anbssfbl93>
jhok9mhspfoìvbjbl9:ettp9//mha-hos tajjbr.mb/?.Anbssfbl93>fut.3017.
tajjbr.mb/?.Anbssfbl93> fut.3017.
Psbumfnþmhgf
^b
^bgu
guom
omf
f Ag
Aguh
uhja
jar
r (3
(301
011),
1), f ps
psbubumf
mfnþnþmhmhgf
gf è nf
nfos
oshm
hmbr
bramamff ul ulaa
dbrraalbo
dbrr bota
ta qub pfmb aux uxhjhjha
har
r a prf
rfggra
ralalaçî
çîff. Pf
Pfm mb sbr
br bs
bsnr nrht
htf
f
bl pa
bl paja
javr
vras
as sh
shlh
lhja
jarb
rbs
s af
af ho
hogjgjés
és fu
fu af
af pf
pfrt
rtug
ugué
ués
s pa
para
ra da
danh
nhjhjhta
tar
r a
hotbrprbtaçîfbfmbsbovfjvhlbotfmbulprfgrala.
Pfm
Pfmblf
blfs s nar
narant
antbrh
brhzar
zar fs
fs ajg
ajgfrh
frhtlf
tlfss nfl
nflff ul pspsbum
bumfnþfnþmhg mhgf.
f.
Bxhstblvárhasdfrlasmbrbprbsbotarul
Bxhstblvárhasdfrlasmbrbprbsbotarulpsbumfnþmhgf,las
mbrbprbsbotarulpsbumfnþmhgf,las flahs
hlpfrtaotbèqubbjbaprbsbotbasfjuçîfmfp
hlpfrtaotbèqubbjbaprbsbotba sfjuçîfmfprfcjblaprfpf
rfcjblaprfpfstf.
stf.
Tbiaagfrafpsbumfnþmhgf(pfrtugfj)pararbsfjvbrfprfcjbla
masfpbraçòbsarhtlèthnasnhtamasaotbrhfrlbotb9
1. najnujfVfpbramfrbs;
3. var;
=.
>. Hvajfr1,
vajfr1,vajfr3,
oìnhf; vajfr3,
vajfr3,sfla,
sfla,suct,
sfla, suct,lujth,
suct, lujth,mhvh9
lujth,mhvh9rbaj;
mhvh9rbaj;
2. bsnrbva(‚Mhghtb
bsnrbva (‚Mhghtbf
(‚Mhghtbfvajfr
f vajfr1“);
vajfr 1“);
4. jbhavajfr1;
jbha vajfr1;
7. bsnrbva(‚Mhghtb
bsnrbva (‚Mhghtbvajfr
(‚Mhghtbvajfr3“);
vajfr 3“);
5. jbhavajfr3;
jbha vajfr3;
8. sfla ←vajfr1+vajfr3;
10. suct ←vajfr1-vajfr3;
11. lujth ←vajfr1*vajfr3;
13. mhvh ←vajfr1/vajfr3;
1>. bsnrbva(‚a
bsnrbva(‚asfla
(‚a sflaè9“,
sfla è9“,sfla);
è9“,sfla);
1=. bsnrbva(‚a
bsnrbva(‚asuctraçîf
(‚a suctraçîfè9“,
suctraçîf è9“,suct);
è9“,suct);
12. bsnrbva(‚a
bsnrbva(‚alujthpjhnaçîf
(‚a lujthpjhnaçîfè9“,
lujthpjhnaçîf è9“,lujth);
è9“, lujth);
14. bsnrbva(‚a
bsnrbva(‚amhvhsîf
(‚a mhvhsîfè9“,
mhvhsîf è9“,mhvh);
è9“,mhvh);
17. Dhl.
prfgralaçîf  =2
Tbiafsnflbotárhfsmbssbajgfrhtlf9
Jh
Jhoe
oea
a 19
19 ‚n
‚náj
ájnu
nujf
jfVf
Vfpb
pbra
ramf
mfrb
rbs“
s“ bs
bssb
sb è f of
oflb
lb rb
rbsb
sbrv
rvam
amf
f pa
para
ra
hmbothdhnarfajgfrhtlf.
Jhoea39‚Tar“shoajhzafhoìnhfmasvarhávbhs.
Jhoea
Jhoe a >9
>9 ^î
^îf
f fs
fs of
oflb
lbs
s ma
mamf
mfs
s pa
para
ra as
as va
varh
rháv
ávbhs
bhs (v
(vaj
ajfr
fr1,
1, va
vajf
jfr3
r3,,
sfla,suct,lujth,mhvh);obstajhoeatalcèlsîfmbdhohmfsfsthpfs
mbvarhávbhs(rbaj).
Jhoea=9hohnhafsprfnbmhlbotfsmfsajg
Jhoea=9hohnhafsprf nbmhlbotfsmfsajgfrhtlfs(hoìnhf).
frhtlfs(hoìnhf).
Jhoea29‚bsnrbva“èulnflaomfmbsaìmabhomhnafqubvahsbr
lfstramf
lfstramfoatbjamf
oatbjamfnflputamf
nflputamfr.Gbrajlbotbfnfotbù
r.Gbrajlbotbfnfotbùmfmftbxtf
mfmftbxtf
dhnabotrbaspas(‚Mhghtbvajfr1“).
Jhoe
Jhoea
a 49
49 ‚j
‚jbh
bha“
a“ è ul
ul nf
nfla
laom
omf
f mb
mb bo
botr
tram
ama,
a, f va
vajf
jfr
r mh
mhgh
ghta
tamf
mf è
arlazboamfoavarhávbj(vajfr1).
Jhoea79‚bsnrbva“èulnflaomfmbsaìmabhomhnafqubvahsbr
lfstramf
lfstramfoatbjamf
oatbjamfnflputamf
nflputamfr.Gbrajlbotbfnfotbù
r.Gbrajlbotbfnfotbùmfmftbxtf
mfmftbxtf
dhnabotrbaspas(‚Mhghtbvajfr3“).
Jhoe
Jhoea
a 59
59 ‚j
‚jbh
bha“
a“ è ul
ul nf
nfla
laom
omf
f mb
mb bo
botr
tram
ama,
a, f va
vajf
jfr
r mh
mhgh
ghta
tamf
mf è
arlazboamfoavarhávbj(vajfr3).
Jhoea89Aamhçîfmasvarhávbhsvajfr1bvajfr3èatrhcuìmapara
varhávbjsfla(sfla ←vajfr1+vajfr3).
Jhoea109Asuctraçîfmasvarhávbhsvajfr1bvajfr3èatrhcuìmapara
Jhoea109Asuctraçîfmasvarhávbhsvaj
varhávbjsuct(suct ←vajfr1„vajfr3).
fr1bvajfr3èatrhcuìmapara
Jhoea119Alujthpjhnaçîfmasvarhávbhsvajfr1bvajfr3èatrhcuìma
paravarhávbjlujth(lujth ←vajfr1*vajfr3).
Jho
Jhoea139
ea139AAmhv
mhvhsî
hsîf
fmas
mas va
varhá
rhávbh
vbhs
sva
vajfr
jfr1
1b
bva
vajfr
jfr3
3è
èatr
atrhcu
hcuìma
ìma pa
para
ra
varhávbjmhvh(mhvh ←vajfr1/vajfr3).
Jhoe
Jhoea
a 1>
1>9
9 Bs
Bsnrb
nrbva
va oa
oa tb
tbja
ja f qu
qub
b bs
bstá
tá bo
botr
trb
b as
aspa
pas
s (‚
(‚a
a sf
sfla
la è9
è9“,
“,
sfla)bfvajfrqubbstáarlazboamfoavarhávbjsfla.Pbrnbcaqub
avarhávbjènfjfnamadframasaspas,paraqubbjasbiarbprbsbotama
pbjfsbuvajfrnfrrbspfombotb.
Jhoea1=9Bsnrbvaoatbjafqubbstábotrbas pas(‚asuctraçîfè9“,
suct)bfvajfrqubbstáarlazboamfoavarhávbjsuct.Pbrnbcaqub
avarhávbjènfjfnamadframasaspas,paraqubbjasbiarbprbsbotama
Jhoea129Bsnrbvaoatbjafqubbstá
Jhoea129Bsnrbvaoatbjaf qubbstábotrbaspas(‚a
botrbaspas(‚alujthpjhnaçîf
lujthpjhnaçîf
è9“, lujth) b f vajfr qub bstá arlazboamf oa varhávbj lujth.
prfgralaçîf
Pbrnbcaqubavarhávbjènfjfnamadframasaspas,paraqubbjasbia
rbprbsbotamapbjfsbuvajfrnfrrbspfombotb.
Jhoea149Bsnrbvaoatbjafqubbstábotrbaspas(‚amhvhsîfè9“,
mhvh)bfvajfrqubbstáarlazboamfoavarhávbjmhvh.Pbrnbcaquba
varhávbjènfjfnamadframasaspas,paraqubbjasbiarbprbsbotama
Jhoea179Bonbrrbfajgfrhtlfnflapajavra‚dhl“bfpfotfdhoaj.
Quaomfofsrbdbrhlfsafusfmbpsbumfnþmhg
Quaomfofsrbdbrhlfsafusfmbp sbumfnþmhgfsblajgfrhtlf
fsblajgfrhtlfss
mfthpfpfrtugfj,shgohdhnaqubbssbmbvbsbrbsnrhtfmbdfrlaqub
futraspbssfaspfssalbotbombrmblaobhralahsdfrlaj,fusbia,
fsnfonbhtfsmbvbldhnarnjarfsbblulajhoguagblanbssìvbjpara
fsnfonbhtfsmbvbldhnarnjarfsbblulajhoguag blanbssìvbjpara
qublhráhotbrprbtarfajgfrhtlf.
È hlpfrt
Èhlp frtaot
aotb
b bst
bstar
aratb
atbotf
otf pa
para
raajg
ajgul
ulas
asrbg
rbgras
ras cá
cáshn
shnas
as qu
quaom
aomff
uthjhzarpsbumfnþmhgfs9
•Bsnfjebruloflb.
•
•Av
Avaj
Av ajha
har
r as
as va
varh
rháv
ávbh
bhs,
s, m ar
ar at
atboç
boçîfîf afs sbu s thp
thpfs b às suas
narantbrìsthnas.
•
•Mbs
Mbsnrbv
Mbs nrbvbr
br mb dfr
dfrla
la njanjara
ra f qub sb rá arl
arlazb
azboam
oamf
f b sb a s
varhávbhsmbsthoamasabssahodfrlaçîfbstîfnfrrbtas.
•
•Tbrhdhnarsbashostruçòbsdazblsbothmfbsbtélulasbquéonha
Tbrhdhnarsbashostruçòbsdazblsbothmfbsbtélulasbquéonha
jþghna.
•Avajharfrbsujtamfb,quaomfpbrthobotb,lfstraroatbja.
•Avajharfrbsujtamfb,quaomfpbrthobotb,lfstraroatbja.
•Dhoajhzarfajgfrhtlf.
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Tbia ul ajgfrhtlf qub najnuja a árba mf nìrnujf usaomf ul
psbumf
psbu mfnþ
nþmh
mhgf
gf bspbn
bspbnìd
ìdhn
hnf
f para
para sbr
sbr bxbn
bxbnut
utamf
amf of
of sfdt
sfdtwa
warb
rb Ths
Thsua
uajg
jg
(sfdtwarbqubbxbnutafsnflaomfsmfs ajgfrhtlfs).
ajgfrhtlf"árbamfnìrnujf"
var
árba,p1,rahf9rbaj
hoìnhf
//^bçîfmbNflaomfs
Bsnrbva("mhghtbfrahfmfnìrnujf")
Jbha(rahf)
p1:->.1=
árba:-(p1*(rahf_3))
bsnrbva("Aárbamfnìrnujfè9",árba)
dhlajgfrhtlf
Pbrnbcaqubfs
Pbrnbca qubfsparãl
parãlbtrfs
btrfsuthjhzam
uthjhzamfstalcèl
fstalcèlsîfnfoshmbramf
sîfnfoshmbramfsul
sul
ajgfrhtlfmfthpfpfrtuguésbstruturamf,fusbia,mbdánhjbotbomhlbotf
bhotbrprbtaçîf.
^f
^fdt
dtwa
warb
rb mh
mhsp
spfo
foìv
ìvbj
bj bl
bl9
9 :e
:ett
ttp9/
p9//v
/vhs
hsua
uajg
jg>.
>.nf
nfl.
l.cr
cr/?.
/?. Anbs
Anbssf
sf bl9
bl9
3>fut.3017.
Paracèos!
Paracèos! Tfnétbrlhofua
Tfnétbrlhofuaprhlbhr
prhlbhra uohmambmbstbjhvrf,nfothoub
auohmambmbstbjhvrf,nfothoub
bstumaomfbprathnaomf.Cfasfrtbbatèaprþxhlauohma
bstumaomfbprathnaomf.Cfasf rtbbatèaprþxhlauohmamb!
mb!
Ne b g f u  f  l f l b o t f  m b  p r a t h n a r  f  n f o t b ù m f  b s t u m a m f .
Jblcrb-sb9 vfnédfhbjfgham
Jblcrb-sb9 vfnédfhbjfghamfpbjfsbu
fpbjfsbumbsbl mbsblpboef
pboef bsbu
bsbugbstgbstfr fr
bspbraqubvfnénfjfqubmbdfrlanfovhonbotbasapjhnaçòbsma
jhogu
jhoguagagbl
bl oatoatura
uraj,
j, mf
mfs
s mha
mhagra
gralas
las mb cjf cjfnfs
nfs (dj
(djuxf
uxfgragralas
las)
) b mf
us f  b  p s b u f n gf s .
A sua
ua lhs hsssîf è mblblf fos
ostr
traar afs sbu buss nf
nfjb
jbggas
as bo
boggbo
boeb
ebhr
hrf
fs a
ap
apjhjhna
naçî
çîf
f blbl jho
jhogu
guagagbl
bl oa
oatu
tura
raj,j, djux
djuxfg
fgra
rala
lass b ps
psbubumf
mfnþ
nþmh
mhgf
gfs,
s,
f ná
nájn
jnuj
ujf
f ma
ma dþ
dþrl
rluj
uja
a qu
qub
b nf
nfovovbr
brtb tb ul
ula
a tb
tblp
lpbr brat
atur
ura
a bl
bl gr
grau
auss
nbotìgramfsparagrausDaerboebht.Adþrlujaparabssanfovbrsîfè9
 8 ⋂ n + 140
D < ,blqub‚D“èatblpbraturablDaerboebhtb‚n“èa
2
tblpbraturablnbotìgramfs.
Prhlbhrf, vfné mbvb bsnrbvbr bl jhoguagbl oaturaj f duo-
nhfoalbotfmadþrlujaqubnfovbrtbgrausnbotìgramfsparagraus
Daerboebht.Parahssf,frgaohzbfsbupbosalbotfmbdfrlabstruturaj
bdfrlaj,lasjblcrb-sb,obltfmfsfsbogboebhrfstbrîfflbslf
pbosalbotf,
pbosalbotf,fhlpfrtaotbè
fhlpfrtaotbènebgaràsf
nebgaràsfjuçîfmf
juçîfmfprfcjbla.
prfcjbla.
Oanfostruçîfmfdjuxfgralavajbrbsgatarasmhnasnhtamasof
‚Oîfpfmbdajtar“9
prfgralaçîf
1. Bstar
Bstaratbotf
atbotfafs
atbotf afsoìvbhs
afs oìvbhsof
oìvbhsofdjuxfgrala.
ofdjuxfgrala.
3. Fdjuxfgrala
Fdjuxfgralambvbnflbçar
mbvbnflbçarmbnhla
mbvbnflbçarmbnhlaparacahxf
mbnhlaparacahxfbma
paracahxfbmabsqubrma
bmabsqubrma
paramhrbhta.
>. Nuhmamfpara
Nuhmamfparaoîfnruzar
oîfnruzarasjhoeas,
oîfnruzarasjhoeas,prhonhpajlbotbas
asjhoeas,prhonhpajlbotbasjhoeasmb
prhonhpajlbotbasjhoeasmb
djuxfsmbmamfs.
Dhoajhzb bssa athvhmamb bsnrbvbomf a nfovbrsîf mb graus
nbotìg
nbotìgramf
ramfspara
sparagrau
grausDaerboebhtbl
sDaerboebhtblpsbu
psbumfnþ
mfnþmhgf
mhgf..Ass
Asshlnflf
hlnflf
ofdjuxfgrala,asdfrlasmbpbosalbotfpfmblsfdrbrajtbraçòbs,
lasfhlpfrtaotbèfrbsujtamfbajþghnaparasua
lasfhlpfrtaotbèfrbsujtamfbajþghnaparasuasfjuçîf.
sfjuçîf.
Nacblasmhnas9
• Bsnfjebr
Bsnfjebrul
uloflb
uloflbpara
oflbparaf
parafajgfrhtlf.
fajgfrhtlf.
• Avaj
ajha
har
r as va
varh
rháávbh
bhss, mar atb
tboç
oçîîf afs
fs sbu
buss thpfs b às suas
narantbrìsthnas.
• Mb
Mbsn
snrb
rbvb
vbr
r mb
mb df
dfrl
rla
a njar
njara
a f qub
qub sb
sbrá
rá ar
arla
lazb
zboa
oamf
mf b sb as
varhávbhsmbsthoamasabssahodfrlaçîfbstîfnfrrbtas.
• Tbrhdhnar sb as hostruçòbs dazbl sbothmf b sb tél ula

sbquéonhajþghna.
• Avajharf
Avajharfrbsujtamfb,
rbsujtamfb,quaomfpbrthobotb,
rbsujtamfb,quaomfpbrthobotb,lfstrar
quaomfpbrthobotb,lfstraroa
lfstraroatbja.
oatbja.
• Dhoajhzar f ajgfrhtlf.
 Dhoajhzar
Dhoajhzarf
fajgfrhtlf.
fajgfrhtlf.
]hpfsmbtrhãogujfs„nfoshmbraomfsbus
ãogujfshotbrofs
Tfnédfhmbshgoamfparaaiumarulmbpartalbotfmablprbsa
Uhs&Yh a bonfotrar fs ãogujfs hotbrofs mfs trhãogujfs qub
nfrrbs
nfrrbsp
pfom
fombl
bl a ajg
jgu
uos
os thp
thpfs mb pbçbçaas. Pf
Pfrr lbhf
bhf mas lblbm mhm
hmaas
bonf
bonfotr
otrama
amas,
s, vf
vfné
némbv
mbvbrá
brá ap
apfot
fotar
arf
fthp
thpffmf
mf trh
trhãog
ãogujf
ujf..A
Ablp
blprbs rbsaa
prbnhsa qub vfnéné passb bl dfrl rlaa mb jhoguagbl bl oaturarajj bssb
prfnbmhlb
prfnbm hlbotf
otf..Tbi
Tbia
aoaDhgur
oaDhguraa1.1
1.12
2fs
fs thp
thpfsmb
fsmbtrhtrhãog
ãogujf
ujfs sb
bas
as su
suas
as
rbprbsbotaçòbsblrbjaçîfafsãogujfs.
Dhgura1.12|]hpfsmbtrhãogujfsnjasshdhnamfspfrãogujfshotbrofs
Dhgura1.12|]hpfsmb trhãogujfsnjasshdhnamfspfrãogujfshotbrofs
Dfotb9bjacframfpbjfautfr.
shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
cjbla
Bljhoguagbloa
Bljhoguagbloaturaj,pfmbrhas
turaj,pfmbrhasbrbsnrhtamasbguhotbdfrl
brbsnrhtamasbguhotbdfrla9
a9
1. Hoì
Hoình
nhf.
f.
3. ^fjhnhtarabotramamf
^fjhnhtarabotramamfprhlbhrfãogujf(TarhávbjaogA).
prhlbhrfãogujf(TarhávbjaogA).
>. ^fjhnhtarabotramamf
^fjhnhtarabotramamfsbguomfãogujf(TarhávbjaogC).
sbguomfãogujf(TarhávbjaogC).
=. ^fjhnhtarabotramamftbrnbhrfãogujf(TarhávbjaogN).
2. Tbrhdhnarsbassflas
Tbrhdhnarsbassflasmfsãogujfshotbrofssflal150graus
mfsãogujfshotbrofssflal150graus
(aogA+aogC+aogN<150).
4.^bulmfsãogujfshotbrofsmftrhãogujfdfrrbtf(80graus)
b fs
fs mb
mbla
lahshs,
, ão
ãogu
gujf
jfs
s ag
agum
umfs
fs (hodb
(hodbrh
rhfr
frbs
bs a 80
80 gr
grau
aus)
s),
, bs
bssb
sb
trhãogujfènjasshdhnamfnflfsbomftrhãogujfrbtãogujf.
trhãogujfènjasshdhnamfnflfsbomftrhã ogujfrbtãogujf.
7. Ag
Agf fra
ra,, sb tf
tfmmfs fs ãog
oguj
ujf
fs ho
hotb
tbro
rof
fs mf trhã
trhãog
oguujf
jf df
dfrb
rbll
agumfs(hodbrhfrbsa80graus),bssbtrhãogujfènealamfmb
anutão ujf.
5.Bodhl,sbulmfsãogujfshotbrofsmftrhãogujfdfrfctusf
(l
(lah
ahfr
fr qub
qub 80
80 gr
grau
aus)
s) b fs
fs mb
mbla
lahs
hs,
,ag
agum
umfs
fs (h(hod
odbr
brhf
hfrb
rbs
sa
a80
80
graus),bssbtrhãogujfènealamffctusãogujf.
8. Lfstrarfthpfmftrhãogujfoatbja.
10.Dhl.
Luhtf cbl, agfra è nfl vfné! ]bo

bottb apjhna
narr bssb lbslf
prfcjblauthjhzaomfdjuxfgralabpsbumfnþmhgf.
ûnbssfbatèaprþxhlauohmamb!
prfgralaçîf
1.Ajhoguagbloaturajoambdhohçîfgbrajèuladfrla
Ajhoguagbloaturajoambdhohçîfgbrajèuladfrlambnfluohnaçîfbotrb
mbnfluohnaçîfbotrb
aspbssfasmbmhvbrsasjìoguas,pfmbomfsbrdajama,bsnrhta
aspbssfasmbmhvbrsasjìoguas ,pfmbomfsbrdajama,bsnrhta fugbsthnu
fugbsthnujama
jama,,
botrb
botrb fu
futr
tras
as df
dfrl
rlas
as mb
mb nf
nflu
luoh
ohna
naçî
çîf.
f. A jh
jhog
ogua
uagb
gbl
l oa
oatutura
raj
j pr
prbn
bnhs
hsa
a sb
sbrr
nrhamadfrlajlbotb,fusbia,bjambvbrásbrmbdánhjbotbomhlbotfafsbu
hotbrprbtamfr.
^bguhomfaprblhssamf
^bguhomfaprblhssa mfnfon
nfonbhtfmbjhoguag
bhtfmbjhoguagbloatura
bloaturaj,aoajhsb
j,aoajhsbfs
fstbrlf
tbrlfss
asbguhr9
H. H^flar
oìnhf Anfl
^flarAAnfl
nflCC
 Lfstrarrbsujtamf
Lfstrar rbsujtamfma
rbsujtamfmasfla
ma sfla
 Dhl.
HH. Hoìnhf
 Botrarnfl
Botrarnflf
nfl fvajfr
fvajfr
vajfrmb
mbA
mbA
 Botrarnfl
Botrarnflf
nfl fvajfr
fvajfr
vajfrmb
mbC
mbC
 ^flarA
^flar Anfl
Anfl
nflCC
 Lfstrarf
Lfstrar frbsujtamf
frbsujtamf
rbsujtamfma
masfla
masfla
 Dhl.
HHH. Hoìnhf
 Ph<>,1=
 Najnujarárba
Najnujar árbamf
árbamfnìrnujf
mfnìrnujf(árba
nìrnujf(árba:-
(árba:-(p1*(rahf_3))
:-(p1*(rahf_3))
 Marf
Mar f
frbsujtamf
rbsujtamf
Dhl.
 Dhl.
     
c)AsrfthoasHHbHHHbstîf nfrrbtas.
n)ArfthoaHHbstánfrrbta.
m)AsrfthoasH,HHbHHH bstîfnfrrbtas.
b)ArfthoaHHHbstánfrrbta.
3. ^bguo
^bguomf
mf Laoz
Laozaof
aof (30
(3012)
12),
, pfm
pfmblf
blfs
s na
naran
rantbrh
tbrhza
zar
r mhagra
mhagrala
la mb cjf
cjfnf
nfss
nflfulnfoiuotfmbsìlcfjfsgrádhnfs,blqub namaulmbssbssìlcfjfs
rbprbsbotaaçò
rbprbsbotaaçòbsbspbnìdhnasa
bsbspbnìdhnasasbrblbxbn
sbrblbxbnutamaspbjf
utamaspbjfnflputamfr.
nflputamfr.
F mh
mhag
agra
rala
la mb
mb cj
cjfn
fnfs
fs fu
fu djux
djuxfg
fgra
rala
la mb
mbtb
tbrl
rlho
hoa
a a jh
jhoe
oea
a mb
mb ra
ranh
nhfn
fnìo
ìohf
hf
uthjhzamapbjfprfgralamfrpararbsfjvbrprfcjblas.
prfgralaçîf  21
Aoajhsbfmhagralambcjfnfsasbguhr9
Asshoajbaajtbroathvanfrrbta9
a)
a) F mhag
mhagra
rala
la aprb
aprbsbsbot
otam
amf
f rbpr
rbprbs
bsbo
bota
ta f ho
hoìn
ìnhfhf ma
ma rfth
rfthoa
oa,
, sbgu
sbguhm
hmf
f pf
pfrr
ula apr prbs
bsbo
bota
taççîf
îf oa tb
tbja
ja,
, ula nfo
nfomh
mhnnhf
hfooaj
aj (T
(Tbrbrma
mambmbhr
hrf
f fu Dajs
Dajsf
f),
), f
arlazboalbotfmbmamfsbfdhlmarfthoa.
c)Fmhagralaaprbsbotamfrbprbsbotafhoìnhfmarfthoa,sbguhmfmabotrama
c)Fmhagralaaprbsbotamfrbprbsbotafhoìnhfma rfthoa,sbguhmfmabotrama
mahodfrla
mahodfrlaçîfçîf,
,ulanfomh
ulanfomhnhfonhfoaj(Tbrmambhr
aj(Tbrmambhrffu
ffuDajsf
Dajsf),
),farlazbo
farlazboalbo
albotf tf
mbmamfsbfdhlmarfthoa.
n)Fmhagralaaprbsbotamfrbprbsbotafhoìnhfmarfthoa,sbguhmfmabotrama
mahodfrla
mahodfrlaçîf
çîf,
,ulanfomh
ulanfomhnhfo
nhfoaj(Tbrmambhr
aj(Tbrmambhrffu
ffuDajsf
Dajsf),
),aaprbsbota
aaprbsbotaçîf
çîf oa
tbjabfdhlmarfthoa.
m)Fmhagrala
m)Fmhagralaaprbsbota
aprbsbotamfrbprbsbo
mfrbprbsbotafhoìnhfmarftho
tafhoìnhfmarfthoa,sbguhmf
a,sbguhmfpfrula
pfrula
aprbsbotaçîfoatbja,fprfnbmhlbotf,farlazboal
aprbsbotaçîfoatbja,fprfnbmhlbotf,f arlazboalbotfmbmamfsbfdhl
botfmbmamfsbfdhl
marfthoa.
b)Fmhagralaaprbsbotamfrbprbsbotafhoìnhfmarfthoa,sbguhmfmabotrama
mahodfrlaçîf,fprfnbmhlbotf,aaprbsbotaçîfoatbjabf dhlmarfthoa.
>.^bguomfAguhjar(3011),fpsbumfnþmhgfènfoshmbramfuladbrralbota
qubpfmbauxhjharaprfgralaçîf.Pfmbsbrbsnrhtfblpajavrasshlhjarbsaf
hogjésfuafpfrtugués,paradanhjhtarahotbrprbtaçîfmbajgfrhtlfsbasshl
nrharpfsshchjhmambsparanfostruçîfmbprfgralas nflputanhfoahs.
prfgralaçîf
Aoajhsbadajeaoftrbnefmfpsbumfnþmhgfasbguhrbasshoajbaajtbroathva
qubnfrrbspfombàdfrlanfrrbtaoabxbnuçîf9
ajgfrhtlf"NajnujarfHLN";
var;
oflb9narantbrb;
pbsf,hln,ajtura9rbaj;
Hoìnhf
bsnrbva("Bsnrbvafoflb");
jbha(oflb);
bsnrbva(Bsnrbvafpbsf");
jbha(pbsf);
bsnrbva("Bsnrbvaaajtura");
jbha(ajtura);
hln<pbsf/(ajtura* ajtura);
bsnrbva("FsbuHLNè“);
jbha(hln);
dhl.
a)bsnrbva("Bsnrbvaaajtura");
 jbha
jbha(ajtura);
(ajtura);
 hln ←pbsf/(ajtura*ajtura);
c)bsnrbva("Bsnrbva
c)bsnrbva("Bsnrbvaaajtura
aajtura",ajtura);
",ajtura);
 hln
hln<
<pbsf
<pbsf/
pbsf /(ajtura
/(ajtura
(ajtura*
*ajtura);
*ajtura);
 bsnrbva
bsnrbva("F
("Fsbu
("FsbuHLN
sbu HLNè“);
HLN è“);
 jbha
jbha(( hln );
n)bsnrbva("Bsnrbvaaajtura");
 hln
hln< <pbsf
<pbsf/
pbsf /(ajtura
/(ajtura
(ajtura*
*ajtura);
*ajtura);
 bsnrbva
bsnrbva("F
("Fsbu
("F sbuHLN
sbu HLNè“,
HLN è“,hln);
è“,hln);
 jbha
jbha(hln);
(hln);
m)bsnrbva("Bsnrbvaaajtura");
 jbha
jbha(ajtura);
(ajtura);
 HLN ←pbsf/(ajtura*ajtura);
 bsnrbva
bsnrbva("F
("Fsbu
("F sbuHLN
sbuHLNè“,
HLNè“,hln);
è“,hln);
b)bsnrbva("Bsnrbvaaajtura");
 jbha
jbha(ajtura);
(ajtura);
 HLN ←pbsf/(ajtura*ajtura);
 bsnrbva
bsnrbva("F
("Fsbu
("F sbuHLN
sbuHLNè,
HLNè,hln“);
è,hln“);
prfgralaçîf  2>
Sbdbréonhas
ACB,Iahr Lhofru;^NAJYH]]H,Ajbxaomrb; ^HJTADHJEF,
ACB,IahrLhofru;^NAJYH]]H,Ajbxaomrb; ^HJTADHJEF,IfîfHoánhf
IfîfHoánhf.. Hotrfmuçîfàjþghna
IfîfHoánhf
paraanhéonhamanflputaçîf .^îfPaujf9Artb&Nhéonha,3001.
AGRHJAS,JuìsIfyaobs. Duomalbotfsmbprfgralaçîf9ajgfrhtlfs,bstruturasmbmamfsb
fcibtfs.>.bm.PfrtfAjbgrb9ALGE,3011.
AJTB^,WhjjhalPbrbhra. Jhoguagblbjþghnambprfgralaçîf.1.bm.^îfPaujf9Èrhna,301=.
CBSG,AjbxaomrbNruz;DHGRBHSÞ,IfhnbPavbn. Jþghnambprfgralaçîf.ShfGraomb
mfûj9BmhtfraRJCSA,1885.
DFSCBJJFOB,AomrèJuhz
DFSCBJJFOB,A omrèJuhzThjjar;BCBS^PANEBS,
Thjjar;BCBS^PANEBS,EborhDrbmb
EborhDrbmbrhnf.
rhnf. Jþghnambprfgralaçîf9
Anfostruçîfmbajgfrhtlfsbbstruturasmbmamfs.^îfPaujf9Lakrfo,3000.
DFSCBJJFOB,AomrèJuhzThjjar. Jþghnambprfgralaçîf9anfostruçîfmbajgfrhtlfsb
bstruturasmbmamfs.>.bm.^îfPaujf9PbarsfoPrbothnbEajj,3002.
JFPB^,Aohta;GASNHA,Gutf.Hotrfmuçîfàprfgralaçîf.ShfmbIaobhrf9Bjsbvhbr,3003.
LAOYAOF,
F, If
Ifsè
sè Au
Augu
gust
stf
f O. G. Ajgfrhtlfs9 jþgh
jþghna
na pa
para
ra mb
mbsb
sbov
ovfj
fjvh
vhlb
lbot
otf
f mb
prfgralaçîfmbnflputamfrbs.
prfgralaçîfmbnflputamfrbs.35.bm.
35.bm.^îfPaujf9Èrhna,3014.
^îfPaujf9Èrhna,3014.
LAOYAOF,IfsèAugustfO.G. Ajgfrhtlfs9 tèn
tènohn
ohnasmb
asmb prf
prfgral
gralaçî
açîf.3.
f.3. bm.
bm. ^îf
Paujf9Èrhna,3012.
LAOYAOF,IfsèAugustf.Ajgfrhtlfs9jþghnaparambsbovfjvhlbotfmb
jþghnaparambsbovfjvhlbotfmbprfgralaçîf.
prfgralaçîf.
PBSBHSA,AoaPauja. Fqubèajgfrhtlf.3008.Mhspfoìvbjbl9:ettps9//www.tbnluomf.
nfl.cr/prfgralanaf/3053-f-qub-b-ajgfrhtlf-.etl?.
nfl.cr/prfgralanaf/3053-f-qub-b-ajgfrhtlf -.etl?. Anbssfbl91>
Anbssfbl91>fut.3017.
fut.3017.
ÂJHCA,WajtbrJuhzNaral. ]ènohnambprfgralaçîf9ulaacfrmagblbstruturama.^îf
Paujf9Lakrfo,188>.
ÂO]F^
ÂO ]F^,, Mhaoa.
Mhaoa. Prf
Prfnbs
nbssal
salbo
botf
tf ma jho
jhogua
guagbl
gbl oaturaj
oaturaj9
9 ula
ula aprb
aprbsbo
sbotaç
taçîf
îf atr
atravè
avès
s mas
apjhnaçòbs.Ho
apjhnaçòbs.H o9SAO EE M, BjhsacbtbLarqubs. ]ratalbotfmasjìoguaspfrnflputamfr.
Jhscfa9Nalhoef,3001.
^HJTA,Djávhf^farbsNfrréa. Jþghnaparanflputaçîf.^îfPaujf9NbogagbJbarohog,3004.
^FASB^
^FA SB^,, Bmvajm
Bmvajmf.
f. Duo
Duoma
malbo
lbotfs
tfs mb jþghna9 bjb
jþghna jblb
lbo
otf
tfs
s mb
mb jþgh
jþghna
na dfrl
dfrlaj
aj b tbfr
tbfrha
ha ma
argulbotaçîf.3.bm.^îfPaujf9Atjas,301=.
^FRYA,LarnfAotýohfDurjao. Ajgfrhtlfsbjþghnasmbprfgralaçîf .3.bm.^îfPaujf9
NbogagbJbarohog,3011.
^YWASNDH]BS,IaylbJuhz;LASKBOYFO,Jhjhao. Bstruturasmbmamfsbsbusajgfrhtlfs.
ShfmbIaobhrf9BmhtfraJ]N,188=.
Rohmamb3
Bjblbotfsmbajgfrhtlfs
Na
Narf
rf(a (a)
) bs
bstutuma
maot
otb,
b, cb
cbl-
l-vh
vhom
omf(
f(a)
a) à sb
sbgu
guomoma
a uo
uohm
hmam
amb b mf
bstumf
bstu mf mf
mfss ajgf
ajgfrh
rhtl
tlfsfs b ma
ma jþ
jþgh
ghna
na mb
mb pr
prfg
fgra
rala
laçîçîf.
f. Obs
Obssa sa
bt
btap
apa,
a, hr
hrbl
blfs fs nf
nfoe
oebnbnbr
br bj
bjbl
blbotbotfs
fs qu
qub
b sî
sîf
f bssb
bssbononha
hahshs pa
para
ra
fmbsbovfjvhlbotfmbajgfrhtlfsbdhnhbotbs.Fsrbnursfsqub
sbrîfvhstfsaquhofspbrlhthrîfajtbrarfdjuxfsbqubonhajmf
ajgfrhtlfatravèsmbtflamasmbmbnhsòbsbtalcèlpfrlbhf
ajgfrhtlfatravèsmbtflamasmbmbnhsòbsbtal cèlpfrlbhf
mbrbpbthçòbsnfotìouasmbmbtbrlhoamashostruçòbs.
Oaprhlbhrauohmamb,vfnédfhaprbsbotamfàlujthoanhfoaj
KrfBogboearhas,ulablprbsaatuaotbblvárhasdrbotbsmb
prfibtfs,qubvîfmbsmbanfonbpçîfatèabxbnuçîfbbotrbga
parasbusnjhbotbs.Mhaotbmbtalaoeamblaomafpbranhfoaj,f
shstblambgbrbonhalbotfmablprbsaèmhvhmhmfblmhvbrsfs
sucshs
sucs hstb
tblalas, s, qu
qub
b nf
nfot
otblblpjpjal
al mb
mbsmsmbb f gbrb
gbrbononha
halb
lbototf f mb
rb
rbnu
nurs
rsffs eueulalaof ofss atè
tè f nf
nfototrf
rfjb
jb ma bx
bxbn
bnu
uçî
çîff b bo
botr trbg
bgaa
mfsprfibtfs.Paraqubtumfduonhfobmblaobhranfrrbta,è
hlpr
hlprbsnhom
bsnhomìvbjquba
ìvbjqubahotbrjf
hotbrjfnuçîf
nuçîf botrbnamasucs
botrbnamasucshstbl
hstblasbia
asbia
dbhtambdfrlapamrfohzama.Parahssf,èobnbssárhf,blprhlbhrf
jugar,vajhmarfsmhvbrsfsmamfsmbbotramaqubajhlbotalfs
sucs
su cshs
hstbl
tblasas b,
b, bl
bl ul
ul sbsbgu
guomomf f lf
lflb lbototf,
f, ga
gararaot
othrhr qu
qub
b fs
ma
mamf
mfss mb
mb na
namama su
sucs
cshshstbl
tbla a bs
bstbi
tbial
al bl
bl ul
ul lblbsl slf f pamr
pamrîf îf
      .   
pamrfohzaçîfmfsmamfsgaraotblqubtfmfsfsshstblassb
nfluohqublmblfmfnfrrbtfbbdhnaz.
Mh
Mhao
aotb
tb mb
mbssssaa ob
obnbnbss
sshm
hmam
amb,b, ap
apþsþs vf
vfné
né rb
rbajajhza
hzarr ul
ul þt þthl
hlf f
tracajefofmbsbovfjvhlbotfmfpbosalbotfnflputanhfoaj
b ma
ma jþ
jþgh
ghna
na nfnfll fs
fs bo
bogbgboe
oebh
bhrfrfss ma
ma bl
blpr
prbsbsa,
a, df
dfhh at
atrh
rhcu
cuìmìmaa
a vf
vfné
né a ta
tarb
rbdada mb
mb mb
mbsb
sbovovfj
fjvb
vbr r ajgf
ajgfrhrhtl
tlfs
fs na
napa
pazbzbss mb
mb da
dazb
zbrr
vajhmaçòçòbbs b, quaomf obnbssárhf, nfovbrsòbs ofs mamfs
qu
qub
b ajhl
ajhlbo
botatal
l aj ajgu
guosos lþ
lþmumujf jfs
s mf
mf su
sucs
cshs
hstb
tbla
la mbmb ná nájn
jnuj
ujf.
f.
R3-Bjblbotfsmbajgfrhtlfs.
R3-Bjblbotfsmb ajgfrhtlfs.  22
]ahssucshstblasgbralrbjatþrhfsparaqubasmhvbrsasárbas
pfssaltflarmbnhsòbspbrthobotbsafsbusbtfr,pfrtaotf,fs
mamfsuthjhzamfsmbvblsbrvbrhdhnamfsbpamrfohzamfs.
Abxbnuçîfmasuatarbdasbrámhvhmhmabl
Abxbnuçîfma suatarbdasbrámhvhmhmabltréslflbotfs.
suatarbdasbrámhvhmhmabl tréslflbotfs.
O a p r h lbh r a bt apa, vfn é d a r á vaj h ma ç òbs o fs mamf s mb
bo
botr
tram
amaa nf
nfrrrrbs
bspf
pfomombobotbtbss às
às uo
uohm
hmamambs bs mb
mb nf
nflplprh rhlb
lbototf,
f,
tblpfblassa.Ofsbguomflflbotf,vfnémbsbovfjvbrá
ajgfrhtlfsqubnfovbrtalnbrtasuohmambsmbanfrmfnfl
f pa
pamr
mrîf îf am
amft
ftam
amf
f pb
pbjaja bl
blprprbs
bsa.
a. B,
B, pf
pfrr dhl,
dhl, vf
vfné
né mb
mbvb
vbrá
rá
bxpjfrar
bxpjfr ar la
laobhr
obhras
as fth
fthlhz
lhzam amas
as pa
para
ra f arlarlazbazboal
oalbot botff mf
mfss
mamfsmbbotramamfshstbla.
mamfsmbbotramamf shstbla.
]b
]boe
oea a ul
ul þt
þthl
hlff tra
traca
cajejef
f obss
obssbb of
ofvf vf mb
mbsa
sadh
dhf!
f! B oî
oîf
f sb
bs
bsqu
qubça
bça9
9 lu
luhtf
htfs
tracajefnflavsajhmaçîfbpamrfohzaçîfmbma
rb
rbsu
sujt
jtam
amfs
fs hlpf
tracajefnflavajhmaçîfbpa hl pfrt
rtao
aotbs
tbs mb
mbpb
pbom
ombl
mrfohzaçîfmbmamfs.bl mf
mfs. mf sb
sbu
u
24 R3-Bjblbotfsmbajgfrhtlfs.
R3-Bjblbotfsmb ajgfrhtlfs.
^bçîf3.1
Bxbnuçîfsbqubonhajbbstruturasmbmbnhsîf
Bxbnuçîfsbqubonhajbbstruturasmbmbnhsîf
Mhájfgfacbrtf
Fjá,bstumaotb!Hohnhalfsagfrafbstumfmbnbrtfsprfnbmhlbotfs
qub
qu b sî
sîff bs
bssb
sbon
onha
hahs
hs pa
para
ra a rb
rbsf
sfju
juçî
çîff mb
mb qu
quaj ajqu
qubr
br thp
thpf
f mb
mb pr
prfc
fcjb
jblala
usa
usaomf
omf nfl
nflf fdbrr
dbrral
albotbotaafs
fs ajg
ajgfrh
frhtlf
tlfs.
s.Hrbl
Hrblfs fs ap
aprbom
rbombr
bras
asrft
rfthoa
hoass
qubofspbrlhtbltflarmbnhsòbsmuraotbaaoájhsbmbulprfcjbla.
]flarmbnhsòbsdazpartbmavhmambquajqubrpbssfaapþsnbrta
hm
hmaamb.
b. Mbs
bsm
mb f lf
lfl lbobotftf qub anfnfrm
rmaalfsfs atètè a ef
efra
ra mb mfrlrlhr hr,,
mbnhsòbs,lbslfqubshlpjbs( Qubrfupausar6Fqubnflbrofnadè
malaoeî6Hrtracajearmbt raospfrtbprhvamffupùcjhnf6),sîftflamas ),sîftflamas
nfo
nfostastaotbl
otblbotbotb.
b. Ajgul
Ajgulas asmbn
mbnhsòhsòbs
bs sb
sbtfr
tfroal
oal tîftîf au
autfl
tflátháthnas
nas qu
qub b
obl
obl pbpbrnb
rnbcb
cblf
lfss qu
qub
b bs
bstatalf
lfs s ‚p
‚par
arao
aomf
mf“,“, ‚p
‚pbo
bosasaom
omf“
f“ b ‚t
‚tfl
flaoaomf mf
ulambnhsîf“.Bsnrbvblfsajgfrhtlfsparafctbrsfjuçòbsmbdfrla
bstruturama,pfrèlsfjunhfoarhlpjhnaobnbssarhalbotbtflarmbnhsòbs.
DfhatrhcuìmaavfnéulaofvatarbdaoaKrfBogboearhas9mbsbovfjvbr
Dfhatrhcuìmaavfnéulaofvatarbdaoa KrfBogboearhas9mbsbovfjvbr
ajgf
ajgfrh
rhtl
tlfs
fs pa
para
ra va
vajhjhma
mar
r fs
fs mamf
mamfs
s mb
mb bo
botr
tram
ama
a qu
qub
b aj
ajhl
hlbobota
tal
l ajgu
ajguos
os
suc
sucshs
shstbl
tblas
as mb
mbnáj
nájnuj
nujf.f.^bu
^bu prh
prhlbh
lbhrf
rfpa
pass
ssf
fsbr
sbrá
ánrh
nrhar
ardju
djuxfg
xfgral
ralas
as b
psbumfnþmhgfsqubvajhmblfsvajfrbsmbbotramasmbnbrtasuohmambs
psbumfnþmhgfsqubvajhmblfsvajfrbsmbbotramas mbnbrtasuohmambs
mblbmhmas.Bssbsvajfrbstélqubbstarmbanfrmfnflf^hstbla
Ho
Hotb
tbro
roaanh
nhfo
foaaj mb Ro Rohm
hmaambs
bs (^
(^H)
H).
. Pa
Para
ra bs
bsssa ta
tarb
rbda
da,, nf
nfososhm
hmbr
brb
b nf
nfllf
bo
botrtram
amasas as
as uo
uohm
hmam
ambs
bs mb
mb nf
nflp
lprh rhlb
lbot
otf,f, tb
tblp
lpf
f b la
lassssa
a b da
daça
ça fs
a gfr tlfsobnbss r fspara sparaaasva aç bspbrt obotbsana abotra a,
Pararbsfjvbrbssbprfcjbla,vfnévbránflfnfostruhrbstruturas
nfomhnhfoahsshlpjbs,cbl
nfomhnhfo ahsshlpjbs,cblnflf
ahsshlpjbs,cbl nflfbstrutur
nflfbstruturas asnfomhnh
nfomhnhfoahs
foahsqub
qubsupfrtal
supfrtal
lahsmbulafpçîf.Bssasbstruturasadbtarîffdjuxfsbqubonhajmf
aj
ajgf
gfrh rhtl
tlf,
f, pf
pfhshs,
, mb
mbpb
pbomombo
bomf mf ma
ma mb
mbnh
nhsîsîf,
f, ul
ul nb
nbrtrtf
f na
nalh
lhoeoef
f sb
sbrárá
bsnfjehmfblmbtrhlbotfmbfutrf.Oîfpfmbrhambhxarmblbonhfoar
qubaprbombrbrbdjbthrsfcrbnflfasmbnh
qubaprbombrbrbdjbthrsfcrbnflfas mbnh
mbnhsòbs
sòbspfmbl
pfmbladbadbtar
tara
arbs
rbsfjuç
fjuçîfîf
mbprfcjblasbstáajèlmfusfrbstrhtfafsajgfrhtlfsnflputanhfoahs,
mbprfcjblasbstáajèlmf usfrbstrhtfafsajgfrhtlfsnflputanhfoahs,
pfhsvfnétflambnhsòbsftblpftfmfblsuavhma.
Botîf,cfltracajef!
Oa uohmamb aotbrhfr, vfné aprbombu qub, para rbsfjvbr
mbt
mbtbrl
brlhoahoamfmf prf
prfcjb
cjbla
la, , è prb
prbnhs
nhsf
f bst
bstac
acbjbn
bjbnbr
br ula
ula sbq
sbquéo
uéonha
nha mb
pa
pass
ssfs
fs pa
parara aj
ajna
naoç
oçar
ar ta
taj
j fc
fcib
ibththvf
vf,, b ob
obss ssa
a sb
sbququéo
éonhnha
a fs
fs pa
pass
ssfs
fs
sî
sîf
f bx
bxbn
bnututam
amfsfs ul
ul ap
apþsþs fu
futr
trf,
f, fc
fcbmbmbnbnbo bomf
mf a ula
ula jþ jþgh
ghna
na.
. Pf
Pfrr
bxblpj
bxbl pjf,
f, para
para na
najn
jnuj
ujar
ar f pb
pbsf
sf tf
tftataj
j mb
mb ul
ul prprfm
fmut
utff (p
(prf
rfmu
mutf
tf +
blcajagbl
blcaja gbl), ), prh
prhlbh
lbhrf
rf alc
alcfs fs fs pbs
pbsfs fs prb
prbnhs
nhsal
al sbr
sbr hod
hodfrl
frlamamfsfs,,
para sþ mbpfhs sbrbl sflamfs, b botîf aprbsbotar f pbsf
tft
tftajh
ajhzam
zamff (ho
(hoình
ìnhf-p
f-prfn
rfnbss
bssalalbot
botf-sf-saìm
aìma).
a). Tf
Tfné
né tal
talcèlcèl apr
aprbom
bombu bu
qu
qub,
b, oa
oa nf
nfos
ostrtruç
uçîf
îf mb
mb ajgf
ajgfrhrhtl
tlfs fs,, pf
pfmbmblf lfs s us
usar
ar fs
fs fp
fpbr
bram
amfr
frbs
bs
latbláthnfsrbjanhfoahs,pfrbxblpjf,lahfr(?)blbofr(:),para
dazbr
dazbr nflp
nflparaç araçòbs.Rsaomfbssbs
òbs.Rsaomfbssbsbjblbo bjblbotfs, tfs, pfmb
pfmblfs lfs nflp
nflparararar
fpbsfmfprfmutfnflulpamrîfbstacbjbnhmfpbjablprbsab,
aparthrmarbspfstamanflparaçîf,èpfssìvbjsacbrsbfprfmutf
bstáaptfahrparaajfiafumbvbvfjtaràprfmuçîf,fuahomasbr
mbsnartamf.Nflfhssfpfmbsbrdbhtfblulajgfrhtlf6Arbspfsta
èshlpjbs9usaomfbstruturasmbmbnhsòbs!
As bs
As bstr
trut
utur
uras
as mb
mb mb
mbnh
nhsò
sòbs
bs pf
pfss sshc
hchjhjht
htal
al hohonj
njuh
uhr
r of
ofs
s aj
ajgf
gfrhrhtl
tlfs
fs
nf
nfom
omhç hçòb
òbss mb
mb nf
nfot
otrf
rfjb
jb,
, fu
fu sb
sbia
ia,
, at
atra
ravèvès s mb
mb ul
ula a mb
mbnh
nhsî
sîf
f nb
nbrt
rtfs
fs
passfspfmbl
passfspfmblfuoîf fuoîfsbrdbhtfs.Laozaofb
sbrdbhtfs.LaozaofbFjhvbhr Fjhvbhra(3010)
a(3010)nealal
nealal
ta
tahs
hs bs
bstr
trut
utur
uras
as mb
mb mb
mbsvsvhf
hf nfom
nfomhn hnhf
hfoa
oaj,j, pf
pfhshs ul
ulaa mb
mbnh
nhsî
sîf
f sblp
sblprb rb
anarrbtaráblulmbsvhfofajgfrhtlf.
^bguomfCarobtt(3017),ofaofmb15=7GbfrgbCffjb(1512-
154=)
154=),ul
,ullatb
latbláthn
láthnfhogjés,hohnhfu
fhogjés,hohnhfu ulasèrhbmbpucjhnaçòbsmb
ulasèrhbmbpucjhnaçòbsmb
sbusbstumfssfcrbulaofvaájgbcra,duomalbotamaoajþghnaboa
latbláthna.Blcfrasuasprhlbhraspucjhnaçòbsoîfdfssblcbl
anbhtas,fbstumfmbCffjbsbtfrofuuladbrralbotapfmbrfsaof
bstumfmbnhrnuhtfsbjbtrýohnfsboaarquhtbturamfsnflputamfrbs.
A ájgb
ájgbcr
cra
a cf
cffj
fjba
baoa
oa,
, ta
talc
lcèl
èl nf
nfoe
oebn
bnhm
hma
a pf
pfr
r ájgb
ájgbcr
cra
a ch
choá
oárh
rha,
a, è a
ájgbcraqubtracajeanflmfhsvajfrbs9zbrfsbuos,fuvbrmambhrf
bdajsf.Quaomfuthjhzalfsulabstruturambmbnhsîfofajgfrhtlf,
bstalfsnrhaomfulambnhsîfchoárha,casbamaoajþghna
bstalfsnrhaomfulambnhsîfchoárha,casbama oajþghnachoárha,pfhs
choárha,pfhs
paraquajqubrtbstbsþbxhstblmuaspfsshchjhmambs9sbrvbrmambhrf
fusbrdajsf(^FDDOBS,301>).Ofrlajlbotbatrhcuh-sbafrbsujtamf
vbrmambhrfmanfomhçîffvajf
vbrmambhrfma nfomhçîffvajfrmb1,bafrbsujtam
rmb1,bafrbsujtamfdajsffvajf
fdajsffvajfr0.
r0.
Parabotbombrlfsnflfduonhfoabssbnfotrfjb,valfsnflb-
çar
çar bst
bstuma
umaomf
omf as
asbst
bstrut
rutura
uras
s nfo
nfomhn
mhnhfo
hfoahs
ahs shl
shlpjb
pjbs.
s. Tfné
Tfné apr
aprbom
bombu
bu
oa uoh
uohmammamb
b aot
aotbrhf
brhfr
r qu
qub,
b, oa rbp
rbprbs botaçî
rbsbot açîf
f mb ajg
ajgfrh
frhtlf
tlfss us
usaom
aomf f
djuxfgralas, f jfsaogf rbprbsbota ula nfomhçîf, ul tbstb.
FcsbrvbaDhgura3.1„a9fdjuxfgralapfssuhapboasuljfsaogf,
hssf sh
hssf shgo
gohd
hdhn
hna
a qu
qub
b bjb
bjb pf
pfss
ssuh
uh ap
apbo
boas
as ul
ul tb
tbst
stb,
b, b na
nasf
sf bs
bssb
sb tb
tbst
stb
b
sbiavbrmambhrf,bxhstbulaaçîfasbrdbhta,las,nasfnfotrárhf,f
cjfnfmfs
cjfnfmfsnflaomfsè
nflaomfsèhgoframf.Bssbnfoiuotf,1
hgoframf.Bssbnfoiuotf,1tbstb+açî tbstb+açîfnasf
tbstb+açîfnasf
vbrmam
vbrm ambh
bhrf
rf,
, è f qu
qub
b na
nara
rant
ntbrbrhz
hza
a a nf
nfom
omhnh
hnhfo
foajaj sh
shlp
lpjbjbs.
s. Oa
Oa Dh
Dhgu
gura
ra
3.1„c,tblfsarbprbsbotaçîfbldfrlambpsbumfnþmhgfpara
a nfo
nfomhn
mhnhfo
hfoaj
aj shl
shlpjb
pjbs.
s. Tbi
Tbiaa qu
qub,
b, pa
para
ra rbp
rbprbs
rbsbot
botarar ul
ula
a nfo
nfomhç
mhçîf
îf,,
uthjhzalfsapajavra‚sb“.Pararbprbsbotarasbquéonhambnflaomfs
qu
qub
b mbv
bvb
b sbr
br bx
bxbn
bnuuta
tam
ma,a, na
nassf f tb
tbsstb
tb sb
sbia
ia vbr
brma
mammbh
bhrf
rf,, usalfs
‚botîf“,bparalarnarfdhoajmanfomhçîf.usalfs‚ dhlsb“ (PHTA
IROHFSbtaj.,3013).
Dhgura3.1|Bstruturanfomhnhfoajshlpjbs9a„Djuxfgrala;c„Psbumfnþmhgf.
a) c)
T sb :nfomhçîf? botîf
nfomhçîf nflaomfs
nflaomfs
dhlsb
D
Asshlhjb
Para
Para rbsf
rbsfjjvbr
vbr quaj
quajqu
qubr
br thp
hpff mb
mb prf
prfcjbl
cjbla,a, prbn
prbnhs
hsal
alf fs tflar
mb
mbnh
nhsò
sòbs.
bs. Oa
Oa nf
nfos
ostr
truç
uçîf
îf mb
mb aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlfs
fs,
, qua
quaom
omf f tb
tblf
lfss qu
qub
b da
dazb
zbrr
b s n f j e a s ,  u t h j h za l f s  a s  b s t r u t u r a s  m b  m b n h s î f .  ] a h s  b s t r u t u r a s
lfmhdhnalabxbnuçîfsbqubonhajmfajgfrhtlf,pfhs,quaomfula
mbnhsîfètflama,trbnefsmbnþmhgfspfmblfu oîfsbrbxbnutamfs.
]fmfsfsajgfrhtlfsbsnrhtfsatèflflbotfsîfbxbnutamfs
mbdfrlasbqubonhajjhoea
mbdfrlasbqubon hajjhoeapfrjhoea.Aparthrmbagfra,
pfrjhoea.Aparthrmbagfra,atravès
atravèsmas
mas
bstruturasnfomhnhfoahs,vfnépfmbránfotrfjarmbdfrlamhdbrbotb
bssbdjuxfsbqubonhaj.Fcsb rvbofmhagralamaDhgura3.1„a9nasf
ftbstbsbiavbrmambhrf,ulcjfnfmbnflaomfssbrábxbnutamf,
lasnasfsbia
lasnasfsbia dajsf
dajsf,bssbtrbnef
,bssbtrbnef mbnflaom
mbnflaomfssbrá‚puja
fssbrá‚pujamf“(oîf
mf“(oîf
sbrábxbnutamf),ajtbraomffdjuxfsbqubonhajmfajgfrhtlf.
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Paralbjefrbotbombrlf
Paralbjef rbotbombrlfsa
sanfomhn
nfomhnhfoaj
hfoajshlpjbs,valfs
shlpjbs,valfsbsnrbvbr
bsnrbvbr
ul
ul ajgfrh
ajgfrhtl
tlf
f para
para ul
ul bstacb
bstacbjbn
jbnhlb
hlbotf
otf,, qub
qub tf
tfmf
mf mha
mha 10
10 nfo
nfonbm
nbmb
b
ulmbsnfotfmb32%asbusnjhbotbs.Pfrtaotf,sbfmhamflésdfr
10,fmbsnfotfsbránfonbmhmf,nasfnfotrárhf,oboeultratalbotf
bspbnhajprbnhsasbrdbhtfparafvajfrma
bspbnhajprbnhsasbrdbhtfparafvajfrmanfota(Dhgu
nfota(Dhgura3.3).
ra3.3).
Dhgura3.3|Ajgfrhtlfparanfonbmbrmbsnfotf
Dhgura3.3| Ajgfrhtlfparanfonbmbrmbsnfotf
a) c)
Jbhanfota 1. hohnhf
3. var
>. nfota,mbsnfotf9rbaj
mbsnfotfÖ0
=. Jbha(nfota)
2. mbsnfotf Ö 0
D
mha<<10 4. sb (mha<<10) botîf
7. mbsnfotf Ö nfota*0,32
T 5. nfota Ö nfota
nfota-- mb
mbsnfo
snfotf
snfotf
8. dhlsb
mbsnfotf Ö nfota *
*0,32
0,32
nfota Ö nfota
nfota-- mbs
mbsnfotf
nfotf
Oa lah
lahfrh a mas
frha mas vb zbs,
vbzb s, qu
quaomf rba
aomf rbajhz
jhzalf
alfs
s ajg ul thp
ajgul thpf
f mb
mb tbs
tbstb
tb
blulajgfrhtlf,qubrblfsqubajgfanfotbçanasfftbstbsbia
vbrmambhrf,lastalcèlpfmblfsbsnrbvbrulnfoiuotfmbaçòbs
nasf
nasf f tb
tbst
stb
b sb
sbia
ia da
dajs
jsf
f (L
(LAO
AOYA
YAOF
OF;; LA
LA]F]F^;
^; JF
JFRS
RSBO
BOÇF ÇF,, 30
3012
12).
).
FcsbrvboabstruturanfomhnhfoajmaDhgura3.>„a,qubagfratblfs
mfhsnfoiuotfsmbaçò
mfhsnfoiuo tfsmbaçòbs,ulpa
bs,ulparavbrmambhrf
ravbrmambhrfbfutrfpara
bfutrfparadajsf.Of
dajsf.Of
psbumfnþmhgfusamfpararbprbsbotarasnfomhnhfoahsnflpfstas
Dh ur
ura
a3.
3.>
>„
„c
c a
 ararbn
bnb
bul
ulo
ofv
fvf
fbj
bjbl
blbobotf
tf f
f‚
‚sboîf“  ublarnaf
hoìnhfmfcjfnf
hoìnhfmfcjfnfnasfftbstbs
nasfftbstbsbiadajsf.
biadajsf.
Dhgura3.>|Bstruturanfomhnhfoajnflpfsta
Dhgura3.>| Bstruturanfomhnhfoajnflpfsta
a)
c)
sb :nfomhçîf?
nfl
nflaomfs 1 botîf
aomfs1
aomfs
nflaomfs
nfl aomfs
aomfs3
3 D T nflaomfs
nfl aomfs1
aomfs1
nfomhçîf sboîf
nfl aomfs
nflaomfs
aomfs3
3
dhlsb
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Talfs
Talfsnrharulabstrutu
nrharulabstruturanfomhnhf
ranfomhnhfoajnflpf
oajnflpfstaparafsbtfrmb
staparafsbtfrmb
quajhmambmbulablprbsadacrhnaotbmbprfnbssamfrbsmbnflpu-
Pfrtaotf,namaprfnbssamfr,aotbsmbsbrjhcbramfparavboma,passa
tamfrbs.Ablprbsapamrfohzfuftalaoefmbsuaspbçasbl14nl³.
pfrulnfotrfjbmbquajhmamb,bulmfsrbquhshtfsasbrvbrhdhnamfèf
sbutalaoef.Nasffprfnbs
sbutalaoef.Nasff prfnbssamfrtboea
prfnbs samfrtboeafftalaoefpamrfohzamf
talaoefpamrfohzamf,,bjb
bjbè
è
jhcbramfparavboma,nasfnfotrárhf,bjbèmbsnartamf.TbiaoaDhgura3. =
nflfdhnafajgfrhtlfbsnrhtfoasmuasdfrlasmbrbprbsbotaçîf.Oa
bstruturanfomhnhfoajtbstalfsaárbamapbça.Nasf tboea14nl³,bja
sbrájhcbrama
sbrájhcbramaparavboma,pfrèl
paravboma,pfrèlsboîf
sboîfthvbr,
thvbr,sbrámbsnartama.
thvbr,sbrámbsnartama.
Dhgura3.=|Ajgfrhtlfparavajhmartalaoefmfprfnbssamfr
Dhgura3.=|Ajgfrhtlf paravajhmartalaoefmfprfnbssamfr
a)
Mbsnartar Bovharpara
<<14 T
D arba <<
prfmutf jfia
c) sb (ar
(a rba <<14) botîf
<<14)
Bovharparajfia
sboîf
Mbsnartarprfmutf
dhlsb
OfajgfrhtlfmaDhgura3.=,vbrhdhnalfss baárbamfprfnbssamfr
OfajgfrhtlfmaDhgura3.=,vbrhdhnalfssbaárbamfprfnbssamfr
è 14
14 nl
nl³,
³, la
las
s pf
pfmb
mbrì
rìal
alfs
fs da
dazb
zbr
r f tbst
tbstb
b rb
rbaj
ajhz
hzao
aomf
mf a va
vajhjhma
maçî
çîf
f
atravèsmfstalaoefsmacasbbmaajtura;obssbnasfmbvblfs
uth
uthjhz
jhzar
ar ula
ula nfo
nfomhç
mhçîf
îf qub
qub bo
bovf
vfjvb
jvb mf
mfhs
hs fpb
fpbram
ramfrb
frbs9
s9 f fpb
fpbram
ramfr
fr
bnflparaç f << bffpbra fr g nf . f fsfsf pbra frbs
qubvfnéaprbombuoauohmambaotbrhfr(rbjanhfoahslatbláthnfsb
jþghnfs)pfmblsbrnflchoamfsmbotrfmbultbstb.Anflchoaçîf
mb
mbsssbs rb
rbnu
nurs
rsf
fs prf
rfp
pfrnrnhf
hfooa a nfo
nfostr truç
uçîîf mb mbnhnhssòbs
bs lahs
nf
nflp
lpjbjbxa
xas,
s, pf
pfhs
hs pf
pfmb
mblflfs s vb
vbrh
rhdh
dhna
nar
r mh
mhdb
dbrbrbot
otbs bs va
vajfjfrb
rbs
s bl
bl ul
ulaa
lbslavarhávbj,fu,ahoma,tbstarvajfrbsmbmhdbrbotbsvarhávbhsbl
ul
ula
a lb
lbsl
slaa bs
bstru
trututura
ra mb
mb mb
mbnh
nhsî
sîf.
f. Tb
Tbia
ia oa
oa Dh
Dhgu
gurara 3.
3.2
2 f tb
tbst
stb
b mb
qua
quajhm
jhmam
amb
b para
para f tal
talaoaoef
ef mf
mf prf
prfnbs
nbssasamfr
mfr, , nfl
nflparparao aomf
mf va
vajfr
jfrbs
bs
mbmhdbrbotbsvarhávbhsmbotrfmbulalbslanfomhç
mbmhdbrbotbsvarhávbhsmbotrfmb ulalbslanfomhçîf. îf.
Dhgura3.2|Ajgfrhtlfnflnflchoaçîfmbfpbramfrbs
Dhgura3.2| Ajgfrhtlfnflnflchoaçîfmbfpbramfrbs
a)
c)
sb (casb<<= b ajtura<<=)botîf
casb<<= Bovharparajfia
Mbsnartar D T Bovharpara
b sboîf
prfmutf jfia
ajtura<<= Mbsnartarprfmutf
dhlsb
Sbdjhta
Ag
Agfr
fra
a qu
qub
b vf
vfné
né iá
iá nfoe
nfoebn
bnb
b a bs
bstr
trut
utur
ura
a nf
nfom
omhnh
hnhfo
foaj
aj nflp
nflpfsfsta
ta
usaomf
mf fpbramf
mfrrbs jþghnfs, quaj aj sbrha f hlpantf oa bxbn xbnuçîf
mf aj
mf ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlf
f sb f pr
prfg
fgrarala
lamf
mfr
r bs
bsnr
nrbv
bvbsbssb
sb ‚f
‚fu“
u“ bl
bl vb
vbz
z mb ‚b
‚b“
“ of
lflbotfmbdazbravajhmaçîfmacasbbmaajturamfajgfrhtlfma
Dhgura3.26Fsrbsujtamfspfmbrhal
Dhgura3.26Fsrbsuj tamfspfmbrhalsbradbtamfs
sbradbtamfspfrtaj
pfrtaj‚brrf“6
‚brrf“6
jþ
jþghTnfs
ghnfal
sfs
fs /fu“
‚b/f
‚b au“
gf ra
ra
para
paranrha
nr
 har
rjnuj
na
najnuujar
l araa
jgf
jgf rhtl
rh
vb tlf
vbjf
jfnhfmamb
 qmb
nhma ub nf
nfl
 lè
lèmhlacho
mha hoa
mb
mb a ul
fsafbs
ula pb
pbra
ram
bstb
tbhrma
frb
hrarbs
mbs
bs
bsnfa
nfalbo
lbotftfmb
mb prfmu
prfmutfstfs..A
Avbvbjfn
jfnhma
hmamb
mb lèm
lèmha
hamb
mb ul
ulfc fcibt
ibtf
fè
èul
ulaa
razîfbotrbsbumbsjfnalbotf(∄x < x3 - x1)bftblpfgastfmuraotb
bssbmbsjfnalbotf(∄t < t3 - t1).Pfrèl,aotbsmbrbajhzarfnájnujf
mbvblfsvbrhdhnarfsmamfsmbbotramamfshstbla.Mbvblfsvbrhdhnar
sbfsvajfrbsmbmbsjfnalbotf(nl)btblpf(sbguomfs)sîfpfshthvfs
b,ajèlmhssf,sbavarhaçîfmftblpfuthjhzamfparafnájnujfdfh>0fu
b,ajèlmhssf,sbavarhaçîfmf tblpfuthjhzamfparafnájnujfdfh>0fu
40sbguo
40sbguomfsmfs(Dhgura3.4).Nasf
(Dhgura3.4).Nasfas asbotr
botrama
amassbialvájhm
ssbialvájhmas, as,f
fnájnu
nájnujfè
jfè
rbajhzamf,nasfoîfsbial,èbxhchmaulalbosagblhodfrlaomfqubfs
mamfsdfrobnhmfssîfhovájhmfs.Paraqubanflchoaçîfmbfpbramfrbs
jþghnfsduonhfoassbmalaobhranfrrbta,dfhobnbssárhfamhnhfoarul
parmbparéotbsbshotbrofparambjhlhtarulamasnflparaçòbs,pfhsf
mbsjfnalbotffcrhgatfrhalbotbtblqubsbrpfshthvf,bavarhaçîfmf
tblpffcrhgatfrhalbotbtblqubsbr>0fu40.Tbiaqub>0b40sîf
nflparamfsbotrbsh,pfrhssfusa-sbfparéotbsbhotbrof.
Dhgura3.4|Ajgfrhtlfparanajnujarvbjfnhmamblèmha
Dhgura3.4| Ajgfrhtlfparanajnujarvbjfnhmamblèmha
a)
a) c
c))
sb (∄m?0b( ∄t<<>0fu ∄ t<<40)) botîf

D Mamfs v Ö ∄m/ ∄ t
∄m?0b( ∄t<<>0fu ∄ t<<40)
hovájhmfs sboîf
“Mamfshovájhmfs“))
Bsnrbva(“Mamfshovájhmfs“
Bsnrbva(“Mamfshovájhmfs“
T dhlsb
v Ö ∄m/ ∄ t
OfajgfrhtlfprfpfstfoaDhgura3.4,èpfssìvbjsacbrquajmamf
OfajgfrhtlfprfpfstfoaDhgura3.4,èpfssìvbjsacbrquajmamf
hodfrlamf(mbsjfnalbotffutblpfgastf)bstádfra mfspamròbs
bstacbjbnhmfsparafnájnujf6Arbspfstaèoîf.Abstruturamb
mbnhsîfdfhnfostruìmaparatbstarmuasvarhávbhsmhsthotasmbula
sþvbz,bavaotagblèqubmbhxafajgfrhtlflahsjbgìvbj,pfrèl
oîf è pf
oîf pfsssìvìvb
bj hm
hmb
bothdh
thdhna
nar
r quaj mamf ho hodf
dfrl
rlaamf bstá
tá df
dfra
ra mfs
pamr
pamròbs
òbs..Para
Para sfju
sfjunhfo
nhfoar
arbss
bssb
bprfc
prfcjbla
jbla, ,pfm
pfmblfs
blfs uthjh
uthjhzarvárhas
zarvárhas
bstruturasnfomhnhfoahsaohoeamas.OaDhgura3.7bstárbprbsbotamf
ulajgfrht
ulajgfrhtlfparaf
lfparafnájnu
nájnujfma
jfmavbjf
vbjfnhmam
nhmamblèmhamabstbhra
blèmhamabstbhra,of ,of
botaotf,
botao tf, ag
agfra
fra usa
usaomomf
f nfo
nfomhn
mhnhfo
hfoahs
ahs ao
aohoe
hoeam
amfs
fs.
. Ta
Talf
lfs s ao
aoajh
ajhsa
sarr
prhlb
prhlbhrffajgfrht
hrffajgfrhtlfbldfrla
lfbldfrlambdjuxfgra
mbdjuxfgrala(Dhgu
la(Dhgura3.7„a)9f
ra3.7„a)9f
vajfrmfmbsjfnalbotfètbstamfb,nasfsbiaulvajfrhovájhmf,
fusuárhfmfshstblasbráavhsamfbfprfgralatbrlhoará.Las
nasffmbsjfnalb
nasffmbsjfnalbotfsbiavájhmf
otfsbiavájhmf,botîffprþxhlfpa
,botîffprþxhlfpassfètbstar
ssfètbstar
sbavarhaçî
sbavarhaçîfmftblpf
fmftblpfhodfrlamfdfh>
hodfrlamfdfh>0;nasfsbia
0;nasfsbiavbrmambhrf
vbrmambhrf,f
nájnujfèrbajhzamfbfprfgralatbrlhoa,pfrèl,sbdfrhovájhmf, ,f
botîfètbstamfsbavarhaçîfmftblpfhodfrlamfdfh40;nasf
sbiavbrmambhrf,fnájnujfèrbajhzamf,lasnasfsbiahovájhmf,f
usuárhfèhodfrlamfbfprfgraladhoajhza.Obssarbprbsbotaçîf,
f mbsv
mbsvhf
hf mf
mf dj
djux
uxf
f sb
sbqu
qubo
bonh
nhaj
aj mf
mf aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlf
f dh
dhna
na bv
bvhm
hmbo
botb
tb,
, pf
pfhs
hs
nasfaprhlbhranfomhçîfsbiadajsa, mfhscjfnfsmbnþmhgfssbrîf
hg
hgo
ofra
ram
mfs
fs b oîf sbrîrîf
f bxbnu
nutatam
mfs, du
duon
onhf
hfo
oa nf
nfl lf sb bssbs
cjfnfsobllbslfbxhsthssbl.
Dhgura3.7|Ajgfrhtlf
Dhgura3.7| Ajgfrhtlfnflbstru
Ajgfrhtlfnflbstruturasnfomhnhf
turasnfomhnhfoahsaohoeamas
oahsaohoeamas
a) c)
D  1. sb (∄m?0)
m?0)botîf
botîf
mbsjfnalbotf
∄m?0
hovájhmf 3. sb (∄t<<>0) botîf
T >. v Ö ∄m/ ∄ t
T =. sboîf
∄t<<>0 v Ö ∄m/ ∄ t
2. sb (∄t<<40) botîf
D 4. v Ö ∄m/ ∄ t
T 7. sboîf
∄t<<40 v Ö ∄m/ ∄ t
5. ‚tblpfhovájhmf“)
‚tblpfhovájhmf“)
Bsnrbva(‚tblpfhovájhmf“
Bsnrbva(
D 8. dhlsb
tblpf 10. dhlsb
hovájhmf 11. sboîf
13. Bsnrbva(‚mbsjfnalbotfhovájhmf“
Bsnrbva(‚mbsjfnalbotfhovájhmf“))
1>. dhlsb
R3-Bjblbotfsmb ajgfrhtlfs.  4>
Oa rbp
rbprbsbotaçîf mf ajgfrht rhtlf ma vbjfnhmamb lèmha bl
psbumfnþmhgf(Dhgura3.7„c),
psbumfnþmhg f(Dhgura3.7„c),ulanfomhçîfdhnambotrfmafutra
f(Dhgura3.7„c), ulanfomhçîfdhnambotrfmafutra
b,ajèlmhssf,aparbnbulaofvanflchoaçîf,f sboîfsb oas
jhoeas=b2(bssanflchoaçîfpfmbsbrusamaquaomfultbstb
rbtfroadajsfbmbsbia-sbdazbrfutrftbstb).Fprhlbhrftbstbof
ajgf
ajgfrhtlf
rhtlfè
èdbhtf
dbhtfoa
oajhoea
jhoea1,
1,bnasfbjbsbiadajsf
bnasfbjbsbiadajsf,f
,fajgf
ajgfrhtlf
rhtlfmá
má
ulsajtfparaajhoea11;lasnasfbjb
ulsajtfparaa
f sb
sbgu
guomomf
f tb
tbst jhoea11;lasnasfbjb
stb
b (jho
(jhoea
ea 3)
3).
. ^b
^b f sb
sbgu
guom sbiavbrmambhrf,anfotbnb
omff tb
tbst
stb
b df
dfr
r vb
vbrmrmam
ambh
bhrf
rf,,
bo
botî
tîf
f è rb
rbaj
ajhz
hzam
amf
f f ná
nájnu
jnujf
jf,
, la
las
s sb
sb f tb
tbst
stb
b df
dfr
r da
dajs
jsf,f, bj
bjb
b bo
botr
traa
ofcjfnfmf sboîfsb,qubrbajhzaftbrnbhrftbstb(jhoeas=b2);
na
nasf
sf vb
vbrm
rmam
ambh
bhrf
rf,
, è rb
rbaj
ajhz
hzam
amff f ná
nájn
jnuj
ujf;f; na
nasf
sf da
dajs
jsf,
f, f us
usuáuárh
rhf
f è
hodfrlamfbfprfgralatbrlhoa.
Sbdjhta
Èpfssìvbjrbbsnrb
Èpfssìvbjrbbsnrbvbrf
vbrfajgf
ajgfrhtlf
rhtlfpara
parafnájnujf
fnájnujfma
mavbjfn
vbjfnhmamb
hmamb
lèmhamabstbhra,usaomfapboasmuasbstruturasnfomhnhfoahsbl
vbz mbtrés6
vbz mbtrés6 Quajsbrha
Quajsbrha avaota
avaotagbl
gbl bldazb
bldazbrmbssadfrl
rmbssadfrla6B
a6B qua
quajj
sbrhaambsvaotagbl6
Fduonhfoalbotfmfpsbumfnþmhgfèhméothnfafdjuxfgrala,
pfrèlquaotflahsnfomhnhfoahsdfrblaohoeamas,lahsnflpjbxa
dh
dhna
nará
rá a ho
hotb
tbrp
rprb
rbta
taçî
çîf
f mf
mf ajgf
ajgfrh
rhtl
tlf.
f. Pf
Pfr
r fu
futr
trf
f ja
jamf
mf,, sb
sb dý
dýss
ssbl
blfsfs
gb
gbra
rar
r ul
ul rb
rbja
jatþ
tþrh
rhf
f a pa
parth
rthr
r mf
mfs
s rb
rbsu
sujt
jtam
amfs
fs mf
mf aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlf f ma
ma Dh
Dhgu
gura
ra
3.7,uthjhzaomfasbstruturasaohoeamas,nfosbguhrìalfshodfrlarsb
avbjfnhmamblèmhadfhnajnujamausaomfavarhaçîfmbtblpfmb
>0sbguomfsfu40sbguomfs,fquboîfsbrhapfssìvbjsbbsnrhtf
mbfutradfrla.Fusbia,blcfrafajgfrhtlfdhqublahsnflpjbxf,
sbpbosarl
sbpbosarlfsoa
fsoaaoá
aoájhsbmb
jhsbmbmam
mamfs
fsbstr
bstrutura
uturas
saoho
aohoeam
eamas,
as, pfmb
pfmblfs
lfs
fctbrhodfrlaçòbslahsmbtajeamas.
Asshlhjb
Oîfbxhstbuljhlhtbparaaquaothmambmbbstruturasnfomhnhfoahs
qubpfmblsbraohoeamas,lasèulacfapráthnambprfgralaçîf
uthjhzaratètrésnfomhnhfoahsaohoeamas.Aparthrmbssboùlbrf,uthjhza-
sbulaofvabstruturanfomhnhfoaj,abstrutura mbsbjbçîfmbnasf.
F tb
tbrn
rnbh
bhrf
rf th
thpf
pf mb
mb bs
bstr
trut
utur
ura
a nf
nfom
omhn
hnhf
hfoa
oajj qu
qub
b va
valf
lfs
s ap
aprb
rbom
ombr
br
pfssuhulabstruturamhdbrbotbmfsmblahsvhstfsatèflflbotf.
Bssabstruturaènealamambsbjbçîfmbnasf,pfhsaparthrmbula
4= R3-Bjblbotfsmbajgfrhtlfs.
sèrh b mb
sèrhb mb na
nasf
sfs
s (f
(fpç
pçòb
òbs) , ul
s), ul mb mbvb
vb sb r bs
sbr bsnf
nfje
jehm
hmf.
f. Aj
Ajgu
guosos au
autf
tfrb
rbss
uthjhzalaoflbonjaturalùjthpjabsnfjeaparabssabstrutura,pfhs
tblfslùjthpjasfpçòbs(LAOYAOF;LA]F^;JFRSBOÇF,3012).
FcsbrvbfdjuxfgralaoaDhgura3.5„a9ultbstbèdbhtfb,nasf
dajsf,daz-sbfsbguomftbstb,basshlpfrmhaotb.Nasfoboeultbstb
rbsujtbblvbrmambhrf,bxhstbulnfoiuotfmbnflaomfsqubsbrá
rbajhzam
rbajhz amf.
f.AA uth
uthjhz
jhzaç
açîf
îf mbs
mbssbsb thp
thpf
f mb
mb bs
bstru
trutur
tura
a è lah
lahss hot
hotbrb
brbss
ssao
aotb
tb
quaomfadfrlambrbprbsbotaçîfèfpsbumfnþmhgf(Dhgura3.5„
c),fcjfnfmbtbstbshohnha-sbbsnfjebomfavarhávbjqubsbrátbstama
c),fcjfnfmbtbstbshohnha-sbbsnfjebomfava rhávbjqubsbrátbstama
(sflbo
(sfl botb
tb ul
ulaa è pf
pfss
ssìv
ìvbj
bj),
), bl
bl sb
sbgu
guhmhma
a bs
bsnr
nrbv
bvbl
bl-s-sb
b as
as pf
pfss
ssìv
ìvbh
bhss
fpçòbs(nasfs)parabssavarhávbjatravèsmfnflaomf9‚nasftbstb“.
Dhgura3.5|Ajgfrhtlfsbjbçîfmbnasfs
a) c)
T
tbstb1 nflaomfs
nfl aomfs1
aomfs
 1 bsnfjea :varhávbj?
D
nasf tbstb1
tbstb3 T nflaomf
nfl aomfs
aomfs3
s3 nflaomf
nfl aomfs
aomfs1
s1
nasf tbstb3
D
nflaomf
nfl aomfs
aomfs3
s3
T nflaomf
nfl aomfs
aomfs>
s> nasf tbstb>
tbstb>
nflaomf
nfl aomfs
aomfs>
s>
D
nasf tbstb=
tbstb= T nflaomf
nfl aomfs
aomfs=
s= nflaomf
nfl aomfs
aomfs=
s=
nasfpamrîf
D
nflaomf
nfl aomfsnasf
aomfsnasfoboe
snasfoboeula
oboeula
nflaomf
nflaomf
aomfsnasf
snasf
oboeulafpçîf fpçîfsbia
fpçîfsbiavájhma
bia vájhma
sbiavájhma dhlbsnfjea
Parabxblpjhdhnarasbjbçîfmbnasf,hlaghobqubsbunebdbmbnhmhu
lapbaravbjfnhmambmabstbhramuraotbtfmffmhabparahssfpbmhu
         
às5e,10e,13e,1=eb14e.Ajèlmhssf,dfhpbmhmfqub,paranamaefra
às5e,10e,13e,1=eb14e.Ajèlmhssf, dfhpbmhmfqub,paranamaefra
tbstama,dfssbuthjhzamaulavarhaçîfmftblpf(∄t)mhdbrbotb9às5e
)mhdbrbotb9às5e
∄t <40,às10e ∄t <20,às13e ∄t <=0,às1=e ∄t <>0bàs14e ∄t <>0.
Paraatbombrabssbpbmhmf,albjefrajtbroathvaèuthjhzarasbjbçîf
mbnasfs.TbiaoaDhgura3.8qubavarhávbjbsnfjehmaparasbrtbstama
è‚efra“,blsbguhmasîfjhstamas,atravèsmbnamanasf,asfpçòbs.
Dhgura3
Dhgura3.8|Náj
.8|Nájnujfma
nujfmavbjfnhmamblèmhau
vbjfnhmamblèmhausaomfasbjbçîf
saomfasbjbçîfmbnasf
mbnasf
a
a)) c)
c)
efra<<5 T v Ö ∄m/40
bsnfjea efra
D nasf 5
T v Ö ∄m/40
efra<<10 v Ö ∄m/20
nasf 10
Ö∄
D v m/20
T nasf 13
efra<<13 v Ö ∄m/=0
v Ö ∄m/=0
D nasf 1=
T v Ö ∄m/>0
efra<<1= v Ö ∄m/>0
nasf 14
D v Ö ∄m/30
T nasfpamrîf
efra<<14 v Ö ∄m/30
Bsnrbva(
Bsnrbva(‚Efrahovájhma“
(‚Efrahovájhma“
‚Efrahovájhma“))
D dhlbsnfjea
]blpf
hovájhmf
OaDhg
Oa Dhgura
ura 3.8
3.8„
„c,
c, qua
quaom
omf
futh
uthjhz
jhzal
alfsfsa
apapajav
javra-
ra-nea
neavb
vb‚na
‚nasf
sf“,
“,
bsta
tal
lfs
fs tb
tbssta
taom
omff sb f vajf
jfr
r ma varhrháv
ávb
bj,j, bsnf
nfje
jehm
hmaa pa
para
ra sbr
tbstama,èhguajafvajfr naomhmatf.Oîfsbrhapfssìvbjtbstarsb
.Oîfsbrhapfssìvbjtbstarsb
èlahfrfulbofr,pfrbxblpjf,parahssftbrìalfsqubaohoe
èlahfrfulbofr,pfrbxblpjf,parahssftbrìa lfsqubaohoear ar
futr
fu tras
as nf
nfom
omhç
hçòb
òbs
s mb
mbot
otrf
rf mf
mf na
nasf
sf.
. A bs
bstr
trut
utur
ura
a nf
nfom
omhn
hnhf
hfoa
oaj
j mb
sbjbçîfmbnasftblavaotagblmbtbstarulavarháv
sbjbçîfmbnasftblavaotagb lmbtbstarulavarhávbjmhvbrsas
bjmhvbrsas
vbzb
vbzbs
s mb
mb ul
ula
a laob
laobhr
hra
a sh
shlp
honfovbohbotb9pbrnbcaqubf
honfovbohbotb9pbrnbc lpjb
jbs,
s, pf
pfrè
rèl
l ta
taj
j bs
bstr
trut
utur
ura
a tbl
tbl ul
aqubfùohnftbstbqubnfosbguhlfsdazbr
aqubfùohnftbstbqubnfosbguhlfsdazbr
èvbrhdhnarahguajmambmavarhávbjnflulmbtbrlhoamfvajfr,fu
sbia,sflbotbnfomhçòbsmbsbjbçîfmfthpf‚hguaja“(LAOYAOF;
sbia,sflbotbnfomhçòbsmbsbjbçî fmfthpf‚hguaja“(LAOYAOF;
LA]F^;JFRSBOÇF,3012).
bsqu sbla
la s
Pararbdf
Pararbdfrçarfnfotb
rçarfnfotbùmfvhst
ùmfvhstfobstauohma
fobstauohmamb,homhnf
mb,homhnffsvìmbfs7b5
fsvìmbfs7b5
masèrhb‚NursfmbJþghnambPrfgralaçîf“mfprfdbssfrGustavfGuaoa-
masèrhb‚Nursfmb JþghnambPrfgralaçîf“mfprfdbssfrGustavfGuaoa-
cara,mhspfoìvbjbl9:ettps9//gff.gj/T
cara,mhspfoìvbjbl9 :ettps9//gff.gj/TnqtmN?.Anbssfbl9
:ettps9//gff.gj/TnqtmN?.Anbssfbl934fut.
nqtmN?.Anbssfbl9 34fut.3017
34fut.3017..
3017
NflfduonhfoárhfmaKrfBogboearhas,rbspfosávbjpfrmbsbovfjvbr
ajgfrhtlfs para vajhmar mamfs mb botrama para f sucshstbla mb
nájnujf,dfhpbmhmfavfnénrharajgfrhtlfsparavbrhdhnarasbotramasmb
nflprhlbotf,tblpfblassambanfrmfnflf^hstblaHotbroanhfoaj
nflprhlbotf,tblpfblassambanfrmfnflf^hstbla Hotbroanhfoaj
mbLbmhmas(^H).Parafnflprhlbotf,fshstbladfhpamrfohzamfpara
an
anbh
bhta
tar
r a bo
botr
tram
ama
a bl
bl lb
lbtrtrf
f (l
(l),), pa
para
ra f tblp
tblpf f df
dfhh pamr
pamrfo
fohz
hzam
amf
f f
sbguomf(s),bparalassadfhpamrfohzamffquhjfgrala(kg).
F df
dfrl
rlujujár
árhf
hf mf
mf shst
shstbl
blaa ma
ma Kr
Krf f Bogb
Bogboe oeararha
has
s df
dfhh nf
nfos
ostr
truì
uìmf
mf eá
nb
nbrt
rtf
ftb
tblp
lpffb
bdf
dfhhpr
prfi
fibt
btam
amf
fpa
para
ra ananbh
bhta
tar
ras
as bo
botr
tram
amasas bl
bl lb
lbtr
trf,
f, fu
nbotìlbtrf,fulhjìlbtrf,nfodfrlblfstraaDhgura3.10.Pfrèl,nfl
aofvapamrfohzaçîf,vfnétbrámbvbrhdhnarofajgfrhtlfsbfusuárhf
bsnfjebuafpçîflbtrfb,nasfoîftboeabsnfjehmf,vfnétbrámb
hodfrlá-jfqubafpçîfbsnfjehmaoîfèlahsvájhma.
Dhgura3.10|NapturambtbjambpartbmfdfrlujárhfmaKrf Bogboearhas
Pararbsfjvbrfprfcjbla,albjefrfpçîfèuthjhzarulabstrutura
nfomhnhfoajnfl
nfomhnhfoajnflpfsta,nfodf
pfsta,nfodfrlbajgfrhtlfm
rlbajgfrhtlfmaDhgura3.11.
aDhgura3.11.
Dhgura3.11|Ajgfrhtlfparavajhmarbotramambnflprhlbotfbllbtrf
Dhgura3.11| Ajgfrhtlfparavajhmarbotramambnflprhlbotfbllbtrf
a) c)
hohnhf
1. Hohnhf
3. var
nflp,uohm
>. nflp9rbaj
=. uohm9tbxtf
jbhanflp
jbhauohm 2. Jbha(nflp)
4. Jbha(uohm)
D Botrama 7. (nfl
sb (n flp
flp ?0)
?0)botîf
botîf
nflp
nflp ?0
hovájhma 5. sb (uohm <<
<<‚lbtrf“) botîf
‚lbtrf“)
‚lbtrf
T 8. najnuja
10. sboîf
D Rohmamb
uohm
uohm <<‚l
<<‚lbtr
btrf“
hovájhma 11. Bsnrbva(‚Rohmambhovájhma“
Bsnrbva(‚Rohmambhovájhma“
‚Rohmambhovájhma“))
T 13. dhlsb
1>. sboîf
najnuja 1=. Bsnrbva(‚Botramahovájhma“
Bsnrbva(‚Botramahovájhma“)
‚Botramahovájhma“ )
12. dhlsb
dhl 14. dhl
Talfsbotbombrfduonhfoalbotfaoajhsaomffpsbumfnþmhgf9
tfmfajgfrhtlfmbvbtbrulhoìnhfbuldhl(jhoeas1b14).Apþsf
hoìnhf
hoìnhf,, è ob
obnbs
nbssár
sárhf
hf mbnja
mbnjarar
rar as
as var
varháv
hávbhs
bhs qu
qub
b sbrîf
sbrîf us
usam
amas
as (jh
(jhoe
oeas
as
>b=)bjbrfsvajfrbsqubsîfhodfrlamfspbjfusuárhf(jhoeas2
b4).Asbguomapartbmfajgfrhtlfnfoshstbblrbajhzarfstbstbs.
Ho
Hohn
hnha
half
lfss tb
tbst
stao
aomf
mf sb
sb f nf
nflp
lprhl
rhlbo
botf
tf ho
hodf
dfrl
rlam
amf
f è ul
ul où
oùlb
lbrfrf
pfshthvf(jhoe
pfshthvf(jhoea7);nasfsbia
a7);nasfsbiadajsf,abx
dajsf,abxbnuçîfsa
bnuçîfsajtaparaf‚sb
jtaparaf‚sboîf“oa
oîf“oa
jhoea1>bavhsafusuárhfqubabotramaoîfèvájhma.Lasnasfsbia
vbrmambhrf,asbguomavarhávbjètbstama,vbrhdhnaomfsbbjaèhguaja
‚lbtrf“(jhoea5).Nasfsbiadajsf,abxbnuçîfsajtaparaf‚sboîf“oa
jhoea10bho
jhoea10bhodfrlafusu
dfrlafusuárhfqubauo
árhfqubauohmambèhov
hmambèhovájhma.Lasnas
ájhma.Lasnasfsbia
fsbia
vbrmambhrf,fnájnujfèrbajhzamf.
vbrmambhrf,fnájnujfèrba jhzamf.
Ag
Agfr
fra
a è nf
nfl
l vf
vfné
né!! Ca
Casb
sbam
amf
f of
of ajgf
ajgfrhrhtl
tlf
f mf
mf nf
nflp
lprh
rhlb
lbot
otf,
f,
bsnrbvaulajgfrhtlfparavbrhdhnarsbftblpfbsnfjehmfèpfshthvf
b bstá oa uohmamb sbguomf, b futrf para vbrhdh dhn
nar sb a lassa
hodfrlamaèpfshthvabbstáoauohmambquhjfgrala.
Ajgfrhtlfparanajnujarfrbomhlbotfmbulaláquhoa
Bl ula blprbsa è nflul najnujar f rbomhlbotf mfs
bquhpalbotfsparanfotrfjbhotbrof.Frbomhlbotfbstáassfnhamf
af
af tbl
tblpf
pfga
gastf
stf pa
para
rarba
rbajhz
jhzar
arul
ulmbmbtbr
tbrlho
lhoam
amf
f tra
traca
muasláquhoas,mbmhdbrbotbsdfrobnbmfrbs,qublfmbjalpbçasacajef
jef.. Nfoshm
Nfoshmbrb
brb
parthrmbmbsboefstrhmhlboshfoahsdbhtfspfrulsfdtwarb.Aláquhoa
1lfmbja xpbçasbl1efra,baláquhoa3lfmbja
pbçasbl1efra,baláquhoa3lfmbja 3xpbçasof pbçasof
lb
lbslslff tblp
tblpf.
f. Ob
Obss
ssb
b na
nasf
sf,
, mh
mhzb
zblf
lfss qu
qub
b a lá
láqu
quho
hoa
a 1 tb
tbl
l ula
ula
pftéonhalbofrqubasbguoma.Auohmambmbpftéonhaof^Hèf
ifujbpfrsbguomf.Bssa uohmam
uohmamb bè
b èusamanfl
è usamanfltaotadrbquéon
usamanfl taotadrbquéonhaqub
taotadrbquéon haqub
rbnbcbuuloflbbspbnhaj,fwatt(W),bleflboagblaIalbs
Watt,nuianfotrhcuhçîfdfhduomalbo
Watt,nuianfotrhcuhçîfdfhduomalbotajparafaulbotf
tajparafaulbotfmapftéonha
mapftéonha
asl qu oasavapfr. ; , . f blfslb ra
pftéonhambulaláquhoa(P)usaomfnflfhodfrlaçòbsanfrrbotb
bjètrhna(h)batbosîfmarbmb(R),atravèsmadþrlujaP<R.h.OfCrashj,
ofssarbmbbjètrhnabstánfodhguramaparatracajearnflastbosòbs
110fu330vfjts.]alcèlsacblfsqubanfrrbotbbjètrhnaèul
vajfracsfjutf,fusbia,pfshthvf.Bsnrbvaulajgfrhtlfqubnajnujaa
pftéonhambulambtbrlhoamaláquhoa.
shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
Nf
Nflf
lf vh
vhlf
lfs,
s, ao
aotb
tbs
s mb
mb rb
rbaj
ajhz
hzar
ar ná
nájn
jnuj
ujfs
fs mb
mbvb
vblf
lfs
s vb
vbrhd
rhdhn
hnar
ar sb
ashodfrlaçòbsdfrobnhmassîfvájhmas.Botîf,aotbsmbnajnujara
pftéonha,fajgfrhtlfmbvbvbrhdhnarsbfsmamfsmbbotrama(tbosîf
bnfrrbotb)sîfmamfsvájhmfs.
Dhgura3.13|Ajgfrhtlfparanajnujarapftéonhambulaláquhoa
Dhgura3.13| Ajgfrhtlfparanajnujarapftéonhambulaláquhoa
1. hohnhf
3. var
>. hotbhrf9p,u,h
=. Jbha(u)
2. Jbha(h)
4. sb (u<<110 fu u<<330) botîf
7. sb (h?0) botîf
5. p Ö u*h
8. sboîf
10. Bsnrbva(‚Nfrrbotbbjètrhnahovájhma“
Bsnrbva(‚Nfrrbotbbjètrhnahovájhma“)
‚Nfrrbotbbjètrhnahovájhma“)
11. dhlsb
13. sboîf
1>. Bsnrbva(‚]bosîfhovájhma“
Bsnrbva(‚]bosîfhovájhma“)
‚]bosîfhovájhma“)
1=. dhlsb
12. dhl
Agfraènflvfné!]raosdfrlbfpsbumfnþmhgfbluldjuxfgrala.
Agfraènflvfné!]raosdfrlbf psbumfnþmhgfbluldjuxfgrala.
1.Fsnflputamfrbssîfmhspfshthvfschoárhfs,hssfshgohdhnaqubanbhtal
apboas mfhs
apboas mfhs vaj
vajfrbs
frbs9
9 0 b 1. Par
Para
a rbp
rbprbsb
rbsbota
otar
r fs nar
narant
antbrbs
brbs ajd
ajdacèt
acèthnf
hnfs
s b
futrfsnarantbrbs,nflffsanbotfs,hotbroalbotbèdbhtaulanfovbrsîf
mfnarantbrbparaulvajfroulèrhnf,blsbguhmabssbvajfroulèrhnfè
nfovbrthmfbluloùlbrfchoárhf.Anfovbrsîfmfnarantbrbparafvajfr
oulèrhnfèdbhtambanfrmfnflmbtbrlhoamfpamrîf,bulmfspamròbs
qub
qub df
dfh
h ja
jarg
rgal
albo
botb
tb us
usam
amf
f b ahom
ahoma
a è bo
bonf
nfot
otra
ramf
mf ef
efib
ib è a ta
tacb
cbja
ja A^
A^NH
NHHH
(Albrhnao^taomarmNfmbdfrHodfrlathfoHotbrneaogb).
           ,
ajèlmfsmìghtfsoulèrhnfsb narantbrbsbspbnhahs.âcbomfqubfsmìghtfs
mb0a8sîfrbprbsbotamfsnflfsnþmhgfsmb=5a27oatacbja,quajsbrha
albjefrbstruturambmbnhsîfparaulajgfrhtlfqubgbraulrbjatþrhfa
parthrmasfpçòbsmbullbouqubvîfmb0a86
a)Bstruturambmbnhsîfnfomhnhfoaj.
c)Bstruturanfomhnhfoajshlpjbs.
n)Bstruturanfomhnhfoajaohoeama.
m)Bstruturanfomhnhfoajnflpfsta.
b)^bjbçîfmbnasfs.
3.Rlfcibtfbllfvhlbotfpfmbaulbotarfumhlhouhrsuavbjfnhmamb,
obssbnasf,mhz-sbqubffcibtfsfdrbuulaanbjbraçîffumbsanbjbraçîf.
Pfm
fmbl
blfs
fs na
najn
jnu
uja
jar
r a an
anbj
bjbr
braç
açîf
îf lèmh
lèmha
a mb
mb ul fcib
fcibth
thvf
vf mh
mhvh
vhmh
mhom
omf
f sua
sua
varhaçîfmbvbjfnhmambpfrulmbtbrlhoamftblpf.
F djux
djuxfgr
fgral alaa ma
ma Dh
Dhgu
gurara 3.1
3.1>
> vb
vbrh
rhdh
dhna
na sb
sb f vajfr
vajfr ma
mas
s vbj
vbjfn
fnhmhmam
ambs
bs hohn
hohnha
hahs
hs
b dhoahs
dhoahs b f tbl
tblpf
pf hod
hodfrl
frlamfs
amfs sîf
sîf váj
vájhmf
hmfs.
s. Bsnf
Bsnfjea
jea qua
quaj
j psbumf
psbumfnþm
nþmhgf
hgf
rbprbsbotafdjuxfgrala.
Dhgura3.1>|Djuxfgralaparavajhmarvbjfnhmambbtblpf
Dhgura3.1>| Djuxfgralaparavajhmarvbjfnhmambbtblpf
D Tbjfnhmamb
v1?0bv3?0
hovájhma
D ]blpf
t?0
hovájhmf
T
nflaomfs
a)Psbumfnþmhgf1
sb v1bv3?0 botîf
sb t?0
Nflaomfs
sboîf
‚]blpf
Bsnrbva(‚]bl
Bsnrbva( ‚]bl pfhovájhmf“
pfhovájhmf“))
hovájhmf“
dhlsb
dhlsb
c)Psbumfnþmhgf3
sb v1?0bv 3?0bt?0 botîf
3?0bt?0
Nflaomfs
sboîf
Bsnrbva(‚Tbjfnhmambhovájhma“
Bsnrbva( ‚Tbjfnhmambhovájhma“)
‚Tbjfnhmambhovájhma“)
Bsnrbva(‚]blpfhovájhmf“)
Bsnrbva( ‚]blpfhovájhmf“)
dhlsb
n)Psbumfnþmhgf>
sb v1?0bv3?0 botîf
sb t?0
Nflaomfs
sboîf
‚]blpfhovájhmf“)
‚]blpfhovájhmf“)
Bsnrbva(‚]blpfhovájhmf“
Bsnrbva(
dhlsb
sboîf
Bsnrbva(‚Tbjfnhmambhovájhma“
Bsnrbva(‚Tbjfnhmambhovájhma“)
‚Tbjfnhmambhovájhma“)
dhlsb
m)Psbumfnþmhgf=
Bsnrbva( ‚Tbjfnhmambhovájhma“
‚Tbjfnhmambhovájhma“))
sboîf
sb t?0
Nflaomfs
sboîf
‚]blpfhovájhmf“))
dhlsb
dhlsb
b)Psbumfnþmhgf2
sb t?0
Nflaomfs
sboîf
‚Tbjfnhmambhovájhma“))
dhlsb
sboîf
‚]blpfhovájhmf“))
dhlsb
>. Fs aj
Fs ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlfs
fs sî
sîf
f bs
bsnr
nrht
htfs
fs nf
nfl
l f fc
fcib
ibth
thvf
vf mb
mb rb
rbsf
sfjv
jvbr
br pr
prfc
fcjb
jbla
las,
s,
b rb
rbsf
sfjv
jvbr
br pr
prfc
fcjb
jbla
las
s hl
hlpj
pjhn
hna
a tf
tfla
lar
r mb
mbnh
nhsò
sòbs
bs.
. Par
ara
a a nf
nfos
ostr
truç
uçîf
îf mb
ajgfrhtlfs,asbstruturas
ajgfrhtlfs,asbstruturasnfomhnhfoahssîfuthjhzamas
nfomhnhfoahssîfuthjhzamaspararbajhzarfs
pararbajhzarfstbstbs.
tbstbs.
 part r b ul tbstb, ul nfo uotf b aç bs pf b sbr bxbnuta f nasf
f tb
tbst
stb
b rbs
rbsuj
ujtb
tb bl
blvb
vbrm
rmam
ambhr
bhrf,
f, b ul
ul fu
futr
trf
f nfo
nfoiu
iuot
otf
f mbaç
mb açòb
òbs
s pfmb
pfmb sb
sbrr
bxbnutamfnasfftbstb
bxbnutamfnasfftbstbrbsujtbbldajsf.Bssb
rbsujtbbldajsf.Bssbthpfmbbstrutura
thpfmbbstruturaènealamf
ènealamf
mbbstruturanfomhnhfoajnflpfsta.
Nfoshmbraomffajgfrhtlfrbprbsbotamfblpsbumfnþmhgfblnamaul
mfshtbos,bfssbguhotbsvajfrbsparaasvarhávbhs9a<2,c<>,n<2,m<-1,
vbrhdhqubsbfrbsujtamfmbsnrhtfparafnþmhgfèulaadhrlaçîfnfrrbtafu
honfrrbta.Blsbguhma,bsnfjeaaajtbroathvanfrrbta.
sb a?c botîf
Bsnrbva(“Lahfro
Bsnrbva(“Lahfro
“Lahfroùlbrf
ùlbrf èa“
èa“
a“))
 H. sboîf
Bsnrbva(“Lahfroùlbrfèc“
Bsnrbva(“Lahfroùlbrfèc“
“Lahfroùlbrfèc“))
dhlsb
Ftbstbrbtfroavbrmambhrfbbsnrbvb‚Lahfroùlbrfèa“.
sb a?n botîf
“Lahfroùlbrf
Bsnrbva(“Lahfroù
Bsnrbva(“Lahfroùlbrf èa“
èa“
a“))
 HH. sboîf
“Lahfroùlbrfèn“)
“Lahfroùlbrfèn“)
Bsnrbva(“Lahfroùlbrfèn“
Bsnrbva(
dhlsb
Ftbstbrbtfroadajsfbbsnrbvb‚Lahfroùlbrfèa“.
Ftbstbrbtfroadajsfbbsnrbvb‚Lahfroùlbrfèa“.
sb a:<m botîf
Bsnrbva(“Lbofroù
Bsnrbva(“Lbofroùlbrf èa“)
“Lbofroùlbrf èa“)
 HHH. sboîf
Bsnrbva(“Lbofroùlbrfèm“)
Bsnrbva(“Lbofroùlbrfèm“)
dhlsb
Ftbstbrbtfroadajsfbbsnrbvb‚Lbofroùlbrfèa“.
Ftbstbrbtfroadajsfbbsnrbvb‚Lbofroùlbrfèa“.
a)Astrésajtbroathvasbstîfnfrrbtas.
c)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHbstánfrrbta.
n)^flbotbasajtbroathvasHHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
n)^flbotbasajtbroathvasHHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
m)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHHbstáhonfrrbta.
b)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHHHbstáhonfrrbta.
^bçîf3.3
Bstruturasmbrbpbthçîf
Mhájfgfacbrtf
Narf(a)bstumaotb,cbl-vhomf(a)alahsulasbçîfofbstumf
mfs bjb
mfs bjblbo
lbotfs
tfs mb ajg
ajgfrh
frhtlftlfs.
s. Obs
Obssasa bta
btapa
pa,
, aprbo
aprbomb
mbrbl
rblfs
fs la
lahs
hs
ul
ul bj
bjbl
blbo
botf
tf bs
bssb
sbon
onha
hajj pa
para
ra f mb
mbsb
sbovovfj
fjvh
vhlb
lbototf
f mb
mb aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlfs
fs..
Bssa
Bss a of
ofva
va bs
bstru
trutur
tura
a of
ofs
s pf
pfss
sshch
hchjhta
jhtará
rá bs
bsnfj
nfjebebr
r nbr
nbrtfs
tfs trb
trbnef
nefss mf
aj
ajgf
gfrhrhtl
tlf
f pa
parara sbrb
sbrbl
l bx
bxbn
bnut
utam
amfsfs ul
ul mb
mbtb
tbrl
rlhohoam
amf f oùlb
oùlbrf rf mb
vbzbsboîflahssþulavbz.
Fs autflþvbhs b ula graomb quaothmamb mb láquhoas b
bquhpalbotfsuthjhzamfsoaslahsmhvbrsasárbassîfdacrhnamfsbl
ulajhoeambprfmuçîfnflgraombpartbmfprfnbssfautflathzamf.
Obssbprfnbssf,láquhoasrbajhzalulalbslatarbdavárhasvbzbs.
Pf
Pfr
r bx
bxblblpj
pjf,
f, hl
hlagagho
hob
b ul
ulaa lá
láqu
quhohoa
a qu
qub
b sfjm
sfjmaa nb
nbrtrta
a pa
part
rtb
b mb
mb ul
na
narr
rrf.
f. Qu
Qubl
bl mbmbtbtbrl
rlhohoa
a qu
quao
aota
tas
s vb
vbzb
zbs
s bj
bja
a tb
tbrá
rá mb
mb da
dazb
zbr
r f lb
lbsl
slf f
tracajef6^bráqubtblajguèlatrásmaláquhoaqubdhnaapbrtaomf
fcftîftfmavbzqubèparasfjmar6Nflfaláquhoasacbquaomf
parar6]fmasbssasqubstòbs
parar6]fmasbssasqubstòbsdhnarîfnjarasnflf
dhnarîfnjarasnflfbstumfmbsta
bstumfmbstasbçîf.
sbçîf.
Paranulprhrsbutracajefoa
Paranulprhrsbu tracajefoaKrfBogboearhas,oa
KrfBogboearhas,oasbçîfaotbrhfr
sbçîfaotbrhfr
vfnémbsbovfjvbuajgfrhtlfspara
vfnémbsbovfjvbuajgfrhtlfsparavajhmarajguosvajfrbs
vajhmarajguosvajfrbsmbbotrama
mbbotrama
rbdbrb
rbdbrbotb
otbs
s às
às uo
uohma
hmamb
mbs
s mb nfl
nflprh
prhlb
lbotf
otf,
, tbl
tblpf
pf b la
lass
ssa.
vfnémbvbrábsnrbvbrulajgfrhtlfqubdaçaanfovbrsîfmbulaa. Ag
Agfra
fra
sèrhbmbbotramasmbnflprhlbotfparaauohmambquhjýlbtrf.Oa
Dhgura3.1=,tblfsulnapturambtbjambpartbmbuldfrlujárhf
maKrfBogboearhasusamfparanamastrarbgbrarrbjatþrhfanbrna
mfsgastfsmbnflcustìvbjmbnamaautflþvbjmablprbsamuraotb
ulmha.Ablprbsapfssuh12narrfsqubdhnalàmhspfshçîfmbsbus
ulmha.Ablprbsapfssuh12narrfsqubdhnalàmhsp fshçîfmbsbus
duonhfoárhfs,bafdhoajmfmhaèdbhtfulnfotrfjbmaquaothmamb
mbquhjýlbtrfsqubfsnarrfspbrnfrrbraloaqubjbmha.Fshstbla
pb
pbrl
rlht
htb
b qu
qub
b fs
fs ma
mamf
mfs
s sb
sbia
ial
l ho
hosb
sbrh
rhmf
mfs
s bl
bl ququhjhjýl
ýlbt
btrf
rfs,
s, lb
lbtr
trfs
fs
fu,ahoma,bllhjeaspfrèlfnájnujfmfnfotrfjbmbnflcustìv
fu,ahoma,bllhjeaspfrèlfnájnujfmf nfotrfjbmbnflcustìvbj bj
è dbhtf usaomf a uohmamb mb quhjýlbtrf rf.. Pfrtaotf, nasf sbia
bsnfjehmflbtrffulhjea,sbuajgfrhtlfmbvbrádazbranfovbrsîf
mfsvajfrbsparaauohmamb-pamrîf.
Dhgura3.1=|NapturambtbjamfdfrlujárhfmaKrfBogboearhas
Para
Par a nul
nulprh prhr
r bs
bssb mbsadh
sb mbs f, vfn
adhf, vfnéé ap
aprbo
rbomb
mbrárá obs
obsta
ta sb çîf nfl
sbçîf nflf f
nrhar
nrhar bs
bstr
trut
utur
uras
as mb
mb rb
rbpb
pbthç
thçîf
îf.. Bx
Bxhs
hstb
tbl
l tr
trés
és th
thpf
pfs
s mb
mb bs
bstr
trut
utur
uras
as mb
rbpbthçîf
rbpbth çîf,, a bs
bsnfj
nfjeaea mb
mb qu
quaj
aj uth
uthjhz
jhzar
ar mb
mbpbo
pbomb mbrá
rá mas
mas va
varhá
rhávb
vbhs
hs qu
qubb
ajhlbotalabstruturambrbpbthçîf,cblnflfmfrbsujtamfqub
sbmbsbiaajnaoça
sbmbsbiaajnaoçar,
r,blc
blcfraajgulas
fraajgulas vbzbs
vbzbsasmhdbrbot
asmhdbrbotbsbstrutur
bsbstruturas
as
pfssalnebgaraflbslfrbsujtamf.
Cfosbstumfs!
^bguomfaagéonhaalbrhnaoaOasa,ofdhoajmamènamamb1840f
eflblphsfupbjaprhlbhravbzoaJua(OAÂ,3017).Tfnénfosbgub
eflblphsfupbjaprhlbhravbzoaJua (OAÂ,3017).Tfnénfosbgub
hlagho
hla ghoar
ar qu
quao
aotfs
tfs náj
nájnuj
nujfs
fs dfr
dfral
al dbhtfs
dbhtfs b rbdbht
rbdbhtfs
fs hoù
hoùlb
lbras
ras vb
vbzb
zbss
parasbnebgaràshodfrlaçòbsobnbssárhasparaajnaoçartajdbhtf6
Nbrtalbotboîfè
Nbrtalbotboîf èpfssìvbjquaothdhnarbssas
pfssìvbjquaothdhnarbssasrbpbth
rbpbthçòbssblfusf
rbpbthçòbssblfusf
çòbssblfusfmb mb
ulshstblanflputanhfoaj.Bobssb
ulshstblanflpu tanhfoaj.Bobssbshstblavárhfs
shstblavárhfsnájnujfsthvbral
nájnujfsthvbral
mb
mbsbrdbhtfssfcrb
sbrdbhtfssfcrbfs
fslbslf
lbslfs snfoi
nfoiuotfs
uotfsmb
mboùlbr
oùlbrfs,b
fs,bluht
luhtas
asvbzbs
vbzbs
flbslfnfoiuotfmbnájnujfsbraapjhnamfa
flbslfnfoiuotfmb nájnujfsbraapjhnamfa nfoiuotfsmhdbrbot
nfoiuotfsmhdbrbotbs. bs.
Fsnájnujfs,blfutraspajavras,bralrbpbthmfs.Talfs,aparthrmb
agfra,nfoebnbrasbstruturasmbrbpbthçîf.
agfra,nfoebnbrasbstruturasmb rbpbthçîf.
Oasbçîfaotbrhfrnrhalfsvárhfsajgfrhtlfsqub,aparthrmbula
mb
mbnh
nhsî
sîf,
f, bxbn
bxbnut
utav
aval
al ul
ulaa ùo
ùohn
hna
a vb
vbz
z mb
mbtb
tbrl
rlho
hoam
amaa açîf
açîf,, pf
pfrè
rèll
luhtasvbzbsprbnhsalfsqub,aparthrmbulambnhsîf,ulaaçîfsbia
luhtasvbzbsprbnhsalfsqub,aparthrmbula mbnhsîf,ulaaçîfsbia
rbajhzamarbpbthmasvbzbs.Parabotbombrlfsbssashtuaçîf,valfs
usarnflfbxblpjffajgfrhtlfqubnrhalfsoasbçîfaotbrhfr,qub
usarnflfbxblpjffajgfrhtlfqubnrhalfsoa sbçîfaotbrhfr,qub
vbrh
vbrhdhn
dhnavasb
avasbf
fvajf
vajfr
rbsnfj
bsnfjehmf
ehmfpbjfusuárhf
pbjfusuárhfbrapfshthvf
brapfshthv fb
bsb
sba
a
auohmamb
uohmamb
bralbtrf.Nasfalcasbotramasdfssblvájhmas,f
bralbtrf.Nasfalcas botramasdfssblvájhmas,fajgfrhtlfrbajhzava
botramasdfssblvájhmas,f ajgfrhtlfrbajhzava
ulnájnujf,lassboîfdfssb,f
ulnájnujf,lassb oîfdfssb,fprfgralashlpjbslbotbbonbrr
oîfdfssb,f prfgralashlpjbslbotbbonbrrava.
prfgralashlpjbslbotbbonbrr ava.
Nbrtalbotbfusuárhfdhnarhahosathsdbhtfnflfajgfrhtlfsb
tfnflfajgfrhtlfsbtfmavbz
tfnflfajgfrhtlfsbtfmavbz
qubbjbmhghtassbuloùlbrfobgathvf,pfranhmbotb,thvbssbqubacrhr
qubbjbmhghtassbul oùlbrfobgathvf,pfranhmbotb,thvbssbqubacrhr
ofvalbotbfprfgrala.Bssashtuaçîfpfmbsbrnfotfroamambula
laobhrashlpjbs,uthjhzaomfulabstruturambrbpbthçîf.
laobhrashlpjbs,uthjhzaomfulabstruturamb rbpbthçîf.
Bstruturambrbpbthçîfèu
Bstruturamb rbpbthçîfèulbjblbotf
lbjblbotfmbajgfrhtlfq
mbajgfrhtlfqubpbrlhtb
ubpbrlhtb
bsnfjebrnbrtfstrbnefsmbnþmhgfsparasbrblbxbnutamfsmbdfrla
rbpbthma.Blcfrasbiaulrbnursfpfmbrfsf,mbvbsbrusamfmadfrla
usamfmadfrla
nfrrbta,sboîfpfmbnausarulbrrfmbbxbnuçîf,pfhsabstrutura
pfmb bo
pfmb botra
trar
r bl
bl ul
ula
a rb
rbpb
pbth
thçî
çîf
f ho
hodhdhoh
ohta
ta (P
(PHT
HTA
A IR
IROH
OHFS
FS bt
bt aj
aj.,., 3013
3013).).
Aneavbparabvhtarbssbbrrfèrbajhzarultbstbqubmbtbrlhoará
quaomfarbpbthçîfmbvbparar.
Asshlhjb
Atravèsmbulabstruturambrbpbthçîf,trbnefsmbnþmhgfpfmbl
sbrbxbnutamfsrbpbthmasvbzbs.Parabvhtarqubftrbnefsbiabxbnutamf
sbrbxbnutamfsrbpbthmasvbzbs.Parabvhtarqubftrbnefsbiabxbnutamf
hodh
ho
rbdhoh
rbpbohta
tas
pbth sbs.
thçò
çòbsvbzb
vb.zbs,
s,shl,
Assh
As  l,
uthjhjhz
ut hza-
a-sb
ul
ul sb bnef
 tr ul
ul
trbn  tb
ef tbst
stb
 sbb
rápa
sbrá para
ra
rbpb
rb  thmf
pbthmbjh
mb jhlh
mf lhta
tar
 bo r a
boqu
quao quao
qu
tfaoth
aotf fthma
mamb
mb
tbst
tb b df
stb mbr
dfr
vbrmam
vbrm ambhr
bhrf.
f.Qu
Quaom
aomf fdf
dfr
rda
dajs
jsf
f a
arb
rb bt
bthh îf
îfsb
sb bonbrra.
Blulabstruturambrbpb
Blulabs thçîfsblprbbxhsthrá,of
truturambrbpbthçîfsblp rbbxhsthrá,oflìohlf,ul
lìohlf,ulaa
varhávbjparanfotrfjarasrbpbthçòbs.]ajvarhávbjsbráusamapbjftbstb
varhávbjparanfotrfjarasrbpbthçòbs.]ajvarhávbjsbráusama pbjftbstb
nfomhnhfoajq
nfomhnhfoajqubnfotrfjafnhnjf
ubnfotrfjafnhnjfmbrbpbthçîf
mbrbpbthçîf.Bssavarhá
.Bssavarhávbjpfmbrá
vbjpfmbrá,,
blajguosnasfs,duonhfoarnflfulnfotamfrparaaquaothmambmb
blajguosnasfs,duonhfoarnflfulnfotamfrparaa quaothmambmb
rbpbthçòbs,blfutrfsnasfs,sbráobnbssárhfamhnhfoarulasbguoma
varhá
varhávb
vbjjpa
para
radaz
dazbr
bra
anfo
nfotag
tagbl
bl mb
mbrbp
rbpbth
bthçòb
çòbs.
s.Bs
Bssb
sbtbs
tbstb,
tb, ajè
ajèl
lmb
mb
mb
mbtb
tbrl
rlho
hoar
ar qu
quaoaomf
mf a rb
rbpb
pbth
thçî
çîf
f mb
mbvb
vb pa
para
rar,
r, ta
talc
lcèlèl nj
njas
assh
shdh
dhna
na f
thpfmbbstruturambrbpbthçîf.Hrblfsagfranfoebnbrfsthpfsmb
bstrutur
bstru turas
as mb
mb rbpbth
rbpbthçî
çîf,
f, tfm
tfmfs
fs fs ajg
ajgfrh
frhtlf
tlfs
s mb
mb ag
agfra
fra bl mha
mhaotb
otb
sbrîfhmbothdhnamfspfrul
sbrîfhmbothdhnamf spfruloflboaprhlbhrajhoea.
spfrul oflboaprhlbhrajhoea.
Bstruturambrbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhf
Fprhlbhrfthpfqubvalfsbstumarèabstruturambrbpbthçîfnfl
tbstbofhoìnhf.Obssbthpf,ulanfomhçîfètbstamaaotbsmbfnhnjf
mbrbpbthçîfnflbçar.Nasfanfomhçîfsbiavbrmambhra,fnhnjfhohnha-
mbrbpbthçîfnflbçar.Nasfanfomhçîf sbiavbrmambhra,fnhnjfhohnha-
sbbsþparaquaomfanfomhçîfoîfdfrlahsvbrmambhra.]ajbstrutura
bstárbprbsbotamabldfrlambdjuxfgralabpsbumfnþmhgfoa Dhgura
3.1
3.12.
2.Of
Ofdju
djuxf
xfgra
grala
la,,a
arbp
rbpbth
bthçî
çîf
fè
èrbp
rbprbs
rbsbo
botam
tama
apfr
pfr ul
ulaasbsbta
taqu
qub b
sahmfcjfnf‚nflaomfsasbrrbpbthmfs“bvfjtaparaanfomhçîfa
sbrtbstama,nrhaomfuljaçf(jffp)mbrbpbthçîf.Ofpsbumfnþmhgf
)mbrbpbthçîf.Ofpsbumfnþmhgf
èusamaapajavra‚boquaotf“pararbajhzarftbstbbapajavra‚daça“
parahohnharfsnflaomfsmfjaçfmbrbpbthçîf.Pfmblfshotbrprbtar
ma sb
ma sbgu
guho
hotb
tb df
dfrl
rla9
a9 ‚B
‚Boq
oqua
uaot
otff a nf
nfom
omhç
hçîf
îf df
dfr
r vb
vbrm
rmam
ambhbhra
ra,, da
daça
ça fs
sbguhotbsnflaom
sbguhot bsnflaomfsmbotrf
fsmbotrf mfcjfnf“.
mfcjfnf“. Pbrnb
Pbrnbcaquba
caqubarbpb
rbpbthçî
thçîfmf
fmf
cjfnfsþsbráhotbrrflphmaquaomfanfomhçîfdfrdajsa.
Dhgura3.12|Bstruturambrbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhf
a) jaçf c)
nflaomfs
nfl aomfsa
aomfsa
T boquaotf :nfomhçîf? daça
nfomhçîf sbrblrbpbthmf
sbrblrbpbthmfs
rbpbthmfs
nfl
nflaomfs
aomfsasb
aomfs asbrbl
asbrbl rbpbthmf
rbpbthmfs
s
boquaotfvbrmambhrf
boquaotfvbrmambhrf
D dhlboquaotf
nflaomfs
nflaomfs
aomfsa a nflaomfs
nfl aomfsasbrbld
aomfsasbrbld bhtfsquaomf
sbrbldbhtfs dajsf
quaomf
quaomfd
fd ajsf
74 R3-Bjblbotfsmb
ajgfrhtlfs.
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Pa
Para
ra lbje
lbjefr fr nf
nflp
lprb rbbom
bombr
brlf
lfs s a bs
bstr
trut
utur
ura
a mb
mb rb
rbpbt
pbthç
hçîf
îf nf
nfl
l tbtbst
stb
b
ofhoìnhf,valfsrbtflarulajgfrhtlfdbhtfoasbçîfaotbrhfrparaaKrf
Bog
Bogboea
boearha
rhas.
s. Oa sbçîf
sbçîf aotbrh
aotbrhfr,
fr, vfné
vfné hlpjbl
hlpjblbot botfu
fu ul ajgfrh
ajgfrhtlf
tlf para
para
vajhma
vajhmar
r fs
fs ma
mamf
mfs
s mb
mb botr
botrama
ama pa
para
ra a blpr
blprbs bsa,
a, bssb
bssb ajgf
ajgfrh
rhtl
tlffrbrbnbc
nbcbb fs
vajfrbsrbdbrbotbsafnflprhlbotfmbajgulfcibtfbtahsvajfrbsmbvblsbr
pfshthvfsbbstaroauohmamblbtrf,nasfnfotrárhffprfgralasbbonbrra.
Talfsajtbrarfajgfrhtlfparaqub,blvbzmbbonbrrarabxbnuçîfnfl
ulvajfrobgathvffuulauohmambmhdbrb
ulvajfrobgathvf fuulauohmambmhdbrbotbmblbtrf,
otbmblbtrf,f fprfg
prfgralavfjt
ralavfjtb b
apbmhrqubfusuárhfmhghtbofvalbotbfvajfr.OaDhgura3.14„a,tblfs
fdjuxfgralaaprhlframf.Tbiaqubsþbxhstbulalaobhrambfajgfrhtlf
nebgarafdhlmabxbnuçîf,qubèapþsrbajhzarfnájnujfnflfsvajfrbs
mbotrfmfspamròbsbstacbjbnhmfs,pfhsnasffsvajfrbssbialhovájhmfs,
bxhstbljaçfsnflnflaomfsqubjbblofvfsvajf
bxhstbljaçfsnflnflaomfsqub jbblofvfsvajfrbsbfstbstal
rbsbfstbstal.Obssb .Obssb
ajgf
ajgfrh
rhtl
tlf,f, a varh
varhávb
ávbjj qub
qub bst
bstá
á sbom
sbomf f uthj
uthjhz
hzam
ama
a pa
para
ra nfot
nfotrfrfja
jar
r f ja
jaçfçf mb
rbpbthçîfèfprþprhfvajfrmfnflprhlbotfbmauohmambmblbmhma.
rbpbthçîfèfprþprhfvajfrmf nflprhlbotfbmauohmambmblbmhma.
Ofpsbumfnþmhgf,tblfsfajgfrhtlfnflpjbtf(sblnfobntfrbs),
fprfgralahohnha-sbbfprhlbhrfpassfèmbnjararasvarhávbhsnflsbus
rbspbnthvfsthpfs.Blsbguhma,èjhmf fvajfrmfnflprhlbotfbvbrhdhnama
suavajhmamb.Nasfoîfsbiavájhmf,fusuárhfèhodfrl
suavajhmamb.Nasfoîfsbiavájhmf,fu suárhfèhodfrlamf,ulofvf
amf,ulofvfvajfr vajfr
èjhmfbpfstbrhfrlbotbtbstamf,pfhsbstámbotrfmf
èjhmfbpfstbrhfrlbotbtbstamf, pfhsbstámbotrfmfjaçf(jhoeas7
jaçf(jhoeas7,5b8).
,5b8).
Apþsf
Apþsfusuárhfmhghtarul
usuárhfmhghtarulvajfrvájhmfparanflprhlbotf,botîff
vajfrvájhmfparanflprhlbotf,botîffvajfrma vajfrma
uohmambèjhmfbaoajhsamf(jhoeas11b13).Nasfsbiahovájhmf,fusuárhfè
hodfrlamf,ulofvfvajfrèjhmfbpfstbrhfrlbotbtbstamfmbotrfmfjaçf
hodfrlamf,ulofvfvajfrèjhmfb pfstbrhfrlbotbtbstamfmbotrfmfjaçf
(jhoeas13,1>b1=).^flbotbquaomffusuárhfmhghtarulvajfrvájhmfpara
(jhoeas13,1>b1=).^flbotbquaomffusuárhfmhghtar ulvajfrvájhmfpara
uohmambsbrádbhtffnájnujfbfprfgrala,bonbrr
uohmambsbrádbhtffnájnujfbf prfgrala,bonbrramf.
prfgrala,bonbrr amf.
Dhgura3.14| Ajgfrhtlfaprhlframfpara
AjgfrhtlfaprhlframfparaKrfBogboearhas
KrfBogboearhas
c) 1. Ajgfrh
Ajgfrhtlf‚Krf
tlf‚KrfBogb
Bogboea
oearhas“
rhas“
a) 3. hohnhf
jbhanflp >. var
jaçf =. nflp9rbaj
2. uohm9tbxtf
T Botrama jbhanflp
nf
nflp
lp :0 4. Jbha(nflp)
hovájhma
7. boquaotf (nflp
(nflp :0)daça
:0)daça
D
5. Bsnrbva(‚Botramahovájhma“)
jbhauohm 8. Jbha(nflp)
jaçf 10. dhlboquaotf
Rohmamb 11. Jbha(uohm)
uo
uohm
hm :?‚lbtrf
:?‚lbtrf““ T hovájhma jbhauohm 13. (uohm :? ‚lb
boquaotf (uohm ‚lbtrf
trf
trf“)
“) daça
D 1>. Bsnrbva(‚Rohmambhovájhma“)
1=. Jbha(uohm)
najnuja
12. dhlboquaotf
14. najnuja
dhl
17. dhl
Dfotb9bjacframapbjfautfr.
Sbdjhta
Fqubpfmbrhasbrhosbrhmfof
Fqubpfmbrhasbrhosbrhmf ofajgf
ajgfrhtl
rhtlfmaKrfBogboearhaspara
fmaKrfBogboearhaspara
nfotarquaotasvbzbsfusuárhfmhghtfuulvajfrhovájhmf6
F
Fajg frhtlf
ajgfrh tlf ap aprhl
rhlfra mf nrh
framf nrhamf
amf pa raa
para a Krf
Krf Bog
Bogboboea
earha s(Dh
rhas (Dhgu ra
gura
3.
3.14
14)
) ap
aprb
rbsb
sbot ota
a ul
ul us
usf
f njás
njásshshnf
nf ma
ma bs
bstr
trut
utur
ura
a mb
mb rb
rbpb
pbth
thçî
çîf
f nf
nfl l
tbstbofhoìnhf,pfhsoîfsacblfsquaotasvbzbsarbpbthçîfsbrá
bx
bxbn
bnut
utam
ama
a (h(hss
ssf
f mb
mbpb
pbom
ombr
brá
á ma
mas
s bo
botr
tram
amasas mh
mhgh
ghta
tama
mas
s pb
pbjf
jf us
usuá
uárh
rhf)
f)..
^bomfasshl,arbpbthçîfpfmbfnfrrbrzbrfvbzbsfuvárhasvbzbs9
vbiaquboîfbxhstbuljhlhtbhohnhajbdhoa
vbiaquboîfbxhstbu ljhlhtbhohnhajbdhoaj.j.
Blcfrafusfnjásshnfmarbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhfsbiapara
fsnasfsblqub oîf sbsacbquaota
fsnasfsblquboîf sbsacbquaotasrbpbthçò
srbpbthçòbssbrîfrbajhz
bssbrîfrbajhzamaamas,s,
tajbstruturatalcè
tajbstruturatalcèlpfmbsbrusam
lpfmbsbrusamaparafsnasfsbl
aparafsnasfsblqubsbsacb
qubsbsacb
mb
mb ao
aotbtblî
lîf f quao
quaota tas
s rb
rbpbpbth
thçò
çòbsbs sb
sbrî
rîf
f dbdbht
htas
as. . Para
Para bo
botb
tbom
ombr
brlf lfss
bs
bssb
sb of
ofvf
vf lb
lbna naoh
ohsl
slf, f, va
valf
lfs s bs
bsnr
nrbvbvbr
br ul
ul ajajgf
gfrhrhtl
tlf
f qub
qub sf sfla
la
aquaothmambmbefrastracajeamaspfrulduonhfoárhfofsquhozb
pr
prhl
hlbhbhrf
rfs
s mh
mhas
as mf
mf lé
lés. s. Oa
Oa Dh
Dhgu
gura ra 3.
3.17
17 „ a,
a, a va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj mha ho
hohnhnha
ha a
bxbnuçîfvajbomf1(pfhsrbprbsbotafprhlbhrfmhamflés)bbl
sbguhm
sbgu hma
af
ftb
tbst
stb
b(m
(mha
ha :<
:< 12
12)
)è
èdb
dbhtf
htf..Na
Nasf
sf sb
sbiaia vb
vbrm
rmam
ambh
bhrf
rf,
,è
èjhjhmf
mf f
vajfrmaefraparaaqubjbmbtbrlhoamfmha
vajfrmaefra paraaqubjbmbtbrlhoamfmhaba baefra
efra
efratftajèatuajhzama
tftajèatuajhzama
sflaomffofvfvajfr(efra]ftaj<efra]ftaj+efra).Blsbguhma,
fmhaèatuajhzamfbabxbnuçîfvfjtaparaftbstb(mha:<12).Obssb
bxblpjf,avarhávbjqubnfotrfjafjaçfmbrbpbthçîfèhohnhajhzama
aotbsmfhoìnhfmftbstb,bparanamabxbnuçîfmfcjfnfavarhávbj
mbnfotrfjbè
mbnfotrfj bèatua
atuajhza
jhzama.Nasfhssfoîfanfotbn
ma.Nasfhssfoîfanfotbnbssb bssb,tbrìalfs
,tbrìalfs ul
brrfmbbxbnuçîfhodhohta.
Fduonhfoalbotfofpsbumfnþmhgf(Dhgura3.17„c)èhméothnf9
a varh
varhávbj
ávbj mhaèhohnhajhzamanflfvajfr1(jhoea4),blsbguhmaè
èhohnhajhzamanflfvajfr1(jhoea4),blsbguhmaè
usamffnflaomf‚ boquaotf-daça“pararbajhzarftbstboabstrutura
mbrbpbthçîf(jhoea7).Mbvblfsjbrmasbguhotbdfrla9‚Boquaotff
vajfrmavarháv
vajfrmavarhávbjmhadfrlbofrfuhguaja12,
bjmhadfrlbofrfuhguaja12,daçafstrésnflaom
daçafstrésnflaomfs fs
sb
sbgu
guho
hotb
tbs,
s, qu
quao
aomf
mf f va
vajf
jfr
r ma
ma va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj mh
mha
a dfr
dfr la
lahf
hfr
r qu
qub
b quho
quhozb
zb,,
botîfhlprhlaftftajmbefrasanulujamas“.Fprfgralasflbotb
bonbrraráapþstbrblshmfanulujamasasefrasmbtracajefmfs12
prhlbhrfsmhasmflés.
Dhgura3.17|Ajgfrhtlfparasflarefrastracajeamas
Dhgura3.17|Ajgfrhtlf parasflarefrastracajeamas
a)
mha Ö 1
D ‚Quaothmambmb
mha :<1
mha :<12
2 Efrastracajeamas9“ dhl
efra]ftaj
T
jbhaefra
efra]ftaj Ö efra]f
a]ftaj
taj +efra
mha Ö mha+1
c) 1. Ajgf
Ajgfrhtlf
rhtlf‚Efras
‚Efras]raca
]racajeam
jeamas“
as“
3. hohnhf
>. var
=. efra]ftaj,efra9rbaj
2. mha9hotbhrf
4. mha Ö 1;
7. boquaotf (mha:<12) daça
(mha:<12)daça
5. Jbha(efra)
8. efra]ftaj Ö efra]f
efra]f
ra]ftaj
taj +efra
10. mha Ö mha+1
11. dhlboquaotf
13. Bsnrbva(‚Quaothmamb
Bsnrbva(‚ Quaothmambmbefrastracajeamas
mbefrastracajeamas9
9“,efra]ftaj)
“,efra]ftaj)
1>. dhl
Asshlhjb
As bstruturas mb rbpb
pbtthçîf nfl tbstb of hoìnhf talcèl sîf
nf
nfoe
oebnbnhm
hmas
as nf
nflf
lf ja
jaçf
çf nf
nfom
omhn
hnhf
hfoa
oaj
j pr
prè-
è-tb
tbst
stb
b (L
(LAO
AOYA
YAOF
OF,
, 30
3010
10).
).
Afuthjhzarbssabstrutura,tfmfsfsnflaomfsmbotrfmfcjfnfqub
sb ho
sb hohn
hnha
hal
l nf
nfll ‚boquaotf-daça“ b dho
hoaj
ajhz
hzal
al nfl
nfl f ‚dhlboquaotf“
pfmblsbrbxbnutamas0fu o vbzbs.
Bstruturambrbpbthçîfnfltbstbofdhoaj
Fsbguomfthpfmbbstruturambrbpbthçîfènarantbrhzamfpfr
dazb
dazbr
r f tb
tbst
stb
b mb
mb nf
nfot
otrf
rfjb
jb of
of dhoa
dhoajj mf
mf cj
cjfn
fnf
f mb
mb nf
nfla
laom
omfs
fs.. Ob
Obss
ssaa
bs
bstr
trut
utur
ura
a tb
tbl-
l-sb
sb ul
ulboquaotf
tbrlhoanflftbstb‚ cj
cjfn
fnf
f qu
qub
b ho
hohn
hnha
ha nf
nfl
l f nf
nfla
laom
omf
f ‚ daça“ b
“(Dhgura3.15).]ajbstruturatalcèl
ènfoebnhmanflfjaçfnfomhnhfoajpþs-tbs
ènfoebnhmanflfjaçfnfomhnhfoajpþs-tbstb(LAOYAOF,
tb(LAOYAOF,3010).
3010).
R -
-Bjblbotfs
Bjblbotf mb
smb
mbajgfrhtlfs.
ajgfrhtlfs. 
Dhgura3.15|Bstruturambrbpbthçîfnflt
Dhgura3.15|Bstruturambrbpbthçîfnfltbstbofd
bstbofdhoaj
hoaj
a) c)
nflaomfs daça
nflaomfs
boquaotf :nfomhçîf?
nfomhçîf T
Las, adh
dhoa
oaj,j, quaj a mhd
hdbr
brbo
boça
ça bo
botr
trb
b nr
nrhar ula
har la bs
bstr
trut
utu
ura
ra mb
rbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhffutbstbofdhoaj6Amhdbrboçabotrb
asbstruturasnflprè-tbstbbpþs-tbstbèqub, oasbstruturasnfl
prè-tbstb,fcjfnfmbnflaomfspfmbrbpbthr 0fu
fu ovbzbs
vbzbs .Iáoa
bstruturanflpþs-tbstb,fcjfnfmbnflaomfshrárbpbthr 1f u o
fu
vbzbs,fusbia,obssabstruturafsnflaomfssbrîfbxbnutamfs
pbjflbofsulavbz.
Parabotbombrlfsnflfduonhfoafjaçfnfomhnhfoajnflpþs-
tbstb,valfsbsnrbvbrulajgfrhtlfqubnajnujafdatfrhajmbul
oùlbrf.Fdatfrhajènajnujamfsflbotbparafsoùlbrfs oaturahs,
fu sbi
fu sbia,
a,oùl
oùlbrf
brfs
shot
hotbhr
bhrfs
fsb
b pf
pfsht
shthvf
hvfs.
s.Mam
Mamf
ful
uloùl
oùlbrf
brf oat
oatura
urajj
o,sbudatfrhajèfprfmutfmbtfmfsfssbusaotbnbssfrbsatè1,
rbprb
rbprbsbota
sbotalfs
lfs fdatfrha
fdatfrhajmb
jmbuloùlbrf
uloùlbrfnflfnflf o!.Botîf,datfrhaj
mb2!è2·=·>·3·1<130.OfajgfrhtlfmaDhgura3.18„c,apþs
mb2!è2·=·>·3·1<130.OfajgfrhtlfmaDhgura3.18„c,apþs
ambnjaraçîfmasvarhávbhs(jhoea=),asvarhávbhs
sîf
sîfhohnhajhza
hohnhajhzamasnfl
masnflf fvajf
vajfr1
r1(jhoea
(jhoeas2b
nfotrfjbb
s2b4).Fprþxhlf bpassfè
datfrhaj
4).Fprþxhlfpassfè
pbmhrbguarmarfvajfrmhghtamfpbjfusuárhf(jhoeas7b5),para
botîfbotrarofcjfnfmbrbpbthçîfqubnflbçanflfnflaomf
‚daça“(jhoea8)btbrlhoanflftbstb(jhoea13).Tbiaqubfcjfnf
“(jhoea8)btbrlhoanflftbstb(jhoea13).Tbiaqubfcjfnf
mbnfla
mbnflaomf omfsa
sa sbr
sbr rbp
rbpbth
bthmf
mf (jh
(jhoea
oeas10
s10b
b11)
11) vbl
vbl aot
aotbsmf
bsmftbs
tbstb
tb
nfomhnhfoaj(jhoea13).B,pfrdhl,fprfgralabxhcbfrbsujtamfmf
datfrhajparafoùlbrfbsnfjehmf.Avarhávbj nfotrfjb èuthjhzama
parabvhta
parabvhtar
rf
fjaç
jaçf
fhod
hodhoh
hohtf,
tf, b
ba
anam
nama
ahtb
htbraç
raçîf
îf bja
bja è
èhon
bl1(nfotrfjb<nfotrfjb+1).Ajèlmbnfotrfjararbpbthçîf,ahonrbl
rblbot
botam
amaa
prþprhavarhávbjèuthjhzamaofnájnujf mfdatfrhaj,pfhsbjahrá
mfdatfrhaj,pfhsbjahrávarhar
varhar
mb1atèo.
Dhgura3.18|Aj
Dhgura3.18|Ajgfrhtlfpara
gfrhtlfparanajnujarfd
najnujarfdatfrhajmb
atfrhajmbuloùlbrf
uloùlbrf
a) c)
1. Ajgfrh
Ajgfrhtlf
tlf‚datfrhaj
‚datfrhaj““
nfotrfjb Ö1
datfrhaj Ö 1 3. hohnhf
>. var
=. nfotrfjb,o,datfrhaj9hotbhrf
Mhghtbul
Ö
oùlbrf 2.
4. nfotrfjb
datfrhaj Ö 11
jbhao 7. Bsnrbva(‚Mhghtb
Bsnrbva(‚ Mhghtbuloùlbrfpa
uloùlbrfpara
ranajnujarfd
najnujarfdatfrhaj9“)
atfrhaj9“)
5. Jbha(o)
8. daça
datfrhaj Ö datfrhaj*nfotrfjb 10. datfrhaj Ö datfrhaj*nfotrfjb
11. nfotrfjb Ö nfotrfjb+1
nfotrfjb Ö nfotrfjb+1 13. boquaotf (nfotrfjb:<o)
1>. Bsnrbva(datfrhaj)
1=. dhl
nfotrfjb:<
nfotrfjb:<o
b:<o
datfrhaj
Sbdjhta
FajgfrhtlfmaDhgura3.18najnujafdatfrhajmbuloùlbrfoaturaj,
quaotasvbzbsfcjfnfmbrbpbthçòbshrhasbrbxbnutamfbquajsbrhaf
rbsujtamf,nasffoùlbrfbsnfjehmfpbjf
rbsujtamf,nasffoùlbrfbsnf jehmfpbjfusuárhfdfssb0
usuárhfdfssb066
Bsb,blvbzmbdazbrftbstbofdhoaj,ajtbrássblfsabstruturamb
rbpbthçîfparatbrftbstbofhoìnhf,quaotasvbzbsfcjfnfmbrbpbthçòbs
rbpbthçîfparatbrftbstbofhoìnhf,quaotasvbzbsfcjfnfmbrbpbthçòbs
hrhasbrbxbnutamfbquajsbrhafrbsujtamfnasffoùlbrfbsnfjehmf
pbjfusuárhfdfssb06
Asbstruturasmbrbpbthçîf
Asbstruturasmbrbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhf
nfltbstbofhoìnhffuofdhoaj
fuofdhoajluhtas
luhtas
vbzbstbrîfflbslfrbsujtamf;obssbnasf,nacbafprfgralamfr
bsnfjebrquajbstruturausar.
Bstruturambrbpbthçîfnflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb
Bxhstb aho
Bxhstb ahoma
ma ula
ula tbr
tbrnbhr
nbhra
a bst
bstrut
rutura
ura mb rbp
rbpbth
bthçîf
çîf nfl
nfl var
varháv
hávbhs
bhs
mbnfotrfjb,fuahoma,jaçfnflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb.Bssabstrutura
mb
mbvb
vb sbr
sbr ut
uthjhjhz
hzam
ama
a sb
sblp
lprb
rb qu
qub
b sb
sb nf
nfoe
oebn
bnb
b f ho
hoìn
ìnhf
hf b f dhoa
dhoaj
j ma
mass
rbpbthçòbs,fusbia,sblprbqubsbsacbquaotasvbzbsfcjfnfhrá
sbrbpbthraotbsmbabxbnuçîfanfotbnbr.
Oabstruturambrbpbthçîfnflvarhávbjmbnf
Oabstruturambrbpbthçîfnflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb,bsnfjeblfs
otrfjb,bsnfjeblfs
ulavarhávbjparanfotrfjarasrbpbthçòbs(htbl1,Dhgura3.30),ul
vajfrparalarnarfhoìnhfmanfotagbl(htbl3,Dhgura3.30),futrf
vajfrparalarnarfdhoajmanfotagblmbrbpbthçòbs(htbl>,Dhgura
3.
3.30
30),
), b ahom
ahoma
a pf
pfmb
mblf
lfs
s nf
nfot
otrf
rfja
jar
r nf
nflf
lf fn
fnfr
frrb
rb bs
bssa
sa nfot
nfotag
agbl
bl
(passf),
(passf),sbsbrámb1bl1,mb3bl3,m
sbsbrámb1bl1,mb3bl3,mb>bl>,basshl
b>bl>,basshlpfrmhaotb
pfrmhaotb
(htb
(htbl
l =, Dh
Dhggura
ra 3.
3.30
30).
). Ob
Obsssb thpf
thpf mb bs
bstr
tru
utu
tura
ra,, tf
tfmmfs fs vajf
jfrb
rbss
bo
bovfvfjv
jvhm
hmfs
fs of
of nf
nfot
otrf
rfjbjb mb
mb rb
rbpb
pbth
thçî
çîf
f dh
dhna
nal
l oa
oa lb
lbslsla
a jhoe
jhoea,
a, of
lbslfnflaomf.OaDhgura3.30„cpfmblfsvbrulbxblpjfma
mbnjaraçîfmbssabstruturambrbpbthçîf.Avarhávbjbsnfjehmapara
nfotrfjarasrbpbthçòbsdfh x,bjahohnhaabxbnuçîfnflvajfr1bhrá
,bjahohnhaabxbnuçîfnflvajfr1bhrá
bxbnutarpfr2vbzbs,pfhsfvajfrdhoajmb xsbrá2,banfotagbl
sbrá2,banfotagbl
sbmarámb1bl1,pfhsfpassfbsnfjehmfdfh1.Frbsujtamfmbssb
ajgfrhtlfsbrhaahlprbssîfoatbjamasbquéonha9
ajgfrhtlfsbrhaahlprbssîfoa tbjamasbquéonha913>=2.
13>=2.
Dhgura
Dhgura 3.30
3.30 | Psbu
Psbumfn
mfnþmh
þmhgf
gf par
para
a bst
bstrut
rutura
ura mb rbp
rbpbth
bthçîf
çîf nfl
nfl var
varháv
hávbj
bj
mbnfotrfjb
a) 1 3 > =
para(:varhávbj?
(:varhávbj? mb :vajfr-hohnhaj? atè :vajfr-dhoaj? passf :honrblbotf?
:honrblbotf?)) daça
nflaomfs
dhlpara
c)
xmb 1 atè 2 passf 1) daça
para((x
Bsnrbva(x)
dhlpara
Blcfra bxhsta f djuxfgrala para rbprbsbotar a bstrutura

mb rbpbthçîf nfl varhávbj mb nfotrfjb (Dhgura 3.31), a dfrla
mb rbprbsbotaçîf lahs usama para bsnrbvbr taj bstrutura è f
psbumfnþmhgf.OaDhgura3.31„c,tblfsulbxblpjfmfdjuxfgral a9
prhlbhrfèatrhcuìmffvajfrzbrf
prhlbhrfèatrhcuì mffvajfrzbrfà
àvarh
varhávbj
ávbj x,blsbguhmaètbstamf
,blsbguhmaètbstamf
sbfvajfrmb xèlbofrqub10;sbdfrvbrmamb,fvajfrmb
èlbofrqub10;sbdfrvbrmamb,fvajfrmb xsbrá sbrá
bsnrhtfb xsbráhonrblbotamfbl3,bfdjuxfvfjtaaftbstbmb
sbráhonrblbotamfbl3,bfdjuxfvfjtaaftbstbmb x.F .F
rbsujtamfmbssbajgfrhtlfsbrhaahlprbssîfoatbjamfsvajfrbs90,3,
=,4,5.Oftbqubfvajfrmb xajtbramb
ajtbramb3bl3,pfhsbssbdfh
ajtbramb3bl3, pfhsbssbdfhfnrhtèrhf
fnrhtèrhf
usamfparafhonrblbotfmavarhávbjmbnfotrfjb.Ajèlmhssf,fvajfr
usamfparafhonrblbotfmavarhávbjmbnfotrfjb.Ajèlmhss f,fvajfr
10oîfèhlprbssf,pfhsftbstbèvbrmambsflbotbparavajfrbsmb
10oîfèhlprbssf,pfhsftbstbèvbrmambsflbotbpa ravajfrbsmb x
lbofrbsqub10boîfhguaja10.
Dhgura3.31|Djuxfgralabstrutura
Dhgura3.31|Djuxfgralabstruturambrbpbthçîfnflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb
mbrbpbthçîfnflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb
a)
Hohnhajhzaa
varhávbj
tbstb T nflaomfs Honrblbotaa


varhávbj
D
c)
xÖ0
 T
x:10 Bsnrbva(x) x Ö x+3
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Paravbrlfsfduonhfoalbotfmbulajgfrhtlfusaomfabstrutura
mb
mb rb
rbpb
pbth
thçî
çîf
f nfl
nfl varh
varháv
ávbj
bj mb
mb nf
nfot
otrf
rfjb
jb,
, valf
valfss rb
rbtf
tfla
larr f aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlf f
qub
qub sfla
sfla a quaothm
quaothmamb
amb mbefr
mb efrasastra
tracaj
cajeam
eamas
aspfr
pfr ulduo
ul duonhf
nhfoárh
oárhf.
f.OaOa
hlpjblbotaçîfdbhtaaotbrhfrlbotbnflabstruturambrbpbthçîfnfl
tbst
tbstbofhoìnhf,brapfss
bofhoìnhf,brapfssìvbjsfl
ìvbjsflarasefrastracaj
arasefrastracajeamasofs12prhlb
eamasofs12prhlbhrfs hrfs
mhasmflés.Talfsajtbrarfajgfrhtlfparafduonhfoárhfbsnfjebrf
hotbrvajfmbmhasqubbjbmbsbiasacbrsuasefrastracajeamas(Dhgura3.33).
F p r hlbhr f p a s s f o f a jgfr h tlf è n r ha r  tfm a s  a s  va r há vbhs
obnbssárhasparaabxbnuçîf(jhoeas=b2),blsbguhmaèpbmhmf
afusuárhfparahodfrlarfhoìnhfbfdhoajmfpbrìfmfparabdbtuar
asflamasefras(jhoeas4,7,5b8).Mbpfssbmbssashodfrlaçòbs,
asflamasefras(jhoeas4,7,5b 8).Mbpfssbmbssashodfrlaçòbs,
sflbotbulabstruturambrbpbthçîfnflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjbofs
pbrlhtbnfotrfjarfhoìnhfbfdhoajmasrbpbthçòbs,mbuladfrlatîf
pbrlhtbnfotrfjarfhoìnhfbfdhoajmasrbpbthçòbs,mbuladfrlatîf
shlpjbs,usaomfapboasulajhoeanflaomf.Oajhoea10tblfsf
nflaomfqubusaavarhávbj mha,qubvahmf
,qubvahmf mhaHohnhajatèf
atèf mhaDhoaj,
aulbotaomfmb1bl1mha(passf),bparanamamhaè
aulbotaomfmb1bl1mha (passf),bparanamamhaèpbmhmfparaf
(passf),bparanamamhaè pbmhmfparaf
usuárhfhodfrlarquaotasefrasbjbtracajefuoaqubjbmbtbrlhoamf
usuárhfhodfrlarquaotasefrasbj btracajefuoaqubjbmbtbrlhoamf
mha(jhoeas11b13)bblsbguhmafvajfrmfmhaèanulujamfnfl
fsmblahsmhasoavarhávbj efra]ftaj(jhoea1>).
(jhoea1>). Quaomfarbpbthçîf
(jhoea1>).Quaomfarbpbthçîf
anac
anacar,
ar, sbrá
sbrá hlpr
hlprbs
bssf
sf oa tbja
oaqubjbmbtbrlhoamfpbrìfmf. tbja f tfta
tftaj
j mb
mb efra
efras
s qub
qub bjb
bjb tr
traca
acaje
jefu
fu
Dhgura3.33
Dhgura3.33|Ajgfrhtlfpara
|Ajgfrhtlfparasflaref
sflarefrastracajeama
rastracajeamass
1. Ajgf
Ajgfrhtlf
rhtlf‚efra
‚efras]ra
s]racacajea
jeamas
mas““
3. hohnhf
>. var
=. efra]ftaj,efra9rbaj
2. mha,mhaHohnhaj,mhaDhoaj9hotbhrf
4. Bsnrbva(‚
Bsnr bva(‚Mhghtbf
Mhghtbfhoìnhf
hoìnhfmfpbrì
mfpbrìfmf“)
fmf“)
7. Jbha(mhaHohnhaj)
5. Bsnrbva(‚Mhghtbfdhoajmfpbrìfmf“)
8. Jbha(mhaDhoaj)
10. para (mha mb mhaHohnhajatè mhaDhoajpassf 1)daça
11. Bsnr bva(‚
bva(‚Mhghtba
Mhghtbaquaothmamb
Mhghtbaquaothmambmbefrasmfm
quaothmamb mbefrasmfmha“)
mbefrasmfmha“)
13. Jbha(efra)
1>. efra]ftaj Ö efefra]
ra]ft
ra] ft
ftaj
aj +ef
+ef
efra
ra
1=. dhlpara
12. Bsnrbva(‚Quaothmambmbefrastracajeamas9“,efra]ftaj)
14. dhl
Tbia
bia of
of ajg
jgfr
frht
htl
lf ma ma Dh
Dhggurara 3.
3.33
33 nfnfl lf usalalf fs a bs
bstr
tru
utu
turara
mb rbp
rbpbthç
bthçîf
îf nfl
nfl vavarhá
rhávbj
vbj mb nfo
nfotrftrfjb9
jb9 dhnf
dhnfu
u shl
shlpjb
pjbs
s nfo
nfotrf
trfjar
jar f
hoìnhfbfdhoajmarbpbthçîf,ajèlmhssf,nfoebnb-sbmbaotblîf
qu
quaot
aotas
as vbz
vbzbs
bs a rbp
rbpbthbthçîf
çîf anf
anfotbn
otbnbrábrá.. Fut
Futrfrf mbt
mbtaje
ajeb
b hlp
hlpfrt
frtaot
aotb b
è f nf
nfot
otrf
rfjb
jb sf
sfcr
crbb f pa
passssf,
f, fu
fu sb
sbiaia,
, pf
pfmbmblflfss nf
nfot
otrf
rfja
jar
r nf
nflflf
a va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj mb
mb nf
nfot
otrf
rfjb
jb hr
hrá
á au
aulblbot otar
ar fu
fu atatè
è lb
lbsl slff mh
mhlh
lhou
ouhrhr.
. ^b
quhsèssblfssflaras
quhsèssblfssflarasefrastracajeamasofsmhas
efrastracajeamasofsmhasparbs,pfmbrìalfs
parbs,pfmbrìalfs
hohnharanfotagblofmhazbrfbaulbotarfpassfmb3bl3;fu
sbquhsèssblfssflarfsmhasìlparbs,castavahohnharofmha1,b
talcèlaulbotarmb3bl3.
As tr
trés
és bstr
bstrut
utuura
rass mbmb rb
rbp
pbtbthç
hçîîf aprb rbssbo
botatama
mass ob
obsssa
sa sbç
bçîîf
nflpòbltfmasasfpçòbsqubvfnétblpararbpbthrul
nflpòbltfmasasfpçòbsqub vfnétblpararbpbthrultrbnef
vfnétblpararbpbthrul trbnef
mf nþ
nþmh
mhggf. È pfpfsssìvìvbj
bj qub mhd hdbr
brbo
botbtbss bsbstr
tru
utu
tura
rass ne
nebgbgu
ubl
bl of
lbslfrbsujtamf,botîfabsnfjeambquajusarmbpbombmf qub
vfnépfssuhmbhodfrlaç îfaotbsmbhohnhararbpbthçî f,bnflfa
rbpbthçîfpfmbsbrlahscblnfotrfjama.
Asshlhjb
Fsjaçfsmbrbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhffuofdhl(boquaotf...
daça/daça...boquaotf)mbvblsbruthjhzamfsquaomfoîfsbnfoebnb
m b  a o t b l î f  f  o ù l b r f  m b  v b z b s  q u b  m b tb r l h o a m f  c jf n f  m b
nflaomfsmbvbsbrbxbnutamf.Iáasbstruturasmbrbpbthçîfnfl
varhávbjmbnfotrfjbmbvblsbrusamassblprbqubsbsacbquaotas
rbpbth
rbpb thçò
çòbs bs sb
sbrî
rîf
f db
dbht
htas
as,
, bl
bl fufutrtras
as papaja
javr
vras
as,
, sf
sflblbot otbb quao
quaomf mf sb
nfoebnbfhoìnhfbfdhoajmasrbpbthçòbs.
Pbsquhsblahs
Aeachjhmambmbnrharsfjuçòbsatravèsmbajgfrhtlfssþèaprhlfra-
manflfbxbrnìnhfmbhoùlbrfsajgfrhtlfs.Pfrtaotf,daçafsbxbl-
pjfsmbstbjhvrfbfutrfsblbombrbçfsoahotbrobt.Obssbs
pjfsmbstbjhvrf bfutrfsblbombrbçfsoahotbrobt.Obssbs bombrbçfs,
vfnébonfotrarábxpjhnaçòbsbbxblpjfspara9
Bstrut
rutura mb rbpbthçîf
çîf nfl tbstb of
of hoìnhf9 :ettp9//ww
/www.
mhnasmbprfgralanaf.nfl.cr/bstrutura-mb-rbpbthnaf-boquaotf?;
Anbssfbl911ofv.3017.
Nf
Nfl
l tb
tbst
stb
b of
of fioaj
fioaj9
9 :ett
:ettp9
p9//
//ww
www.
w.mh
mhna
nasmb
smbpr
prfg
fgral
ralananaf
af.n
.nfl
fl.c
.cr/
r/
bstrutura-mb-rbpbthnaf-rbphta-atb?;Anbssfbl9
bstrutura-mb-rbpbthnaf -rbphta-atb?;Anbssfbl9 11ofv.
11ofv.3017
3017..
3017
Nflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb9
Nflvarhávbj mbnfotrfjb9:ettp9//www.mhna
mbnfotrfjb9 :ettp9//www.mhnasmbprfgralana
:ettp9//www.mhna smbprfgralanaf.nfl.
smbprfgralanaf.nfl.
cr/bstrutura-mb-rbpbthnaf-para?.Anbssf
cr/bstrutura-mb-rbpbthnaf-para?.Anbssfbl911
thnaf-para?.Anbssf bl911ofv.3017
bl911 ofv.3017..
ofv.3017
Nflf du
Nflf duon
onhf
hfoá
oárh
rhf
f ma
ma Kr
Krf
f Bo
Bogb
gboe
oear
arha
has,
s, vf
vfné
né df
dfh
h mb
mbsh
shgo
goam
amf
f
ambsbovfjvbrulajgfrhtlfqub,aotbsmbrbajhzarnájnujfsqub
bovfjvalnflprhlbotf,garaotaqubfs
bovfjvalnflprhlbo tf,garaotaqubfsmamfsbstbialoauohmamb
tf,garaotaqubfs mamfsbstbialoauohmamb
mb lbtrf
mb lbtrf. . Bs
Bssb
sb ajgf
ajgfrhrhtl
tlff è bs
bssb
sbon
onha
haj
j pa
para
ra a pa
pamr
mrfo
fohzhzaç
açîf
îf ma
nf
nflluohohna
naçîçîff bo
botr trb
b fs sucshs hstb
tbl
las b ta tallcèlèl para ra gara
raot
othr
hr
qu
qub
b tf
tfmf
mfss fs
fs rbs
rbsujujta
tamf
mfs
s bs
bstbtbia
ial
l bl
bl ul
ula a lb
lbslslaa uohm
uohmam amb
b mb
lbmhma
lbmh ma.
. F aj
ajgf
gfrh rhtl
tlff mb
mbvb
vbrá
rá jb
jbr
r a qu
quao
aoth
thma
mambmb mb
mb qu
quhjhjýl
ýlbtbtrf
rfss
pbrnfrrhmfspfrnamaulmfs12narrfsmablprbsamuraotbul
mhabafdhoajhodfrlaraquaothmambtftajpbrnfrrhmaoauohmamb
mbquhjýlbtrf.Nflf fdfrlujár
mbquhjýlbtrf.Nflf fdfrlujárhfmaKrf
hfmaKrfBogbBogboearha
oearhaspbrlhtb
spbrlhtb
af duo
duonhf
nhfoár
oárhf
hf hodf
hodfrla
rlarr fs
fs ma
mamfs
mfs bl quh
quhjýl
jýlbtrf
btrfs,
s, lbt
lbtrfsrfs fu
lhjeas,fajgfrhtlfmbvbvbrhdhnarquajdfhauohmambbsnfjehmab
dazbrasnfovbrsòbsobnbssárhas.
OfajgfrhtlfmaDhgura3.3>bstáhlpjblbotamffnþmhgfpara
nfotrfjbmaquhjflbtragblmhárhamfsnarrfsmaK
nfotrfjbmaquhjflbtragblmhárhamf snarrfsmaKrfBogboearhas.
rfBogboearhas.
1. Majhoea1atè4,fprfgralaèhohnhamfbasvarhávbhssîf
mbnjaramas.
3. Par
Parajbr
ajbra
amhs
mhstão
tãonha
nha pbr
pbrnfr
nfrrhm
rhmamb
amb12narrf
12narrfs,
s, dfh
dfh usama
usama ul
ulaa
bstruturambrbpbthçî fnflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb,pfhsènfoebnhma
aquaothm
aquaothmambmbrbpbthçò
ambmbrbpbthçòbsaotbsmabxbnuçî
bsaotbsmabxbnuçîfmfprfgral
fmfprfgrala.F a.F
hoìnhfmabstruturambrbpbthçîffnfrrboajhoea7,avarhávbjmb
nfotrfjbè narrfqubhohnhanflvajfr1bvahatè12,aulbotaomf
qubhohnhanflvajfr1bvahatè12,aulbotaomf
mb1bl1(passf).
>. F cjfnf mb rbpbth bthçîf vah ma jhoea ea 7 atè 11, nfotb otbomf >
nflaomfs; f prhlbhrf nflaomf (jhoea 5) apboa boas bxhc hcb
b  ula
lbobossagb
gbl l para ra f usuár árhf
hf;; of
of sbg
bgu uom
omf f nf
nfl lao aom mf (j(jho
hoea
ea 8)
8),, f
ajgfrhtlfjéfvajfrmhghtamfpbjfusuárhfbarlazboaoavarhávbj
vajfr;bftbrnbhrfnflaomf(jhoea10)èulanulujamfrparaas
;bftbrnbhrfnflaomf(jhoea10)èulanulujamfrparaas
mhstãonhashodfrlamasanamamha.Ofcajîfeáulamhna9tfmavbz
qubsbprbtbombanulujarvajfrbsblulavarhávbj,ashotaxbpfmb
sbrdbhtauthjhzaomfulfpbramfrrbmuzhmfnfodfrlbmhna.
=. Ap
Apþs þs sb
sbrbl
rbl ho hosb
sbrhm
rhmas
as as
as mh
mhst
stão
ãonha
nhas
s pb
pbrn rnfr
frrhrhma
mas
s pb
pbjf
jfs
s 12
vbìnujfs,èobnbssárhfjbrfthpfmbbotramaqubfusuárhfbsnfjebu
vbìnujfs,èobnbssárhfjbrfthpfmbbotramaqubfusu árhfbsnfjebu
(jhoea
(jho eass 13
13 b 1> 1>).
). Apþs jbjbr
r è ob
obnbnbsssárhrhf
f tb
tbssta
tar.
r. Of
Of df
dfrlrlu ujá
járh
rhf
f
bxhstbltréspfsshchjhmambsparaauohmamb(quhjýlbtrfs,lbtrfs
fulhjeas),botîfofajgfrhtlfbxhstbl
fulhjeas),botîf ofajgfrhtlfbxhstblmfhstbstbs,pf
mfhstbstbs,pfhsnasffs
hsnasffs
mfhssbialdajsfs,ftbrnbhrfsbrávbrmambhrf.Oajhoea1=èdbhtf
f tb
tbst
stb,
b, b sb
sb a uo
uohm hmam
amb
b bs
bsnfnfjeh
jehma
ma df
dfh
h ‚l
‚lbtbtrf
rfs“ s“,
, a vavarh
rháv
ávbj
bj tftaj
è mh
mhvh
vhmh
mhma
ma pf
pfr r 10
100000 pa
para
ra da
dazb
zbr
r a nf
nfovovbrbrsî
sîf
f papara ra qu
quhjhjýl
ýlbtbtrf
rfs,s,
lasnasfoîftboeashmfbsnfjehmf‚lbtrfs“,botîftbsta-sbsb
auohmambhodfrlamadfh‚lhjeas“(jhoea14).Nasftboeashmf,a
varhávbj tftajèmhvhmhmapfr0,431>71paradazbr
èmhvhmhmapfr0,431>71paradazbr anfovbrsîfpara
qu
quhjý
hjýlbt
lbtrfs rfs,, las
las nasnasf
f oîf
oîf tboe
tboea a shm
shmf,
f, fs
fs tbs
tbstbs
tbs sb bonb
bonbrrarrall
(jhoeas15b18).Bagfra6Nasfoîftboeashmfbsnfjehmflbtrf
fu
fu lhj
lhjea,
ea, hss
hssff qu
qubrbr mhz
mhzbr
br qu
qubb dfh
dfh bsn
bsnfje
fjehmf
hmf quh
quhjýljýlbtrbtrf,
f, bot
botîfîf
oîfèobnbssárhfoboeulanfovbrsîf.
2.Pfrdhl,oajhoea30èhlprbssfoatbjaaquaothmambmbquhjýlbtrfs
rfmamfspbjfs12narrfsoaqubjbmha.
Dhgura3.3>|
Dhgura3.3>|Ajgfrhtlf
Ajgfrhtlfparanfotrfjb
paranfotrfjbmbquhjflbtragbl
mbquhjflbtragbl
1. Ajgfrh
Ajgfrhtlf
tlf‚Nfovbrs
‚Nfovbrsaf“af“
3. hohnhf
>. var
=. mhstaonha,tftaj9
mhstao nha,tftaj9rbaj
rbaj
Bxhstbfutralaobhra
2. uohmamb9tbx
uohmamb 9tbxtf
tf mbbsnrbvbrfl
mb bsnrbvbrflbslf
bslf
4. narrf9hotbhrf nflaomf9
7. para (narrf mb 1 atè 12 passf 1)daça
tftaj+<mhstaonha
5. Bsnrbva(‚M
Bsnrbva(‚Mhghtb
hghtba
hghtba
amhstãonhapbrnfrrhmapbjf
mhstãonhapbrnfrrhmapbjf narrf“)
8. Jbha(vajfr)
10. tftaj Ö tftaj+mhstaonha
11. dhlpara
13. Bsnrbva(‚Bsnfjeaauohmam
Bsnrbva(‚B snfjeaauohmamb9“)
b9“)
1>. Jbha(uohmamb)
1=. sb (uohmamb<<‚lbtrfs“)
12. tftaj Ö tftaj/1000
14. sboaf
sboafsb sb(uohmamb<
(uohmamb<<‚lhjeas
<‚lhjeas“)
“)
17. tftaj Ö tftaj/0,431>71
15. dhlsb
18. dhlsb
30. Bsnrbva(‚Quaothmam
Bsnrbva(‚Q uaothmambmbqu
bmbquhjýlbtrfsr
hjýlbtrfsrfmamfsofmha9“,tftaj)
fmamfsofmha9“,tftaj)
31. dhl
F ajgjgffrh
rhtl
tlff bsbsnr
nrhthtf
f tf
tftatajhjhza
za a quaot othm
hmaamb mb
mb quhjýl
hjýlbtbtrf
rfss
rfm
rfmamamfspbjf
fspbjfs s12narrf
12narrfs smu
muraoraotbtbul
ul mha
mha.
.B
Bsbdfss
sbdfssbbobnb
obnbss ssárh
árhf
f
arlazboaraquaothmambmbnamanarrf6Obssbnasf,prbnhsarìalf s
tbr 12
tbr 12 va
varh
rháv
ávbh
bhs,
s, ul
ulaa pa
para
ra na
nama ma na
narr
rrf.
f. Oa
Oa pr
prþx
þxhl
hlaa sb
sbçî
çîf
f vf
vfné
né
n fo e bn b r á ul o fvf b j blbo t f  mb aj gfr h t lf qub p br lh t h r á
arlazboar
arlazb oar mhv
mhvbrs
brsfsfs va
vajfr
jfrbs
bs bl ul ulaa lbs
lbsla la va
varhá
rhávbj
vbj,
, mbh
mbhxao
xaomf
mf
sbusajgfrhtlfsnamavbzlahssfdhsthnamfs.
sbusajgfrhtlfsnamavbz lahssfdhsthnamfs.
Autflathzaçîfmbláquhoaparaifgfmbcfjhneb
Asláquhoasmbcfjhnebmhspòblfsphofsmbdfrlaautfláthna
masbg
masbguho
uhotbdfrl
tbdfrla9
a9 dhja1
dhja1<1
<1pho
phof;dhja
f;dhja 3<
3<3phof
3phofs;dhja
s;dhja ><
><>phof
>phofss
bdhja=<=phofs,fusbia,tracajeanfl10phofs.Pfrèl,ulofvf
dacrhnaotbmbnhmbhofvarbpbrlhthrqubfifgamfrbsnfjeaatè35
phofs par
phofs para
aifg
ifgar,
ar, b
bvf
vfné
nédfh
dfh nfo
nfotra
tratam
tamf
fpar
para
absn
bsnrbv
rbvbr
brf
fajg
ajgfrh
frhtlf
tlf
       .
ajgfrhtlf,ajèlmbfrgaohzaramhspfshçîfmfsphofs,tblmbv ajhmara
quaothmambmbphofsbsnfjehmapbjfifgamfr,pfhsoùlbrfslbofrbs
quaothmambmbphofsbsnfjehmapbjfifgamfr,pfhsoùlb rfslbofrbs
qub0blahfrbsqub35oîfsîfpbrlhthmfs.Futrfnuhmamfqub
vfné
vfnémbvbtflarèsbf
mbvbtflarèsbfusu usuárhf
árhfbsnfjebrula
bsnfjebrulaquaothmquaothmambquboîf
ambquboîf
sb
sbia
ia su
sudhn
dhnhb
hbot
otbb para
para db
dbnea
near
r ul
ula
a dhja
dhja,
, pf
pfr
r bx
bxbl
blpj pjf,
f, sb
sb bs
bsnf
nfjejebr
br 13
pho
phofs
fs, ,sbr
sbrîf
îf uth
uthjhza
jhzamf
mfs
s10
10mhs
mhspf
pfstf
stfs sbl=
bl= dhj
dhjas
as b
bsfc
sfcrar
rarîf
îf 3
3pho
phofsfs..
Obssbnasf,vfné
Obssbnasf,vfnémbvbrábxhchrulalbosagbl
mbvbrábxhchrulalbosagblmhzbomfqub3
mhzbomfqub3phofs phofs
oîfpumbralsbrbodhjbhramfs.
shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
Pararbsfjvbrbssbprfcjbla,valfsusarabstruturambrbpbthçîf
Pararbsfjvbrbssbprfcjbla,valfsusarabs truturambrbpbthçîf
nfltbstbofhoìnhf.Aotbs
nfltbstbofhoìnhf.Aotbsmb mbhohnha
hohnhara
rarbpbth
rbpbthçîf,
çîf,mbvblfsvbrhd
mbvblfsvbrhdhnar
hnar
sbfifgamfrmhghtfuulvajfrvájhmf(botrb0b35);bssbtbstbèdbhtf
oa jhoe
oa jhoea
a 7.
7. ^f
^flb
lbot
otb
b sb
sb f va
vajf
jfr
r df
dfr
r vá
vájhjhmf
mf,
, a bx
bxbnu
bnuçî
çîf
f pr
prfs
fssb
sbgu
gubb
oajhoea5,botraomfblulabstruturambrbpbthçîfnfltbstbof
hoìnhf.Bssarbpbthçîfanfotbnbráboquaotfaquaothmambmbphofs
dfrlahfrfuhguajafoùlbrfmajhoea.Mbotrfmarbpbthçîftbl-sb
trésnflaomfs9fprhlbhrfoajhoea8bsnrbvbquaotfsphofsdfral
usamfsoaqubjajhoea;fsbguomfnflaomfoajhoea10atuajhzaa
quaothmambmbphofsmbanfrmfnflqubbjbsvîfsbomfmhspfstfs;
b f tb
tbrn
rnbh
bhrf
rf,
, oa
oa jhjhoe
oea
a 11
11,
, at
atua
uajhjhza
za a jhoe
jhoea
a bl
bl qu
qub
b fs
fs ph
phof
ofs
s bs
bstî
tîf
f
sbomfmhspfstfs.Quaomfanfomhçîfmfjaçfmbrbpbthçîfsbtfroar
dajsf,arbpbthçîfsbbonbrrabsîfhlprbssasquaotasjhoeasdfral
lfotamasbquaotfsphofsrbstaral.
Anfomhçîfmbotrfmabstruturambrbpbthçîf(phofs?<jhoea)
dfhlfotamapfrqubbxhstbularbjaçîf
dfhlfotamapfrqu bbxhstbularbjaçîfmhrbtabotrbf
mhrbtabotrbfoùlbr
oùlbrfma
fma
jhoeabaquaothmambmbphofsoaqubjajhoea .Talfsnfoshmbrarqub
fifgamfr
fifgamfrbsnfjeb
bsnfjebu13
u13phofsparaifgar,
phofsparaifgar,oajhoea1
oajhoea1èmhspfst
èmhspfst
èmhspfstf1phof,
f1phof,
pfrtaotf,rbstal11parasbrblmhspfstfs(13-1).Oajhoea3sîf
mhspfstfs3phofs,botîfagfrarbstal8phofs;oatbrnbhrajhoea
sîfmhspfstfs>,rbstaomf4phofs;oaquartajhoeasîfmhspfstfs
=phofs,rbstaomfapboas3phofs.Obssblflbotf,bstalfsoa
jhoea2btblfssflbotb3phofs,pfrtaotf,phofsèlbofrqub
jhoeas,bonbrraomfasshl
jhoeas,bonbrr aomfasshlarbpbthçîfnfl
arbpbthçîfnflulasfcra
ulasfcrambmfhs
mbmfhsphofs.
phofs.
Dhgura3.3=|Ajgfrhtlf paraautflat
paraautflathzarláquhoa
hzarláquhoambcfjhneb
mbcfjhneb
1. Ajgf
Ajgfrhtlf
rhtlf‚Autflanaf
‚Autflanaf““ Phofs Ö 13
3. hohnhf
>. var (phofs-
(phofs- jho
jhoea)
ea)
=. phofs,jhoea9hotbhrf
13
2. Jbha(phofs) Jhoea1 phof
phofs-
s- 1
1<
1<11
<11
11
4. jhoea Ö 1 11
7. sb (phofs?0 b phofs:<35) botîf Jhoea3 phof
phofs-
s- 3<
3<8
8
5. boquaotf (phofs?<jhoea
phofs?<jhoea))daça 8
Jhoea> phof
phofs-
s- ><
><4
4
8. Bsnrbva(‚Quaothmambmbphofsoajhoea9“,jhoea)
10. phofs<pho
phofs <phofs-
fs-
fs- jhjhoe
jhoea
oea
a Jhoea=
Jhoea= ph4
phof
ofs-
s- =<
=<3
3
11. jhoea<jhoea+1
^fcra 3
13. dhlboquaotf
1>. Bsnrbva(‚Quaothma
Bsnrbva(‚Q uaothmambmbjhoe
mbmbjhoeas
aslfotamas<
lfotamas<“,jhoea)
“,jhoea)
1=. Bsnrbva(‚Quaothma
Bsnrbva(‚Q uaothmambmbphof
mbmbphofssrbstaotbs<
rbstaotbs<“,phofs
“,phofs))
12. sboîf
14. Bsnrbva(‚Quaothmam
Bsnrbva(‚ Quaothmambhovájhma“)
bhovájhma“)
17. dhlsb
dhl
1. Nfosh
Nfoshmbrb
mbrb ul
ul sbosfr
sbosfr mb
mbtbl
tblpbr
pbratu
aturahosta
rahostajam
jamf
fblula
blulalá
láquh
quhoa
oa para
para
lfohtfrarsuatblpbr
lfohtfrar suatblpbraturaof
aturaofmbnfrrb
mbnfrrbr
rmf
mfmha.]aj
mha.]ajsbosfrdazajbhturab
mha.]ajsbosfrdazajbhturab
sbosfrdazajbhturabbovha
bovha
fsmamfsparaulprfgralambnflputamfr.Fajgfrhtlfdfhbsnrhtfpara
dazbrajbhturamb10tblpbraturasafmbnfrrbrmfmhabhlprhlhralèmha.A
tblpbraturalèmhaèasflamastblpbraturasmhvhmhmapbjaquaothmambmb
tblpbraturaslbmhmas.
âcbomfqubfajgfrhtlfmbvbtbrulabstruturambrbpbthçîfparabdbtuara
âcbomfqubfajgfrhtlfmbvbtbrula bstruturambrbpbthçîfparabdbtuara
jbhturamastblpbraturasbnajnujaralèmha,ao
jbhturamastblpbraturasbnajnujaralèmha,aoajhsbassbguhotbsadhrlaçò
ajhsbassbguhotbsadhrlaçòbs
bs
bbsnfjeaafpçîfnfrrbta.
 H.F
H. F mbs
mbsbo
bovf
vfjvjvbr
br mf
mf ajgf
ajgfrhrhtl
tlf
f pf
pfmb
mb usa
sar
r qu
quaajq
jqu
ubr
br bs
bstr
trut
utur
ura a mb
rbp
rbpbthç
bthçîf
îf,
, pfh
pfhs
s blc
blcfra
fra duo
duonhf
nhfobl
obl mb mhdb
mhdbrbo
rbotbs
tbs la
laobh
obhras
ras,
, tfm
tfmas
as
trarîfflbslfrbsujtamf.
 HH.
HH.A
A lb
lbje
jefr
fr bs
bstru
trutu
tura
ra mb rbpb
rbpbth
thçî
çîf
f para bs
bsssb nasf è a bstr
bstrut
utu
ura
ra mb
rbpbthçîfnflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb,pfhssacb-sbmbaotblîfquaotas
rbpbthçòbsblultrbnefmfajgfrhtlfsbrîfbxbnutamas.
 HHH.
HHH.Albjefr
Albjefrbstrutura
Albjefrbstruturamb
bstruturambrbpbthçîf
mbrbpbthçîfpara
rbpbthçîfparabssbnasf
parabssbnasfèa
bssbnasfèabstrutura
èabstruturamb
bstruturambrbpbthçîf
mbrbpbthçîf
nfltbstbofhoìnhf,pfhssacb-sbmbaotblî
nfltbstbofhoìnhf,pfhssacb -sbmbaotblîfquaota
fquaotasrbpbthçò
srbpbthçòbsbl
bsbl
ultrbnefmfajgfrhtlfsbrîfbxbnutamas.
a)]fmasasadhrlaçòbssîf vbrmambhras.
     .
n)^flbotbasajtbroathvasHbHHbstîfn frrbtas.
m)^flbotb
m)^flbotbasajtbroathva
asajtbroathvasHHbHHH
sHHbHHHbstîfnfrrbta
bstîfnfrrbtas.
s.
b)^flbotbasajtbroathvasHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
3. Bl ula bstrutura mb rbpbthçîf nfl varhávbj mb nfotrfjb sîf
ho
hodf
dfrl
rlam
amfs fs a va
varhá
rhávb
vbj
j mb
mb nf
nfot
otrf
rfjb
jb,
, f va
vajf
jfr
r ho
hohn
hnha
haj
j b f vajf
vajfr
r dh
dhoa
oaj
j mbss
mbssa
a
varhávbjbfhonrblbotfmbssavarhávbj(passf),pfmbomfsbrmb1bl1,
3 bl
bl 3,
3, btn.
btn. Bs
Bssb
sbèè f th
thpf
pf mb
mb bstr
bstrut
uturura
a lahs
lahsututhj
hjhz
hzam
amf
f qu
quao
aomf
mf sb
sb sa
sacb
cb
mbaotblîfquaotasvbzbsarbpbthçîfsbrádbhta,acrhomfulgalamb
fpçòbsparafsajgfrhtlfs.
fpçòbsparafs ajgfrhtlfs.
Nf
Nfos
oshm
hmbra
braom
omf
f f ajgf
ajgfrh
rhtl
tlf
f a sb
sbgu
guhr,
hr, bs
bsnf
nfje
jea
a quaj
quaj fp
fpçî
çîf
f ap
aprbs
rbsbo
bota
ta f
rbsujtamfmfajgfrhtlf.
1. hohnhf
3. var
>. sfla,h9hotbhrf
=. sfla Ö 0
2. para(h mb 1 atè 30 passf 3)daça
4. sfla Ö sfla+h
7. dhlpara
5. Bsnrbva(‚Sbsujt
Bsnrbv a(‚Sbsujtamfm
amfma
asfla9“)
sfla9“)
8. Bsnrbva(sfla)
10.. dhl
10
a)Sbsujtamfmasfla9100.
c)Sbsujtamfmasfla90.
n)Sbsujtamfmasfla930.
m)Sbsujtamfmasfla9=0.
b)Sbsujtamfmasfla920.
>. AblprbsaU
AblprbsaUmbn
mbnhmh
hmhudazbr
udazbr ul
ul prfgra
prfgrala
la par
paratraça
atraçarf
rf pbrdhjmbsbus
pbrdhjmbsbus
njhbotbs.Parahssf,pbmhuàbquhpbmb]Hqubbsnrbvbssbulajgfrhtlf
njhbotbs.Parahssf,pbmhuàbquhpbmb]Hqubbsnrbvbssbulajgfrhtlfqub
bquhpbmb]Hqubbsnrbvbssbulajgfrhtlf qub
dhzbssbajbhturamfsmamfsmbtfmfsfsnjh
dhzbssbajbhtura mfsmamfsmbtfmfsfsnjhbotbsblulcao
botbsblulcaonfmbmamfs
nfmbmamfs
bfsnjasshdhnassbmbanfrmfnflahmambmbnamanjhbotb,sbparaomf-fs
pfrdahxabtárha.
Bsnfjeafajgfrhtlfqubrbprbsbotaabstruturambrbpbthçîfobnbssárha
paradazbrajbhturamfsmamfs ofcaonfmbmamfs.
a) para(njhbotb mb 1 atè dhl passf 1)daça
Jbha(njhbotb)
lpara
c) daça
Jbha(njhbotb)
boquaotf(njhbotb:100)
n) boquaotf(njhbotb:300) daça
Jbha(njhbotb)
dhlboquaotf
m) para(njhbotb mb 1 atè 100 passf 1)daça

Jbha(njhbotb)
dhlpara
b) boquaotf(njhbotb:?dhl) daça
Jbha(njhbotb)
dhlboquaotf
^bçîf3.>
Bstruturambmamfs
Mhájfgfacbrtf
Narfbstumaotb,nebgalfsàùjthlasbçîfmaRohmamb3,qub
dfhtfmambsthoamaaaprbsbotarfsbjblbotfsparanfostruçîfmb
ajgf
ajgfrhtlf
rhtlfs.Oas
s.Oassbçò
sbçòbs
bsaotbr
aotbrhfrbs
hfrbs,
,vfnémbsbov
vfnémbsbovfjvbu
fjvbu ajgf
ajgfrhtlf
rhtlfss
napazbsmbdazbrvajhmaçòbsbnfovbrsòbsmbuohmambsmblbmhmas.
napazbsmbdazbrvajhmaçòbsbnfovbrsòbsmbuohmambsmblbmhmas.
Paraguarmarfsvajfrbsmbbotramas,vfnéuthjhzfumhvbrsasvarhávbhs.
^bráqubbxhstbulalaobhrambfthlhzarfarlazboalbotfba
uthjhzaçîfmbtahsvarhávbhs6
Obstasbçîfvfnémbvbrá
Obsta sbçîfvfnémbvbrámbsbovfj
mbsbovfjvbrparaaKrfBogboear
vbrparaaKrfBogboearhas has
ul
ul ofvf
ofvf ajgf
ajgfrh
rhtl
tlf
f qu
qub
b ag
agru
rupb
pb tf
tfma
mas
s as
as bo
botr
tram
amas
as mf
mf lb
lbsl
slff
assuotfblulaùohnavarhávbj,adhlmbfthlhzarfmbsblpboefmf
assuotfblulaùohnavarhávbj, adhlmbfthlhzarfmbsblpboefmf
shstbla.Paratajlhssîf,nfoshmbrbf prfcjblamfblphjealbotf
mbprfmutfsdbhtfpbjfrfcýoauohmamb1mfsbujhvrf.Nflfula
mbprfmutfsdbhtfpbjfrfcýoauohmamb 1mfsbujhvrf.Nflfula
nahxa
nahx a nf
nfl
l lalahf
hfr
r pb
pbsf
sf oî
oîf
f pf
pfmb
mb dh
dhna
nar
r sf
sfcr
crb
b ul
ula
a nf
nfl
l lb
lbof ofrr
pbsf,frfcýtblqubarlazboarfpbsfmbnamanahxaqubbstá
ofbstfqubparadazbranflparaçîf.Bsnrbvaulajgfrhtlfqub
arlazb
arla zbob
ob f pb
pbsf
sf,
, a jarg
jargur
ura
a b a ajtu
ajtura
ra mb
mb 30
300
0 na
nahx
hxas
as bl
bl ul
ulaa
bstruturambmamfs.âcbomfqubaajturamfgajpîfmfbstfqub
fombfrfcýtracajeaèmb=0lbtrfs,nflpjblbotbfajgfrhtlf
paraqubfrfcýsahcaquaomfmbvbpararmbblphjear.
P ar a  nflpj btar  sua  lh ssî f oa K r f Bog boear h as , obsta
uohmam
uohm amb
b vfné
vfné aprb
aprbom
ombrá
brá nf
nflf
lf nr
nrha
har
r va
varh
rháv
ávbh
bhs
s nf
nflp
lpfsfsta
tas
s nf
nfl
l
ul
ula
afumuas
fumuas mhl
mhlbos
bosòbs
òbs. . Tf
Tfné
nétal
talcèl
cèl vbr
vbrá
áa
a mhd
mhdbrb
brboça
oça bot
botrb
rb
varhá
varhávbh
vbhs
s nfl
nflpfs
pfstas
tas efl
eflfgfgéoba
éobas
s b ebtb
ebtbrfg
rfgéoba
éobas,
s, sbo
sbomf
mf qu
qub b
bst
bstum
umarb
arblf
lfss prh
prhlbh
lbhrf
rf as efl
eflfgé
fgéoba
obass pa
para
ra mbp
mbpfhs
fhs botb
botbomb
ombrr f
lbnaohsl
lbnaoh slff mb duo
duonhf
nhfoal
oalbot
botf
f mas
mas ebt
ebtbrf
brfgéo
géobas
bas.
. Par
Para
a dho
dhoajh
ajhzar
zar
asbçîf,vfnéaprbombráulpfmbrfsfrbnursfmb
asbçîf,vfné aprbombráulpfmbrfsfrbnursfmbprfgralaçîf
aprbombráulpfmbrfsfrbnursfmb prfgralaçîf
qubjebpbrlhthránrharrfthoasbspbnìdhnasparalbjefrfrgaohzar
bfthlhzarsbunþmhgf.
Cfosbstumfs!
Oasbçîfaotbrhfr,vfnénrhfuulajgfrhtlfparaaKrfBogboearhas
Oasbçîfaotbrhfr,vfnénrhfuulajgfrhtlfparaa KrfBogboearhas
qubsflavaaquhjflbtragblgastapbjfsquhozbnarrfsmanflpaoeha
bl ul mha. ]aj ajgfrhtlf oîf arlazbo
bl boaava homhvhmuajlbotb a
quhjflbtragblmbnamanarrf,pfhssbrhalobnbssárhasquhozbvarhávbhs
mhdbrbotbs,ulaparanamanarrf.Aprbombrblfsagfraulthpfbspbnhaj
mbvarhávbjqubpbrlhtbarlazboarmhvbrsfsvajfrbsblsbubombrbçf.
]ahsvarhávbhssîfnfoebnhmasnflfvarhávbhsnflpfstas.
Para nf
Para nflp
lprb rbbo
bomb
mbrl rlfs
fs bs
bssb
sb th
thpf
pf mb
mb va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj,
, va
valf
lfs s da
dazb
zbr
r ul
ulaa
aoajfghabotrbasvarhávbhsoalblþrhamfnflputamfrbasrbshméonhas
bl ru
bl ruas
as.. Oa
Oa Dh
Dhgu
gura
ra 3.
3.32
32 - a bs
bstá
tá rb
rbpr
prbs
bsbo
bota
tama
ma ul
ula a rbrbsh
shmé
méon
onha
ha qu
qubb
oa
oatu
tura
rajl
jlbo botb
tb pfss
ssu
uh ul bo bommbr
brbç
bçf f nf
nfl
lpfs fstftf pfr9r9 of
ofl lb ma ru ruaa,
oùlbrf,nhmamb,
oùlbrf,nhmamb,bstamfbNBP,f
bstamfbNBP,fusbia,bjapfs
usbia,bjapfssuhulbombrbçfqu
suhulbombrbçfquba ba
tfroaùohnabhmbothdhnávbj,pfrtaotfquajqubrbonflbomabovhamapara
bssanasanebgarápfrhotbrlèmhf
bssanasanebgarápfrhotbrl èmhfmb
mbsbubombrb
sbubombrbçf.Obssa
çf.Obssarbshméonha
rbshméonha
bxhstbbspaçfsudhnhbotbapboasparauladalìjhalfrar(1bombrbçf  ↓
1dalìjha).Asshlsîfasvarhávbhsprhlhthvas(mfthpfhotbhrf,rbaj,cffjbaoa)
1dalìjha).Asshlsîfas varhávbhsprhlhthvas(mfthpfhotbhrf,rbaj,cffjbaoa)
oalblþrha,para
oalblþrha,paranamavarhávbjbxhstbul
namavarhávbjbxhstbulbombrb bombrbçfqub
çfqubatfroa
atfroaùohnab
ùohnab
hmbothdhnávbj,bnamaul
hmbothdhnávbj,bnamaulambssasv
ambssasvarhávbhssþpf
arhávbhssþpfmbarlazboarulv
mbarlazboarulvajfr ajfr
mbnamavbz(1varhávbj 1vajfr)(Dhgura3.32-c).
↓
Dhgura3.32|Aoajfghabotrb
Dhgura3.32|Aoajfghabotrbularbshméonhab
Aoajfghabotrbularbshméonhabvarhávbhsprhlhthvas
varhávbhsprhlhthvas
Lblþrhambtracajef
a) c) mfnflputamfr Bombrbçfmbx903>42=2D
x y Tajfrmbx<10
10 -1
Bombrbçfmby911>13=2D
Tajfrmby<-1
Dfotb9 Amaptama
Amaptama mb :ettps9//phxacay.nfl/pt/nasa-na
:ettps9//phxacay.nfl/pt/nasa-nasa->m-s%N>%AMlcfjf-na
sa->m-s%N>%AMlcfjf-nasa-334>>2>?
sa-334>>2>?
Anbssfbl930ofv.3017.
IáoaDhgura3.34„a,tblfsulbmhdìnhfnflnhonfaomarbs,qub,ma
lbsladfrlaqubanasa,pfssuhulbombrbçfùohnf.Blnamaaomar
mfbmhdìnhfdfhnfostruìmfulùohnfapartalbotfnapazmbacrhgarula
dalìjha,pfrtaotftblfs1bombrbçf 2dalìjhas.Asvarhávbhsnflpfstas
↓

sîfnflffsbmhdìnhfs9blapboasulbombrbçfvárhfsvajfrbspfmbl
sbrarlazboamfsshlujtaobalbotb.OaDhgura3.34-cavarhávbj xpfssuh
pfssuh
bspaçfparaarlazboartrésvajfrbshotbhrfs,iáavarhávbj ypfssuhbspaçf
pfssuhbspaçf
paraarlazboarmfhsvajfrbsrbahs.
Dhgura3.34| Aoajfghabotrbulbmhdìnhfbvarhávbhsnflpfstas
Dhgura3.34|Aoajfghabotrbulbmhdìnhfbvarhávbhsnflpfstas
Lblþrhambtracajef 
a) c) mfnflputamfr Bombrbçfmbx903>42=2D
x Tajfrmbx à Mbpbombmfìomhnb
10
-1,>
2
=,2 Bombrbçfmby911>13=2D
-> Tajfrmby à Mbpbombmfìomhnb
Dfotb9Amaptamamb:ettps9//phxacay.nfl/pt/bmhd%N>
Dfotb9Amaptama
30ofv.3017. mb:ettps9//phxacay.nfl/pt/bmhd%N>%AMnhf-cjub-247838?Anbssfbl9
mb:ettps9//phxacay.nfl/pt/bmhd%N> %AMnhf-cjub-247838?Anbssfbl9
Lasnflfbssasvarhávbhssîfnrhamas6Nflfsbusvajfrbssbrîf
hmbothdhnamfssbbjbsbstîfmbotrfmalbslavarhávbj6Oambnjaraçîf
ma
ma varh
varháv
ávbj
bj sb
sbrá
rá am
amhn
hnhf
hfoa
oamf
mf ul
ul bjbl
bjblbo botf
tf qu
qub
b hod
hodfr
frla
lará
rá qu
quao
aotf
tfss
‚bspaçfs“bxhsthrîfparaarlazboalbotfmbvajfrbs.Duonhfoanflf
sb ul
ula
a pf
pfrçîrçîf
f hot
hotbhr
bhra
a mb lbl
lblþrh
þrha
a dfs
dfssb
sb mhv
mhvhmh
hmhma
ma bl su
sucpf
cpfrçò
rçòbs,
bs,
fusucbspaçfs,bblnamaulmbssbssucbspaçfsèpfssìvbjhosbrhr
ulvajfr.Lassbfsvárhfsvajfrbstélflbslfbombrbçf,nflf
mhdbr
hdbrbo
bonh
nhaar ul mfmf futrf6
trf6 Asshl
hl nf
nfllf fs
fs apartal
rtalbo
botf
tfss bl
bl ul
prèmhfpfssu
prèmhfpfssubloùlbrfsparamhdbrbonhá-jfs,
pfssubl ìomhnbsbloùlbrfsparamhdbrbonhá-jfs,asvarhávbhsnflpf
 qub as mhdbrbonhal. Pf asvarhávbhsnflpfstas
rtaotf, ula varhástasvbj
nflpfstapfssuhulbombrbçfoal
nflpfstapfssuhu lbombrbçfoalblþrhabìomhnbs
blþrhabìomhnbsparahmbothdhnar
parahmbothdhnar
sbussucbspaçfs.Bxhstblautfrbsqubusalaoflbonjatura‚varhávbj
hombxama“parasbrbdbrhràsvarhávbhsnflpfstas,pfhssblprbbxhsthrîf
ìomhnbs
ìomhnbs (hom
(hombx
bx) ) pa
para
ra fs mamfs arl rlaazb
zboa
oamf
mfss bl
bl na
nam ma bs
bsp
paçf
çf ma
varhávbjnflpfsta(PHTAIROHFSbtaj., 3013).
Bxhs
xhstb
tbll mhv hvbr
brssas laobobhr
hraas mb sb frg
rgaaoh
ohza
zarr fs
fs mamfs bl
bl ul
nflputa
nfl tammfr,
r, na
namma ula mas fpç pçò
òbs
bs mhsp
hspfoìoìvvbhs
bhs è ne
neaala
lamma mb
bstruturambmamfs.Mbotrbasbstruturas,ulamaslahsuthjhzamas
è a varh
rháávbj
bj nf
nflp
lpf
fsta
ta,, pfhs
hs bl
bl ula ùo
ùohn
hnaa bs
bstr
tru
utu
tura
ra è pfssìv
ìvbj
bj
arlazboar(frgaohzar)mhvbrsfsmamfs,mbdfrla
arlazboar(frgaohzar)mhvbrsfsmam fs,mbdfrlaráphmabbdhnhbotb.
ráphmabbdhnhbotb.
Asshlhjb
Tarhávbjnflpfstaèulamaslaobhrasmbsbfrgaohzarmhvbrsfs
mamfs
mamf s bl
bl ula
ula ùoùohn
hnaa bs
bsttrut
rutur
uraa oa
oa lblþ
blþrha,rha, pf
pfr
r hs
hssf
sf talcè
alcèl l è
nealama
neal ama mb
mb bst
bstru
rutu
tura
ra mb mamf
mamfs. s. Bl
Blcf
cfra
ra bx
bxhs
hsta
tal
l fu
futr tras
as bst
bstru
rutu
tura
rass
mb
mb ma
mamf
mfs,
s, a varh
varháv
ávbj
bj nflp
nflpfs fsta
ta è a lahs
lahs ráph
ráphma
ma qu
qub
b bxhs
bxhstb
tb bl
bl ul
shstblanflputanhfoaj,pfhsnamamamfèajfnamfsbqubonhajlbotb
oalblþrha,tfroaomfsbuanbssf bxtrblalbotbráphmf.
Tarhávbjnflpfstauohmh
Tarhávbjnflpfstauohmh
pfstauohmhlboshfoaj
lboshfoaj
Parabssabstruturambmamf,foflb vbtfrèflahsuthjhzamf
botr
botrb
b fs
fs prf
prfdhs
dhsshf
shfoah
oahs,s, pfr
pfrtao
taotf
tf val
valfs fs amf
amftar
tar bss
bssa
a ofl
oflbonj
bonjatu
atura.
ra.
Rlvbtfr
Rlvbtfr èèul
ula ava
varhá
rhávbj
vbj nfl
nflpfpfsta
sta qu
qub
bsbmhvh
sbmhvhmbbl
mbblapapboa
boasula
sula
mhlbosîf,
mhlbos îf, fu
fu sbi
sbia,
a, ènflfsbdfss
ènflfsbdfssbulatacb
bulatacbjambulajhoea
jambulajhoea bO
nfjuoas(Frbsujtamfèflbslfsbpbosarlfsblulvbtfrnflf
ulatacbjambOjhoeasbulanfjuoa).Oaeframbnrharlfsfvbtfr
mbvblfshodfrlarapboasaquaothmambmbnfjuoasqu
mbvblfshodfrlarapboa saquaothmambmbnfjuoasqubmbsbialfs,
bmbsbialfs,
aj
ajèl
èl mh
mhss
ssf,
f, pr
prbn
bnhs
hsal
alfs
fs mb
mb ap
apbo
boas
as ul
ul ìo
ìomh
mhnb
nb pa
para
ra hm
hmbo
both
thdh
dhna
nar
r fs
bjblbotfsmfvbtfr.
Nflfmbnjararulvbtfr9
varhávbj[O\9thpf
\9thpf
Oèaquaothm
èaquaothmambmbnfj
ambmbnfjuoas
ambmbnfjuoas (fujhoeas)
(fujhoeas)
Bxb
Bxblpj
lpjf9
f9 Ta
Talfs
lfs nrh
nrhar
arul
ul vbt
vbtfr
frmf
mf thp
thpf
fhot
hotbhr
bhrf
fnfl
nfl bsp
bspaçf
açf pa
para
ra
arlazboartrésvajfrbs(O<>)9
x à
x[>
x[>\9hotbhrf 10 2 -> Tajfrmbx Mbpbombmfìomhnb
x[0\<10
x[0
0  1  3 x[1\<2
x[1
x[3\<->
x[3
Ìomhnbs
Nama bjbl
Nama bjblbo tf mf
botf mf vb
vbtf r x è jf
tfr jfna zamf
najhjhza mf pb
pbjfjf sb
sbu
u ìo
ìomh nb,
mhnb , qu
qubb
sblprb nf
nflb
lbçaçará
rá pb
pbjf
jf va
vajf
jfr
r zb
zbrf
rf.
. Pf
Pfrt rtao
aotf
tf,, f pr
prhl
hlbh
bhrf
rf va
vajf
jfr
r mb
quajqubrvbtfrsblprbbstaráofìomhnbzbrf.Ajèlmhssf,fvbtfr
èmfthpfhotbhrf,hssfshgohdhnaqubsþpfmbrîfsbrhosbrhmfsvajfrbs
mb
mbss
ssb
b eflfgéoba
sbomf thpf
thpf,
, bs
bssa
sa rb
rbst
.strh
rhçî
çîf
f na
nara
rant
ntbrh
brhza
za a va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj nf
nflplpfsfstata nf
nflf
lf
Pa
Para
ra am
amhn
hnhf
hfoa
oarl
rlfsfs va
vajf
jfrb
rbs
s mb
mbot
otrf
rf mb
mb ul
ula
a va
varh rháv
ávbj
bj nf
nflp
lpfs fsta
ta
uohmhlboshfoaj,castahodfrlarlfsavarhávbjbquajìomhnbmbsbialfs
uohmhlboshfoaj,castahodfrlarlfsavarhávbjbqua jìomhnbmbsbialfs
prbbonebr.Bxblpjf9
x
x[0
x[0\ Ö -100
x[1
x[1\ Ö -1 -10
-1
100
00 -1
-1 1
1>>
x[3
x[3\ Ö 1>
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Talfsuthjhzarulavarhávbjnflpfstauohmhlboshfoajparaaprhlfrar
fajgfrhtlfnrhamfparaaKrfBogboearhasoasbçîfaotbrhfr,pbrlhthomf
arlazboaraquhjf
arlazboaraquhjflbtragblmb
lbtragblmbnamanarrfbl
namanarrfblul
ul
ulìomhnbmfvbtfr.
ìomhnbmfvbtfr.
       
aquhjflbtragblmbnamaulmfs12narrfs.Oajhoea7ènrhamaula
bstruturambrbpbthçîfparanfotrfjarfrbghstrfmaquhjflbtragblmb
namanarrf.Avarhávbj narrfèuthjhzamaparanfotrfjaraquaothmambmb
èuthjhzamaparanfotrfjaraquaothmambmb
narrfs
narrfsb
baspfshçòbs(ìomhnbs)ma
aspfshçòbs(ìomhnbs)mavarhá varhávbjnflpfsta,
vbjnflpfsta,pfrhssf
pfrhssfbja
bja
bjahohnhabl
hohnhabl
0btbrlhoabl1=.Botî
0btbrlhoabl1=.Botîf,oaprhlbhra
f,oaprhlbhrabxbnuçîfmfjaçf
bxbnuçîfmfjaçfmbrbpbthçîf
mbrbpbthçîf,,
narrfvajb0,èpbmhmfparafusuárhfmhghtaramhstãonhapbrnfrrhmapbjf
narrfbèdbhtaajbhturamfvajfrmhghtamf(jhoeas5b8).Blsbguhma,f
vajfrjhmfèguarmamfmbotrfmfvbtfr mhstaonhaofìomhnb ofìomhnb narrf;nflf
;nflf
narrf ob
obss
ssb
b lflb
lflbot otff vaj
vajb
b 0,
0, bot
botîf
îf f vajf
vajfr
r mh
mhgh
ghta
tamf
mf è ar
arla
lazb zboaoamf
mf
bl mhstaonha[0\(jhoea10),blsbguhmaèanulujamffvajfrmhghtamfoa
(jhoea10),blsbguhmaèanulujamffvajfrmhghtamfoa
varhávbj tftaj(jhoea11).Oasbguomahtbraçîfmfjaçfmbrbpbthçîf,
(jhoea11).Oasbguomahtbraçîfmfjaçfmbrbpbthçîf, narrf
vajb1,pfrtaotffvajfrmhghtamfsbráarlazboamfbl
vajb1,pfrtaotffvajfr mhghtamfsbráarlazboamfbl mhstaonha[1\,basshl ,basshl
sun
sunbssh
bsshval
valbot
botbb atè
atè f ùjt
ùjthlf
hlf vajfr
vajfr sbr
sbr arl
arlazb
azboam
oamff bl mhstaonha[1=\.
Apþstfmfsfs12vajfrbstbrblshmfshodfrlamfs,aprhlbhrabstrutura
mbrbpbthçîfdhoajhzaoajhoea13,f
mbrbpbthçîfdhoajhzaoaj hoea13,ftftajmbquhjýlbtrfsaomamfoaqubjb
hoea13,ftftajmbquhjýlbtrfsaomamfoaqubjb
mhaèhlprbssfbulofvfjaçfmbrbpbthçîfsbhohnha,agfrabsnrbvbomf
mhaèhlprbssfbulofvfjaçfmb rbpbthçîfsbhohnha,agfrabsnrbvbomf
fvajfrqubnamanarrfpbrnfrrbu(jhoeas1=a 14).
Dhgura3.37|Ajgfrhtlfusaomfvbtfr
Dhgura3.37|Ajgfrhtlfusaomfvbtfr
1. Ajgfrhtlf‚NfotrfjbNa
Ajgfrhtlf‚NfotrfjbNarrf“rrf“
3. hohnhf
>. var
=. mhstaonha[12\9rbaj
2. tftaj,vajfr9rbaj
4. narrf9hotbhrf
7. para (narrfmb 0 atè 1= passf 1)daça
5. Bsnrbva(‚Mhghtbamhstãonhapbrnfrrhmapbjfnarrf“)
8. Jbha(vajfr)
10. mhstaonha[narrf\ Ö vajfr
11. tftaj Ö tftaj+mhstaonha[narrf\
13. dhlpara
1>. Bsnrbva(‚Quaothmambmbquhjýlbtrfsrfmamfsofmha9“,
Bsnrbva(‚Quaothmambmbquhjýlbtrfsrfmamfsofmha9“,tftaj)
tftaj)
1=. para (narrfmb 0 atè 1= passf 1)daça
12. Bsnrbva(‚Mhstãonhapbrnfrrhma
Bsnrbva(‚Mhstãonha
Bsnrbva(‚Mhstãonhapbrnfrrhmapbjfnarrf9“,
pbrnfrrhmapbjf
pbjfnarrf9“,
narrf9“, mhstaonha[narrf\)
mhstaonha[narrf\)
14. dhlpara
17. dhl
Tarhávbjnflpfstalujthm
Tarhávbjnflpfstalujthm
pfstalujthmhlboshfoaj
hlboshfoaj
Para bssa bstrutura mb mamfs, f oflb latrhz è f lahs
uthjhzamf mbotrb fs prfgralamfrbs, pfrtaotf valfs amftar
bs
bssa
sa of
oflb
lbon onja
jatu
tura
ra.
. Rl
Rla
a la
latr trhz
hz è ul
ula
a va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj nf
nflp
lpfs fsta
ta qu
qub
b
sb
sb mhv
hvhm
hmb
b bl
bl mua
uass mhl
hlbo
bossòbs bs,, fu sbi
bia,
a, è ‚u
‚ula
la tatac
cbja“
bja“ mb L
o as b  n f u o a s  l a g o b  u l a  p a o a  f  x n b ,  b a  p f s s u 
jhoeasb Onfjuoas).Oaeframbnrharlfsulalatrhz,mbvblfs
 nfjuoas).Oaeframbnrharlfsulalatrhz,mbvblfs
hodfrlaraquaothmambmbjhoeasbmbnfjuoasqubmbsbialfs,
nfosbq
nfo sbqubo
ubotbl
tblbotb
botb,
, prb
prbnhs
fsbjblbotfsmalatrhz. nhsal
alfs
fs mb mf
mfhs
hs ìom
ìomhnb
hnbs
s pa
para
ra hmb
hmboth
othdhn
dhnar
ar
Asshlhjb
Paragravar
Paragravarfuanbssarmamfsblulavarhá
fuanbssarmamfsblulavarhávbjnflp vbjnflpfsta fsta,tblfs
,tblfs
qubusarfsìomhnbs.Blquajqubrthpfmbvarhávbjnflpfstafìomhnb
sblprb
sblp rb ho
hohn
hnha
hará
rá bl
bl zbzbrf
rf,
, nf
nfos
osbqu
bqubo
botb
tblb
lbot otb,
b, f la
lahfhfr
r ìo
ìomh
mhnb
nb bl
ulavarhávbjnflpfstasbrásblprbulalbofsqubaquaothmamb
mb
mb bj
bjbl
blbo botf
tfs.
s. ^b
^b th
thvb
vbrl
rlfsfs 12
12 bj
bjbl
blbo
botf
tfs,
s, f la
lahfhfr
r ìo
ìomh
mhnb
nb sbr
sbrá
á 1=;
1=;
sbthvbrlfs10bjblbotfs,flahfrìomhnbsbrá8,pfrtaotfsblprb
tbrblfsìomhnb< O„1. „1.
Ajèl
Ajèl mh
mhss
ssf,
f, para
para ht
htbr
brar
ar pbjf
pbjfs
s bj
bjbl
blbo
botf
tfs
s mb
mb ul
ul vbtf
vbtfr,
r, usal
usal-s
-sb
b
bstruturasmbrbpbthçîf,sbomfavarhávbjmbnfotrfjbmf jaçfmbrbpbthçîf
avarhávbjusamanflfìomhnbmavarhávbjnflpfsta.
avarhávbjusamanflfìomhnbma varhávbjnflpfsta.
Nflfmbnjararulalatrhz9
Lèaquaothmambmbjhoeas
varhávbj[L
varhávbj[ L\[O
\[O\9thpf Oèaquaothmambmbnfjuoas
Bxblpjf9Talfsnrharulalatrhzm
Bxblpjf9Talfsnrharu lalatrhzmfthpfhotbhrfnf
fthpfhotbhrfnfltrésjhoeas
ltrésjhoeas
bmuasnfjuoas(L<>b O<3).
<3).
nfju
nfjuoa
nfjuoa
oa 0 nfju
nfjuoa
nfjuoa
oa 1
Tajfrmbx à Mbpbombmbmfhsìomhnbs
jhoea0
jhoea
jhoea 10 2
x[0
x[0\[
\[00\ < 1
10
0 xx[[[0
0\[
\[11\<
\<22
x[>\[3
x[>\[3\9hotbhrf jhjhoe
jhoea
oea
a1 -> 3 x[1\[
x[1\[00\ < ->
-> xx[[[1 1\[
\[11\<
\<33
jhoe
jhoea
jhoea a3 1 10
10
00
0 x[3\[
x[3\[00\ <1  xx[[[33\[
\[11\<100
Quaotfsbjblbotfsnfosbguhlfsnfjfnaroa
Quaotfsbjblbotfsnfosbguhlfs nfjfnaroalatrhz>x36Para
latrhz>x36Para
sac
sacbr
br a napanh
napanhmam
mamb
b mb ula
ula lat
latrhz
rhz (qu
(quaot
aothma
hmamb
mb mb bjb
bjblbo
lbotfs
tfs))
ca
cast
sta
a lujt
lujthphpjhjhna
narl
rlfs
fs a qu
quaoaoth
thma
mamb
mb mb
mb jhoe
jhoeas
as pb
pbja
ja qu
quao aoth
thma
mamb
mb
mb nfju
nfjuoaoass (>
(> x 3 < 4 bj
bjbl
blbo botf
tfss).
). Nam
amaa bj
bjbl
blbo botf
tf ma latrhz trhz
è jf
jfna
najhz
jhzam
amf
f pfr
pfr mf
mfhs
hs ìom
ìomhn
hnbs
bs,
, f pr
prhl
hlbh bhrf
rf rb
rbdb
dbrb-
rb-sb
sb à jhjhoea
oea,
, b f
sbguomfànfjuoa,alcfsìomhnbs sblprbnflbçarîfpbjfvajfr
zbrf. Pf Pfrrtaotf, f prhlbhrf vajf jfrr mb quajqubr latrhz sblprb
b s t ar á o f  ì o mh n b  ( 0, 0) .  Nf lf  a b s t r u t ur a d f h  ‚ t h p ama “  n f lf
hotbhrf,sþvajfrbshotbhrfspfmbrîfsbramhnhfoamfsabssalatrhz,
narantbrhzaomf-anflfeflfgéoba.
Pa
Parara am
amhn
hnhf
hfoa
oarlrlfsfs va
vajf jfrb
rbs
s mb
mbot
otrfrf mb
mb ul
ulaa va
varh rháv
ávbj bj nf
nflp
lpfs fsta
ta
lujthmhlboshfoaj,castahodfrlarlfsavarhávbjbquajfìomhnbma
jhoeabmanfjuoaqubmbsbialfsprbbonebr.Bxblpjf9
-1
-1
10
0
00
0 -1
-1
0\[0
x[0
x[ \[0\ < -1
- 110
0
00
0 xx[[0
[0\[1
\[1\<-1
x[1\[0
x[1\[0\ < 11>> xx[[1
[1\[1
\[1\<-12 1>
1> -1
-1
12
2
x[3\[0
x[3\[0\ < -2
-2 xx[[3
[3\[1
\[1\<1020 -2
-2 1
10
0
02
2
20
0
mb bx
È mb bxtr
trbl
bla
a hl
hlpfrtão
pfrtãonha nf
nha lprb
nflprbbo
bomb
mbr
r a fr
frmb
mbl bl qu
l bl b fs
qub
mamfssîfhosbrhmfsblulalatrhz.
• F prh
rhl
lbh
bhrf
rf vajf
bsnfjehmaajhoea0; jfr
r a sbr
br usam
amf
f rb
rbdb
dbrb
rb-s
-sb
b à jhjhoe
oeaa, pfr
frta
taot
otf
f è
•Apþssbjbnhfoarajhoea,èavbzmbpbrnfrrbrtfmasasnfjuoas,
nflbçaomfpbja0,botîfblulalatrhz>x>tbrblfsasbguhotb
frmblmbbxbnuçîf9
1°-Jhoea 0 ,Nfjuoa 0 3°-Jhoea 0 ,Nfjuoa 1 >°-Jhoea 0 ,Nfjuoa 3

=°-Jhoea 1 ,Nfjuoa 0 2°-Jhoea 1,Nfjuoa 1 4°-Jhoea 1 ,Nfjuoa 3
7°-Jhoea 3 ,Nfjuoa 0 5°-Jhoea 3 ,Nfjuoa 1 8°-Jhoea 3 ,Nfjuoa 3
Para rbajhzar f prbbonehlbotf mb mamfs bl ula latrhz,

uthjhzalf
uthjhzalfs
s bst
bstrut
rutura
uras
s mb rbp
rbpbth
bthçîf
çîf aoh
aohoea
oeama
mas.
s. A prh
prhlbh
lbhra
ra bst
bstrut
rutura
ura
sbrárbdbrbotbàsjhoeas,basbguomaàsnfjuoas.
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Talfsajtbrarfajgfrhtl
TalfsajtbrarfajgfrhtlfmaKrf
fmaKrfBogboearhas(Dhgura3.37)
Bogboearhas(Dhgura3.37)paraqub
paraqub
sbiaarlazboamaaquhjflbtragblpbrnfrrhmablnamamhamfléspbjfs
12narrfs.Agfratblfsmfhsìomhnbs,‚mhamflés“b‚narrf“,usarblfs
fmhamflésnflfìomhnbparaasjhoeas,botîftbrblfs>1jhoeas,bfs
narrfs nfo
narrfs thouarî
nfothouarîf
f sbomf
sbomf as nfjuoas
nfjuoas,, pfrtao
pfrtaotf
tf tbrblf
tbrblfs
s ula
ula latrhz
latrhz
>1x12.FajgfrhtlfbstárbprbsbotamfoaDhgura3.35-a.Oajhoea=
bst
bstá
á mbnjara
mbnjarama
ma a varháv
varhávbj
bj nflpfs
nflpfsta ta luj
lujthm
thmhlb
hlboshoshfoa
foajj mhstãonha nfl
napanhmambparaarlazboar=42vajfrbs(>1mhasb12narrfs);oasjhoeas
2b4bstîfmbnjaramasasvarhávbhsmbnfotrfjbmfjaçfmbrbpbthçîf
bva
b varh
rháv
ávbh
bhs
s ar
ara
aar
arla
lazbzboa
oarrfs
fs mbla
mblahs
hs vajf
vajfrb
rbs.
s. F rbbo
rbbone
nehl
hlbo
botf
tf mfs
mfs
mamfshohnhanflabstruturambrbpbthçîfoajhoea7,atrhcuhomffvajfr
0àvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb mha,blsbguhma,oajhoea5,hohnhaasbguoma
,blsbguhma,oajhoea5,hohnhaasbguoma
bstruturambrbpbthçîfqubnfotrfjaránamaulmfs12narrfs.Pfrtaotf,
oaprhlbhrabxbnuçîfavarhávbj mhstãonhahráarlazboarfvajfrmhghtamf
hráarlazboarfvajfrmhghtamf
ofìomhnb(0,0)9mhstaonha[0\[0\;oasbguomabxbnuçîffj açfvfjtaparaa
jhoea5,agfranflavarhávbj narrfvajbomf1,botîffvajfrmhghtamfsbrá
vajbomf1,botîffvajfrmhghtamfsbrá
arlazboamfblmhstaonha[0\[1\,vbiaqubavarhávbj mhaoîfluma,hssf
oîfluma,hssf
pfrqu
pfrqubbjabstásbomfusama
bbjabstásbomfusamaparalarnarasjhoeas
paralarnarasjhoeasmalatrhz,bajhoea
malatrhz,bajhoea
sþlumaquaomftfmasasnfjuoasdfral
sþlumaquaomftfmasasnfju oasdfralprbbonehma
prbbonehmas.Paranamavajfr
s.Paranamavajfr
mhghtamf,avarhávbj tftajanulujafrbsujtamf(jhoea13)b,apþstfmfsfs
anulujafrbsujtamf(jhoea13)b,apþstfmfsfs
=42vajfrbssbrblprbbonehmfs,fsjaçfs mbrbpbthçîfsbbonbrral(jhoea
mbrbpbthçîfsbbonbrral(jhoea
1>b1=)baquaothmambmbquhjýlbtrfspbrnfrrhm
1>b1=)baquaothmambmbquhjýlbtrfspbrnfrrhmasoflésèhodfrlama.
quaothmambmbquhjýlbtrfspbrnfrrhm asoflésèhodfrlama.
OaDhgura3.35-ceáulbsqublarbprbsbotaomfabstruturamb
mamfs mhstaonha[>1\[12\.Pbrnbcaqubulalatrhzèoavbrmambauohîf
.Pbrnbcaqubulalatrhzèoavbrmambauohîf
mb várh
mb várhfs
fs vbtf
vbtfrb
rbs.
s. Para
Para nama
nama mh
mha
a tb
tblf
lfs
s ul
ul vbtf
vbtfr
r nfl
nfl 12
12 nfju
nfjuoa
oass
rbprbsbotaomffsnarrfs.
Dhgura3.35|
Ajgfrhtlfusaomflatrhz
usaomflatrhz
a) 1. Ajgf
Ajgfrhtlf
rhtlf‚Nfotrfj
‚NfotrfjbNarrf
bNarrf
3. hohnhf
>. var
=. mhstaonha[>1\[12\
mhstao nha[>1\[12\9rbaj
9rbaj
2. mha,narrf9hotbhrf
4. tftaj,vajfr9rbaj
7. para (mha mb 0 atè >0 passf 1)daça
5. para (narrf mb 0 atè 1= passf 1)daça
8. Bsnrbva(‚Mhghtbamhstãonhapbrnfrrhmapbjfna
Bsnrbva(‚Mhghtbamhstãonhapb rnfrrhmapbjfnarrf“)
rrf“)
10. Jbha(vajfr)
11. mhstaonha[mha
mhstaonha[mha
mha\[\[narrf
\[narrf\
narrf\ Ö vajfr
13. tftaj Ö tftaj
tftaj+mhsta
+mhstaonha[
onha[mha
mha\[narrf
mha\[
\[narrf
narrf\\
1>. dhlpara
1=. dhlpara
12. Bsnrbva(‚Quaothmamb
Bsnrbv a(‚Quaothmambmbquhjý
mbquhjýlbtrfs
lbtrfspbrnfrrhmfsoflés9“,tftaj)
pbrnfrrhmfsoflés9“,tftaj)
14. dhl
Narrfs
c)
Mha0 0 1 3 ....... 13
13 1
1>
> 1=
1=
Mha1 0 1 3 ....... 13
13 1
1>
> 1=
1=
.. Mhas
Mha>0 0 1 3 ....... 13
13 1
1>
> 1=
1=
Tarhávbjnflpfstaebtbr
Tarhávbjnflpfstaebtbrfgéoba
pfstaebtbrfgéoba
A uth
uthjhz
jhzaçî
açîf
f mas
mas va
varhá
rhávbh
vbhs
s nfl
nflpfs
pfstas
tas apr
aprbom
bomhma
hmas
s atè
atè f lfl
lflbot
botf
f
pbrlhtblfthlhzarfarlazboalbotfmbvajfrbsmflbslfthpf(sþ
hotbhrfs„sþrbahsbtn.),pfrèlbxhstbulthpfmbvarhávbjnflpfsta
qubpbrlhtbarlazboarvajfrbsmbmhdbrbotbsthpfsmbotrfmalbsla
bstrutura,taj
bstrutura, tajbstrutur
bstrutura
aè
ènfoebn
nfoebnhma
hmanflf
nflfrbghstr
rbghstrf
f(LAOYAOF;
(LAOYAOF;LA]F^;
JFRSBOÇF,3012;PHTAIROHFSbtaj.,3013;^FDDOBS,301>).
Aot
otbs
bs mb mbnbnja
jara
rarl
rlfsfs ula varh rháávbj
bj nf
nfllpfs
fsta
ta eb
ebtb
tbrf
rfg
géo
éoba
ba
è pr
prbn
bnhs
hsf
f nr
nrha
har
r su
sua
a bs
bstr
trut
utur
ura,a, fu
fu sb
sbia
ia,, fs
fs na
nalp
lpfs
fs qu
qub
b da
darî
rîf
f pa
part
rtb
b
mbss
mbssavarháv
avarhávbj.Bssbnfoiuo
bj.Bssbnfoiuotfmbnalpfs
mavarhávbjnflpfstabmbpbom
mavarhávbjnf tfmbnalpfs  èf
lpfstabmbpbombrámffcibthvfm èfqubmbtbrl
qubmbtbrlhoafthpf
hoafthpf
brámffcibthvfmbnamaapjhnaçîf
bnamaapjhnaçîf. .
Tbia nflf sb mbnjara ula varhávbj nflpfsta ebtbrfgéoba9
Rthjhzalfsapajavra‚ thpf“parambhxarbxpjìnhtfqubbstalfsnrhaomf
ulofvfthpfmbvarhávbjqubèulrbghstrf(jhoea1).Bssbofvfthpf
prbnhsambuloflbparahmbothdhná-jf(hmbothdhnamfr)bulnfoiuotfmb
prbnhsambuloflbparahmbothdhná-jf(hmbothdhna mfr)bulnfoiuotfmb
nalpfsqubnflbçaasbrmbnjaramfpbjfnflaomf‚rbghstrf“(jhoea3)
bdhoajhzanfl‚dhlrbghstrf“(jhoea=).Botrbfhoìnhfbfdhoajmfrbghstrf
pfmblf
pfmb lfs
s mb
mbnj
njar
arar
ar qu
quao
aota
tas
s va
varh
rháv
ávbh
bhs
s (n
(nal
alpfpfs)
s) df
dfrb
rbl
l ob
obnb
nbss
ssár
árha
has.
s.
Apþ
Apþssbrdhoajhzam
ssbrdhoajhzamff
ffofvf
ofvfthpf,casta
thpf,castabsnfjebrulavarhá
bsnfjebrulavarhávbjb
vbjbatrhc
atrhcuhr
uhr
foflbhmbothdhnamfrmfthpfnrhamfàvarhávbj(jhoea4).
1. thpf
3. :hmbothdhnamfr? < rbghstrf
>. :n alpfsnfl
:nalpfsnfl
alpfsnflsbus
sbusthpfs
thpfs?
thpfs?
=. dhlrbghstrf
2. var
:varhávbj? 9 hmbothdhnamfr
hmbo
hmbothdhna
thdhnamfr
mfr
4.
Paralbjefrbotbombrlfs,valfsnrharulavarhávbjnflpfsta
ebtbrfgéobaparaarlazboarfsmamfsmbulafrmblmbsbrvhçfmb
laoutboçîf.Paranamapbmhmfmblaoutboç îfdbhtfoablprbsaè
gbramfulnþmhgf,amata,fvajfr,fbquhpalbotf,fmbpartalbotf
b  a mbs n r h ç îf ma lao ut bo ç îf  r bqubr h ma ( D h g ur a 3 . 3 8  -  a) .
]f
]fm mfs bs
bsssbs
bs bjbjbl
blbo
botf
tfss pfmbl
bl sbrbr agru
ruppamfs bl bl ula ùoh ohna
na
varhávbjnflpfstaebtbrf géoba,vbiafnþmhgfoaDhgu
géoba,vbiafnþmhgfoaDhgura3.38 ra3.38 c,f
ajgfrhtlfparanrharbssbrbghstrf.Oajhoea3ènrhamfulrbghstrf
nfloflb‚DhneaVLaoutbonaf“,obssabstruturabxhstbl4nalpfs
( v ar h áv b h s )  n f l s b us  r b s b n t h v f s  t h f s .  F  t h f  b s b n h d h n a m f  o îf
fnupabspaçfoalblþrha(PHTAIROHFSbtaj.,3013),pfrtaotfoîf
pfmbsbranbssamfmhrbtalbotb.Parauthjhzarlfsfrbghstrfnrhamf,
prbnhsalfsassfnhá-jfaulavarhávbj,èfqubdazfnflaomfoa
jhoea11,atrhcuhàvarhávbj frmbl^brvhnffthpf
fthpf DhneaVLaoutbonaf
DhneaVLaoutbonaf.
Dhgura3.38|Dfrlujárhfparapbmhmfmblaoutboçîf
Dhgura3.38|Dfrlujárhfparapbmhmfmblaoutboçîf
1. thpf 
3. DhneaVLaoutbonaf < rbghstrf

nfmhgf 9hotb
nfmhgf 9hotbhrf
hrf
>.
bquhpalbotf9tbxtf
=.
mata9mata
2.
mbpartalbotf9tbxtf
4.
7. mbsnrhnaf9tbxtf
vajfr9rbaj
5.
dhlrbghstrf
8.
10. var
11. frmbl^brvhnf 9 DhneaVLaoutbonaf
DhneaVL
DhneaVLaou
aoutbon
tbonaf
af
Dfotb9bjacframapbjfautfr
Sbdjhta
Blulavarhávbjnflpfstaebtbrfgéobapfmblfsarlazboarvajfrbsmb
mhdbrbotbsthpfs,nrhaomfulatacbjanflmhvbrsasnfjuoasqubsbmbsbia
arlazboar.Quajfuquahsnrhtèrhfsmbvblsbrusamfsparambtbrlhoar
quahsnalpfsagruparblula bstruturanflpfstaebtbrfgéoba6
ajgfrhtlfs. 
R3-Bjblbotfsmb 101
Ajbhturababsnrhtambvajfrbsmbotrfmbulavarhávbjnflpfsta
sîfdbhtasuthjhzaomffoflbmavarhávbj pfotf,nalpfasbrjhmffu
atrhcuìmf9 varhavbj.nalpf.
Of
Of of
ofss
ssf
f bx
bxbl
blpj
pjf
f ma
ma Dh
Dhgu
gura
ra 3.
3.38
38 para
para ar
arla
lazb
zboa
oar
r ma
mamf
mfs
s oa
bstruturanrhama,mbvblfsuthjhzar9
frmbl^brvhnf.nfmhgf Ö 1351
frmbl^brvhnf.bquhpalbotf Ö ‚Ar
‚Arnfomhnhfoam
nfomhnhfoamf“
nfomhnhfoamf“
frmbl^brvhnf.mata930/11/3017

B pa
para
ra jb
jbr
r fs
fs ma
mamf
mfs
s ut
uthjhjhz
hzal
alfs
fs9
9 Jb
Jbha
ha(f
(frm
rmbl
bl^b
^brv
rvhn
hnf.
f.nf
nfmh
mhgf
gf)
) b
asshlsunbsshvalbotb.
Avarhávbjqubdfhatrhcuìmaàbstrutura DhneaVLaoutbonafènapaz
ènapaz
mbarlazboarapboasulafrmblmbsbrvhçf,pfrèlbjapfmbrhasbr
mbnjaramanflfulvbtfr,basshlarlazboarha O frmbosmbsbrvhçfs.
var
frmbl^brvhnf[O
frmbl^brvhnf[O\9DhneaVLaou
\9DhneaVLaoutbonaf
tbonaf
Pbsquhsblahs
Èluhtfhlpfrtaotbqubvfnéjbhafnapìtujf7mbLAOYAOF,IfsèAugustf
Èluhtfhlpfrtaotbqubvfnéjbhafnapìtujf7 mbLAOYAOF,IfsèAugustf
O.G.;LA]F^,Bnhvajmf;JFRSBOÇF,AomrèBvaomrf. Ajgfrhtlfs9]ènohnas
mbPrfgralaçîf.3.bm.^îfPaujf9Èrhna,3012,paralahfrbsmbtajebsa
rbspbhtfmauthjhzaçîfmbvarhávbhsnflpfstasebtbrfgéobas.
rbspbhtfmauthjhzaçîfmb varhávbhsnflpfstasebtbrfgéobas.
Sfthoasmbajgfrhtlfs„Duoçòbs
]fmfs fs ajgfrhtlfs mbsbovfjvhmfs atè f lflbotf sîf
nf
nflplpfs fstf
tfs
s pf
pfrr ul
ul ùo
ùohn
hnf
f cj
cjfn
fnf
f mb
mbjhjhlh
lhta
tamf
mf pf
pfr
r ul
ul ho
hoìn
ìnhf
hf b ul
dho
dhoaj.
aj. Nfostr
Nfostruhr
uhr ajg
ajgfrh
frhtlf
tlfs
s mbs
mbssa
sa dfr
dfrla
la pfm
pfmb
b tfr
tfroar
oar a nfm
nfmhdh
hdhnaç
naçîfîf
nflpjbxaàlbmhmaqubaquaothmambmbnflaomfsaulbota,ajèl
mb
mb an
anar
arrb
rbta
tar
r bl
bl rb
rbpb
pbththçî
çîf
f mb
mb nf
nfla
laomomfsfs bl
bl aj
ajgu
guos
os na
nasf
sfs.s. Pa
Para
ra
nfot
nf otfr
froa
oar
r bs
bssb
sb pr
prfc
fcjb
jblala,, pf
pfmb
mblf
lfss mh
mhvh
vhmh
mhr
r fs
fs nf
nfla
laom
omfsfs mb
mb ul
ajgfrhtlfblsuc-rfthoas(duoçòbs),asshl,ajèlmbfrgaohzarlfs
lbjefrf
lbjefrfajgfrhtlf,mhvhmhlfsfs
ajgfrhtlf,mhvhmhlfsfsnflaomfsbl
nflaomfsblduoçòbsbspbnìdh
duoçòbsbspbnìdhnas nas
bbvhtalfsrbpbthrnþmhgfs.
Para nf
Para nfos
ostrtruh
uhr
r as
as su
suc-
c-rf
rfth
thoa
oas
s pr
prbn
bnhs
hsal
alfs fs an
anrb
rbsn
snbo
botatar
r ajgu
ajguosos
bjblbotfsblofssfsajgfrhtlfs.OaDhgura3.>0f hohnhfuthjhzamf
uthjhzamf
oajhoea7larnaarfthoaprhonhpaj(quaomfoîfusalfssuc-rfthoas
bssaèa ùohna),vbiaqubaotbsmbs
bssaèaùohna),vbiaq sarfthoaprhonhpajbxhstbulof
ubaotbsmbssarfthoaprhonhp ajbxhstbulofvfvf
cjfnfmbnflaomfs(jhoeas3a4).Apþsatrhcuhroflbmfajgfrhtlf
‚jhoea 1“
‚jhoea 1“prbnh
prbnhsalf
salfsmbnjararasvarhávbh
smbnjararasvarhávbhsqub
squbsbrî
sbrîf
futhjh
uthjhzama
zamastaotf
staotf
oassuc-rfthoasnflfoarfthoaprhonhpaj(jhoea3).Fprþxhlfpassf
èbsnrbvbrassuc-rfthoas.OaDhgura3.>0bxhstbapboasulasuc-
rf
rfth
thoa
oa mb
mbnj
njar
aram
ama
a(j(jho
hoea
eass>
>a
a4)
4),
,vb
vbia
ia qu
qub
ba amb
mbnj
njar
araç
açîf
îf è
èdbh
dbhta
ta nf
nfl
l
trésnflaomfs9(h)‚ûc-rfthoa“parahomhnarqubajhsbrámbnjarama
uladuoçîf;(hh)uloflbparabssasuc-rfthoa;(hhh)‚(Parãlbtrfs)“,
shgohdhna qub ula suc-r -rf
fthoa pfmb rbnb nbccbr varhávbhs bx bxttbroas
abja.^flbotbmbpfhsmbmbnjararasvarhávbhsbassuc-rfthoasè
qu
qubb pf
pfmbmblf
lfss hoh
hohnh
nhar
ar a rf
rfth
thoa
oa pr
prhon
honhphpaj
aj (j(jhoe
hoea
a 7)
7).
. ]f
]fmf
mf aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlf,
f,
hombpbomb
hombpb ombotb
otblbo
lbotb tb mf
mf oùl
oùlbrfbrf mb su
suc-r
c-rfth fthoas
oas,
, sbl
sblprb
prb hohn
hohnhar
hará
á a
bxbnuçîfpbjarfthoaprhonhpaj.
Dhgura3.>0|Bstruturaparanrharsuc-rfthoas
1. Ajgfrhtlf‚OflbVajgfrhtlf“
3. var
>. ûc-rfthoa ‚OflbVsucSfthoa1“(Parãlbtrfs)
=. hohnhf
2. var
4. dhlûc-Sfthoa
7. hohnhf
5. var
8. dhlAjgfrhtlf
Para botbombr brl

lfs a uthjhzaçîf mb suc-rfthoas, valfs nrhar
ul
ul aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlf
f qu
qub
b nf
nfov
ovbrt
brtb
b ul
ulaa nb
nbrt
rta
a tbl
tblpb
pbra
ratu
tura
ra mh
mhgh
ghta
tama
ma bl
grau
graus
s Nb
Nbjs
jshu
hus
s pa
para
ra gr
grau
aus
s Kb
Kbjv
jvho
ho.
. Tb
Tbia
ia oa
oa sf
sfju
juçî
çîf
f ma
ma Dh
Dhgu
gura
ra 3.
3.>1
>1
qubfajgfrhtlfpfssuhmfhscjfnfs,jhoeas3a5bjhoeas8a1>.
Of prh
Of rhlb
lbhr
hrf
f cjf
jfnf
nf bs
bstî
tîf
f sbo
bom
mf mbn
bnja
jara
ram
mas varháv
rhávbh
bhss qub sbr
brîîf
uthjhzamastaotfoasuc-rfthoaquaotfoarfthoaprhonhpaj(jhoea>).Oa
uthjhzamastaotfoasuc-rfthoaqua otfoarfthoaprhonhpaj(jhoea>).Oa
jhoea=tbl-sbambnjaraçîfmasuc-rft
jhoea=tbl-sbambnjaraçî fmasuc-rfthoa,qubdfhoflba
hoa,qubdfhoflbamanflf
manflf
Nfovbrtbr]blpbraturabbssaduoçîfrbnbcbulvajfrbxtbrofmf
bbssaduoçîfrbnbcbulvajfrbxtbrofmf
thpfrbaj.Aduoçîfusabssbvajfrbxtbrofparadazbranfovbrsîfoa
jhoea4,blsbguhm
jhoea4,blsbguhmaèbsnrhtaatblpbra
aèbsnrhtaatblpbraturanfov
turanfovbrthma
brthma(jhoea7).Oa
(jhoea7).Oa
rfthoaprhonhpaj(jhoeas8a1>),èsfjhnhtamfafusuárhfmhghtarula
tblpbrat urablgrausNbjshus(jhoea10),
tblpbraturabl grausNbjshus(jhoea10),blsbguhmabssb
blsbguhmabssbvajfrè
vajfrèjhmf
jhmf
bguarmamfmbotrfmavarhávbj tblpbraturaNbjshus(jhoeas11b13)b
pfr
pfr dhl
dhl asu
a suc-r
c-rfth
fthoaè
oaè hov
hovfna
fnama
pfotfèqubaduoçîfèbxbnutama. ma (jho
(jhoea13),fu
ea13),fusbi
sbia,sflb
a,sflbotbobss
otbobssb
b
ajgfrhtlfs. 
R3-Bjblbotfsmb 10>
Dhgura3.>1| Ajgfrhtlf
Dhgura3.>1|Ajgfrhtlf
Ajgfrhtlfparanfovbrtbr
paranfovbrtbrtblpbraturausaomf
tblpbraturausaomfsuc-rfthoa
suc-rfthoa
1. Ajgfrhtlf‚]blpbratura“
3. var
>. tblpbraturaNbjshus,tblpbraturaKbjvho
tblpbraturaNbjshus,tblpbraturaKbj
tblpbraturaKbjvho
vho 9
9rbaj
rbaj
=. ûc-rfthoa Nfov
Nfovbrtbr]b
brtbr]blpbra
lpbratura
tu
tura tblpbratur
ra ((tblpb
tblpb raturaNbj
aNbjshus
shus 9rbaj
9rbaj))
2. hohnhf
4. tblpbraturaKbjvho Ö tblpbr
tblpbratura
aturaNbjs
Nbjshus
hus +
+37>
37>
7. Bsnrbva(‚]blpbraturanfovbrthma9“,tblpbraturaKbjvho)
Bsnrbva(‚]blpbraturanfovbrthma9“,tblpbraturaKbjvho)
5. dhlûc-Sfthoa
8. hohnhf
10. Bsnrbva(‚MhghtbulatblpbraturablgrausNbjshus“)
11. Jbha(tblpbraturaNbjshus)
13. Nfovbrtbr]blpbratura(tblpbraturaNbjshus
Nfovbrtbr]blpbratura(tblpbraturaNbjshus)
tblpbraturaNbjshus)
1>. dhl
Pbsquhsblahs
Assuc-rfthoassîfbxtrblalbotbusamasoanfostruçîfmbajgfrhtlfs.
Aprbomalahssfcrbsuauthjhzaçîfj bomf9
• Fnapìtujf13mfjhvrfLAOYAOF,IfsèAugustfO.G.;FJHTBHSA,
IayrDhgubhrbmfmb. Bstumfmhrhghmfmbajgfrhtlfs .1>.bm.^îfPaujf9
Èrhna,3010.
• Fnapìtujf5mfjhvrfLAOYAOF,IfsèAugustfO.G.;LA]F^,Bnhvajmf;
JFRSBOÇF,AomrèBvaomrf. Ajgfrhtlfs9]ènohnasmbPrfgralaçîf.
3.bm.^îfPaujf9 Èrhna,3012.
• Fs
Fs vì
vìmb
mbfs
fs 13
13 b 1>
1> ma
ma sèrh
sèrhb
b ‚N
‚Nurs
ursf
f mb
mb Jþ
Jþgh
ghna
na mb
mb Prfgr
Prfgral
alaçî
açîf“
f“ mf
prfdbssfrGustavfGuaoacara,mhspfoìvbjbl :ettps9//gff.gj/mcD
:ettps9//gff.gj/mcDxzU?.
xzU?.
Anbssfbl933ofv.3017.
Alcfsfsjhvrfsbstîfmhspfoìvbhsoachcjhftbnavhrtuaj:ettps9//chcjhftbna-
vhrtuaj.nfl?Anbssfbl933ofv.3017.
Narf(a) bstumaotb9 dfh mbshgoamf a vfné mbsbovfjvbr ul

ajgfrhtlfparaaKrfBogboearhasnflffcibthvfmbaiumarfrfcý
mablprbsaafrgaohzarasnahxasofbstfqub,pfhsbxhstbularbgra
qubulanahxanfllahfrpbsfoîfpfmbdhnarsfcrbula
qubulanahxanfllahfrpbsf oîfpfmbdhnarsfcrbulalahsjbvb,
lahsjbvb,
pf
pfrta
rtaotf
otf frfcýtblqub‚sac
frfcýtblqub‚sacbr“qua
br“quajjfpbsfmb
fpbsfmbnam
namanahxa
anahxa..Ajè
Ajèl
l
mhssf,fgajpîf
mhss mfbstf
f,fgajpîfmf bstfqubpfss
qubpfssuh=0lbtrfsmbajtura,
uh=0lbtrfsmbajtura,paraqubf
paraqubf
rfcýsahcaquaomfpararmbblphjear,bjbmbvb‚sacbr“aajturamb
nam
nama
anah
nahxa.
xa. A
Albl
lblþrh
þrha
amf
mfrfc
rfcý
ýè
è jhl
jhlhta
htama,
ma, pf
pfss
ssuho
uhomf
mf nap
napanh
anhma
mamb
mb
paraarlazboarhodfrlaçòbsmb300nahxas.
Nfl
Nfl fnfoebnhl
fnfoebnhlbotfqubamqu
botfqubamquhrhuatèaquh,
hrhuatèaquh,vfnépfmbprfpfr
vfnépfmbprfpfr
ula sfjuçîf nflf f ajgfrhtlf ma Dhgura 3.>3. F ajgfrhtlf
pfss
pfssuh
uh ul
ula
a su
suc-
c-rf
rfth
thoa
oa pa
para
ra rb
rbaj
ajhza
hzar
r f bl
blph
phje
jeal
albot
botf
f qub
qub rb
rbnb
nbcb
cb
ulvajfrbxtbrofmfthpfhotbhrf‚nahxa“,fusbia,rbnbcbquajnahxa
mbvbráblphjear(jhoeas3a2).Oajhoea4hohnha-sbarfthoaprhonhpaj,
f  prrfgéoba
ebtb
ebtbrfghlbéoba
hrf p assra
 pa fgu
para èarmar
guarmnrhar
arasul
as afrlaçò
 hod bstraçòbs
hodfrl utubs
ra sf
mbcrb
 va rahánah
sfcrb vbjxa
 nf(jho
nahxa leas
pfsta7
(jhoeas
a 13
13).
). Oa
Oa jhjhoe
oeaa 1=
1= è mbn
bnjajara
ram mf ulul vbt
btfr
fr nf
nfll nanap panhm
nhmambmb para
ar
arla
lazbzboaoarr 30300
0 hod
hodfr
frla
laçò çòbs
bs mfmf thpf
thpf MamfsVNahxa, fu sbi biaa, 300
hodfrlaçòb
hodfrla çòbs s ma
ma var
varháv
hávbj
bj ebtb
ebtbrfgrfgéoba
éoba nrh
nrhama
ama.. Ma
Mas
s jho
jhoeas
eas 17 atè
atè 33
tblfsulabstruturambrbpbthçîfparaguarmar300vajfrbsmbotrf
mb
mb na
nam ma na
nal lpf ma varh rháv
ávbj
bj eb
ebtb
tbrf
rfg
géo
éoba
ba hodfrlanaf. Tbia qub
usalfs hodfrlanaf[nahxa\, pfhs bs bsssa varháv
hávbj è ul vbtfr, r, botîf
tblfsqubusarsbusìomhnbsparaarlazboarfsmamfs.Oajhoea3>a
varhávbj nahxaèofvalbotbzbrama,pfhsbjabstásbomfuthjhzamapara
èofvalbotbzbrama,pfhsbjabstásbomfuthjhzamapara
anbssarfsìomhnbsmfvbtfr.Masjhoeas3=a35tblfsfutrabstrutura
mbrbpbthçîf,agfranfltbstbofdhoaj,parablphjearasnahxasatè
qubaajturamaphjeasbialbofrfuhgua ja=0lbtrfs,qubèaajtura
mfgajpîf.Oajhoea32asuc-rfthoanrhamaènealama,oajhoea34a
ajturamaphjeaèatuajhzama,oajhoea37fìomhnbmanahxaèatuajhzamf
boajhoea35ftbstbmaajturaèrbajhzamf.
Dhgura3.>3|Ajgfrhtlfparaarlazboarmamfsparafrfcý.
Dhgura3.>3| Ajgfrhtlfparaarlazboarmamfsparafrfcý.
1. Ajgf
Ajgfrhtlf
rhtlf‚Prfg
‚PrfgralarSfc
ralarSfcf“
f“
3. ûc-rfthoa BlphjearVNahxa(nahxa9hotbhrf)
>. hohnhf Mbnjaraomfulasuc-rftho
Mbnjaraomfula suc-rfthoa
a
=. nflaomfsparablphjear
2. dhlûc-Sfthoa
4. hohnhf
7. thpf
5. MamfsVNahxa < rbghstrf
8. pbsf9rbaj
10. ajtura9rbaj Mbnjaraomfulav
Mbnjaraomfulavarhávbj
arhávbj
11. jargura9rbaj nflpfstaebtbrfgéoba
13. dhlrbghstrf
1>. var
1=. hodfrlanaf[300\ 9 MamfsVNahxa
MamfsVNahx
MamfsVNahxa a
12. nahxa9hotbhra
14. mamf1,ma
mamf 1,mamf3,mam
mf3,mamf>,a
f>,ajturaPhjea
jtura
jturaPh
Phjea
jea 9rbaj
9rbaj

ajgfrhtlfs. 

17. para (nahxa

(nahxa mb0atè188passf1) daça
15. Jbha(mamf1,mamf3,mamf>)
18. hodfrlanaf[nahxa
hodfrlanaf[ \.pbsf Ö mamf1
nahxa\.
nahxa\.pbsf
Rsaomfulabstrutura
Rsaomfulabs truturambrbpbthçîf
mbrbpbthçîf
hodfrlanaf[ \.ajturaÖ mamf3
nahxa\.
nahxa\.ajtura
paraarlazboar300
paraa rlazboar300vajfrbs
vajfrbs
hodfrlanaf[ \.jarguraÖ mamf>
nahxa\.jargura
nahxa\.
33. dhlpara
3>. nahxa Ö 0
3=. daça ‚Nealaomf“asuc-rfthoan
‚Nealaomf“asuc-rfthoan rhama
32. BlphjearVNahxa(nahxa)
Rsaomfulabstrutura
Rsaomfulabstrutu ramb
mb
34. ajturaPhjea Ö ajtu
ajturaPhj
raPhjea
ea +hodfrlanaf[nahxa\.
+ho
+hodfrlanaf[nahxa\.ajtura
ajtura
Sbpbthçîfparaf
Sbpbthçîfpa rafrfcý
rfcý
37. nahxa Ö nahxa+1 sacbrquaomf
35. boquaotf (ajtu
(ajturaPhj
raPhjea
ea :<=0)
:<=
:<=0) pararmbblphjear
38. dhl
Parasfjhmarsbunfoebnhlbotfblajgfrhtlf,èhlprbsnhomìvbj
prat nar, pfrtaotf, rbbsnrbva f a gfr tlf a tbrao f f oflb as
varhávbhs(shlpjbsbnflpfsta
varhávbhs(shl pjbsbnflpfsta)bmasuc-rfthoa.
)bmasuc-rfthoa.
Frmboaçîfmbvajfrbsblulvbtfr
Rlamasbstruturasmbmamfslahsuthjhzamasparaarlazboalbotf
mbhodfrlaçòbsmflbslfthpfèavarhávbjnflpfs
mbhodfrlaçòbsmflbslfthpfèav arhávbjnflpfstaeflfgéoba.
taeflfgéoba.
Pfrèl,luhtasvbzbs,ajèlmbarlazboarfsmamfsèprbnhsffrmboá-
jfsblfrmblnrbsnbotbfumbnrbsnbotb.AblprbsaUjebnfotratfu
parabsnrbvbrulajgfrhtlfparafrmboarfsrbghstrfsmaquaothmamb
mbnajfrlbmhmfpfrulsbosfranamamhamuraotbtfmfflés.A
parthrmbssbsmamfs,ablprbsanfosbguhrálapbarsbefuvbajgula
aoflajhamuraotbflés.
shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
PararbsfjvbrfprfcjblamablprbsaU,vfnémbvbráusarul
vbtfrnfl>1pfshçòbsparaarlazboaratblpbratu
nfoebnbr
nfoebnb rf
fva
vajfr
jfr mbnama
mbnama mha
mha,
,vfn
vfné
émbv
mbvbrá
brá us ramhárha.Apþs
usarulasuc-r
arulasuc-rfthfthoa
oa
parafrmboarfajgfrhtlf.
Hohnhalfsfajgfrhtlfnrhaomfulvbtfrnflnapanhmambpara
arlazboar>1vajfrbsmfthpfrbaj lbmhmas[>1\(jhoea>).Bssavarhávbj
(jhoea>).Bssavarhávbj
bstádframarfthoaprhonhpajbdframas
bstádframarf thoaprhonhpajbdframasuc-rfthoa,pfrta
uc-rfthoa,pfrtaotfmhzblfs
otfmhzblfs
qubbjaèulavarhávbjgjfcaj,pfhsèanbssìvbjblquajqubrpartb
mfajgfrhtlf.Talfsagfravbrfqubanfotbnboarfthoaprhonhpaj
(jhoeas3>a>1)9oasjhoeas32b34sîfnrhamasmuasvarhávbhs,nflf
(jhoeas3>a>1)9oasjhoeas32b34sîfnrhamasmuasvarhávbhs,nfl f
bja
bjas
s bs
bstî f mbot
tîf mbotrf rf mb
mb ul
ulaa rf
rfththoa, sî
oa, sîf
f mhta
mhtas s va
varh
rháv
ávbh s jf
bhs jfna nahs , pf
hs, pfhshs
futrassuc-rfthoasoîfpfssublanbssfafvajfrmbssasvarhávbhs.
M a s  j h o e a s  3 7  a  >0  t b l - s b  u l a  b s t r u t u r a  m b  r b p b t h ç î f  p a r a
arlazbo arfs>1vajfrbsmbotrfmfvbtfr.B
arlazboarfs >1vajfrbsmbotrfmfvbtfr.Boajhoea>1è oajhoea>1ènealamaa
nealamaa
suc-rfthoaparafrmboarfsvajfrbsarlazboamfs,passaomfnflf
parãlbtrffvbtfr‚lbmhmas“.Oasuc-rfthoatblfstfmaajþghna
obnbssárhaparafrmboarulvbtfr(jhoeas=a33).
Obssb
Obs sbajg
ajgfrh
frhtlf
tlf,,a
afrm
frmboa
boaçîfçîf èdbh
è dbhta
tanfl
nflpa parao
raomf
mf 1
1va
vajfr
jfr,,nfl
nfl
tfmfs ovajfrbs, ovbzbs.Nflftblfs>1vajfrbs,tbrblfs>1x>0,
fusbia,8>0nflparaçòbs(O*(O-1)).Bssasrbpbthçòbssîfrbajhzamas
us
usaaom
omff mu
muaas bs
bstr
tru
utu
tura
rass mb
mb rb bt
bthh òbs
bs.
. A varháávbj nfotrfjb è usama
varh
oabstruturambrbpbthçîfbxtbroaparadazbrnflqubfs>1vajfrbs
sbialvbrhdhnamfs,iáavarhávbj mha,oabstruturahotbroa,èusamapara
nflpararfvajfrmfmhanflfsmblahsvajfrbs.Nasffvajfrmfmha
sbialahfrqubamfprþxhlfmha(jhoea11),bss bsvajfrbssîftrfnamfs
usaomfula
usaomfulavarhávbjauxhjharpara
varhávbjauxhjharparaarlazboar
arlazboarf fmamf
mamftblpfrarh
tblpfrarhalbotb
albotb
(jhoeas13a1=),
(jhoeas13a 1=),sbomfbssbprfn
sbomfbssbprfnbssf bssfrbpbthmf
rbpbthmfatèqubtfmfsfsmhas
atèqubtfmfsfsmhas
tboealshmfnflparamfsbotrbsh.
Bssbajgfrhtlfènfoebnhmfnflf Cuccjb^frt;asshstaabssb ;asshstaabssb
vìmbfparaaiumarabotbombrsbuduonhfoalbotf:ettps9//www.
yfutucb.nfl/watne6v<jjU3^pMkQMn?Anbssfbl933ofv.3017.
Dhgura3.>>|Ajgfrhtlf
Dhgura3.>>| Ajgfrhtlf
Ajgfrhtlfparafrmboaçîf
parafrmboaçîfmbvbtfr
mbvbtfrCuccjbsfrt
Cuccjbsfrt
1. Ajgfrhtlf
Ajgfrhtlf‚Frmboanaf
‚FrmboanafTbtfr“
Tbtfr“
3. var
Tarhávbjanbssìvbjbltfmfajgfrhtlf(varhávbjgjfcaj)
>. lbmhmas[>1\9rbaj
=. ûc-rfthoa FrmboarVTbtfr(lbmhmas[>1\9rbaj)
2. hohnhf
4. var
7. mha,nfotrfjb9hotbhrf
Tarhávbhsanbssìvbhssflbotboa
5. aux
aux 9rbaj
9
9rb
rbaj
rfthoaFrmboarVTbtfr(varhávbjjfnaj)
8. (nfotrfjb mb0atè>0passf1) daça
para (nfotrfjb
10. para (mha daça

11. sb((lbmhmas
(mha mb0atè>0passf1)
lbmhmas
lbmhmas[ [mha\?
[mha
mha\? lbmhmas[
lbmh
lbmhmas
lbmhma
mas
s[mha
[mha +1\)
13. aux
aux < lbmhmas[
lbmh
lbmhmas
lbmhmamass[mha
[mha\;
mha\;
1>. lbmhmas[[mha
lbmhmas [mha
mha\<
\< lbmhmas[
lbmh
lbmhmas
lbmhmamas
s[mha
[mha +1\
1=. lbmhmas[mha
lbmhmas[ [mha +1\<aux;
12. dhlsb
14. dhlpara
17. dhlpara
15. Bsnrbva(‚Tbtfrfrmboamf“)
18. (mha mb0atè>0passf1) daça
para (mha
30. lbmhmas[[mha
Bsnrbva(lbmhmas
Bsnrbva( lbmhmas [mha
mha\)
\)
31. dhlpara
33. dhlûc-Sfthoa
ajgfrhtlfs. 


3>. hohnhf
3=. var
32. vajfr9rbaj
Tarhávbhsanbssìvbhssflbotboarfthoaprhonhpaj(v
Tarhávbhsanbssìvbhssflbotboarfthoaprhonhpaj(varhávbjjfnaj)
arhávbjjfnaj)
34. mha9hotbhrf
37. (mha mb0atè>0passf1) daça
para (mha
35. Jbha(vajfr) Rsaomfulabstruturambrbpbthçîf
38. lbmhmas[mha
lbmhmas[ [mha
mha\\ Ö vajfr paraarlazboar>1vajfrbsofvbtfr gastfs
>0. dhlpara
>1. FrmboarVTbtfr(lbmhmas) ‚Nealaomf“asuc-rfthoanrhama
>3. dhl
1.‚Aprhlbhraaçîfmbulprfibthstambsfdtwarbmbvbsbrambdhohçîfmfs
mamf
mamfsqub
squbsbrîf
sbrîf arlazboa
arlazboamfsb
mfsbprfnb
prfnbssamf
ssamfs spbjfprfgra
pbjfprfgralaa
laasbrnrhamf.
sbrnrhamf.
Nf
Nfll ca
casb
sb obss
obssa
a ho
hodf
dfrl
rlaç
açîf
îf sbrá
sbrá pfss
pfssìv
ìvbj
bj bspbn
bspbnhd
hdhn
hnar
ar fs
fs th
thpf
pfs
s mb
mb mamf
mamfss
(hotbhrf,rbaj,na
(hotbhrf,rbaj,narantbrbbjþghnf)
rantbrbbjþghnf)basbstruturasmb
basbstruturasmbarlazboal
arlazboalbotfasbrbl
botfasbrbl
uthjhzamas.“(LAOYAOF;LA]F^;JFRSBOÇF,3012,p.42.)
Mbotrbasbstruturasmbmamfsmhspfoìvbhs,asvarhávbhsnflpfstaseflf-
géoba
géo bas
s b ebtbr
btbrf
fgé
géooba
bas
s sîf
sîf alpjpjal
albo
botb
tb uth
thjh
jhz
zama
mas.
s. A rb
rbsp
spbh
bhtf
tf mb
mb ta
tahs
hs
bstruturasmbmamfs,aoajhsbasadhrlaçòbsacahxf9
 H.
H.Rla
Rla varhávbj
varhávbjnflpfsta
nflpfstauohmhlboshfoaj
nflpfsta uohmhlboshfoajprbnhsa
uohmhlboshfoaj prbnhsatbr
prbnhsa tbr sua napanhmamb
napanhmambmb
mb
arlazboalbotfbspbnhdhnamaoflflbotfblqubèmbnjarama.^bus
mamfssbrîfanbssamfsparajbhturabbsnrhtaatravèsmbulìomhnbqub
sblprbnflbçaráblzbrf.
 HH.
HH.Latrhz
Latrhz è ul
ula
abst
a bst
bstrut
rutura
ura mb
mbmamfs
mamfs nuifs
nuifs mam
mamfs
fssîf
fs sîf frga
frgaohza
ohzammfs bl
jhoeasbnfjuoas.Paraanbssarfsmamfsmbssabstruturaprbnhsalfs
usarulìomhnbqubsblprbnflbçaráblz
usarulìomhnbqubsblprbnf lbçaráblzbrf. brf.
 HHH.
HHH.A
Authjhzaçîf
Authjhzaçîf
uthjhzaçîfmb
mbvarhávbhs
mb varhávbhsnflpfstas
varhávbhs nflpfstasebtbrfgéobas
nflpfstas ebtbrfgéobasè
ebtbrfgéobas èshlhjar
èshlhjar
shlhjaràuth
àuthjhzaçîf
àuth jhzaçîf
ma
mas
s va
varh
rhá
ávb
vbhs
hs pr
prhl
hlht
hthv
hvas
as (ho
(hotb
tbhr
hrf,
f, rb
rba
aj,
j, na
nara
ran
ntb
tbrb
rb b jþ
jþgh
ghn
nf),
f), pf
pfhshs è
obnbssárhfbspbnhdhnarfthpfqubtaj
obnbssárhfbspbnhdhnarfthpf qubtajvarhávbjtbrá.
varhávbjtbrá.
a)^flbotbasajtbroathvasHb HHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
c)^flbotbasajtbroathvasHbHH
n)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHbstán bstîfnfrrbtas.
frrbta.
m)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHHbstánfrrbta.
b)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHHHbstánfrrbta.
3.Authjhzaçîfmbvbtfrbsofsajgfrhtlfssbtfroabdhnhbotbàlbmhmaqub
arla
rlazboaboalfs mhvb mhvbrs
rsf
fs va
vajf
jfrb
rbs
s bl
bl ula lbs bsl
la bsbstr
tru
utura
tura mbmb mamf
mamfs s b
uthjhzalfsbstrutu
uthjhzal fsbstruturasmbrbpbthçîf
rasmbrbpbthçîfparahtbrar(anbssa
parahtbrar(anbssar)sfcrbfsbjblbotfs
r)sfcrbfsbjblbotfs
mb
mbss
ssb
b vbtf
vbtfr.r. A dácr
dácrhn
hna
a X pf
pfss
ssuh
uh ul
ul shst
shstbl
blaa mb
mb nf
nfot
otrf
rfjb
jb mb
mb bobr
bobrghgha
a qub
qub
ar
arla
lazbzboaoa f nfnfos
osul
ulff mhár
mhárhf
hf bl
bl kW
kW mb
mbototrf
rf mb
mb ul
ula
a bst
bstru
rutu
tura
ra mb
mb ma
mamf
mfss
mfthpfvbtfr.
mfthpfvbtfr .Nf
Nfosh
oshmbr
mbrao
aomful
mfullés
lés nf
nfl>0
l>0mha
mhas,a
s,adác
dácrhn
rhnambsbia
ambsbia blh
blhthr
thr
rbjatþrhfssfcrbfnfosulfmflés.
^bjbnhfobfajgfrhtlfqubnajnujafnfosulflbosaj.
a) 1. Ajgf
Ajgfrhtlf
rhtlf‚BxbrnhnhfTb
‚BxbrnhnhfTbtfr“ tfr“
3. hohnhf
>. var
=. nfosulf[>0\ 9 rbaj rbaj
2. mhaAtua
mhaAtuajj 9hotbhra
Atua 9hotb
9hotbhhra
4. nfosulf]f
nfos ulf]ftaj taj99rbaj
rbaj
7. para (mhaAtuaj
(mhaAtuaj mb0atè>0passf1) daça
5.
nfosulf]ftaj Ö nfos
nfosulf]f
ulf]ftaj
taj nfosulf[
nfosulf[mhaAtuaj
mhaAtuaj
mhaAtuaj\\
8. dhlpara
10. Bsnrbva(nfosulf]ftaj);
11. dhl
1. Ajgf
Ajgfrhtlf
3. hohnhf
>. var
2. mhaAtua
Atua 9hotb
9hotbhhra
4. nfosulf]f
rbaj
7. para (mhaAtuaj
(mhaAtuaj mb1atè>1passf1) daça
5. nfosulf]ftaj Ö nfos nfosulf]f
ulf]ftaj
taj +nfosulf[
+nfos mhaAtuaj\
mhaAtuaj\
+nfosulf[mhaAtuaj
8. dhlpara
11. dhl
n) 1. Ajgf
Ajgfrhtlf
3. hohnhf
>. var
2. mhaAtua
Atua 9hotb
9hotbhhra
4. nfosulf]f
rbaj
7. mhaAtuaj Ö 0;
5. daça
ulf]ftaj
taj +nfosulf[
+nfos mhaAtuaj\
mhaAtuaj\
10. mhaAtuaj Ö mhaAtuaj +1
11. boquaotf (mhaAt(mhaAtua ua
uajj :38)
:38
:38))
1>. dhl
m) 1. Ajgf
Ajgfrhtlf
3. hohnhf
>. var
var
=. nfosulf[>0\ 9 rbajrbaj
2. mhaAtua
Atua 9hotb
9hotbhr
hra
4. nfosulf]f
nfos ulf]ftaj taj9
9rba
rbajj
7. para (mhaAtuaj
(mhaAtuaj mb0atè38passf1) daça
ulf]ftaj
taj +nfosulf[
+nfos mhaAtuaj\
mhaAtuaj\
8. dhlpara
11. dhl
b) 1. Ajgf
Ajgfrhtlf
3. hohnhf
rhtlf‚BxbrnhnhfTbtf
‚BxbrnhnhfTbtfr“ r“
>. var
=. nfosulf[>0\ 9 rbaj
rba
rbaj
2. mhaAtuaj
mhaAtuaj 9hot
9hotbhra
bhra
4. nfosulf]fta
nfosu lf]ftajj 9rbaj
9rbaj
7. mhaAtuaj Ö 0;
5. daça
8. nfosulf]ftaj Ö nfosu nfosulf]fta
lf]ftajj +nfosu
+nfosulf[
lf[mhaAtuaj
mhaAtuaj\
mhaAtuaj\
10. mhaAtuaj Ö mhaAtuaj +1

11. boquaotf (mhaAtuaj
(mhaAtuaj :<>0)
1>. dhl
>.Latrhzbssîfbstrutura
Latrhzbssîfbstruturaschmhlboshfoahsuthjhzama
schmhlboshfoahsuthjhzamasparaarlazboa
sparaarlazboarmamfs
rmamfs
mbullbslfthpf,fusbia,sîfbstrutur
mbullbslfthpf,fusbia,sîfbstruturasmb
asmbmamf
mamfsdfrtblbo
sdfrtblbotbthpamas.
tbthpamas.
Rlalatrhzèoavbrmambauohîfmbvárhfsvbtfrbsmblbslftalaoef,
pfrtaotfsbblulvbtfrcastamb1ìomhnbpara
pfrtaotfsbblulvbtfr castamb1ìomhnbparahmbothdhn
hmbothdhnarbanbssa
arbanbssarsbus
rsbus
bjblbotfs,blulalatrhzsîfobnbssárhfs
bjblbotfs,blulalatrhzsî fobnbssárhfsmfhsìomhnbs,ul
mfhsìomhnbs,ulparaasjhoe
paraasjhoeas
as
bfutrfparaasnfjuoas.
Nfoshmbrao
raomf f ajgfrhtlf b a latrhz mamfs
mfs, bsnfjea a fpçî
pçîf qub
rbprbsbotaashodfrlaçòbsqubsbrîfbsnrhtaspbjfnflaomf majhoea5.
1. Ajgfrhtlf‚Bxbrnhnhf“
3. hohnhf
>. var
=. l,o,vajfr[=\[=\9hotbhrf 10
1 =0
--= 27
--2
2
27 --1
1
1010 >
2
2.
4. para (lmb0atè>passf1)
para daça
(omb0atè>passf1) daça >0
>0 --=
=
=00 1
100
00
0 4
7. 32
32 1 1
177 >
>00
hd(l<<o) botîf
5. Bsnrbva(vajfr[l\[o\)
8. dhlsb
10. dhlpara
11. dhlpara
13. dhl
a)10,2,-1,>
c)10,-=,>0,32
n)10,-27,100,>0
m)32,1,17,>0
b)32,>0,-=,10
Sbdbréonhas
CASOB]],IaobtEbhob. Frhghosfdcffjbaoajgbcrahotebjfghn
fdnjassbs9GbfrgbCffjb,IfeoTbooaomN.^.Pbhrnb.Mhspfoìvbj
bl9 :ettps9//w
:ettps9//www.laa.frg/
ww.laa.frg/prbss/pbrhfm
prbss/pbrhfmhnajs/nfovbrgbonb/frhg
hnajs/nfovbrgbonb/frhghos-
hos-
fd-cffjbao-ajgbcra-ho-teb-jfghn-fd-njassbs-gbfrgb-cffjb-ifeo-
vboo-aom-n-s-pbhrnb?.Anbssfbl915ofv.3017.
EAJJHMAX, Mavhm; SBÔHNK, Sfcbrt. Duomalbotfs mb Dìshna. Shf

Duomalbotfs
EAJJHMAX,Mavhm;SBÔHNK,Sfcbrt. Duomalbo
Duomalbotfsmb Dìshna.Shf
tfsmbDìshna
tfsmb
mbIaobhrf9J]N,3012.
LAOYAOF,IfsèAugustfO.G.;LA]F^,Bnhvajmf;JFRSBOÇF,
 .    . . .
Paujf9Èrhna,3012.
LAOYAOF,IfsèAugustfO.G.;FJHTBHSA,IayrDhgubhrbmfmb.
ajgfrhtlfs.1>.bm.^îfPaujf9Èrhna,3010.
Bstumfmhrhghmfmbajgfrhtlfs
Bstumfmhrhghmfmb
LAOYAOF,IfsèAugustfO.G. BstumfmhrhghmfjhoguagblN .
1>.bm.^îfPaujf9Èrhna,3010.
OAÂ. ]ebfirstpbrsfofoteblffo.Mhspfoìvbjbl9:ettps9//
www.oasa.gfv/aumhbonb/dfrstumbo
www.oasa.gfv/aumh bonb/dfrstumbots/k-=/stfrhb
bonb/dfrstumbo ts/k-=/stfrhbs/dhrst-pbrsfo
ts/k-=/stfrhbs/dhrst-pbrsfo-fo-
s/dhrst-pbrsfo-fo-
lffo.etlj?.Anbssfbl903ofv.3017.
PHTAIROHFS,Mhjbrlaomf(btaj.). Ajgfrhtlfsbprfgralaçîfmb
Nflputamfrbs.ShfmbIaobhrf9Bjsbvhbr,3013.
^FDDOBS,Sboatf.AjgfrhtlfsbprfgralaçîfbljhoguagblN.
^îfPaujf9ârahva,301>.
Rohmamb>
Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf
Narfajuof,nebgfuflflbotfmbpassarparapráthna
tfmasastènohnasbstumamasblajgfrhtlfs.Jblcraomfqub
tfmasas tènohnasbstumamasblajgfrhtlfs.Jblcraomfqub
ulajgfrhtlfèulnfoiuotfmbhostruçòbspararbsfjvbr
ulatarbdafusfjunhfoarulprfcjbla.
Obstauohmambvalfsbstumarfsnfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf
b,parahssf
b,parahssf,valfsda
,valfsdazbrasbguhotbaoajfgha
zbrasbguhotbaoajfgha99
 ,      
nasa, rasnuoefuapjaota
rasnuoefuapjaotamanasaula
manasaulavbz,futrab
manasaula vbz,futrablahsfutra,
vbz,futrab lahsfutra,
at
atè
è qub
qub nebg
nebgfufu af
af mb
mbsb
sboe
oef
f mb
mbdh
dhoh
ohth
thvf
vf.. ]u
]umf
mf nbr
nbrtf
tf!
! Pbo
Pbosf
sfu
u
oftalaoefmftbrrbof,pfshçîfmfsfj,thpfmblatbrhajasbr
uthjhzamfbtfmasasfutrasvarhávbhspbrthobotbsafsbusfoef.
^bprbparfu,pfupfu
^bprbparfu,pfupfumhoebh mhoebhrf,atè
rf,atèqubnebgfuf
qubnebgfufgraombmhama
graombmhama
nfostruçîf.Pfmblfsnflpararanfostruçîfmanasambstb
botushastanflulajhoguagblmbprfgralaçîf.Ajhoguagbl
mb prfrfg
gra
ral
laçîçîf
f tb
tbrá
rá a lbs
bsla
la dhoa
dhoajhjhm
mamb ma nf
nfos
ostr
truç
uçîîf,
nfj
nfjfna
fnarrbl
blprá
práthn
thna
atum
tumf
pararbajhzaçîfmbulatarbda.faq
aquhj
uhjf
fqu
qub
bdfh
dfh pbo
pbosa
samf
mfbbnaj
najnuj
nujam
amf f
Sbt
btfflaomf a nfotb otbxtuajhzazaççîf mf hoìnhf mf jhvrf rf,, a
lujthoan
lujth oanhfohfoaj
aj Krf
Krf Bog
Bogboe
boearharhas
asbst
bstá
á luh
luhtftfsa
saths
thsdbh
dbhta
tanfl
nfl f
sbumbsblpboefmbtraoslhthrfpbosalbotfnflputanhfoaj
para fs
para fs bo
bogb
gboeb
oebhrhrfs
fs ma
ma bl
blprprbs
bsa,
a, pf
pfr
r bs
bstb
tb lf
lfththvf
vf,
, f sb
sbuu
gbrbotbjebmbshgofualhssîfmbtracajearajhoguagblmb
gbrbotbjebmbshgofua lhssîfmbtracajearajhoguagblmb
prfgralaçîfN,fombvfnémbvbráauxhjharsbusnfjbgasa
nflprbbombrbapjhnarfsnfonbhtfsmajhoguagbl.
Of
Of pr
prhlhlbh
bhrf
rf lf
lflblbot otf,
f, vf
vfné
né mb
mbvbvbrá
rá pr
prbo
bombmbr
r a at
atboç
boçîfîf
mfsbogboebhrfsparaabstruturamaprfgralaçîfN,mbpfhs,
lf
lfst
stra
rar
r ajgu
ajguos
os mf
mfs
s thp
thpfs
fs mb
mb ch
chcj
cjhf
hftb
tbna
nas
s la
lahs
hs ut
uthjhjhz
hzam
amas
as oa
prfgralaçîfN.Ahoma,mbvbrálaotbrfdfnfofsthpfsmb
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf  11>
varh
varháv
ávbh
bhs,
s, nf
nfosostataot
otbs
bs b futr
futrasas df
dfrl
rlasas mb
mb hm
hmbot
bothd
hdhn
hnaç
açîf
îf mf
mfss
mamfsfs.
. Pa
Parara dh
dhoa
oajhjhza
zar,
r, mbv
bvbr
bráá nfnfjf
jfna
narr mb df
dfrl
rlaa prá
ráth
thna
na as
bxprbssòbsbljhoguagblN.
Fs
Fsmbs
mbsadh adhfs
fssî sîf
fgra
graombombs,
s, pfr
pfrèl,
èl, pra
prazbr
zbrfs
fsfs
fsaf
af pf
pfotf
otf mb
bonfraiarfsburanhfnìohfnrìthnfparaasfju
bonfraiarfsburanhf nìohfnrìthnfparaasfjuçîfmbprfcjbla
çîfmbprfcjblass
uthjhzaomfaJhoguagblmbprfgralaçîfN.
11= R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf
R>-Nfonbhtfs mbprfgralaçîf
^bçîf>.1
HotrfmuçîfàjhoguagblN
Mhájfgfacbrtf
Narfajuof,nebgfuflflbotfmbtraosnrbvbrfsnfonbhtfs
b tènohna
nass uthjhza
zam
mas bl jþghna, ajgfrhtl
tlf
f s  b  d j ux f gr al as  o a
jhoguagblmbprfgralaçîf.Talfsnhtarnflfbxblpjfajìogua
cra
crashj
shjbhr
bhra
a mb sho
shoahs
ahs pa
parara sur
surmf
mfs,
s, tal
talcèl
cèl nfo
nfoebn
ebnhma
hma nflnflf f jhcras
jhcras,,
hlaghobulprfgralambtbjbvhsîf,ulapajb strafuulnursffomb
ajguosmbsbusbspbntamfrbssîfsurmfs,ulhotbrprbtbèanhfoamf
pararbajhzaratramu
pararbajhzaratramuçîfshlujtãobam
çîfshlujtãobambtumfqubbstáa
btumfqubbstáanfotbnbomf
nfotbnbomf
b
bsb
sbom
omfdaj
fdajam
amf.f. Pf
Pfhshs cb
cbl,
l, as
assh
shlduo
lduonh nhfo
foanfl
anfl as
as jhjho
o ua bo bosmb
smb
pr
prfg
fgra
rala
laçî çîf,
f, fo
fombmb vf vfné
né mb
mbsb
sbov ovfj
fjvb
vb ul
ul pb
pbos
osal
albo botf
tf jþ
jþgh
ghnf
nf,,
mbsbovfjvbulajgfrhtlffuuldjuxfgralabnfovbrtbblula
jhoguagblmbprfgralaçîfparaqubflbslfsbiahotbrprbtamf
bbxbnutamf.
Obsta sbçîf, vfné, ajuof, vah bstumar as bstruturas mb ul
prfgra
prfgrala
labl
bljhog
jhogua
uagbl
gbl N,
N, as
as chc
chcjhf
jhftbn
tbnas,
as, nfl
nflf f mbd
mbdhoh
hohr
r var
varháv
hávbhs
bhs,,
nfostaotbsbnflbxprbssòbsbljhoguagblN.
Obstb
Obstb pr
prhl
hlbh
bhrf
rf lf
lflb
lbototf
f è du duom
omal
albot
botajaj f bot
botbo
bomh
mhlb
lbototf
f mb
tfmasastènohnasparahohnharaprfgralaçîfblJhoguagblN,sbomf
bjaa
bjaajhogu
jhoguagbl
agbl ofrtba
ofrtbamfra
mfra mfs
mfs prfg
prfgrala
ralasa
sasbrbl
sbrbl mbsb
mbsbovfjv
ovfjvhmfs
hmfs
pbjfsbogboebhrfsmaKrfBogboearhas.Asualhssîfèmbsbovfjvbr
ul prf
prfgra
grala
la par
para
a rba
rbajhza
jhzar
r a nfo
nfovbr
vbrsî
sîf
f ma tbl
tblpbrpbratu
atura
ra mb gra
graus
us
nbo
nbotì
tìgr
gram
amfs
fs (N
(Nbj
bjsh
shus
us)
) pa
para
ra gr
grau
aus
s Da
Daer
erbo
boebh
ebht.t. A dþ
dþrl
rluj
uja
a pa
para
ra bs
bssa
sa
 8.n
 + 140
nfovbrsîfè9 D < ,fomb ‚D“èatblpbraturablDaerboebht
èatblpbraturablDaerboebht
2
b ‚n“èatblpbra
èatblpbraturablnbotìgramfs.Tfnémbv
èatblpbraturablnbotìgramfs.Tfnémbvbrábjacfrara
brábjacfrararfthoa
rfthoa
mbprfgralaçîfbljhoguagblN,hosbrhrnflbotárhfsoasjhoeasmb
prfgralaçîfbblsbguhmanflphjarfprfgralabbotrbgarpara
f(a)prfdbssfr(a)ulrbjatþrhfmas
f(a)prfdbssfr(a)ulrbjatþrhfmasrfthoasmfprfg
rfthoasmfprfgrala.
rala.
Cfasfrtbbþthlfsbstumfs.
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf  112
Na
Narf
rf aj
ajuo
uof,
f, a eh
ehst
stþr
þrhaha ma
ma jhjhog
ogua
uagbgbl l N è mbmbsnsnrh
rhta
ta pf
pfr
r vá
várh
rhas
as
jhtbraturasbpfrvárhfsautfrbs.Paranfotarbstaehstþrha,valfs
nhtarLaozaof(301>),qubbsnrbvbofsbujhvrffsbguhotbrbjatf9
bl 18
bl 1873
73 bl
bl ul
ul mf
mfss ja
jacf
cfraratþ
tþrh rhfs
fs ma
ma bl
blprprbsbsa
a Cb
Cbjjjj ]b
]bjb
jbpe
pefo fobb
Jacs. Hon
on.. (atuaj Ajnatbj bj - Junbo bott) dfh nrhama a jhoguagbl mb
prfgra
prfg rala
laçî çîf
f mb
mb nf
nflp
lput utamamfr
frbs bs N pf
pfr r Mb
Mboo
oohs
hs L.
L. Sh
Shtntneh
ehb,
b, qu
qubb
mb
mbsbsbov
ovfj
fjvbvbu
u a jhog
jhogua
uagbgbll paparara auauxh
xhjhjhar
ar oa
oa sb
sbgu
guomomaa vbvbrs
rsîf
îf mf
shstblafpbranhfoajROHU,prfibtfjhmbramfpfrKbo]eflpsfo.
^flbotblahstarmbCrhaoW.Kbrohgeaoiuotfu-sbafprfibtfmb
alpjhaçîfmajhoguagblN.
Apr b o mblfs  o as sb ç òbs a o t br h fr bs  mbst b j h vr f q ub par a
bxbnutarulprfgralaprbnhsalfsmbulsbqubonhalbotfmf
gbrbonhalbotfmbmamfsnarantbrhzamfpfr>oìvbhs9
• o ra a b a fs9rba zaasnf b as b a fs;
•Prfnbssalbotf9fsmamfssîftraosdfrlam
•Prfnbssalbotf9fsmamfssîftraosdfrlamfsblhodfrlaçîf
fsblhodfrlaçîf;;
•âìma9fombtfmasashodfrlaçòbsgbramaspbjfprfnbssalbotf
mbmamfssîfaprbsbotamasblulpbrhdèrhnf.
mbmamfssîfaprbsbotama sblulpbrhdèrhnf.
^bgu o mf Ma las ( 3 0 1 4 ) , ul  pr fgr ala è ula sb quéo n h a
mb nþ
nþmh
mhg
gf frg
rgao
aohz
hzaama mb ta tajj df
dfrl
rlaa qub
ub pbr
brlh
lhta
ta rb
rbssfj
fjvvbr
br ul
mb
mbtb
tbrl
rlho
hoam
amf
f pr
prfc
fcjb
jbla
la.
. Rl
Rl pr prfg
fgra
rala
la pf
pfmb
mb sb
sbr
r mb
mbsb
sbov
ovfj
fjvhvhmf
mf
bllþmujfsmhsthotfsb/fublsucprfgralas.Mbssadfrlatbrá
qub bx
qub bxhs
hsth
thr
r ul
ul nr
nrht
htèr
èrhf
hf fu
fu ul
ul df
dfrl
rlat
atf
f mb
mb bs
bsnr
nrhta
hta cb
cbl
l mb
mbdh
dhoh
ohmf
mf
qubhomhqubafnflphjamfrtfmffnfoiuotfmbnþmhgfbsnrhtf
pbjfprfgral
pbjfprfgralamfr,fombsbm
amfr,fombsbmbdhobblquajhostruçîff
bdhobblquajhostruçîffujfnajbjb
ujfnajbjb
nflbçaráabxbnutar.
Nflphjamfr
Par
Para
abxb
bxbnut
nutar
arul
ul prf
prfgra
gralala bl
bljho
jhogu
guagbagbllN
Nè
èobn
obnbss
bssárh
árhf
ful
ul
nflphjhjam
nfl amf
fr nu
nuia
ia du
duoç
oçîîf,
f, sbg
bgu
uom
omff ^nenehjhjm
mt (3
(30
002)
2),, è tram
tramu
uzhr
zhr fs
nþmhgfsbljhoguagblmbajtfoìvbjparajhoguagblmbcahxfoìvbj.
Fnflphjamfrtramuzfsnþmhgfsmfprfg
Fnflphjamfrtramuzfsnþmhg fsmfprfgralabvbrhdhnasbbjbsoîf
ralabvbrhdhnasbbjbsoîf
pfssublbrrfsoasuabxbnuçîf.
114 R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf
Asshlhjb
Jblcra omf qub bxhstb mhdbrboça botrb jhog
rao uagbl N b N++, a
ogu
jhogu
jhoguagblNèulajhoguagb
agblNèulajhoguagblbstrut
lbstruturamaqubsbrábstu
uramaqubsbrábstumamaobstb
mamaobstb
jhvrf.IáajhoguagblN++,mbrhvamamajhoguagblN,è
jhvrf.IáajhoguagblN++,mbrhvamamajhoguagblN,è ulajhoguagbl
frhbotamaafcibtf.
^bg
bguuom
omf
f Laoz ozaaof
of (3
(30
01212),
), a prhl
rhlbh
bhra
ra bt
btaapa mf
mf prf
rfnb
nbsssf mb
nflphjaçîf è f prè-prfnbssalbotf fomb sb hmbothdhnal as
chc
chcjhf
jhftbna
tbnas
s b as
as prh
prhlbh
lbhras
ras sho
shotax
taxbs
bs (nf
(nfla
laomfomfs)s) mf prf
prfgra
grala.
la. Bl
sbguhma,fnþmhgf-dfotbètraosdfrlamfblnþmhgffcibtf,fquaj,
atravèsmfjhokbr,tbladuoçîfmbvhonujartfmfsfsarquhvfsgbramfs
blulùohnfarquhvfbxbnutávbj.
^bguom
^bg uomf
f^f
^fddob
ddobr
r(30
(301>)
1>),
,a
aJho
Jhogua
guagbl
gbl N
Npf
pfss
ssuh
uhul
ul tft
tftaj
ajmb>3
mb>3
pajavrasrbsbrvamas,nfodfrlbmbdhohmfpbjfpamrîfAO^H9
Quamrf>.1|P
Quamrf>.1|Pajavrasrbsbrvamasbl
ajavrasrbsbrvamasbljhoguagblN
jhoguagblN
autf mfucjb hot strunt
crbak bjsb jfog swhtne
nasb boul rbghstbr typbmbd
near bxtbro rbturo uohfo
nfost djfat sefrt uoshgobm

nfothoub dfr shgobm vfhm
mbdaujt gftf shzbfd vfjathjb
mf hd stathn wehjb
Dfotb9^fddobr(301>,p.>4).
È hl
hlpf
pfrt rtao
aotb
tb da
daja
jar
r qu
qub,
b, af
af pr
prfg
fgra rala
lar
r bl
bl N,
N, vf
vfné
né mbmbvb
vb bs
bsta
tarr
at
atbo
botf
tf à df
dfrl
rlaa mb bs
bsnr
nrbv
bvbr
br,, pfhs
hs f prf
rfgr
graala mh
mhdbdbrb
rbon
onha ha a jb
jbtr
traa
lahùsnujamajbtralhoùsnuja.
Agfrara,, valfs bo botb
tbom
ombr
br nf
nflflf du duon
onhf
hfoa
oal
l as chc hcjhjhf
ftb
tbnanass ma
jhoguagblN.
ChcjhftbnasblJhoguagblN
^bguomf
^bguom
mbvbl
mbvbl f La
Laoza
nfotbr
nfotbr ozaof
of(30
 lboçò (3012)
lboçòbsàs12),
, as
bsàschcj as prh
chcjhftbnaprhlbh
lbhras
ras jho
hftbnas,talcèl jhoeas
s,talcèl eas mb
mbprf
 nfoebnprfgra
nfoebnhmasgrala
laçîf
hmas çîf
 nflf
arq
arquhvfs mb nac
uhvfs nacbçajef.. Par
bçajef Para
a hos
hosbrhr
brhr as
as chcjhf
chcjhftbn
tbnas
as of prf
prfgra
grala
la è
obnbssárhfnfjfnar#honjumb(honjusîfmbularquhvfofprfgrala
dfotb)b,blsbguhma,botrbfssìlcfjfsmblbofr‚:“blahfr‚?“
(quaomfsbusa:b
(quaomfsbusa :b?,
:b ?, farquhvf
farquhvfèprfnuramfoa
èprfnuramfoapastahonjumb)f
èprfnuramfoa pastahonjumb)f
oflbmachcjhftbna.Tajbsajhbotarqubaschcjhftbnasauxhjhaloas
nfostruçòbsmfsnþmhgfsbduoçòbs,
nfostruçòbsmfsnþmhgf sbduoçòbs,sblaobnbsshm
sblaobnbsshmambmbmbnja
ambmbmbnjarar
rar
duoçîfpfrduoçîf,mbhxaomfaprfgralaçîfcbllahspráthna.Tbia
asbguhrasp
asbguhrasprhonhpahschcjhftbnas
rhonhpahschcjhftbnasuthjhzamasoajhogu
uthjhzamasoajhoguagblN9
agblN9
-stmhf„bssachcjhftbnaèrbspfosávbjpbjasduoçòbsmbbotramas
bsaìmas,nflfèfnasfmaduoçîfprhotdbsnaodqubvalfsaprbombr
lahsàdrbotb.
Bxblpjf9#honjumb:stmhf.e?
 bs
 stmjhc bsssa chc
hcjhjhf
ftb
tbna
na tr
traaos
osdf
dfrl
rlaa as str
trho
hog
gs (v
(vbt
btf
frb
rbss mb
narantbrbs)bloùlbrfs.
Bxblpjf9#honjumb:stmjhc.e?
-strhog „chcjhftbnarbspfos
-strhog chcjhftbnarbspfosávbjpbjalaohpu
ávbjpbjalaohpujaçîfmbstrhogs.
jaçîfmbstrhogs.
Bxblpjf9#honjumb:strhog.e?
-thlb„chcjhftbnauthjhzama
chcjhftbnauthjhzamaparalaohpuja
paralaohpujaçîfmbefrasbma
çîfmbefrasbmatas.
tas.
Bxblpjf9#honjumb:thlb.e?
-late„chcjhftbnauthjhzamaparafpbraçòbslatbláthnas.
Bxblpjf9#honjumb:late.e?
-ntypb„chcjhftbnauthjhzamaparanjasshdhnaçîfbtraosdfrlaçîf
mbnarantbrbs.
Bxblpjf9#honjumb:ntypb.e?.
Aot
otbs
bs mb nf
nfl
lbçbçaar a prf
rfggra
rala
laçî
çîff bl
bl jhjhog
ogua
uag
gbl
bl N,N, valfs
nfoe
nfoebnb
bnbr
r nf
nflf
lf du
duon
onhf
hfoa
oa a la
laohp
ohpuj
ujaç
açîf
îf mb
mb ma
mamf
mfs
s b fs
fs th
thpf
pfs
s mb
fpbramfrbs.
Tarhávbhs
Asvarh
Asvarhávbh
ávbhs
ssîf
sîfjfna
jfnahs
hsrbs
rbsbrva
brvamfs
mfsoa
oalblþ
lblþrharhapara
paraarlaz
arlazboa
boalbot
lbotf f
mfs
mfsmamfs.Pfmblfs
mamfs.Pfmblfsnfoshmbr
nfoshmbrarnflf
arnflfsbomfas
sbomfasvarhávbhslahsusamas
varhávbhslahsusamas
asmfthpf9
-hotbhrf9 arlazboafsoùl
arlazboafsoùlbrfshotbhrfs(obgathvfs
brfshotbhrfs(obgathvfsfupfshthvf
fupfshthvfs).
s).
BljhoguagblNèmbdhohmapfr‚hot“,vbiaajgulasnfjfnaçòbsoa
]acbja>.19
]acbja>.1|Mamfsrbahs
]hpf mb mamf hotbhrf Dahxa mb acraogéonha ]alaoef

uoshgobm sefrt ho t mb 0 a 4 2.2>2 14 chts
sefrt / sefrt hot / shgobm hot / shgobm sefrt hot mb ->3.745 a >3.747 14 chts
uoshgobm hot / uoshgobm jfog hot mb 0 a =.383.847.382 >3 chts
mb-3.1=7.
mb-3.1=7.=5>.4=5
-3.1=7.=5>.4=5
hot/jfog/jfoghot/shgobmjfoghot >3chts
a3.1=7.=5>.4=7
Dfotb9Laozaof(301>,p.>4).
- rbaj99pbrlhtbarlazboarvajfrbsmbpfotfsdjutuaotbsbnfl
rbaj
draçòbs.BljhoguagblNèmbdhohmfpfr‚djfat“,bquaomfprbnhsa
mfmfcrfmbmamfsoulèrhnfsèuthjhzamffthpf‚mfucjb“fu‚jfog
mfucjb“,vbiaoatacbja>.3.
]acbja>.3|Mamfsrbahs
]hpf m
bm
 amf rbaj Dahxa m
ba
 craogéonha ]alaoef
djfat mb ->.=
 >5a>.=>5 >3chts
mfucjb mb -1.7>05a1.7>05 4=chts
jfog mfucjb mb -> .==8>3a1.1 =8>3 84chts
- Nara
Narant
ntbrb9 na
brb9 nara
rant
ntbr
brhz
hzaa fs na
nara
rant
ntbr
brbs
bs,, où
oùl
lbr
brf
fs b sìl
ìlc
cfjf
jfss
bspbnhahs,sîfmbjhlhtamaspfraspasshlpjbs(―).BljhoguagblNè
mbdhohmapfr‚near“,vbiaarbprbsbotathvhmamboatacbja>.>9
mbdhohmapfr‚near“,vbiaarbprbsbotathvhmamboatacbja>.>9
]acbja>.>|Mamfsrbahs
]hpf m
bm
 amf rbaj Dahxa m
ba
 craogéonha ]alaoef
near / shgobm near mb -1 35 a 13

7 5 chts
uoshgobm ne ar mb 0atè 32 2 5 chts
Pfmbsbrnfoshmbramf shgobmnearfu
fu
near 5chts
uoshgobmnear,mbpbombomfmfshstbla
,mbpbombomfmfshstbla
Pfmblfsuthjhzarasvarhávbhsmfthpfmbmamf‚vfhm“,sîfvarhávbhs
quboîfrbtfroalulthpfmbdhohmf,fusbia,oîfrbtfroaulvajfr
bspbnhdhnf.
Nfostaotbs
nfoshmbramaslfmhdhnamfrbsm
nfoshmbramas
^b
^bguguom
omf
f lfmhdhnamfrbsmbthpfmbanbssf,
^neh
^n ehjm
jmt
t (3
(300
002) 2),
, as
as
bthpfmbanbssf,fusbia,oîfp
 nf
nfosostataot
otbs
bs bl
bl
fusbia,oîfpfmbl
 jhjhog
ogua
uagb
gbl
l Nfmblsîf
sîf
sbrajtbramas.B
sbrajtbramas.Bjaspfmblsbrrbp
jaspfmblsbrrbprbsbotamaspbjfnfl
rbsbotamaspbjfnflaomf‚nfost“. aomf‚nfost“.
Bxblpjf9
nfosthotart<100;
Asnfostaotbstalcèlpfmblsbrnarantbrhzamaspfrquahsqubr
thp
thpfs
fs mb
mbma
mamf
mfs
scás
cáshnf
hnfs,
s, pf
pfr
rbxb
bxblpj
lpjf9 f9 as
as nfo
nfosta
staotbs
otbs mf
mf thp
thpf
ftbx
tbxtf
tf
sîf bo
bovfvfjv
jvhm
hmaas pfr aspas as shl
hlppjb
jbss (―)
(―) fu aspas mupjas jas. As
As aspas
shlpjbsrbprbsbotalulùohnfnarantbrb,pfrbxblpjf,―a‘fu―100‘,
b as
as as
aspa
pas
s mu
mupj
pjas
as na
nara
rant
ntbr
brhz
hzal
al ul
ul nfnfoi
oiuouotf
tf mb
mb nanara
rant
ntbr
brbs
bs,
, pf
pfrr
bxblpjf,‚Anfovbrsîfmatblpbraturambgrausnbotìgramfspara
grausDaerboebhtb“.
Asnfostaotbshotbhrassîfrbprbsbotamaspfroùlbrfshotbhrfs
obgath
obg thvvfs
fs fu pf
pfsshthv
hthvf
fs, bx
bxbl
blp
pjf
jf99 -1
-12
20 b 12
120
00 sîf nf
nfos
osta
taot
otbs
bs
hotbhras(hot).
Oasnfostaotbsmfthpfdjutuaotbsîfusamfsfsnflaomfs
Oasnfostaotbsmfthpfdjutuaotbsîfusamfs fsnflaomfsdjfatb
djfatb
mfucjb,pfrbxblpjf910.3>2èuloùlbrfblpfotfdjutua otb.Tajb
jblcrarqubfsdfrlatfs
jblcrarqub fsdfrlatfsblmbnhlahs
fsdfrlatfs blmbnhlahsmfsoùlbrfs
blmbnhlahs mfsoùlbrfsbl
mfsoùlbrfs bl jhoguagbl
Nusalfpamrîfalbrhnaof,fombofjugarmavìrgujaparaasnasas
mbnhlahsusa-sbfpfotf.
Pbsquhsblahs
]hpfmbvar
]hpf mbvarháv
hávbhs
bhsb
bnfos
nfostao
taotbs.
tbs.Of
Ofart
arthgf
hgfaca
acahxf
hxf,,vfné
vfnétbrá
tbráa
afpfr
fpfrtuoh
tuohmam
mambb
mbnfoebnbrtfmasasparthnujarhmambsmfsthpfsmbvarhávbhsbnfostaotbs.
LN-103AjgfrhtlfsbPrfgralaçîfmbnflputamfrbs.Mhspfoìvbjbl9
:ettp9//www.hn.uohnalp.cr/~munattb/ln103/auja0>.pmd?.Anbssfbl9
15lar.3015
FpbramfrbsblJhoguagblN
Fpbramfrbsmbatrhcuhçîf
Paraatrhcuhrulvajfraulavarhávbjuthjhzalf
Paraatrhcuhrulvajfraulavarhávbjuthjhzalfsfshoajmb
varhávbjuthjhzalfsfshoajmbhguaj‚<“.
sfshoajmb hguaj‚<“.
Bxblpjf9y<x+100
Fpbramfrbsarhtlèthnfs
FsfpbramfrbsarhtlèthnfsblJhoguagblNsîfrbprbsbotamfs
pfrfpbramfrbs choárhfsb uoárhfs.
FpbramfrbsChoárhfs
-suctraçîf
+sfla
*lujthpjhnaçîf
/mhvhsîf
%rbstfmbmhvhsîf
Pf
Pfrr bx
bxpf
pfob
obon
onha
haçî
çîf
f „ jb
jblc
lcrbrb-s
-sb
b mb
mb qu
qub
b para
para bssb
bssb fp
fpbr
bram
amfr
fr a
chcjhftbnalate.embvbsbrhohnhajhzamaof
chcjhftbnalate.embvbsbrho hnhajhzamaofprfgrala.
prfgrala.
FpbramfrRoárhf
rbstfmamhvhsîf,rbprbsbotamapbjapfrnbotagbl‚%“,qubhomhnaf
Rlamas
Rlamasrbprbsbotaçòbsuoárhasè
rbprbsbotaçòbsuoárhasènaratbrh
naratbrhzamapbja
zamapbjauthjhzaçîfmf
uthjhzaçîfmf
rbstfmfsfp
rbstfmfsfpbramfrbsc
bramfrbschoárhfs.Pfrbxb
hoárhfs.Pfrbxblpjf9
lpjf9
30%4/*Frbsujtamfè3*/
^bguom
^bgu omf
f Lh
Lhzr
zrae
aehh (3
(300
005)
5),
, f fp
fpbr
bram
amfr
fr uo
uoár
árhf
hf pf
pfmb
mb sb
sbr
r us
usam
amf
f
pararbprbsbotaratrfnambshoahsmbulambtbrlhoamavarhávbj,pfr
y<-10;
y<-y;
Apþsbssafpbraçîf,fvajfrmbXassulbfvajfrmb10pfshthvf,
jblcraomfqubbl
jblcraomfqubbljhoguagblNoîf
jhoguagblNoîfbxhstbarbprbsbotaçîfy<
bxhstbarbprbsbotaçîfy<+10.
+10.
A rahz
rahz qu
quam
amra
rama
ma ta
talc
lcèl
èl è nf
nfos
oshm
hmbr
bram
ama
a ul
ul fp
fpbr
bram
amfr
fr uo
uoár
árhf
hf,,
rbprbsbotamfpbjf‚sqrt“.Obstbthpfmb
rbprbsbotamfpbjf‚sqrt“.Obstbthpf mbfpbramfr,
fpbramfr,achcjhftbnalate.e
fpbramfr,achcjhftbnalate.e
talcèlmbvbsbrhohnhajhzam
talcèlmbv bsbrhohnhajhzamaofprfgra
aofprfgrala.
la.
bo Hl
Hlpf
botrbpfrta
trb fsrtaot
fotb
pbbramf
rajb
jblc
lcra
rbssrar
mfrb ,rlqu
qub
ujbpjhna
ujth
thpjhmb
mbvb
vblf
lfs
naçîf s
çîf fcbm
fc
(*),
(*), bmbn
 mh
mhv bnbr
vhsîfbr
hsî  (/
às
às
) bpr
(/) prbn
bnbm
 % bméo
b méonh
bpnhas
fas
hs
sfcrbaAmhçîf(+)bsuctraçîf(-)qubsblprbsbrîfbxbnutamfsma
bsqubrmaparamhrbhta.Tajbsajhbotarqubasbxprbssòbsmbotrfmfs
paréotbsbssîfasprhlbhrasasbrblbxbnutamas.
FpbramfrbsmbHonrblbotfbMbnrblbotf
Quaomf
Quao mf vf
vfnéné pr
prbn
bnhs
hsar
ar am
amhn
hnhf
hfoa
oarr ul
ul ‚1“
‚1“ à va
varh
rháv
ávbj
usfmf‚++“(honrblbotf),bquaomfquhsbrthrarul‚1“mavarhávbj, bj,
, vf
vfné
né da
dará
rá
vfnéuthjhza‚
vfné uthjhza‚„
uthjhza‚ „„
„„“
“ (mbnrblbotf),
“(mbnrblbotf),
(mbnrblbotf),bssas
bssasfpbraçòbs
bssas fpbraçòbssîf
fpbraçòbs sîfnarantbrhzamas
sîf narantbrhzamas
uoárhas.Tbiafsbxblpjfsacahxf9
y<y+1;uthjhzao
y<y+1;uthjhzaomfhonrblbo
mfhonrblbotfdhnarhambstala
tfdhnarhambstalaobhra9++y
obhra9++y
y<y„1;uthjhzaomff mbnrblbotfdhnarhambstalaobhra9 „ „„
„y
Tajb
jb jbl
jblcra rar
r qub f pfshnhf
hnhfoa
oal lbotftf mfs ‚++++““ oas varhrháávbhs
pfmbl sfdr
pfmbl sfdrbr
br ajtbr
ajtbraçò
açòbs
bs ofs
ofs sbus
sbus vajf
vajfrbs
rbs qua
quaomf
omf rbpr
rbprbsbo
bsbotamf
tamfs, s,
vbiaofbxblpjfacahxf9
p<10;
q<++p;
Asaìmaparabssahostruçîfsbrá9
p 11bq 11
Agfra,sbusamf‚++“oadrbotbmavarhávbj,dhnarámasbguhotblaobhra9
Agfra,sbusamf‚++“oadrbotbmavarhávbj,dhnarámasbguhotblaobhra9
p<10;
q<p++;
Rthjhz
Rthjhzao
aomf
mf f ho
honr
nrbl
blbo
botf
tf oa
oa dr
drbo
botb
tb ma
ma va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj sh
shgo
gohd
hdhn
hna
a qub
qub è
amhnhfoamf‚1“mbpfhsmasuauthjhzaçîf9
p<11bq<10
FpbramfrbsSbjanhfoahs
Fsfpbramfrbsrbjanhfoahspfmblsbrnjasshdhnamfsmasbguhotb
laobhraoaJhoguagblN9
Quamrf>.=|FpbramfrbsSbjanhfoahs
Fpbramfr Mbsnrhçîf
? Lahfr
: Lbofr
?< Lahfr fu hguaj
:< Lbofr fu hguaj
<< Hguaj
!< Mhdbrbotb
Fpbramfrbs
Fpbramfrbsjþghnfs
sjþghnfs
Quamrf>.2|Fpbramfrbsjþghnfs
Fpbramfr Mbsnrhçîf
&& B
|| FR
! OÎF
^bguomfLhzraeh(3005),ffpbramfrjþghnf‚!“ènfoshmbramful
fpbramfruo
fpbramfruoárhfbfsfp
árhfbfsfpbramfrbsjþg
bramfrbsjþghnfs‚
hnfs‚&&“b‚||“sîfchoárhfs.
Pbsquhsblahs
Bxhstblvárhfsprfgralasmbnflphjaçîfqubvfnépfmbuthjhzarpara
nflphjhjar
nflp ar f sbu
sbu prfg
prfgra
rala
la bl
bl Jhog
Jhogua
uagb
gbl
l N,
N, bo
botr
trb
b bjbs
bjbs pf
pfmb
mblf
lfss
mbstanarGNN,ThsuajN++bMBTN++.
         
mbsbovfjvhmfpbja
mbsbovfjvhmfpbjaCjffmsebm,of
Cjffmsebm,ofjhokacahxf
jhokacahxfèpfssìvbj
èpfssìvbjdaz
daz
dazbrfmfwojfam
brfmfwojfam
btalcèlnfoebnbrasbtapasmbhostajaçîfbnfodhguraçîf9
^fdtfohn.AlchbotbnflpjbtfparaaprfgralaçîfoasjhoguagbosN/
N++.Mhspfoìvbjbl9
N++.Mhspfoìvbjbl9:ettps9//mbv-n.sfdtfohn.nfl
:ettps9//mbv-n.sfdtfohn.nfl.cr/?.Anbssf
.cr/?.Anbssfbl9
bl9
15lar.3015.
Duoçîflaho()
A du
duoç
oçîf
îfbhraasbrbxbnutama.
la
lahoho()
() è rb
sbomfaprhlbhraasbrbx
sbomfaprhl rbsb
sbrv
rvam
ama
a pa
bnutama. para
ra ho
hohn
hnha
har
r ul
ul pr
prfg
fgra
rala
la bl
bl N,
laho()
{
}
Quaomf uthjhzalfs
uthjhzalfsa
a ‚{‚
‚{‚ (neavb
(neavb
vbacb
acb
acbrta)
rta) homh
homhna
na
naf
f hoì
hoìnhf
nhf mbula
du
duoç
oçîf
îf bl
bl N, b quaomf
quaomf usa
usalfs
lfs a ‚}
‚}“
“ (ne
(neav
avb
b dbnea
dbneama)
ma) homhn
homhna
a f
tèrlhofmasduoçòbsbmfprfgrala.
Quaomfusalfsahotaotbsmblaho()shgohdhnaqubrbtfroarául
Quaomfusalfsahotaotbsmblaho()shgohdhnaqubrbtfroa rául
oùlbrfmfthpfhotbhrf.
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf 
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf 13>
hotlaho()
{
}
]a
]alc
lcèl
èl pfpfmb
mb sb
sbr
r ut
uthjhjhz
hzam
ama
a a pa
paja
javr
vra-
a-ne
neav
avb
b vf
vfhm
hm,
, bs
bsta
ta è ul
ulaa
duoçîfsblrbtfrof,fusbia,oîfrbnbcboboeulargulbotf.
vfhmlaho()
{
}
Duoçîfprhotd()
Aduoçîfprhotd()èulnflaomfmbsaìmafombpfssuhulvìonujf
Aduoçîfprhotd()èulnflaomfmbsaìmafombpfssuhulvìonujf
nflachcjhftbnastmhf.e.Èuthjhzamaquaomfsbprbtbombfctbrula
rbspfstaoatbjamfnflputamfr.
Asuasìotbsbèmbdhohmapfr9
prhotd(‚bxprbssîfmbnfo
prhotd(‚bxprbssîfmbnfotrfjb“,jhstasm
trfjb“,jhstasmbargulbotf
bargulbotfs);
s);
Bxhstb
Bxhstbl
l aj
ajgu
gula
las
s df
dfrl
rlat
ataç
açòb
òbs
s oa
oa ut
uthjh
hjhza
zaçî
çîf
f ma
ma du
duoç
oçîf
îf pr
prho
hotd
td()
()
nfodfrlblfstrafquamrf>.49
Quamrf>.4|Nþmhgfmbdfrlataçîfparaduoçîfprhotd()
Quamrf>.4|Nþmhgfmb dfrlataçîfparaduoçîfprhotd()
Nþmhgf Bspbnhdhnaçîf
%n Pbrlhtb a bsnrhta mb apboas ul narantbrb.
%m Pbrlhtb dazbr a jbhtura mb oùlbrfs hotbhrfs mbnhlahs.
%b Sbajhza-sb a bsnrhta mb oùlbrfs bl oftaçîf nhbotìdhna.
%d È dbhta a bsnrhta mb oùlbrfs rbahs (pfotf djutuaotb).
%g Pbrlhtb a bsnrhta mb %b fu %d of dfrlatf lahs nurtf.
%f Pbrlhtb qub oùlbrfs fntahs sbia

ial bsnrhtfs.
%s Bdbtua-sb a bsnrhta mb ula sèrhb mb narantbrbs.

%u Bsnrbvb-sb ul oùlbrf mbnhlaj sbl shoaj.
%x Pbrlhtb a bsnrhta mb ul oùlbrf ebxambnhlaj.

Pbrlhtbmbtbrlhoarbotrbnfjnebtbsquahsnarantbrbspf
Pbrlhtbmbtbrlhoarbotrbnfjnebtbsqua hsnarantbrbspfmblsbrfuo
mblsbrfuoîf
îf
%o[\ anbhtfsoa
anbhtfsoabotramambu
botramambulasbquéonha
lasbquéonhambnarantbrbs,sbo
mbnarantbrbs,sbomf‚o“ul
mf‚o“ulvajfr
vajfr
fpnhfoaj
fpnhfoajqubmbtbrlhoaf
qubmbtbrlhoaftalaoef
talaoefmasbquéonha
masbquéonhambnarantbrbs
mbnarantbrbs
Tbiaofbxblpjfacahxfaapjhnaçîfmbdfrlataçîfmaduoçîfprhotd()9
Tbiaofbxblpjfacahxfaapjhnaçîfmbdfrlataçîfmaduoç îfprhotd()9
prhotd(‚Fvajfr
prhotd(‚Fvajfrbonfotramfdfh
(‚Fvajfrbonfotramfdfh %m“,vj);
Pbrnbcaqubfvajfrmavarhávbj‚vj“dfhpfshnhfoamfofjfnajmf‚%m
Pbrnbcaqubfvajfrmavarhávbj‚vj“dfhpfshnhfoamfofjfnajmf‚%m“,“,
jblcraomfqub‚%m“èuladfrlataçîf
jblcraomfqub‚%m“èul adfrlataçîfparaulma
paraulmamfmfthpfhotb
mfmfthpfhotbhrf.
hrf.
Futrasparthnujarhmambs9
prhotd(‚ZoSbspfsta9a<%.3dbc<%.3dZo“,a,c);
Obstbbxblpjf,aotbsmbaprbsbotaradrasb,fprfgralapujfuula
jhoea‚Zo“,f‚%d“èuthjhzamfquaomffsmamfsoulèrhnfssîfdjutuaotbs,
fusbia,vajfrbsdranhfoamfs,quaomfusalfs%.3dshgohdhnaqubfvajfr
sbráarrbmfomamfblmuasnasasmbnhlahs,bx93,=2.
Duoçîfsnaod()
Aduoçîfsnaod()èulnflaomfmbbotrama,fusbia,sîfhodfrlaçòbs
Aduoçîfsnaod()èulnflaomf mbbotrama,fusbia,sîfhodfrlaçòbs
qubpfsshchj
qubpfsshchjhtal
htal abotramambmamf
abotramamb mamfspbjftbnjamf,
spbjftbnjamf, assh
asshl,a
l,ahodfr
hodfrlaçî
laçîf
f
sbráarlazboamablulmbtbrlhoamfbspaçfmalblþrha.Ashotaxbè
mbdhohmapfrulabxprbssîfmbnfotrfjb(sblprbbotrbaspasmupjas)b
pbjajhstambargulbotf.
Ashotaxbmaduoçîfsnaod()èmbdhohma
Ashotaxbmaduoçîfsnaod()èmbdhohmapfr9
pfr9
snaod(‚bxprbssîfmbnfotrfjb“,jhstambargulb
snaod(‚bxprbssîfmbnfotrf jb“,jhstambargulbotfs);
otfs);
A du
duoç
oçîf
îf sn
snao
aod(
d()
) daz
daz us
usf
f mb
mb ajgu
ajguos
os nþ
nþmh
mhgf
gfs
s mb
mb df
dfrl
rlaç
açîf
îf,, vb
vbia
ia a
quamrf>.79
Quamrf>.7|Nþmhgfmbdfrlataçîfparaduoçîfsnaod()
Nþmhgf Bspbnhdhnaçîf
%n Pbrlhtb qub sbia
ia b
bddbtuamaa
aajjbhtura m
mb
b apboas ul n
naarantbrb.
%m Pbrlhtb dazbr a jbhtura mb oùlbrfs hotbhrfs mbnhlahs.
%b Pbrlhtb a jbhtura mb oùlbrfs bl oftaçîf nhbotìdhna.
%d È dbhta a jbhtura mb oùlbrfs rbahs (pfotf djutuaotb).
%j Sbajhza-sb a jbhtura mb ul oùlbrf hotbhrf jfogf.
%f Pbrlhtb a jbhtura mb oùlbrfs fntahs.

%s Pbrlhtb a jbhtura mb ula sèrhb mb narantbrbs.
%u Bdbtua-sb a jbhtura mb ul oùlbrf mbnhlaj sbl shoaj.

%x Pbrlhtb qub sbia
ia dbhta a jjb
bhtura mb ul oùlbrf ebxambnhlaj.
%[nþ
%[ n þm hgf
nþm gf\\ Pb rlh
lhtb
tb qu
qubs
bsbi
bsbi
biadb
adbhththtaul
adb aulabo
aulabotr
abotram
tram
amadf
adfrr latam
adf atam
amapb
apbjfn
apbjfnþm
jfnþmhg
þmhgf.
hgf.
Tbiaashotaxbacahxf9
snaod(‚%m“, &vj);
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf 132
Obstbbxblpjffnflputamfrbotraránflulvajfrmbnhlajb
rbtfroaráfvajfrmavarhávbj‚vj“.
F ‚&“ è uth
thjhjhzzamf oa duo
duoçîf sna
naood(
d()
) oa jhjhssta
ta mb arg
rgul
ulb botf
tfss,
su
sua
a du
duoç
oçîf
îf è rb
rbtf tfro
roar
ar f nf
nfot
otbù
bùmf
mf ma
ma va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj, , fu
fu sb
sbia
ia,
, rb
rbtf
tfro
roa
a f
bombrbçfmffpbraomf.
laho()
{
hotoul;
prhotd("Mhghtbuloùlbrf9");
snaod("%m",&oul);
prhotd("Zofoùlbrfè%m",oul);
prhotd("Zofbombrbçfb%u",&oul);
}
Sbdjhta
Fcs
Fcsbrvb
brvb qub
qub of prfgra
prfgrala
la aca
acahxf
hxf df
dfhh ut
uthjh
hjhzam
zama
a ula
ula atr
atrhcu
hcuhçîf
hçîf para
para
varhávbj.Quajfvajfrmavarhávbjoat
varhávbj.Quajfvajfr mavarhávbjoatbjamf
bjamfnflputamfr6
nflputamfr6
#honjumb:stmhf.e?
#honjumb:stmjhc.e?
 otla o
{
hotv;
prhotd("ZoTajfrhohnhajmavarhavbjv<%m",v
prhotd("ZoTajfrhohnhajmavarhavbjv<%m",v); );
v<2;
prhotd("ZoFvajfrmavarhavbjb<%mZo",v*2);
rbturo0;
}
Ob
Obststb
b nasf
nasf bl
bl bs
bspb
pbnì
nìdh
dhnf
nf,
, oî
oîf
f dfh
dfh ut
uthjhjhz
hzam
amf
f ar
arla
lazb
zboa
oalb
lbot
otf
f bl
lblþrhamavarhávbj.
Nacb
Na cbrbs
rbssa
sajta
jtar
r qu
qub
b vfn
vfné
é pf
pfmb
mbdaz
dazbr
brnfl
nflbo
botár
tárhfs
hfs bl
bl qu
quajq
ajqub
ubrr
jugarmfsbuprfgrala,casta
jugarmfsbuprfg rala,castauthjhzarcarrasmupja
uthjhzarcarrasmupjas‚//“.
s‚//“.
Bxblpjf9
#honjumb:stmhf.e?//chc
#honjumb:s tmhf.e?//chcjhftbnaparab
jhftbnaparabotramabsaìm
otramabsaìmambmamf
ambmamfss
hotlaho()//nflaomfmbhoìnhfbf
hotlaho()//nflaomfmb hoìnhfbflahshlpfrtaotbmf
lahshlpfrtaotbmfprfgrala
prfgrala
{//hoìnhfmbuladuoçîf
prhotd(
prhotd( "Lbuprhlbhrfprfgrala");//nflaomfpara
prhotd("Lbuprhlbhrfprfgrala");// nflaomfparasaìmamb
saìmambmamfs
mamfs
oatbja
rbtu
rFpbranhfoaj
rbturo0;//homhnaqubfprfnbss
bturo0;//homhnaqubfprfnbssfbstavfjta
fbstavfjtaomfpara
omfparaf
f^hst
^hstbla
bla
}//dhlmbuladuoçîffumbulprfgrala
^b
^bgu
guom
omf
f La
Laoz
ozao
aof
f (3
(301
012)
2),
, a ho
host
stru
ruçî
çîf
f rb
rbtf
tfro
roa
a zb
zbrf
rf ‚rbt
‚rbtur
uro
o 0“
homhnaqubfprfgralabstásbomfbonbrraomfbqubfprfnbssf
qubbstavasbomfbxbnutamfvahrbtfroarpara
qubbstavasbomfbxbnutamf vahrbtfroarparafshstbla
fshstblafpbranhfoaj.
fpbranhfoaj.
Ahostruçîfsystbl("pausb")tbladuoçîfmbpausarabxbnuçîf
mfprfgrala,paraqubfrbsujtamfsbiavhsuajhzamf.
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Luhtfcbl!Agfravalfsvbrulbxblpjfmbulprfgralarbajhzamf
blJhoguagblN,fomblfstraráa hmambmbulapbssfa.
#honjumb:stmhf.e?
hotlaho()
{
 hot
hothm
hm;;
hm
 prhotd
prhotd(
("Quaotfs
("Quaotfs
"Quaotfsaofs
aofsvfnb
aofsvfnbtbl69
vfnb tbl69"
tbl69"
")
)
);;
  " ", 
 prhotd
prhotd(
("%m6
("%m6
"%m6Ofssa,
Ofssa,vfnb
Ofssa, vfnbparbnb
vfnbparbnbqub
parbnbqubtbl
qub tbl %m
%maofs
aofs!Zo"
aofs!Zo",,hm
!Zo",hm
hm,,hm*3);
,hm*3);
 systbl
systbl(‚pausb“);
(‚pausb“);
rbturo0;
}
Laravhjea,bssbdfhfsbuprhlbhrfpassfparaprfgralaçîfbl
jhoguagblN.Èluhtfhlpfrtaotbasuambmhnaçîfbtrbhoalbotf.
Nebgfuflflbotfmbrbsfjvbrashtuaçîfprfcjblaprfpfsta
pbja sb
pbja sbçî
çîf,f, a Kr
Krf
f bo
bogb
gboeoeararha
ha pr
prbn
bnhshsa
a qu
qub
b tf
tfmf mfs
s fs
fs bo
bogb
gboe
oebh
bhrf
rfss
ma
ma bl
blpr prbs
bsa
a ap
aprbrbom
omal
al a pr
prfg
fgra rala
laçî çîff bl
bl jhjhog
ogua
uagbgbl
l N.
N. F sb
sbuu
mbsadhf
mbsadh f è, iuo
iuotf
tf nfl
nfl fs
fs bo
bogb
gboeoebhr
bhrfs
fs,, mbsbo
mbsbovfvfjvb
jvbr
r ul
ul prf
prfgra
grala
la
bl
bl jhog
jhogua
uagb
gbl l N qub
qub da
daça
ça a nf
nfov ovbr
brsî
sîf
f ma
ma tb
tblplpbr
bratatur
ura
a mb
mb gr
grau
auss
nbot
nbotìg
ìgra
ramfs (N
mfs (Nbj
bjshus)
shus) para gr
para grau
aus
s Da
Daerboeb
erbo ht.. A dþ
ebht dþrl
rluja pa
uja para
ra bs
bssa
sa
 8.n
 +1
144
40
0
nfovbrsîfè9 D < ,fomb‚D“èatblpbraturablDaerboebht
2
b‚n“èatblpbraturablnbotìgramfs.
b‚n“èatblpbraturablnbotìgramfs.
Jblcraomfqubvfnéiuotfafsbogboebhrfs
Jblcraomfqubvfnéiuotfafsbogboebhrfsmbvbrîfaprbs
mbvbrîfaprbsbotar
botar
asrfthoasuthjhzamasofprfgrala,fsnflbotárhfsbanflphjaçîf
mfprfgrala.
Luht
Luhtf
fcbl
cbl,para
,pararbsf
rbsfjvbr
jvbr bss
bssb
bprfc
prfcjbla
jbla,vfné
,vfnémbv
mbvbrárbajhz
brárbajhzara
ara
prfgralaç
prfgralaçîf.Tbiaflfmbjf
îf.Tbiaflfmbjfaprbsbotam
aprbsbotamfacahxf9
facahxf9
#honjumb:late.e?
hotlaho()
{
 djfatdaerboebht;
djfatdaerboebht;
 djfatnbjshus;
djfatnbjshus;
 "      
Zo");
 prhotd("Mhghtbf
prhotd("Mhghtbfvajfr
fvajfrbl
vajfrblgraus
blgrausNbjshus9
graus Nbjshus9Zo");
Nbjshus9 Zo");
 snaod("%d", &nbjshus);
 daerboebht<
daerboebht<(8*nbjshus+140)/2;
<(8*nbjshus+140)/2;
 prhotd("Fvajfr
prhotd("Fvajfrbl
vajfr blDaerboebht
blDaerboebhtb9
Daerboebhtb9%.3d
b9%.3dZo",
%.3dZo",daerboebht
Zo", daerboebht);
daerboebht);
 rbturo0;
rbturo0;
}
Iá nf
Iá nfl
l a prprfg
fgrarala
laçî
çîf
f pr
prfo
fota ta,
, è f lflb
lflbot otf
f mbmb nfnfjf
jfna
narr fs
nf
nflb
lbot otár
árhf
hfs,
s, pa
para
ra hssf
hssf,
, of
of dhoa
dhoajj mb
mb na
nama
ma jhjhoe
oea
a ut
uthjhjhz
hzar
ar f ‚/
‚//“
/“ pa
para
ra
hohnharfsnflbotárhfs.
Rt
Rthjhjhz
hzao
aomf
mf ul
ul nf
nflp
lput
utam
amfr
fr nf
nfl
l f MB
MBT
T N+
N++
+ ho
host
staj
ajam
amf,
f, da
daça
ça a
nflphjaçîfmfprfgrala.
]botbfutraslaobhrasmbnrharfprfgrala,daçatbstbsbprathqub
fláxhlfpfssìvbj.
Adfrça
Blulmbcatbnflsbusalhgfsbogboebhrfs,vfnédfhmbsa dhamf
a rb
rbssfjv
jvbr
br atr
traavès
ès mf ná
nájn
jnuujf
jf ma df
dfrç
rçaa b mbpfhs
hs prf
rfg
gra
rala
larr bl
JhoguagblNasbguhotbshtuaçîf9
Hl
Hlag
agho
hob
b ul
ula a pj
pjan
ana
a mb
mb nhlb
nhlbot otf
f sf
sfcr
crb
b ul
ula
a pjat
pjatad
adfr
frla
la pj
pjao
aoaa
fombsbráobnbssárhfnajnujaradfrçaofrlajulaoafutra.Ahmbha
mfnájnujfèoîfmbhxarqubffcibtfsþjhmfsbiaatravbssamfpfr
futrfs.Tbiaqubadfrçamagravhmambblpurraapjanaparacahxf,af
lbslftblpfblqubadfrçaofrlajv
lbslftblpfblquba dfrçaofrlajvahnfotrabja.
ahnfotrabja.
P
Pararbajhzarbssbsnájnujfs,vfnépfmbrá
Pararbajhzarbssbs
ararbajhzarbssbsnájnujfs,vfnépfmbráusara
usarasbguhotbdþrluja9
sbguhotbdþrluja9
O<l.g
Fomb9
O9dfrçaofrlaj
l9lassamffcibtf
g9grav a b
Mbpfhsqubvfnébotbombuajþghnamaprfpfsta, daçafprfgrala
Mbpfhsqubvfnébotbombuajþghnamaprfpfsta,daçafprfgrala
Mbpfhsqubvfnébotbombuajþghnamaprfpfsta,
bljhoguagblN.
shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
Pa
Para
ra rbsf
rbsfjv
jvbr
br bs
bssa
sa sh
shtu
tuaç
açîf
îf,
, a su
sugb
gbst
stîf
îf mb
mb pr
prfg
fgra
rala
laçî
çîf
f è a
sbguhotb9
#honjumb:late.e?
hotlaho()
{
djfato,l,g;
prhotd("Mhghtbalassamffcibtf9Zo");
prhotd("Mhghtbalassamf fcibtf9Zo");
snaod("%d", &l);
prhotd("Mhghtbagravhmamb9Zo");
&
snaod("%d", g);
o<(l*g);
prhotd("Fnajnujfmadfrnab9%dZo",o);
 rbturo0;
rbturo0;
Tfnéahomapfmblbjefrarbmhdbrbonharaprfgralaçîf.
Tfnéahomapfmblbjefrarb mhdbrbonharaprfgralaçîf.
1.Parabxbnuta
Parabxbnutar
rul
ulprfg
prfgrala
ralabl
bljhog
jhoguagb
uagbl
lN
Nè
èobnb
obnbssá
ssárhful
rhfulnflp
nflphjam
hjamfr
fr
fomb su
fomb sua
a du
duoç
oçîf
îf sbgu
sbguom
omf
f ^n
^neh
ehjm
jmt
t (3
(300
002)
2) è prfn
prfnbs
bssa
sar
r fs
fs nþ
nþmh
mhgf
gfs
s bl
jhoguagbl
jhoguagb lmbajtf
mbajtfoìvbjparajhoguagblcahxf
oìvbjparajhoguagblcahxfoìvbj. oìvbj.F
Fnflphjamfr
nflphjamfrprfnbssa
fs nþmh
fs nþmhgf
gfs
s mf
mf prf
prfgr
gral
alaa b vb
vbrh
rhdh
dhna
na sb
sb bs
bstb
tbs
s oî
oîf
f pf
pfssu
ssubl
bl br
brrf
rfs
s oa
oa su
sua
a
bxbnuçîf.
Quaj
Qu aj f prfnb
prfnbmh
mhlb
lbot
otf
f qub
qub tb
tbl
l a du
duoç
oçîf
îf mb vh
vhon
onuj
ujar
ar tf
tfmf
mfs
s fs
fs ar
arqu
quhv
hvfs
fs
gbramfsblulùohnfarquhvfbxbnutávbj6Asshoajb aajtbroathvanfrrbta9
a Nfl hja îf.

c)Jhokbr.
n)Prfnbssalbotf.
m)Jbhtura.
b)Bsnrhta.
3. Qu
Quaoaomf
mf vf
vfné
né pr
prbn
bnhs
hsar
ar am
amhn
hnhf
hfoa
oar
r ul
ul ‚1
‚1“
“ à varh
varháv
ávbj
bj,
, vf
vfné
né da
dará
rá us
usf
f mf
‚++“(honrblbotf),bquaomfquhsbrthrarul‚1“mavarhávbj,vfnéuthjhza
‚--“(mbnrblbotf),bssasfpbraçòbssîfnarantbrhzamasuoárhas,pfrèl,f
pfshnhfoalbotfmfs‚++“oasvarhávbhspfmblsfdrbrajtbraçòbsofssbus
vajfrbsquaomfrbprbsbotamfs.
1>0 R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf
Aoajhsbfprfgralaacahxfbrbspfomaaajtbroathvaqubnfrrbspfombaf
vajfrparapbq.
hotlaho()
{
hotp,q;
 p<1;
 q<1;
 prhotd("Tajfrmb
prhotd("Tajfrmbp
mbp<
p<
<%mZo",
%mZo",p);
%mZo",p);
 prhotd("Tajfrmb
prhotd("Tajfrmbq
mbq<
q<
<%mZo",
%mZo",q);
%mZo",q);
 prhotd("ZoNrhaomf
prhotd("ZoNrhaomff
Nrhaomf fHonrblbotf9
fHonrblbotf9
Honrblbotf9p++Zo");
p++Zo");
 p++;
 prhotd("Nrhaomful
prhotd("NrhaomfulMbnrblbotf9
ul Mbnrblbotf9q--Zo");
Mbnrblbotf9 q--Zo");
 q--;
 prhotd("ZoF
prhotd("ZoFofvf
F ofvfvajfr
ofvfvajfrpara
vajfrparap
para p<
p<
<%mZo",
%mZo",p);
%mZo", p);
 prhotd("F
prhotd("Fofvf
F ofvfvajfr
ofvfvajfrpara
vajfrparaq
paraq<
q<
<%mZo",q);
%mZo",q);
 rbturo
rbturo0;
0;
}
a)Fofvf
a)Fofvfvajfrpara‚p“
vajfrpara‚p“è1bfof
è1bfofvfvajfrmb‚q“è
vfvajfrmb‚q“è0.
0.
c)Fofvfvajfrpara‚p“è0bfof
c)Fofvfvajfrpara‚p“è0bfofvfvajfrmb‚q“è
1.
n)Fofvf
n)Fofvfvajfrpara‚p“
vajfrpara‚p“è1bfof
è1bfofvfvajfrmb‚q“è
1.
m)Fofvfvajfrpara‚p“è
m)Fofvfvajfrpara‚p“è0bfof
0bfofvfvajfrmb‚q“è
3.
b)Fofvfva
b)Fofvfvajfrpara‚p“è
jfrpara‚p“è3bfof
3bfofvfvajfrmb‚q“è
0.
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf  1>1
>.Aoajhsbfprfgralaacahxf9
1 #honjumb:stmhf.e?
#honjumb:stmhf.e?
3 #honjumb
#honjumb:stmjhc.e?
:stmjhc.e?
> hot
hotlaho(vfhm)
laho(vfhm)
= {
2 djfat
djfatofta1,ofta3,lbmha;
ofta1,ofta3,lbmha;
4 prhotd("ZooMhghtb
prhotd("ZooMhghtba
aprhlbhra
aprhlbhra
prhlbhraofta9
ofta9");
ofta9");
7 snaod("%d",&ofta1);
5 prhotd("Mhghtb
prhotd("Mhghtba
asbguoma
asbguoma
sbguomaofta9
ofta9");
ofta9");
8 snaod("%m",&ofta3);
10 lbmha
lbmha<
<(ofta1
<(ofta1+
(ofta1+ofta3)/3;
+ofta3)/3;
11 prhotd("Lbmha
prhotd("Lbmhamf
mfajuof
mfajuof<
ajuof <%mZo",lbmha);
<%mZo",lbmha);
13 rbturo
rbturo0;
0;
1> }
Nfoshmbraomfasadhrlaçòbsacahxf,rbspfomaaajtbroathvanfrrbta.
H-Ajhoea>mfprfgra
H-Ajhoea>mfprfgralabstábrrama,pfhsmbotrfmf
labstábrrama,pfhsmbotrfmfnflaomf‚la
nflaomf‚laho“oîf
ho“oîf
pfmbsbrusamffthpf‚vfhm“.
HH-^b
HH-^blaothvbr
laothvbra
ajhoea8
jhoea8b13
b13nfl‚%m“,f
nfl‚%m“,fprfgralasbránflphjamflbslf
prfgralasbránflphjamflbslf
nflf
nfl fthpf
thpf mbvarhávbj
mbvarhávbj mhd
mhdbrbo
brbotbma
tbma mbn
mbnjar
jarama
ama,
,pfr
pfrèl,
èl, a
arbs
rbspfs
pfstapara
tapara a
lèmhamfajuofsbrá‚0“.
HHH-Oajhoea4mfprfgrala,ahostruçîfZoodaznflqub
HHH-Oajhoea4mfprfgrala, ahostruçîfZoodaznflqub fprfgralapujb
muasjhoeasaotbsmfhoìnhfma drasb.
a)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHbstánfrrbta.
c)AsajtbroathvasHbHH bstîfnfrrbtas.
n)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHHbstán frrbta.
m)AsajtbroathvasHHbHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
m)AsajtbroathvasHHbHHbstîfnfrrbtas.
b)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHHHbstánfrrbta.
^bçîf>.3
BstruturasnfomhnhfoahsbljhoguagblN
Mhájfgfacbrtf
nf Nabnbr
Narf
nfoe rfbr
oebn  aj
ajuo
uof,
 f f,onhf
 oa
duon
du oa oalb
sb
sbçî
hfoa çîf
f
lbot aotb
ao
f tbrh
otf rhfr
ma
ma fr,
,guag
jho
jhoguvf
vfné
né
 tb
agbl
bltbvb
vb
N, a
N, ap fp
fpfr
aprb frtu
rbomtuoh
ombuohma
 mamb
bu mbdhoh
a mb  ohr
mbdh mbr
as suas varhávbhs, nfostaotbs b fpbramfrbs, asshl nflf nrhar
bxprbssòbs.Agfraèflflbotfmbmbhxartumflahshotbrbssaotb.
Talfsjá!
Obstasbçîf,vfnésbrájbvamfanfoebnbrabxbnuçîfsbqubonhaj,
as
as bs
bstr
trut
utur
uras
as nf
nfom
omhn
hnhf
hfoa
oahs
hs shlp
shlpjb
jbs
s b nflp
nflpfsfsta
ta,
, as
assh
shl
l nf
nflf
lf as
bstruturasnfomhnhfoahsbonambamasbmbsbjbçîfmbnasfs.
Oîftboearb
Oîftboearbnbhf,aparthrmb
nbhf,aparthrmbagfra,vf
agfra,vfnétbráafpfrtu
nétbráafpfrtuohmambmb
ohmambmb
nfoebnbraslahsmhvbrsasdfrlasmbprfgral açîf,adhlmbnebgar
aullbslffcibthvf.Pbosbqubvfnéèulnebdmbnfzhoeabqub
paranrharularbnbhtabxhstblm
paranrharularb nbhtabxhstblmhdbrbotbspfs
hdbrbotbspfsshchjhmambs
shchjhmambs..
Pf
Pfhs hs cb
cbl!
l! A lulujtjtho
hoan
anhf
hfoa
oajj Kr
Krf
f Bo
Bogb
gboe
oeararha
has
s pr
prbn
bnhs
hsa
a ququb
b vf
vfné
né
auxhjhjhb
auxh b fs
fs bo
bogbgboeoebhbhrf
rfs
s a mb
mbsb
sbov ovfjfjvb
vbrb
rbl
l ulula a pr
prfg
fgra rala
laçî çîff bl
jhoguagbl N qub najnujb as sbguhotbs dþrlujas9 dþrluja mf
lf
lfvh vhlb lbot otf
f Sb
Sbth thjìo
jìobf
bf Rohdf
Rohdfrlrlb,b, fomb
fomb ^<
^< ^f
^f + T.
T.t
t (d
(dþr
þrlu lujaja pa
para
ra
lbmhrftblpf,bspaçfbTbjfnhmamb),badþrlujamfLfvhlbotf
Sb
Sbththjìjìob
obff Ro
Rohdhdfr
frlblblb lbototb
b Tarh
Tarham
amf, f, fo
fomb
mb ^ < ^f
^f + Tf
Tf.t .t + 1/
1/3
3 a.
a.t³
t³
(D
(Dþr
þrlu
luja ja pa
para
ra lbmh
lbmhr r f tb
tblp
lpf,
f, bsbspa
paçf
çf b vbjf
vbjfnh
nhma
mamb
mb ofof LSRT
LSRT). ).
Jblcraomfqubfusuárhfmbvbrátbrafpçîfmb
Jblcraomfqubfusuárhfmbvbrátbra fpçîfmbbsnfjebrbotrbula
bsnfjebrbotrbula
masdþrlujas.Tfnémbvbráaprbsbotarfsnþmhgfsmfprfgralaaf
sbuprfdbssfrapþsasuanflphjaçîf,rbnfrmaomfqubvfnépfmbrá
usarabstruturanfomhnhfoajbonambama
usarabstruturanfomhnhfoajb onambamabasbjbçî
basbjbçîfmbnasfs.
fmbnasfs.
Cfasfrtbbþthlfsbstumfs.
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf  1>>
Narf ajuof, oa prhlbhra sbçîf mbsta
ta uohmamb, vfné tbvb a
fpfrtuohmambmbtracajearfsnfonbhtfsbbstruturasmaJhoguagbl
N,botrbbjas9abstruturamb
N,botrbbjas9abstruturambulprfgralabl
ulprfgralablJhoguagblN,fs
JhoguagblN,fsthpfs
thpfs
mbchcjhftbnas,asvarhávbhsbnfostaotbsbdhoajhzaomfnflajgulas
duoçòbsblJhoguagblN.
Agfra,nebgfuflflbotfmbnfoebnbrajgulasmasdfrlasmb
bstruturasnfomhnhfoahsbl
bstruturasnfomhnhfoahsbljhoguagblN.
jhoguagblN.Talfsvfjtar
Talfsvfjtarul
ulpfunfoa
pfunfoa
bxbnuçîfsbqubonhajmbulprfgralabjfgfblsbguhmatracajear
as
as bs
bstru
trutur
turas
as nfo
nfomhn
mhnhfo
hfoahs
ahs shl
shlpjb
pjbs,
s, nfl
nflpfs
pfstas
tas,, bon
bonam
amba
bamas
mas b mb
sbjbçîfmbnasfs.
Botîf,valfsbldrbotb!
Bxbnuçîfsbqubonhaj
Pfhs
Pfhs cb
cbl,
l, sb
sbgu
guhl
hlfs
fs da
daja
jaom
omf
f mb
mb bx
bxbn
bnuç
uçîf
îf sb
sbqu
qubo
bonh
nhaj
aj,
, qub
qub oa
vbrmamboamalahsèmfqubulnflaomfsbomfbxbnutamf,ulapþs
vbrmamboamalahsèmfqubul nflaomfsbomfbxbnutamf,ulapþs
ffutrf.Pfmblfsmhzbrqubèasbquéonhablqubdfralbsnrhtfs.
Tbiafprfgralaacahxfqubbxbnutafrahfbpbrìlbtrfmbul
nìrnujfmbdfrlasbqubonhaj9
hotlaho(){
djfatrahf,arba,pbrhlbtrf,ph;
prhotd(‚Mhghtbfrahf9‚);
snao , raf;
ph<>.1=1283;
arba<ph*(rahf*rahf);
pbrhlbtrf<3.0*ph*rahf;
prhotd(‚Zo
prhotd(‚ZoSahf9%.3d
Sahf9%.3dZo“,rahf);
Zo“,rahf);
prhotd(‚ZoArba9%.3dZo“,arba);
prhotd(‚ZoPbrhlbtrf9%.3dZo“,pbrhl
prhotd(‚ZoPbrhlbtrf9%.3dZo“,pbrhlbtrf);
btrf);
rbturo0;
}
Obstbbxblpjf,pfmblfsfcsbrvarqubfprfgraladfhrbajhzamf
usaomfulsbqubonhalbotfmbnflaom
usaomfulsbqubonhal botfmbnflaomfsatèasuanfonjusî
fsatèasuanfonjusîf.
f.
1>= R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf
Ao
Aotb
tbs
s mb
mb ma
mar
r ho
hoìn
ìnhf
hf à bs
bstr
trut
utur
ura
a nf
nfom
omhnh
hnhfo
foaj
aj,
, è hl
hlpf
pfrt
vfné,ajuof,rbnfrmbmbajguosfpbramfrbsrbjanhfoahsusamfsparartao
aotb
tb qu
qub
b
nflparaçîf,pfrbxblpjf9
Bxprbssî
Bxprbssîf‚:“vbrhdhnasb
f‚:“vbrhdhnasbulvajfrèl
ulvajfrèlbofrqubff
bofrqubffutrf.
utrf.
Bxprbssî
Bxprbssîf‚?“vbrhdhnasb
f‚?“vbrhdhnasbulvajfrèl
ulvajfrèlahfrqubffu
ahfrqubffutrf.
trf.
Bxprbssîf‚:<“vbrhdhnasbulvajfrèlbofrfuhguajqubffutrf.
Bxprbssîf‚:<“vbrhdhnasbulvajf rèlbofrfuhguajqubffutrf.
Bxprbssîf‚?<“vbrhdhnasbulvajfrèlahfrfuhguajqubffutrf.
Bxprbssîf‚?<“vbrhdhnasbulvaj frèlahfrfuhguajqubffutrf.
Bxprbssî
Bxprbssîf‚<<“vbrhdhnas
f‚<<“vbrhdhnasbulvajfrè
bulvajfrèhguajaffutrf
hguajaffutrf..
Bxprbssîf‚!<“vbrhdhnasbulvajfrèm
Bxprbssîf‚!<“vbrhdhnasbulvajfrèmhdbrbotbmffu
hdbrbotbmffutrf.
trf.
Asshlhjb
Para oîf
Para oîf pbr
pbrmbr
mbr oama pbjf
oama pbjf nalhoef
nalhoef,, vajb
vajb asshlh
asshlhjar
jar fs fpb
fpbramfrbs
ramfrbs
jþghnfs,asshlnflfatacbjavbrmamb9
jþghnfs,asshlnflfa tacbjavbrmamb9
]acbja>.=|Fpbramfrbsjþghnfs
Fpbramfrbs Duoçîf
! Obgaçîf - OF ]
&& Nfoiuoçîf-AOM
|| Mhsiu
iuoçîf Ho njushva „ F S
]acbjaTbrmamb
A C A &&C A || C  !A  !C 
Luhtfcbl,agfrapfmblfsprfssbguhr.
Bstruturanfomhnhfoajshlpjbs
^bguom
omf
f Laoz
ozaaof (3
(30
01>),
), par
araa a sfju
juç
çîf mb ul prf
rfc
cjbl
jbla,
pf
pfmmblfs fs uthjh
thjhzzar a hos
hostrtruç
uçîîf ‚hd“,
hd“, bl pfr frtu
tug
gués ‚sb“,“, fom
omb b sua
duoçîfètflarulambnhsîfbnrharulmbsvhfmbotrfmfprfgrala,
fo
fomb
mb,
, mbst
mbsta
a df
dfrl rla,
a, pf
pfmb mblf
lfss ne
nebg
bgar ar a ul
ulaa nf
nfom
omhç
hçîfîf qu
qub
b pf
pfmb
mb
sbr vb
sbr vbrma
rmamb
mbhra
hra fu
fudaj
dajsa
sa..Jbl
Jblcra
craomf
omf ququbba
ahos
hostru
truçîf
çîf pf
pfmbmb rbn
rbnbc
bcbr
br
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf 1>2
vajfrbsblalcfsfsnasfs.Parambtbrlhoarfhoìnhfbdhlmbula
hostruçîf,hrblfsuthjhzarfssìlcfjfs
hostruçîf,hrblfsuthjhzarfssìlcfjfsmbneavbs
mbneavbs‚{‚b‚}“.
‚{‚b‚}“.
Tbianflfdhnaabstruturanfomhnhfoajshlpjbsofdjuxfgralama
dhgura>.7.
Dhgura>.7|Djuxfgralarbprbsbot
Dhgura>.7| Djuxfgralarbprbsbotaomfaduoçîf
Djuxfgralarbprbsbot aomfaduoçîf‚hd“
aomfaduoçîf ‚hd“
Hoìnhf
T
Nfomhçîf
Nflaomf1
D
Dfotb9bjacframapbjfautfr. Dhl
Oa
Oa sb
sbqu
quéo
éonh
nha,
a, vb
vbia
ia a sh
shot
otax
axb
b ma
ma ho
host
stru
ruçî
çîf
f ‚h
‚hd“
d“ (s
(sb)
b) ut
uthjh
hjhza
zama
ma oa
jhoguagblN9
hd:(nfomhçîf)?
{
:nfoiuotfmbnflaomfs?;
Luhtfcbl,oamalbjefrmfqubvhsuajhzarulaapjhnaçîfmbstb
thpfmbnfomhçîfsboîfapjhnaomf-aoapráthna.Ofbxblpjfacahxf,
dfhnrhamaulanfomhçîfparaqubfprfgralabxbnutbfvajfrmf
prfibtfbsbbstbdfrlahfrqubS$30.000,00,mbvbráaparbnbrula
lbosagbloatbjalfstraomfqubfprfibtfoîfèvhávbj.
laho()
{
 near
nearprfibtf[30\;
prfibtf[30\;
djfatfrnalbotf,hlpfstf,tftaj;
 prhotd(‚Zo
prhotd(‚ZoMhghtb
Mhghtbf
Mhghtbfoflb
foflbmf
oflb mfprfibtf
mfprfibtfZo“);
prfibtf Zo“);
 snaod(‚%s“, &prfibtf);
 prhotd(‚Zo
prhotd(‚ZoMhghtb
Mhghtbf
Mhghtbfvajfr
fvajfrmf
vajfrmffrnalbotfZo
mffrnalbotfZo‚);
frnalbotfZo ‚);
 snaod(‚%d“, &frnalbotf);
 prhotd(‚Zomhghtb
prhotd(‚Zo mhghtbf
mhghtbfvajfr
fvajfrmfs
vajfr mfshlpfstfs
mfs hlpfstfsZo“);
hlpfstfs Zo“);
 snaod(‚%d“, &hlpfstf);
 tftaj<
tftaj <frnalbotf
< frnalbotf+
frnalbotf +hlpfstf;
+ hlpfstf;
 prhotd(‚ZoF
prhotd(‚ZoFTajfr
(‚ZoF Tajfrmf
Tajfr mfprfibtf
mfprfibtfb
prfibtf b<
b<%.3dZo“,
<%.3dZo“,tftaj);
%.3dZo“,tftaj);
 hd(tftaj?
hd(tftaj?30000)
?30000)
 {
 prhotd(‚ZoZo
prhotd(‚ZoZoF
ZoF%s
F%sOaf
%sOafb
OafbvhavbjZo“,
bvhavbjZo“,prfibtf);
vhavbjZo“, prfibtf);
 }
 rbturo(0);
}
Luhtfcfl,vbrblfsag
Luhtfcfl, vbrblfsagfraabstrutu
fraabstruturanfomhnhfoajnf
ranfomhnhfoajnflpfsta.
lpfsta.
Bstruturanfomhnhfoajnflpfsta
A bstrutura nfomhnhfoaj nflpfsta è cbl parbnhma nfl a
bstruturanfom
bstruturanfomhnhfoajshlpjbs
hnhfoajshlpjbs,amhdbrboç
,amhdbrboçaè9quao
aè9quaomfulanfom
mfulanfomhçîf
hçîf
oîf è sat
oîf sathsd
hsdbht
bhta,
a, ul fu
futrf
trf nfl
nflaom
aomf
f sb
sbrá
rá bx
bxbnu
bnutam
tamf.
f. Obs
Obstb
tb nas
nasf,
f,
valfsusarfnflaomf‚bjsb“,qubshgohdhna‚botîf“.Tbianflfdhna
bstabstruturaofdjuxfgralamadhgura>
bstabstruturaofdjuxfgralamadhgura>.59
.59
Dhgura>.5|Djuxfgralarbprbsbotaomfaduoçîf‚hd“b‚bjsb“.
Dhgura>.5|Djuxfgralarbprbsbotaomfaduoçîf‚hd“ b‚bjsb“.
Hoìnhf
T D
Nfomhçîf
Nflaomf 1  Nflaomf 3
Dhl
Agfra,vbiaarbprbsbotaçîfmashotaxb9
hd:(nfomhçîf)?
{
}
bjsb
{
}
Luhtfcfl,agfravbianflfdhnaaapjhnaçîfmfnflaomf‚bjsb “
uthjhzaomffprfgralaacahxf9
hotlaho(){
djfatfrnalbotf;
nearprfibtf[30\;
prhotd(‚MhghtbfoflbmfprfibtfZo“);
snaod(‚%s“, &prfibtf);
prhotd(‚Mhghtbfvajfrmffrnalbotfmfprfib
prhotd(‚MhghtbfvajfrmffrnalbotfmfprfibtfZo“);
tfZo“);
snaod(‚%d“, &frnalbotf);
hd(frnalbotf:<30000)
{
 ‚      ,  
hodbrhfrfuhguajaS$30000“,prfibtf);
}
bjsb
{
 prhotd(‚ZoFprfibtf
prhotd(‚ZoF prfibtf%s
prfibtf %soaf
%s oafpfmbra
oaf pfmbrasbr
pfmbra sbrbxbnutamf,
sbr bxbnutamf,sbu
bxbnutamf, sbuvajfr
sbu vajfr
dfhsupbrhfraS$30000‚,
dfhsupbrhfra S$30000‚,prfibtf,frnal
prfibtf,frnalbotf);
botf);
}
rbturo0;
}
Baì,lbjefrfufpbosalbotf6Dhnfucbllahsbstruturamfbf
nflaomf‚bjsb“pfsshchjhtfuulrbtfrof
nflaomf‚bjsb“pfsshchjhtfuulrbtfrofànfomhnhfoaj‚
ànfomhnhfoaj‚hd“.
hd“.
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Tbiaofbxblpjfacahxfaapjhnaçîfmbulprfgralabl
jhoguagblNqubrbtfroasbfvajfrmbuloùlbrfmhghtamfè
pfshthvffuobgathvf,rbprbsbotaomfulabstruturanfomhnhfoaj
nflpfsta9
hotlaho(){
 hotoul;
hot oul;
 prhotd(‚Mhghtb
prhotd(‚Mhghtbul
(‚Mhghtb uloulbrf9
ul oulbrf9‚);
oulbrf9 ‚);
 snaod(‚%m“,
snaod (‚%m“,&oul);
 hd
hd(oul?<0)
(oul?<0)
 {
 prhotd(‚ZoZoF
prhotd(‚ZoZoFoulbrf
(‚ZoZoF oulbrfb
oulbrf bpfshthvfZo“);
b pfshthvfZo“);
 }
 bjsb
 {
 prhotd(‚F
prhotd(‚Foulbrf
(‚Foulbrfb
oulbrf bobgathvf“);
bobgathvf“);
 }
 rbturo0;
rbturo0;
}
Luhtf cbl! Agfra valfs tra

rac
cajear a bstrutu
turra nfomhnhfoaj
bonambama
Bstruturanfomhnhfoajbonambama
Abstruturanfomhnhfoajbonambamaètalcèlnfoebnhmanflf
hdsaohoeamfs,qub,sbguomf^nehjmt(1887),èulnflaomfhdqubè
ffcibtfmbfutrfshdbbjsb.Bl
ffcibtfmbfutrfshdbbjsb.Blrbsulf,sblp
rbsulf,sblprbulnflaomfbjs
rbulnflaomfbjsb
b
bstarájhgamfafnflaomfhdmbsbuoìvbjmbaohoealbotf.
Tbiaoadhgura>.8ulmfsthpfsmbdjuxfgralasqubrbprbsbota
ulabstruturanfomhnhfoajbonambama.
Dhgura>.8|Djuxfgralabstruturanfomhnhfoajbonambama
D T
Nfomhçîf1
nflaomfpara
D T nfomhçîf1
Nfomhçîf3 vbrmambhra
nflaomfpara nflaomfpara
nfomhçîf3 nfomhçîf3
dajsa vbrmambhra
Pfmblfs
Pfmblf s nar
narant
antbrh
brhzar
zar a sho
shotax
taxb
b mb
mb ula
ula bs
bstru
trutur
tura
a nfo
nfomhn
mhnhfo
hfoaj
aj
bonambamamasbguhotbdfrla9
hd(nfomhçîf)nflaomf;
bjsb
 hd
hd(nfomhçîf)
(nfomhçîf)nflaomf;
(nfomhçîf) nflaomf;
 bjsb(nfomhçîf)
bjsb(nfomhçîf)nflaomf;
nflaomf;
.
.
.
 bjsb nflaomf;
Luhtf cbl! Agfra vbia of prfgrala acahxf ula bstrutura

nfomhnhfoajbonambama,fombsbránajnujamffhotbrvajfbotrbmfhs
pbrìfmfsmbtblpf.
1=0 R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf
hotlaho(){
 hote1,
hote1,lho1,
e1, lho1,e3,
lho1, e3,lho3,
e3, lho3,e,
lho3,e,lho;
e,lho;
prhotd(‚ZoMhghtbfhostaotbho
prhotd(‚ZoMhg htbfhostaotbhohnhaj(efrasblho
hnhaj(efrasblhoutfs)Zo“);
utfs)Zo“);
snaod(‚%m%m“, &e1, &lho1);
prhotd(‚ZoMhghtbfhostaotbdhoajZo“);
snaod(‚%m%m“, &e3, &lho3);
e<e3-e1;
lho<lho3-lho1;
hd((e:0)||((e<<0) &&(lho:0)))
prh
rho
otd
td(‚
(‚ZZoMamfsfs ho
hovvajhmf
jhmfss! F sbg
sbguomf hohossta
tao
otb
tb b aotb
tbrh
rhf
fr af
prhlbhrfZo“);
bjsb
{
hd(lho:0)
{
e<e-1;
lho<lho+40;
}
prhotd(‚ZoBotrbfspbrhfmfs%me%mlhob%me%mlhopassaral-
sb%me%mlho“,e1,lho1,e3,
lho3,e,lho);
}
 rbturo0;
rbturo0;
}
Pbsquhsblahs
AsshstaàvhmbfaujambsbovfjvhmapbjfCþsfo]rbhoalbotfs
qub da
daja
ja sfcrb
rb as bstr
tru
utu
tura
rass nf
nfo
omhn
hnhf
hfo
oahs
hs bona
onambamas
as.
. 1>
„ Prfgralaçîf bl Jh Jho
oguagbl N. Cþsfo ]rbhoalbotfs.
Xfutucb.37dbv.3012.Mhspfoìvbjbl9:ettps9//www.yfutucb.
nfl/watne6v<7YJ5tEJ]]ds?.Anbssfbl915lar.3015.
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf  1=1
Bstruturanfomhnhfoajmbsbjbçîf
Bstruturanfomhnhfoajmbsbjbçîfmbnasfs
ajmbsbjbçîf mbnasfs
A Bs
Bstr
trut
utur
ura
a Nf
Nfomomhn
hnhf
hfoa
oajj mb
mb sb
sbjb
jbçî
çîf
f mb
mb na
nasf
sfs
s ‚swh
‚swhtn
tne-
e-na
nasb
sb“
“ è
apjhnamaquaomfusalfsulavarhávbjmfthpfhotbhrfparanflparar
apjhnamaquaomfusalfsulava rhávbjmfthpfhotbhrfparanflparar
futbstarmbtbrlhoam
futbstarmbtbrlhoamfsvajfrbs.Quaom
fsvajfrbs.Quaomffsvajfrbssîfavajhamf
ffsvajfrbssîfavajhamfs,fs,f
nflaomfèbxbnutamf.Blajguosnasfsèulaþthlafpçîfpara
sucsthtuhraprfgralaçîfmbbs
sucsthtuhraprfg ralaçîfmbbstruturanfomhnhfoa
truturanfomhnhfoajbonambama.
jbonambama.
Nasfoboeulmfsvajfrbssbiabonfotramf,fnflaomfmbdaujt
sbrábxbnutamf.
Jblcraomfqubfsnflaomfssîfbxbnutamfsatèf
Jblcraomfqubfsnflaomfssîfbxbnutamfs atèfpfotfqub
pfotfqubf f
nflaomfcrbakdfrjfnajhzamf.
Tbia
ia oa dhg
dhgur
uraa >.1
.10
0 f djdju
uxfgra
grala rbrbp
prb
rbssbota
taoomf a bstr
tru
utu
tura
ra
swhtne-nasb9
Dhgura>.10|Djuxfgralaswhtne-nasb
nfomhçîf
T
nasf1 nflaomf1
nasf3 T nflaomf3
D
T
nasfO nflaomfO
nflaomfajtbroathvf
Agfra,vbiaashotaxb9
swhtne(varhávbj)
{
nasbnfostaotb19
:nflaomfs?
crbak;
nasbnfostaotb39
:nflaomfs?
crbak;
mbdaujt9:nflaomfs?
}
Tbiaqubfnflaomfcrbakèuthjhzamfparadfrçarasaìmamfjaçf
mbrbpbthçîf,fusbia,bjbsahmfnflaomfsblbxbnutarasprþxhlas
hostruçòbs.
Cfl,paradhxarfqubbstásbomfbstumamf,valfsapjhnarul
bxblpjf,fombadhoajhmambètbrnflffpçîfaárbabfpbrìlbtrf
mbulnìrnujf,aparthrmfvajfrmfrahf9
hotlaho(){
djfatarba,rahf,ph,pbrhlbtrf;
hotthpf;
ph<>.1=1283;
prhotd(‚ZoMhg
prhotd(‚ZoMhghtbfvajfrpara
htbfvajfrparaarahfZo“);
arahfZo“);
snaod(‚%d“, &rahf);
‚       “
prhotd(‚Zo1paraarbamfnhrnujfZo“);
prhotd(‚Zo3parapbrhlbtrfZo“);
prhotd(‚Zo“);
snaod(‚%m“,&thpf);
swhtne(thpf)
{
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf  1=>
nasb19
prhotd(‚Fvajfrparaaarbamfnhrnujfb9%.3dZo“,arba<ph*(rahf*rahf));
prhotd(‚Fvajfrparaaarbamfnhrnujf b9%.3dZo“,arba<ph*(rahf*rahf));
crbak;
na
n asb 39
nas 39 prho
rhotd
td(‚
(‚F
F vajf
jfr
r para
ra f pbrh
rhlb
lbtr
trf
f mf nh
nhrn
rnu
ujf
jf b9 %.
%.3d
3d“,
“,
pbrhlbtrf<3.0*ph*rahf);
crbak;
mbdaujt9prhotd(‚]hpfhovajhmf“);
}
 rbturo0;
rbturo 0;
}
Sbdjhta
tflamasmbmbnhsîf‚hd-bjsb“,
tflamasmb
Pbosboaspfsshchjhmambsqubvfnépfmbtbrusaomfasbstruturasmb
mbnhsîf‚hd-bjsb“,hd-bjsb-hdb‚swhtne
mbnhsîf‚hd-bjsb“, hd-bjsb-hdb‚swhtne-nasb“.
hd-bjsb-hdb‚swhtne-nasb“. Jblcrb-sbmb
qubnamanasfpfmbrátbrul
qub namanasfpfmbrátbrulaparthnujarhmambmhdbrbo
namanasfpfmbrátbrul aparthnujarhmambmhdbrbotbblmbsbovfjvbr
aparthnujarhmambmhdbrbo tbblmbsbovfjvbr
ulprfgrala.Hlaghobsbvfnéthvbssbqubnrharulprfgralaqub
najnujassbfsprélhfsmfsbogboebhrfsmaKrfBogboearhas,mbanfrmf
najnujassbfsprélhfsmfs bogboebhrfsmaKrfBogboearhas,mbanfrmf
nflaprfmuthvhmambmbnamaul,nflfvfné darha6
Luhtfcbl!Bonbrralfslahsulasbçîfmfofssfjhvrf,jblcrb-sb
mbqubapráthnajbvaráàpbrdbhçîf.Cfosbstumfsbatèaprþxhlasbçîf!
Nebgfuflflbotfmbnfjfnarblpráthnafnfotbùmfbstumamf,
rbnf
rbnfrmao
rmaomf
mfqub
qubf
fsbu
sbumbsad
mbsadhf
hfè
èauxh
auxhjhar
jharfs
fsbogbo
bogboebhr
ebhrfs
fsma
malujt
lujthoan
hoanhfoaj
hfoaj
Krf Bogboearhas para qub mbsbovfjval ula prfgralaçîf bl
jhoguagbl N qub najnujb as as sbguhotbs dþrlujas9 dþrluja mf
lfvhlbotfSbthjìobfRohdfrlb,fomb^<^f+T.t(dþrlujaparalbmhr
ftblpf,bspaçfb
ftblpf,bspa çfbTbjf
Tbjfnhmam
nhmamb),b
b),badþrlujamfLfvhlbo
adþrlujamfLfvhlbotfSbthjìob
tfSbthjìobf f
Rohdfrlblbotb
Rohdfrlbl botb Tarh
Tarhamf
amf,fomb^<
,fomb^<^f+Tf.t+
^f+Tf.t+1/3a.t³(Dþrl
1/3a.t³(Dþrlujapara
ujapara
lbmhrftblpf,bspaçfbvbjfnhmambofLSRT).
Of mbs
mbsbo
bovf
vfjvh
jvhlb
lbotf
otf mf
mf prf
prfgra
grala
la,, vfn
vfné
é mb
mbvbr
vbrá
á nfj
nfjfna
fnarr mu
muas
as
fpçòbsparaanbssarasdfrlujas.Blsbguhmabonalhoearparaf
sbuprfdbssfrfrbsujtamfmfnþmhgf.
Talfsjá!
1== R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf
Oasfjuçîfmbstaathvhmamb,vfnépfmbráuthjhzarmuasdfrlasmb
prfgrala,abstruturanfomhnhfoajbonambamabasbjbçîfmbnasfs.
Nasf su
Nasf sua
a fp
fpçîf
çîf sb
sbia
ia a bs
bstru
trutur
tura
a bo
bonam
namba
bama
ma (‚h
(‚hd-
d- bjs
bjsb-h
b-hd“),
d“), vf
vfné
né
pfmbusarasbguhotbshotaxb9
hd(nfomhçîf)nflaomf;
bjsb
 hd
hd(nfomhçîf)
 bjsb(nfomhçîf)
bjsb(nfomhçîf)nflaomf;
nflaomf;
.
.
.
 bjsb nflaomf;
Bsbdfrusarabstruturambsbjbçîf,pfmbráusar‚swhtne-nasb“
nflasbguhotbshotaxb9
swhtne(varhávbj)
{
nasbnfostaotb19
:nflaomfs?
crbak;
nasbnfostaotb39
:nflaomfs?
crbak;
mbdaujt9:nflaomfs?
}
Jblcrb-sb,sualhssîfobstblflbotfèbonfotrarasfjuçîfma
 .     
taotfabstruturanfomhnhfoajbonambamaquaotfambsbjbçîfmbnasfs.
taotfabstruturanfomhnhfoajbonambamaquaotfambsbjbçîfmbnasfs.
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf 1=2
]hpfsmb]rhãogujfs
Tfnédfhmbshgoamfarbsfjvbrulprfcjblaofmbpartalbotf
mb
mb ar
artb
tbs
s mf
mf ho
host
stht
htut
utf
f Ar
Artb
tb Df
Dfrl
rla,
a, bjbs
bjbs pr
prbn
bnhs
hsal
al mb
mb ul
ul pr
prfgfgrarala
la
bljhogua
bljhoguagbl gbl N
Nqub
qub hmbo
hmbothdhq
thdhqubajgula
ubajgulas sdhgu
dhgurasgbflè
rasgbflètrhna,
trhna, lahs
bspbnhdhnalbotb,ajguosthpfsmbtrhãogujfs,b,parahssf,vfnémbvb
sbatbotaràssbguhotbsnfomhçòbs9
1. Tfnésfjhnhtará
Tfnésfjhnhtaráafusuárhf
afusuárhfbotrarnfl
afusuárhf botrarnflaslbmhmas
botrarnfl aslbmhmasmasdhguras.
aslbmhmas masdhguras.
3. Fprfgralambvbrá
3. Fprfgralambvbrávbrhdhnarsb
vbrhdhnarsbaslbmhmasnfrrbspfombla
vbrhdhnarsb aslbmhmasnfrrbspfombla
ulthpfmbtrhãogujf.
>. ^b a nfomhçîf dfr sathsdatþrha, fu sbia, vbrmambhr
>. hraa, vfné
mbvbrálfstrarsbbssaslbmhmasnfrrbspfomblaultrhaogujf
bquhjátbrf,hsþsnbjbsfubsnajbof.
=. Oî
=. Oîf
f atbombomf à nfomhçîf vbrmambhra, f sbu prfgrala
mbvbrárbtfroarhodfrlaomfqubaslbmhmasoîfnfrrbspfombl
aultrhãogujf.
Bxhstblajgulasdfrlasparasfjuçîfmbstbprfcjbla,usbasua
nrhathvhmambbmhvbrshmambpara
nrhathvhmambbmhvb rshmambparabssaprfgrala
bssaprfgralaçîf.
çîf.
shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
Pfmblfs usar a sbguhotb prf

prfcjbla9 rfg
gralaçîf para sfjuçòbs mbstb
hotlaho(){
hota,c,n;
prhotd("Njasshdhnanafmftrhaogujf9hodfrlba
prhotd("Njasshdhnanafmftrhaogujf9hodfrlbalbmhmamfsjamfs9Zo");
afmftrhaogujf9hodfrlba lbmhmamfsjamfs9Zo");
snaod("%m%m%m", &a, &c, &n);
hd(a:c+n &&c:a+n &&n:a+c)
 {
prhotd("
("ZZoZo Mamas as lbmhmas9 %m, %m, %m, tblfs ul
trhaogujf",a,c,n);
 hd(a
hd(a<<
a<<
<<c c &&a<<n)
 {
 prhotd("Bstbb
prhotd("Bstbbul
bultrhaogujf
ultrhaogujfBQRHHJA]BSF!
trhaogujfBQRHHJA]BSF!Zo");
BQRHHJA]BSF!Zo");
 }
 bjsb
 hd
hd(
(a<<c
(a<<c
a<<c|||a
a<<
a<<
<<n|
n||c
c<<n)
c<<n)
 {
prhotd("Bstb bul
bultrhaogujf
ul trhaogujfH^F^NBJB^!Zo");
trhaogujf H^F^NBJB^!Zo");
 }
 bjsb
prhotd("Bstb bul
b ultrhaogujf
ul trhaogujfB^NAJBOF!
B^NAJBOF!Zo");
B^NAJBOF! Zo");
 }
 bjsb
 prhotd("ZoZoAs
prhotd("ZoZoAs lbmhmas
As lbmhmasdfrobnhmas,
ultrhaogujf",a,c,n); dfrobnhmas,%m,%m,%m
dfrobnhmas, %m,%m,%moaf
%m,%m,%m oafdfrlal
oaf dfrlal
rbturo0;
}
]botbmhvbrshdhnarfláxhlfpfssìvbj
]botbmhvbrshdhnarfláxhlfpfssìvbja
asuaprfgralaçîf,
suaprfgralaçîf,vfnépfmb
suaprfgralaçîf,vfnépfmb
uthjhzarfprfgralasugbrhmfbapjhnarabstruturambsbjbçîfmbnasf
‚swhtne-nasb“.Cfasfrtbbcfosbstumfs!
1.Aoajhsba
Aoajhsbasbguhotbprfgralaç
sbguhotbprfgralaçîfacahxf
îfacahxf99
Hotlaho(){
 nearx;
near x;
 prhotd("1.honjusafZo");
prhotd("1.honjusafZo");
 prhotd("3.ajtbraçafZo");
prhotd("3. ajtbraçafZo");
 prhotd(">.bxnjusafZo");
prhotd(">. bxnjusafZo");
 prhotd("Mhghtb
prhotd("Mhghtbsua
Mhghtb suafpnaf9");
suafpnaf9");
 x<gbtn ar ;
 swhtne(x)
 {
 nasb'1'9
nasb'1'9
 prhotd("bsnfjebuhonjusafZo");
prhotd("bsnfjebuhonjusafZo");
 crbak;
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf  1=7
 nasb'3'9
nasb'3'9
 prhotd("bsnfjebuajtbraçafZo");
prhotd("bsnfjebuajtbraçafZo");
 crbak;
 nasb'>'9
nasb'>'9
 prhotd("bsnfjebubxnjusafZo");
prhotd("bsnfjebubxnjusafZo");
 crbak;
 mbdaujt9
 prhotd("fpnafhovajhmaZo");
prhotd("fpnafhovajhmaZo");
 }
rbturo0;
}.
Apþ
pþs
s aoa
oajh
jhsa
sar
r f pr
prf
fgra
grala,
a, ass
ssho
hoa
ajb
jb a ajt
jtbr
bro
oath
thva
va qu
qub
b nfrrbs
rrbspf
pfo
omb
mb a
lbosagblmbrbtfrofsbfusuárhf mhghtarafpçîf‚=“9
a)Bsnfjebubxnjusîf.
c)Fpçîfhovájhma.
n)‚0“.
m)Bsnfjebuhonjusîf.
b)]bjablcraonfsbloboeulrbtfrof
b)]bjablcraonfsbloboeulrbtfrof..
3. Quaomfusalfsabstruturanfomhnhfoajbonambama,sacblfsqubvárhas
fpçòbsmbvbrîfsbraoajhsamas,botrbbjas,sbambnjaraçîfmbul‚hd“bstá
sbomfmbnjaramfmbotrfmbulfutrf‚hd“bxtbrof.
Aoajhsbaadhrlaçîfanhlabasshoajbaajtbroathvaqublbjefrsbaiustaoa
bstruturanfomhnhfoajbonambama9
a)Mbvbrásbrao
a)Mbvbrásbraoajhsamfsbf‚hd“
ajhsamfsbf‚hd“tbljhgaçîf
tbljhgaçîfnflul
nflul‚bjsb“.
‚bjsb“.
c)Pfmblsbrnrhamfsvárhfs‚hd“,ho
c)Pfmblsbrnrhamfs várhfs‚hd“,hombpbombotblbotbmfs
mbpbombotblbotbmfs‚bjsb“.
‚bjsb“.
n)^þèpfssìvbjnrhar
n)^þèpfssìvbjnrhar‚hd-bjsb-hd“sb
‚hd-bjsb-hd“sbthvbrjhgaçîfnflfutrf‚hd“hotbrof.
‚hd-bjsb-hd“sbthvbrjhgaçîfnflfutrf‚hd“hotbrof.
m) Oîf è obn
m) bnbs
bssá
sárh
rhf
f a ut
uthj
hjhz
hza
açîf mf
mf ‚b‚bjs
jsb“
b“ oa bs
bstr
tru
utu
tura
ra nfo
fomh
mhn
nhf
hfo
oaj
bonambama.
b)Fcrhgatfrhal
b)Fcrhgatfrhalbotbbxhgbul
botbbxhgbul‚hd“apþs
‚hd“apþsfutrf‚hd“,
futrf‚hd“,sbl
sbl
sblusfmf‚bjsb“.
usfmf‚bjsb“.
>. Aoajhsbfprfgralaacahxf9
: ?
hotlaho()
{
 hotoul;
hot oul;
 prhotd("Mhghtb
prhotd ("Mhghtbul
("Mhghtbuloulbrf9
uloulbrf9");
oulbrf9 ");
 snaod("%m",
snaod ("%m",&oul);
 hd(oul<<88)
hd(oul<<88)
 {
 prhotd("ZoZoQub
prhotd("ZoZoQubsfrtb!
("ZoZoQubsfrtb!Tfnb
sfrtb!Tfnbanbrtfu!Zo");
Tfnbanbrtfu!Zo");
 prhotd("Sbajlbotb
prhotd("Sbajlbotbf
("Sbajlbotbfoulbrf
foulbrf
oulbrfbsnfjehmf
bsnfjehmfdfh
bsnfjehmfdfh88Zo");
dfh88Zo");
 }
 .....
 ......
rbturo(0);
}
Asshoajbaajtbro
Asshoajbaajtbroathvaqublbjef
athvaqublbjefrsbbonahxa
rsbbonahxaofprfgrala
ofprfgralaanhla9
anhla9
a)bjsb
 {
 hd(oul?88)
hd (oul?88)
{
 prhotd("F
prhotd("Foulbrf
("F oulbrfqub
oulbrf qubvfnb
qubvfnbmhghtfu
vfnbmhghtfub
mhghtfubanhla
banhla
anhlamf
mfbsnfjehmf.");
mfbsnfjehmf.");
 }
c)bjsb
bjsb
 {
 hd(oul?88)
hd(oul?88)
 {
 prhotd("F
vfnb mhghtfub
banhla
anhlamf
mfbsnfjehmf.");
mfbsnfjehmf.");
 }
 hd
 {
 prhotd("F
("F oulbrfb
oulbrf blbofr
blbofr
lbofrqub
qubf
qub f
fbsnfjehmf");
bsnfjehmf");
 }
 }
n)hd
 {
 hd(oul?88)
hd(oul?88)
 {
 prhotd("F
banhla
anhlamf
mfbsnfjehmf.");
mfbsnfjehmf.");
 }
 bjsb
 {
 "       "
 }
 }
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf 1=8
m)bjsb
 {
 hd(oul?88)
hd(oul?88)
 {
 prhotd("F
("Foulbrfqub
oulbrfqubvfnb
banhla
anhlamf
mfbsnfjehmf.");
mfbsnfjehmf.");
 }
 bjsb
 {
 prhotd("F
("Foulbrfb
oulbrfblbofr
blbofr
lbofrqub
qubf
qub fbsnfjehmf");
fbsnfjehmf");
 }
 }
b)bjsb
 {
 hd(oul?88)
hd(oul?88)
 prhotd("F
("Foulbrfqub
oulbrfqubvfnb
banhla
anhlamf
mfbsnfjehmf.");
mfbsnfjehmf.");
 bjsb
 {
 prhotd("F
("Foulbrfb
oulbrfblbofr
blbofr
lbofrqub
qubf
qub f
fbsnfjehmf");
bsnfjehmf");
 }
 }
^bçîf>.>
BstruturasmbrbpbthçîfbljhoguagblN
Mhájfgfacbrtf
Lu
Luht
htf
f cb
cbl!
l! Na
Narf
rf ajuo
ajuof,
f, oa
oa sb
sbçî
çîf
f ao
aotb
tbrh
rhfr
fr,
, vfné
vfné df
dfhh jbva
jbvamf
mf a
nfoebnbrabxbnuçîfsbqubonhaj,asbstruturasnfomhnhfoahsshlpjbs
bnflp
b nflpfsta
fsta,asshlnflfas
,asshlnflfasbstr
bstrutura
uturasnfomhnhf
snfomhnhfoahs
oahs bona
bonambam
mbamasb
asb
mbsbjbçîfmbnasfs.Obstb
mbsbjbçîfmb nasfs.Obstblflbotf,vfné
lflbotf,vfnévahmbsbovfjvbr
vahmbsbovfjvbrtènohnas
tènohnas
paratracajea
paratracajearasbstruturas
rasbstruturasmbrbpbthçî
mbrbpbthçîf.
f.
Pfhsbotîf,fqubqubrmhzbrbstrutura
Pfhsbotîf,fqubqub rmhzbrbstruturambrbpbthçîf
mbrbpbthçîf66
Bstrutu
turra mb rbpbthçîf sîf duo
duoçòbs uthjhzamas para rbajhzar
hostruçòbslahsmbulavbz,pfmbomfnrhar
jhlhtamfmbvbzbs,fombsbrátracajeamaarbpbthçîfnfltbstbof
jffps nfluloùlbrf
hoìnhf,ofdhoajb
hoìnhf,ofdhoajbnflvarhávbhs
nflvarhávbhsmbnfotrfjb.
mbnfotrfjb.
A bl
blpr prbsbsa
a Kr
Krf
f Bo
Bogb
gboe
oeararha
ha ho
honu
nulc
lchu hu vfné
vfné blbl fr
frhb
hbot
otar
ar a bq
bquhuhpb
pb
mbbogboebhrfsarbajhzarulprfgralaqubnajnujbfdatfrhajmbul
oùlbrfoaturajo.(o!<
oùlbrfoaturajo. (o!<o.
(o!<o.(o-
o.(o-1)!
(o- 1)! < o.
o.(o-
(o-1).
(o- 1).(o-
1).(o-3)!
(o-3)! < o.
o.(o-
(o-1).
(o- 1).(o-
1).(o-3)
(o-3)
.(o->).....1!).Tfnémbvbrádazbramblfostraçîfuthjhzaomfrbpbthçîf
nfltbstbofhoìnhfbrbpbthçîfnflvarhávbhsmbnfotrfjb,nflphjarf
prfgralabb
prfgralabbotrbgararfthoa
otrbgararfthoambprfgral
mbprfgralaçîfpara
açîfparafprfdbssf
fprfdbssfr. r.
Pb
Pbrd
rdb
bhthtf
f! Agfr fraa, valfs fs mbsbov ovf fjv
jvbbr ajg jgu
ulas sht htu
uaçòbsòbs qub
rblbtblàbstruturambrbpbthçîf.
Narf ajuof, oa sbçîf aotbrhfr, vfné bstumfu a bstrutura
nfomhnhfoajshlpjbs,nflpfsta,bonambamabmbsbjbçîfmbnasfs,
agfra,èflflbotfmbtracajeararbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhf,of
dhoajbnflvarhávbhsmbnfotrfjb.
Jblcraomfqub,sbguomfLaozaof(301>),parasfjuçîfmbul
prfcjbla,èpfssìvbjuthjhzarahostruçîf‚hd“paratflamambmbnhsîf
btalcèlnrharmbsvhfsmbotrfmbulprfgralaparaulanfomhçîf
vbrmambhrafudajsa.
Sbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhf-wehjb
Parabotbombrfqubèularbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhf,vfné
prbnhs
prbnhsa
a bs
bsta
tar
r nhbo
nhbotb
tb mb
mb qu
qub
b ajgf
ajgf sb
sbrá
rá rb
rbpb
pbth
thma
malb
lbot
otb
b bxbn
bxbnut
utam
amf
f
boquaotfulanfomhçîfvbrmambhradfrvbrhdhnama,sflbotbapþsa
suaobgathvabssanfomhçîfsbráhotbrrflphma.
^bguomf^fddobr(301>,p.4=),fprfgrala‚oîfbxbnutaráoboeula
rbpbthçîf(bas
rbpbthçîf(basaçòbsqub
açòbsqubajhmbotrf
ajhmbotrf
ajhmbotrfbsthvbrblprfgralamas)sblaotbs
bsthvbrblprfgralamas)sblaotbs
tbstarulanfomhçîf“.
Pa
Para
ra rb
rbaajhz
jhzar a rb
rbp
pbth
thç
çîf nf
nfl
l tb
tbsstb
tb of ho
hoìn
ìnhf
hf,, vfné
né usará
rá f
nflaomfhtb
nflaomfhtbrathvf‚wehjb“,
rathvf‚wehjb“,qubshgohdhna
qubshgohdhnablpfrtugué
blpfrtugués‚boqua
s‚boquaotf“.
otf“.
Pfmblfsuthjhzarfsbguhotbdjuxfgralaparatracajearftbstb
ofhoìnhf9
Dhgura>.11|Djuxfgralamfnflaomfwehjb
Dhgura>.11|Djuxfgralamfnflaomfwehjb
Hoìnhf
T
Nfomhçîf Nflaomf1
Asshlnflfnarantbrhzamfofdjuxfgrala,pfmbl
Asshlnflfnarantbrhzamfofdjuxfg fstraosnrbvbrr
rala,pfmblfstraosnrbvb
arbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhf,nflasbgu
arbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhf,nflasbguhotbshotaxb
hotbshotaxb99
wehjb(:nfomhçîf?)
{
Nflaomf1;
Nflaomf3;
Nflaomfo;
}
Quaomftracajealfsnfltbstbofhoìnhf,prbnhsalfs
Quaomftracajealfsnfltbstb ofhoìnhf,prbnhsalfsbstaratbotfs
bstaratbotfs
paraquboîffnfrraul jffphodhohtf,pfrbstblfthvf,vfnépfmbrá
hodhohtf,pfrbstblfthvf,vfnépfmbrá
dazbrfusfmb9
Nfotamfr„èuthjhzamfparanfotrfjarasrbpbthçòbs,quaomfbsta
èmbtbrlhoama.
Honrblbotf
Honrblbotf b mbnrblbotf „tracajeafoùlbrfmfnfotamfr,
mbnrblbotf
sbiabjbaulbotamffumhlhouìmf.
Anulujamfr„qub,sbguomf^fddobr(301>),hrásflarasbotramas
mbmamfsmbnamahtbraçîfmarbpbthçîf,gbraomfulsflatþrhfa
sbruthjhzamfquaomfmasaìmamarbpbthçîf.
Nfomhçîfmbparama„uthjhzamaparambtbrlhoarflflbotfmb
pararquaomfoîfsbtblulvajfrbxatfmbstarbpbthçîf.
Sbdjhta
Pfmblfsusarmfhsthpfsmbnfotamfrbsbljhoguagblmbprfgralaçîf
Pfmblfsusarmfhsthpfsmbnfotamfrbsbljhoguagblmbprfgralaçîf
‚N“,ulèmbdhohmfpbjavarhávbjsbguhmambmfhsshoahsmbamhçîf,pfr
bxblpjf9x++.Quajafutradfrlaqubpfmblfsuthjhzarparatracajear
bxblpjf9x++.Quajafutradfrlaqub pfmblfsuthjhzarparatracajear
nflnfotamfr6
Talfsvbrajguosbxblpjfsbspbnìdhnfsmbrbpbthçîfnfltbstbof
hoìnhf9
anfo ç f w
 b         
R>-Nfonbhtfsmbprfgralaçîf  12>
laho()
{
hotnfotamfr<1;//hohnhaomfavarhavb
hotnfotamfr<1;//hohnhaomfavarhavbjj
wehjb(nfotamfr:<10)//]bstbmbhohnhf
wehjb(nfotamfr:<10)// ]bstbmbhohnhf
 {
 prhotd(‚Zo%mZo“,nfotamfr);
prhotd(‚Zo%mZo“,nfotamfr);//Bxbnuta
nfotamfr);//Bxbnutaf
//Bxbnuta fnflaomf
fnflaomf
 nfotamfr++;//
nfotamfr++; //nfotrfjb
// nfotrfjbmf
nfotrfjbmfnfotamfr
mfnfotamfr
}
rbturo0;
}
Tbiaqubofbxblpjf1fnfotamfrtbvbfsbuvajfrhohnhamfbl
ul‚1“,pfrtaotf,pfmbsfdrbrajtbraçòbsmbanfrmfnflanfomhçîf
bxpfstapbjfprfgralamfr.
Dhgura>.13|Sbsujtamfmfnþmhgfusaomffnflaomfwehjb.
Dhgura>.13|Sbsujtamfmfnþmhgf usaomffnflaomfwehjb.
Ofbxblpjf3,pfmblfsoftarqubparanajnujarulambtbrlhoama
Ofbxblpjf3,pfmblfsoftarqubparanajnuja rulambtbrlhoama
tacuamafprfgralamfrmbtbrlhofuqubfusuárhfbotrassbnflf
vajfrhohnhajbdhoaj.
Bxblpjf39
laho(){
hotdhoaj,y,hohnhaj;
prhotd(‚]ACRAMAZoZo“);
prhotd(‚MhghtbfvajfrHOHNHAJ9‚);
snaod(‚%m“, &hohnhaj);
prhotd(‚MhghtbfvajfrDHOAJ9‚);
snaod(‚%m“, &dhoaj);
prhotd(‚Zo“);
wehjb(hohnhaj:<dhoaj)
{
prhotd(‚Zo]A
prhotd(‚Zo]ACRAMAMF%mZ
CRAMAMF%mZoZo“,hohnhaj);
oZo“,hohnhaj);
y<1;
wehjb(y:<10)
{
prhotd(‚%mx%m<%mZo“,hohnhaj,y,
prhotd(‚%mx%m<%mZo“,hohnhaj,y,hohnhaj*y);
hohnhaj*y);
y<y+1;
}
hohnhaj<hohnhaj+1;
}
prhotd(‚Zo“);
rbturo0;
}
Dhgura>.1>|Sbsujtamfmfnþmhgfnflbotramasmbvajfrbspbjfusuárhf
Dhgura>.1>|Sbsujtamfmf nþmhgfnflbotramasmbvajfrbspbjfusuárhf
Sbpbthçîfnfltbstbofdhoaj„mf-weh
Sbpbthçîfnfltbstbofdhoaj„mf-wehjb
jb
^bguomf^nehjmt(1887),fjaçf‚mf-wehjb“aoajhsaanfomhçîfaf
dhoajmfjaçf,fusbia,fsnflaomfssîfbxbnutamfsaotbsmftbstb
mbnfomhçîf.
Fhotbrbssaotbmbstbnflaomfèqubfusuárhftblapfsshchjhmamb
mbmhghtarofvalbotbulaofvahodfrlaçîf.
Pbsquhsblahs
Fnflaomfmf-wehjbpfmbtbrvárhasapjhnaçòbs,vbiafvìmbfof
Xfu]ucbmfnaoaj‚Mbajuofparaajuof“sfcrbftbla‚Prfgralarbl
Xfu]ucbmfnaoaj‚Mbajuofparaajuof“sfcrbf tbla‚Prfgralarbl
N-NflfRthjhzar―mfwehjb‘-Auja1>“.3=fut,3
N-NflfRthjhzar―mf wehjb‘-Auja1>“.3=fut,3 013.Mhspfoìvbjbl9
:ettps9//www.y
:ettps9//www.yfut
futucb.nf
ucb.nfl/wa
l/watne6v<
tne6v<ciLM1
ciLM1Q^TT-s
Q^TT-s?.?. Anbssf
Anbssf bl9
15lar.3015.
Tbianflfdhnafdjuxfgralauthjhzaomfftbstbm brbpbthçîfofdhoaj9
Dhgura>.1=|Djuxfgralanfltbstbmbrbpbthçîfof dhoaj
Hoìnhfmarbpbthçîf
Nflaomfsa
T sbrblrbpbthmfs
Nfomhçîf
D
Dhlmarbpbthçîf
Agfra,vbiaashotaxbpararbaj hzaçîfmarbpbthçîfnfltbstbofdhoaj9
Agfra,vbiaashotaxbpararbajhzaçîfmarbpbthçîfnfltbstbofdhoaj9
mf
{
nflaomfs;
}
wehjb(nfomhçîf);
Bxblpjf19Prfgralaqubnajnujaalbtragblquamramambul
tbrrbofusaomfftbstbofdhoajparanrharafpçîf
tbrrbofusaomfftbstbofdhoajparanrharafpçîf mbmhght
mbmhghtarofvfs
arofvfs
vajfrbssblsahrmfprfgrala.
laho(){
djfatlbtragbl1,lbtragbl3,rbsujtamf;
hotrbsp;
lbtragbl1<0;
lbtragbl3<0;
rbsujtamf<0;
mf
{
 prhotd(‚NA
prhotd(‚NAJ
AJN
JN
NR
RJ
RJF
JF M
MB
B L
LB
B]
B]S
]SF
SF^
F ^ QQR
RA
RAM
AMS
M SA
SAM
AMF
M F^“);
F ^“);
prhotd(‚ZoZoMhghtb
Zo Mhghtba
Mhghtbaprhlbhra
aprhlbhra
prhlbhralbtragbl
lbtragblmf
lbtragbl mftbrrbof9
mf tbrrbof9Zo“);
tbrrbof9 Zo“);
 snaod(‚%d“,&lbtragbl1);
 prhotd(‚ZoMhghtb
prhotd(‚ZoMhghtba
Mhghtb asbguoma
asbguoma
sbguomalbtragbl
lbtragblmf
lbtragbl mftbrrbof9
mf tbrrbof9Zo“);
tbrrbof9 Zo“);
 snaod(‚%d“,&lbtragbl3);
 rbsujtamf<
rbsujtamf <(lbtragbl1
< (lbtragbl1*
(lbtragbl1 *lbtragbl3);
*lbtragbl3);
prhotd(‚ZoZoF
Zo F]brrbof
F ]brrboftbl
]brrbof tbl<
tbl <%.3d
<%.3dL3
%.3d L3Zo“,rbsujtamf);
L3 Zo“,rbsujtamf);
 prhotd(‚Mhghtb1
prhotd(‚Mhghtb 1para
1para
paranfothouar
nfothouarfu
nfothouar fu3
fu 3para
3 parasahrZo“);
para sahrZo“);
 snaod(‚%m“, &rbsp);
}wehjb(rbsp<<1);
rbturo0;
}
Dhgura>.12|Sbsujtamfmbnþmhgfnfltbstbmfdhoaj
Dhgura>.12|Sbsujtamfmbnþmhgf nfltbstbmfdhoaj
^bguomf^nehjmt(3002),ulamasapjhnaçòbspara
^bguomf^nehjmt(3002),ulamasapjhnaçòbsparafjaçf
fjaçfmf-wehjb
mf-wehjb
èahlpjblbotaçîfmbrfthoasmblbou,fomb
èahlpjblbotaçîfmbrfthoasmblbou,fombasua
asuaduoçîfmbsbiama
duoçîfmbsbiama
èbxbnutamapbjflbofsulavbzmbotrfmfjaçf.
Luhtfcbl,iátracajealfsarbpbthçîfnfltbstb
Luhtfcbl,iátracajealfsa rbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhfb
ofhoìnhfbnfl
nfl
tbstbofdhoaj,agfranebgfuflflb
tbstbofdhoaj,agfranebgfuflflbotfmbaprbomb
otfmbaprbombrnflfuthjhzar
rnflfuthjhzar
arbpbthçîfnflvarhávbhsmbnfotrfjb.
arbpbthçîfnflvarhávb hsmbnfotrfjb.
Sbpbthçîfnflvarhávbhsmbnfotrfjb„Jaçf‚dfr“.
sbgF nf
nfla
uomflaom
Lomf
fehhtbr
hzra
hzraehht brat
(3athv
(30 hvf
00 f,‚d
5)
5), ‚dfr
èfr“,
 “,
gbqu
qub
b bbl
rajl
rajlb bl pf
otb
tb pfrt
usrtug
augué
mfués
s ra
 pa shgo
sh
para gohdhdhna
 rb
rbpphna
bthr‚p
bthr‚par
 uara“
la“,a,
hodfrlaçîf pfr ul oùlbrf dhxf mb vbzbs, fu sbia, pfmblfs
mbtbrlhoarquaotasvbzbsanfotbnbráarbpbthçîf.
Dhgura>.14|Djuxfgralanflrbpbthçîfnflvarhávbhsmb nfotrfjb
hohnhajhzaa
varhávbj
T
honrblbota
nfomhçîf nflaomfs
avarhávbj
Ashotaxbdhnamasbguhotblaobhra9
Ashotaxbdhnamasbguhotblaobhra9
dfr(hohnhajhzaçîf;nfomhçîf
dfr(hohnhajhzaçîf;nfomhçîfdhoaj;honrblbo
dhoaj;honrblbotf)
tf)
{
nflaomfs;
}
Talfsbotbombrulpfunfmashotaxbmf‚dfr“aotbsmbparthrpara
fbxblpjf.Tfnépfmboftarqubtblfstrésbxprbssòbssbparamas
pfrpfotfbvìrguja,nbrtf6Talfsbotbombrulpfunfmbnamaula.
Hohnhajhzaçîf„èobstblflbotfqubhrblfsnfjfnara hostruçîf
mb
mbatr
atrhcu
hcuhçî
hçîf,
f, a
ahoh
hohnha
nhajhz
jhzaçî
açîf
fè
èbxb
bxbnut
nutam
ama
aul
ula
aùo
ùohna
hna vb
vbz
zaot
aotbs
bs mb
nflbçarfjaçf.
Nfomhçîfdhoaj„èrbajhzamfultbstbfombèmbtbrlhoamfsba
nfomhçîfè
nfomhçîfèvbrmambhrafu
vbrmambhrafudajsa,boquaotfdfr
dajsa,boquaotfdfrvbrmambhrapbrlaobnbof
vbrmambhrapbrlaobnbof
jaçfbquaomfdfrdajsa,bonbrrafjaçfbpassaparaaprþxhlahostruçîf.
jaçfbquaomfdfrdajsa,bonbrrafjaçfbpassaparaaprþxhlahostruçîf.
otf „partbmasofssasbxpjhnaçòbsaotbrhfrbs,fombè
Honrblbotf
Honrblb
pfssìvbjhonrblbotarularbpbthçîfmbanfrmfnflulnfotamfr
bspbnhdhnf,jblcraomfqubfhonrblbotfèbxbnutamfmbpfhsmfs
nflaomfs.
Asshlhjb
Pfmblfsusarfnflaomfhtbrathvf‚dfr“blfutrasshtuaçòbs,nflf
pfrbxblpjf9
Sbajhzartbst
Sbajhzartbstbsbllahs
bsbllahsmbulavarhávbj9
mbulavarhávbj9
dfr(h<1,x<0;(h+x):10;h++,x++);
dfr(h<1,x<0;(h+x) :10;h++,x++);
Rt
Rthjhjhz
hzar
ar f nfla
nflaom
omf
f ‚d
‚dfr
fr“
“ pa
para
ra rbpr
rbprbs
bsbo
bota
taçò
çòbs
bs mb
mb nara
narant
ntbr
brbs
bs,
, pfr
pfr
bxblpjf9
dfr(ne<‘m‘;ne:―l‘;ne++).
Paradhnarulpfu
Paradhnarulpfunflahsnjarf,v
nflahsnjarf,valfsafo
alfsafofssfbxb
fssfbxblpjf9
lpjf9
Bxblpjf=9Lfstraasbquéonhamboùlbrfs,fombxvahmb10a
0byvahmb0a10.
laho()
{
 hotx,y;
hotx,y;
 dfr(x<
dfr(x<10,y
< 10,y<
10,y<0;
<0;x
0; x?<
x?<
?<0,
0,y
0,y:<
y :<10;
:<10;x--,y++)
10; x--,y++)
{
 prhotd(‚%3m%3mZo“,x,y);
prhotd(‚%3m%3mZo“,x,y);
rbturo0;
}
}
Dhgura>.17|Sbsujtamfmfnþmhgfnflrbpbthçîfmbvarhávbhsmbnfotrfjb
Dhgura>.17|Sbsujtamfmf nþmhgfnflrbpbthçîfmbvarhávbhsmbnfotrfjb
Pbrnbca
Pbrnbcaqu
qub
boa
oa jhoeafomb
jhoeafomb dfh
dfh uth
uthjhz
jhzamf
amf f
fjaç
jaçf
f‚df
‚dfr“
r“thv
thvbl
blfs
fs as
sbguhotbsbxprbssòbs9
 dfr(x<
dfr(x<10,
<10,y
10,y<
y <0;
<0;x
0; x
x?<
?<0,
?<0,y
0,y:<
y:<10;
:<10;x--,y++)
10; x--,y++)
Oaprhlbhrabxprbssîf,‚x“
tblfsbuvajfrhohnhamfbl
‚10“b‚y“hohnhamfbl‚0“.
Oasbguomabxprbssîf,‚x“bstá
nfomhnhfoamaasbrlahfrfuhguaja
‚0“b‚y“sbrlbofrfuhguaj‚10“.
Para‚x“sbrárbajhzamffmbnrblbotf
1atèathoghrfsbuvajfr
1atèathoghrfsbuvajfrdhoajqubè‚0
dhoajqubè‚0“,
“,
b‚y“honrblbotamf1paraafsbuvajf
b‚y“honrblbotamf1para afsbuvajfrr
dhoajqubè‚10“.
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Tfnépfmbusarfnflaomf‚crbak“mbotrfmbuljaçf
‚d
‚dfr
fr“
“ pa
para
ra ul
ula
a mb
mbtb
tbrl
rlho
hoam
ama
a nf
nfom
omhç
hçîf
îf,
, df
dfna
naom
omf
f as
assh
shl,
l, f
tèrlhofmfjaçf,vbiafbxblpjfacahxf9
laho()
{
hotw;
dfr(w<1;w:<12;w++)
{
hd(w<<5)
{
crbak;
}
prhotd(‚%m‚,w);
}
prhotd(‚ZoZoPararanfomhnafmbrbpbthnafw<%mZo“,
w);
rbturo0;
}
Bxhstblvárhaslaobhrasmb
Bxhstblvárhaslaobhrasmbapjhnara
apjhnarabstrutur
bstrutura
ambrbpbthçîfmbotrf
mbrbpbthçîfmbotrf
mbulprfgrala,nacbavfné,agfra,rbajhzartfmfsfsbxblpjfs
tracajeamfsobs
tracajeamfsobstasbçîfboasshtu
tasbçîfboasshtuaçòbsprfcjbla
açòbsprfcjblasbprathnar.
sbprathnar.
AblprbsaKrfBogboearhahonulchuvfné
AblprbsaKrfBogboearhahonulchuvfnéblfrhbotarabq
blfrhbotarabquhpb
uhpb
mb bogboebhr
bogboebhrfs
fs a rba
rbajhz
jhzar
ar ul prf
prfgra
grala
la qub naj
najnuj
nujb
b f dat
datfrh
frhaj
aj mb
mbbogboebhrfs
mbbogboebhrfs a
arba
rbajhz
jhzarul
arulprf
prfgra
grala
la qub
qub naj
najnuj
nujb
bf
fdat
datfrh
frhajmb
ajmb
uloùlbrfoaturaj
ul oùlbrfoaturajo.
oùlbrfoaturajo.(o!
o. (o!<
(o! <o
< o...(o
o (o-
(o -
-1)!
1)! < o
o...(o
(o-
(o -
-1)
1)...(o
1) (o-
(o -
-3)!
3)! < o
R>-Nfonbhtfs mbprfgralaçîf  141
.(o-1).(o-3).(o->).....1!)vfnémbvbrádazbramblfostraçîf
uthjhzaomfrbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhfbrbpbthçîfnflvarhávbhs
mbnfotrfjb.
Para sfjuçîf mbstb mbsadhf, vfné pfmbrá usar as sbguhotbs
prfgralaçòbs9
Sbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhf
wehjb(:nfomhçîf?)
{
Nflaomf1;
Nflaomf3;
Nflaomfo;
}
#hotlaho()
{
 hoto,
hoto,nfotamfr,
o, nfotamfr,datfrhaj;
nfotamfr,datfrhaj;
 prhotd(‚Mhghtbul
prhotd(‚Mhghtb uloulbrf
uloulbrfpara
oulbrf paranajnujar
para najnujarf
najnujarfdatfrhaj9
fdatfrhaj9‚);
datfrhaj9‚);
 snaod(‚%m“, &o);
 datfrhaj<
datfrhaj<1;
< 1;
 nfotamfr<
nfotamfr <1;
< 1;
 wehjb(nfotamfr
wehjb (nfotamfr:<
(nfotamfr:<o)
:< o){{
o)
 datfrhaj<
datfrhaj
nfotamf<<datfrhaj
r<datfrhaj
datfrhaj*
nfotam**nfotamfr;
fnfotamfr;
r+1;
 }
rbturo0;
}
Sbpbthçîfnflvarhávbhsmbnfotrfjb9
dfr(hohnhajhzaçîf;nfomhçîfdhoaj;honrblbotf)
{
nflaomfs;
}
#honjumb:stmhf.e?
#hotlaho()
{
 hoto,
hot o,nfotamfr,
o,nfotamfr,datfrhaj;
nfotamfr,datfrhaj;
 prhotd(‚Mhghtbul
prhotd(‚Mhghtbuloulbrf
ul oulbrfpara
oulbrf paranajnujar
paranajnujarf
najnujarf
fdatfrhaj9
datfrhaj9‚);
datfrhaj9‚);
 snaod(‚%m“, &o);
 datfrhaj<
datfrhaj<1;
<1;
 dfr(nfotamfr
dfr(nfotamfr<
(nfotamfr <1;
< 1;nfotamfr
1;nfotamfr:<
nfotamfr:<o;
:<o;nfotamfr++)
o;nfotamfr++)
 datfrhaj<
datfrhaj<datfrhaj
<datfrhaj*
datfrhaj*nfotamfr;
*nfotamfr;
 rbturo0;
rbturo0;
}
Daça as lfmhdhnaçòbs
bs pbrtho
hob
botbs ofs pr f gr alas mamfs
nflfsugbstîf,nflphjbbbotrbguba fsbuprfdbssfr.Cfasfrtb
bþthlfsbstumfs!
FpçîfmbLbou
A bl
blpr
prbs
bsa
a Mf
Mf We
Wehh rba
rbajhjhza
za vá
várhf
rhfs
s ná
nájn
jnuj
ujfs
fs b lu
luht htfs
fs mb
mbjb
jbs
s sî
sîf
f
uthjhz
uthjhzam
amfs
fs nf
nfl
l drb
drbqu
quéo
éonhanha pb
pbjf
jfss sb
sbus
us du
duonh
onhfo
foár árhf
hfs,
s, fo
fomb
mb fs
fs qu
qub
b
lahs
lahssbmbstanal
sbmbstanalsîffnájnujfmadfrça
sîffnájnujfmadfrça,maárba,pbrìl
,maárba,pbrìlbtrfbrahf
btrfbrahf
mbulnìrnujf.Tfnéiátracajeaaajgultblpfoablprbsabsugbrhu
parafsgbrbotbsanrhaçîfmbulprfgralabljhoguag
parafsgbrbotbsanrhaçîfmbulprfg ralabljhoguagblN,fomb
blN,fomb
dhzbssbauthjhzaçîfmbullbouparadanhjhtarfa nbssfafsnájnujfs.
shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
Parasfjuçîfmbstbprfcjbla,vfnépfmbráusaraprfgralaçîf
mbrbpbthçîfnfltbstbofdhoaj9
mf
{
nflaomfs;
}
wehjb(nfomhçîf);
R>-Nfonbhtfs mbprfgralaçîf  14>
laho()
{
 near
nearlatbrhaj[40\;
latbrhaj[40\;
 djfat
djfato,
o,l,
o,l,a;
l, a;
 djfat
djfatrahf,
rahf,arba,
rahf, arba,pbrhlbtrf,
arba, pbrhlbtrf,ph;
pbrhlbtrf,ph;
 hotfpnaf;
hotfpnaf;
 mf
{
 prhotd(‚ZtZtZoFPNFB^
prhotd(‚ZtZtZo FPNFB^MB
FPNFB^ MBNAJNRJF^
MB NAJNRJF^Zo“);
NAJNRJF^ Zo“);
 prhotd(‚Zo0.
prhotd(‚Zo0.ÂHS
0. ÂHSMF
ÂHSMFLBOR
MF LBORZo“);
LBOR Zo“);
prhotd(‚Zo1.NAJNRJAS
1.NAJNRJASA
NAJNRJAS ADFSNA
ADFSNAZo“);
DFSNA Zo“);
prhotd(‚Zo 3.NAJNRJAS
3. NAJNRJASSAHF,
NAJNRJAS SAHF,ASBA
SAHF, ASBAB
ASBA BPBSHLB]SF
B PBSHLB]SFMF
PBSHLB]SF MF
NHSNRJFZo“);
 prhotd(‚Zo>.
prhotd(‚Zo>.SB]FSOAS
>. SB]FSOASAF
SB]FSOAS AFLBOR
AF LBORZo“);
LBOR Zo“);
 prhotd(‚ZoFpnaf9
prhotd(‚ZoFpnaf9‚);
Fpnaf9 ‚);
&
 snaod(‚%fpnaf
m“, fpnaf);
swhtne(fpnaf
swhtne(fpnaf) )
 {
 nasb09
nasb 09
 prhotd(‚ÂHS...Zo“);
 crbak;
 nasb19
nasb 19
 prhotd(‚Zo
prhotd(‚ZoMhghtb
(‚ZoMhghtba
Mhghtba
alassa
lassamf
lassa mffcibtf9
mffcibtf9‚);
fcibtf9‚);
 snaod(‚%d“, &l);
 prhotd(‚Zo
prhotd(‚ZoMhghtb
(‚ZoMhghtba
Mhghtba
aanbjbranaf9
anbjbranaf9‚);
anbjbranaf9 ‚);
 snaod(‚%d“, &a);
 o<(l*a);
 prhotd(‚ZoF
prhotd(‚ZoFnajnujf
Fnajnujfma
najnujf madfrna
ma dfrnab9
dfrnab9%.3d
b9%.3dZo“,
%.3d Zo“,o);
Zo“,o);
 crbak;
 nasb39
nasb39
 prhotd(‚Mhghtbf
prhotd(‚Mhghtbfrahf9
frahf9‚);
rahf9 ‚);
 snaod(‚%d“, &rahf);
 ph<
ph<>.1=1283;
< >.1=1283;
 arba<
arba<ph*(rahf
< ph*(rahf*
ph*(rahf*
*rahf);
rahf);
 pbrhlbtrf<
pbrhlbtrf <3.0
<3.0*
3.0 *ph
*ph
ph*
*rahf;
*rahf;
 prhotd(‚Zo
prhotd(‚ZoSahf9
ZoSahf9%.3d
Sahf9 %.3dZo“,
%.3dZo“,rahf);
Zo“, rahf);
prhotd(‚ZoArba9
ZoArba9%.3d
Arba9 %.3dZo“,
%.3d Zo“,arba);
Zo“, arba);
prhotd(‚ZoPbrhlbtrf9
ZoPbrhlbtrf9%.3d
Pbrhlbtrf9 %.3dZo“,
%.3d Zo“,pbrhlbtrf);
Zo“,pbrhlbtrf);
 crbak;
 nasb>9
nasb>9systbl(‚njs“);
>9systbl(‚njs“);
 crbak;
 mbdaujt9
 prhotd(‚FPÇAFHOTAJHMA
prhotd(‚FPÇAFHOTAJHMAZo“);
HOTAJHMAZo“);
 }
 }
}wehjb(fpnaf);
wehjb(fpnaf);
 rbturo0;
rbturo0;
}
Dh
Dhqu
qub
b à vf
vfot
otam
amb
b pa
para
ra nf
nfjf
jfna
nar
r of
ofva
vas
s rf
rfth
thoa
oas
s qu
qub
b nfot
nfotbo
boea
eal
l
futrfsnájnujfs.
Prathqubluhtfbsunbssf!
1.Aoajhsbfprfgralaacahxf,qubrbajhzaasflamfsoùlbrfspfshthvfs
usaomfrbpbthçîfnfltbstbofdhoajb fcsbrvbapartbqubbstá
fcsbrvbapartbqubbstádajtaomf.
dajtaomf.
#honjumb:stmhf.e?
hotlaho()
{
hoto;
hotsfla<0;
mf
{
prhotd(‚Mhghtbuloùlbrfpfshthvfparasbrsflamffuobgathvfparasahr9
‚);
snaod(‚%m“, &o);
.
.
.
prhotd(‚Asflabe%mZo“,sfla);
rbturo0;
}
mbprfgralaçîf 
R>-Nfonbhtfs 142
Ass
Asshoa
hoajb
jb a ajtbro
ajtbroath
athva
vaqub
qub nfr
nfrrbs
rbspfo
pfomb
mb à partb
partb qub
qub lbj
lbjef
efr
r sb hmboth
hmbothdhn
dhna
a
nflfnþmhgfmfprfgrala.
a) hd(o
hd(o?<
o?<
?<0
0
0)) c) hd(o
hd(o?<
o?<
?<0
0
0))
 sfla<
sfla <sfla
< sfla+
sfla +o;
+o;  sfla<
sfla <sfla
< sfla+
sfla +o;
+ o;
 }  wehjb(o
wehjb( o?<
o?<
?<0
0
0);
);
 wehjb(o
wehjb( o?<
o?<
?<0
0
0);
);  }
n)  hd(o
hd(o:<
o:<
:<0
sfla<
sfla 0
0))
<sfla
< sfla+
sfla +o;
+o; m)  hd(o
hd(o?<
o?<
?<0
sfla<
sfla 0
0)
)
<sfla
< sfla+
sfla +o;
+ o;
 }  }
 wehjb(o
wehjb( o?<
o?<
?<0
0
0);
);  wehjb(o
wehjb( o:<
o:<
:<0
0
0);
);
b) hd(o
hd(o?<
o?<
?<0
0
0))
 sfla<
sfla <++
< ++o;
++ o;
 wehjb(o
wehjb( o?<
o?<
?<0
0
0);
);
}
3.^bguomfaprfgralaçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhf,^fddobr(301>,p.4 =)nfjfna
qubulprfgrala‚oîfbxbnutaráoboeularbpbthçîf(basaçòbsqubajh
mbotrf
mbot rf bst
bsthv
hvbr
brbl
bl pr
prfg
fgra
rala
lama
mas)
s) sbl
sbl ao
aotb
tbs
s tbsta
tbstar
r ul
ula
a nf
nfom
omhç
hçîf
îf“.
“. Para
Para
rbajhzararbpbthçîfnfltbstbofhoìnhf,vfnéusaráfnflaomfhtbrathvf
‚wehjb“,qubshgohdhnablpfrtugués‚boqua
‚wehjb“,qubshgohdhnabl pfrtugués‚boquaotf“.
otf“.
Jbvaomf bl nfoshmbraçîf qub pr prb

bnhsalfs bstar atbotfs pa parra qub
oîffnfrrauljffphodhohtf,aoajhsbasadhrlaçòbsacahxfbrbspfomaa
ajtbroathvanfrrbta9
H. Nf
H. Nfot
otamfr „ è ut
amfr uthj
hjhz
hzam
ama
a para
para nf
nfot
otrf
rfja
jar
r as
as rb
rbpb
pbth
thçò
çòbs
bs,
, qu
quao
aomf
mf bsta
bsta è
mbtbrlhoama.
HH.Honrblbotfbmbnrblbotf „tracajeafoùlbrfmfnfotamfr,sflbotb
quaomfdfrpfshthvf.
HHH.Anulujamfr„ qubsbguomf^fddobr(301>)hrásflarasbotramasmb
mamfsmbnamahtbraçîfmarbpbthçîf,gbraomfulsflatþrhfasbruthjhzamf
mamfsmbnamahtbraçîfmarbpbthçîf,gbraomfulsflatþrhf asbruthjhzamf
quaomfmasaìmamarbpbthçîf.
HT.Nfomhçîfmbparama„uthjhzamaparambtbrlhoarflflbotfmbparar
quaomfoîfsbtblulvajfrbxatfmbstarbpbthçîf.
quaomfoîfsbtblul vajfrbxatfmbstarbpbthçîf.
a)^flbotb
aadhrlaçîfHbstánf
fHbstánfrrbta;
rrbta;
c)AsadhrlaçòbsH,HHHbHTbstîfnfrrbtas;
n)AsadhrlaçòbsHHbHHHbstîfnfrrbtas;
m)^flbotbaadhrlaçîfHTbstá nfrrbta;
b)Asadhrlaç
b)AsadhrlaçòbsH,HH,HHHbHTbstî
òbsH,HH,HHHbHTbstîfnfrrbtas.
fnfrrbtas.
>.Aoajhsbfnþmhgfmfprfgralaacahxf,fombdfhuthjhzamaabstruturamb
rbpbthçîfnflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb
rbpbthçîfnflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb
#honjumb:stmhf.e?
laho()
{
 hotnfotamfr;
hotnfotamfr;//varhávbjm
//varhávbjmbnfotrfjb
//varhávbjmbnfotrfjbmfjffp
bnfotrfjbmfjffp
 dfr(nfotamfr<
dfr(nfotamfr<1;nfotamfr
1;nfotamfr:<10;nfotam
1;nfotamfr :<10;nfotamfr++)
:<10;nfotamfr++)
 { prhotd(‚%m
prhotd(‚%m‚,
‚,nfotamfr);
‚,nfotamfr);
}
 rb
rbtu
turo
ro(0
(0);
);
}
Aoajhsaomffprfgralaanhla,quaj
Aoajhsaomffprfgralaa nhla,quajajbhturapfmblf
ajbhturapfmblfsdazbrmajhoe
sdazbrmajhoea9 a9
Dfr(nfotamfr<1;nfotamfr:<10;nfotamfr++),fombaprhlbhrabxprbssîf
è9 nf
è9 nfot
otam
amfrfr < 1,
1, a sb
sbgu
guom
oma
a bxpr
bxprbs
bssî
sîf
f è9
è9 nf
nfot
otam
amfr
fr :<
:< 10
10 b a tb
tbrn
rnbh
bhra
ra
bxprbssîfè9nfotamfr++
a)Oaprhlbhrabxprbssîf,‚nfotamfr“tblfsbu vajfrhohnhamfbl‚1“.
Oasbguomabxprbssîf,‚nfotamfr“bstánfomhnhfoamaa sbrhguaja‚10“.
paraafsbuvajfr.
Oatbrnbhrabxprbssîf,‚nfotamfr“sbrárbajhzamffhonrblbotamfmb1
c)Oaprhlbhra
c)Oaprhlbhrabxprbssîf,
bxprbssîf,‚nfotamfr“
‚nfotamfr“tblfsbu
tblfsbu
tblfsbuvajfrhohnhamfbl‚1“.
vajfrhohnhamfbl‚1“.
Oa
Oasbguomabxprbss
sbguomabxprbssîf,‚nfotamfr“bstá
îf,‚nfotamfr“bstánfomhnhfoamaa
nfomhnhfoamaasbrlbofr
sbrlbofra
a‚10“.
‚10“.
n)Oaprhlbhrabxprbssîf,‚nfotamfr“tblfsbu vajfrhohnhamfbl‚1“.
Oasbguomabxprbssîf,‚nfotamfr“bstánfomhnhfoamaasbrlahfrfu
hguaja‚10“.
Oatbrnbhrabxprbssîf,‚nfotamfr“sbrárbajhzamff
Oatbrnbh rabxprbssîf,‚nfotamfr“sbrárbajhzamffmbnrblb
mbnrblbotfmb
otfmb1para
1para
afsbuvajfr.
m)Oaprhlbhra
m)Oaprhlbhrabxprbssîf,
tblfsbu
Oasbguomabxprbssîf,‚nfotamfr“bstánfomhnhfoamaasbrlbofrfu
b)Oaprhlbhra
b)Oaprhlbhrabxprbssîf,
tblfsbu
Oasbguomabxprbssîf,‚nfotamfr“bstánfomhnhfoamaasbrlbofrfu
R>-Nfonbhtfs mbprfgralaçîf  147
Sbdbréonhas
B^PBSH
B^P BSHMHÎ
MHÎF,Eèjhf
F,Eèjhf.
.03-
03- Bxb
Bxbrnìn hf- Bst
rnìnhf- Bstruturas mbrbpbt
ruturas mbrbpbthçî
hçîf
fblN.
blN.3017.Xfutucb.
3017.Xfutuc b.
10 lar.3017.
10lar. 3017.Mhspfo
Mhspfoìvbj
ìvbj bl9
bl9:ett
:ettps9//
ps9//www.
www.yfutu
yfutucb.nf
cb.nfl/wat
l/watne6v
ne6v<PObX
<PObXbq=-]
bq=-]t0?
t0?
Anbssfbl937iao.3015.
MALA^,Juìs. JhoguagblN. ]ramuçîf9I
]ramuçîf9IfîfAraùif
fîfAraùifShcbhrf;Frja
fîfAraùifShcbhrf;FrjaomfCbroarmfDh
Shcbhrf;FrjaomfCbroarmfDhjef.
omfCbroarmfDhjef.
10bm.[Sbhlpr.\.ShfmbIaobhrf9J]N,3014.
LAOYAOF,IfsèAugustfOavarrfGarnha.
rbv.^îfPaujf9Èrhna,301>.
BstumfMhrhghmfmbJhoguagblN.17bm.
 . JhoguagblN9anflpaoeamambul
9anflpaoeamambulaxìnarambnadè.
axìnarambnadè. ^îfPaujf9Èrhna,
^îfPaujf9Èrhna,3012.
3012.
LHYSAEH,ThntfrhobThvhaob. ]rbhoalbotfbljhoguagblN .3bm.^îfPaujf9Pbarsfo
PrbothnbEajj,3005.
^NEHJM],Ebrcbrt. N9nflpjbtfbtftaj.]ramuçî
9nflpjbtfbtftaj.]ramuçîf9Sfcbrtf
f9SfcbrtfNarjfsLayb
NarjfsLaybr.>bm.^îf
r.>bm.^îf
Paujf9PbarsfoPrbothnbEajj,3002.
 . N9nflpjbtfbtftaj.]ramuçîf9SfcbrtfNarjfsLaybr.>bm.^îfPaujf9
Pbarsfo;Hodfrláthnabmhthfo,1887.
^FDDOBS,Sboatf. AjgfrhtlfsbPrfgralaçîfblJhoguagblN .1bm.^îfPaujf9

ârahva,301>.
Rohmamb=
Apjhnaçòbsmbprfgralaçîf
Narf bs
Narf bstu
tuma
maot
otb,
b, ne
nebg
bgal
alfs
fs à ùj
ùjth
thla
la uo
uohm
hmam
amb
b of
of bs
bstu
tumf
mf
mf
mfs
s aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlfs
fs b jþ
jþgh
ghna
na mb
mb pr
prfg
fgra
rala
laçî
çîf.
f. Af
Af jf
jfog
ogf
f mf
mf jhvr
jhvrf
f
vf
vfné
né tbv
tbvb
b fp
fpfr
frtu
tuoh
ohma
mamb
mb mb
mb nf
nfoe
oebn
bnbr
br mh
mhvb
vbrs
rsfs
fs bjbl
bjblbo
botf tfs
s b
ulasèrhbmbtènohnasqubsîfuthjhzamasparanrharsfjuçòbs
nflputanhfoahsparafslahsmhvbrsfsprfcjblas.Oaprhlbhra
nflputanhfoahsparafslahsmhvbrsf sprfcjblas.Oaprhlbhra
uo
uohm
hmam
ambb vf
vfné
né vhu
vhu f qu
qub
b è a jþ
jþgh
ghna
na mb
mb pr
prfg
fgra
rala
laçî
çîf,
f, nf
nflf
lf
mbsbovfjvbrfranhfnìohfjþghnfbasdfrlasmbrbprbsbotaçîf
mb ul ajgfrhtlf. Oa sbguoma uohmamb vfné aulbotfu
sbu
bu rb
rbppbrtþ
brtþrhrhf
f aprbrbom
ombo
bom mf quauatr
trff graraom
ombs
bs bjbl
bjblbo
botf
tfss mb
ajgfrhtlfs9asbstruturas
ajgfrhtlfs9asbstrutur asmb
mbmbnhsîf,as
mbnhsîf,asbstrutu
bstrutu
bstruturasmbrbpbthçîf,
rasmbrbpbthçîf,
asvarhávbhsnflpfstasbassuc-rfthoas.Oatbrnbhrauohmamb,
vfnédfhaprbsbotamfàjhoguagblmbprfgralaçîf‚N“,ula
maslahshlpfrtaotbsoaehstþrhamanflputaçî
maslahshlpfrtaotbsoaehstþrham anflputaçîf. f.
Obssa uohmamb vfné tbrá a fpfrtuohmamb mb nfothouar
bxpjfraomfbaprhlfraraprfgralaçîfoajhoguagbl‚N“atravès
mbofvfsmbsadhfs.MaomfnfothouhmambafsbutracajefoaKrf
Bog
ogbo
boea
earh
rhaas, ne
nebgbgf
fu f lflbo botftf mb vfnéné hl
hlppjb
jbl
lbo bota
tar
r oa
jhogua
jhoguagb
gbl
l ‚N‚N““ ul
ul mf
mfs
s aj
ajgf
gfrh
rhtl
tlfsfs qu
qubb vf
vfné
né pr
prfp
fpýs
ýs pa
para
ra sb
sbu
u
nebdb.ûaprhlbhralhssîfobssaofvauohmambsbráhlpjblbotar
fprfgralaqubdazanfovbrsîfmalbmhmamaquhjflbtragbl
pbrnfrrhmapfrulnarrfblulmbtbrlhoamfmha.Oasbguoma
lhssîfvfnémbvbrábotrbgarulprfgralaqubdaçafnfotrfjb
matblpbraturamfscraçfslbnãohnfsmajhoeambsfjmagblmb
pbçasautflfthvas.Paradhoajhzarsbutracajefoa
pbçasautflfthvas.Paradhoajhzarsbu tracajefoaKrfBogboearhas,
KrfBogboearhas,
vf
vfné
né bodr
bodrbot
botaráará ul
ul ofv
ofvf
f mbs
mbsadh
adhf,
f, b mbv
mbvbrá
brá hlp
hlpjbl
jblbot
botar
ar ul
ulaa
sfjuçîfoulèrhnaparafnájnujfmbraìzbsquamramas.
R=-Apjhnaçòbsmbprfgralaçîf  148
Par
Para
a nul
nulprh
prhr
r su
sua
a ifr
ifroam
oama,
a, vf
vfné
né apr
aprbom
bombrábrá obs
obssasa uoh
uohma
mambmb
nflftracajearnflfsvbtfrbsblatrhzbsoajhoguagbl‚N“,
vbomf fs
vbomf fs mbt
mbtaje
ajebs
bs ma sho
shotax
taxb,
b, atr
atrhcu
hcuhçî
hçîf
f mb vaj
vajfrb
frbs,
s, htbr
htbraçî
açîf f
pf
pfr
r sb
sbus
us bj
bjbl
blbo
botftfs.
s. Rs
Rsar
arbl
blfsfs lu
luhthtas
as su
suc-
c-rfrfth
thoa
oas
s pa
para ra qu
qub
b
vf
vfné
né sb anf
anfstu
stulb
lb nfl
nfl bss
bssa
a frg
frgaoh
aohzaç
zaçîfîf,
, b vbr
vbrblf
blfs s nfl
nflf f
duonhfoaulasuc-rfthoarbnurshva.
Cfosbstumfs!
170
170 R= Apjhnaçòbsmbprfgralaçîf
 .
Prfgralaçîfbduoçòbsnflvbtfrbs
Prfgralaçîfbduoçòbsnflvbtfrbs
Mhájfgfacbrtf
Narfbstumaotb,botralfsoarbtadhoajmamhsnhpjho
Narfbstumaotb,botralfsoarbtadhoajmamhsnhpjhoa
ambajgfrhtlfs
mbajgfrhtlfs
b
bjþg
jþghna
hna mbprfg
mbprfgral
ralaçî
açîf,b
f,b bss
bssa
aprh
prhlbh
lbhrasbçîf
rasbçîf è
èmbs
aprfxhlarahomalahsmajhoguagblNnfosfjhmaomfvárhastènohnasmbstho
thoama
ama a
ajeb
jeb
qubvfnévhumuraotbfjhvrf.Hohnhalfsnflfbstumfmfsvbtfrbs
oajhoguagblN,tajbstruturambmamfsèjargalbotbuthjhzam aparaf
arlazboalbotfhotbrofblulprfgralanflputanhfoaj.Hlaghob
qub vf
qub vfné
né pr
prbn
bnhs
hsb
b ar
arla
lazb
zboa
oar
r f sa
sajá
járh
rhf
f mb
mb 10
1000
00 duon
duonhf
hfoá
oárh rhfs
fs,
, fu
botîfqub
botîf qub vf
vfné
némbs
mbsbov
bovfjv
fjva
aul
ul shs
shstbl
tblaapar
para
alf
lfohtf
ohtfrar
rar a
aprb
prbss
ssîfîf
blulanajmbhraanamaeframfmhabbssbsmamfsprbnhsalsbr
arlazboamfspararbjatþrhf.
Nflfvfnéiávhu,usar1000varhávbhsèajgfhonfonbcìvbj,iáqub
Nflfvfnéiávhu,usar1000varhávbhsèaj gfhonfonbcìvbj,iáqub
pfmblfsrbajhzarbssatarbdausaomfapboasulavarhávbjnflpfsta.
Apþs f bstumf mbssa sbçîf vfné nf nfoosbguhr hráá hlpjbl blb botar
ul mf
ul mfs
s ajgf
ajgfrhrhtl
tlfs
fs nr
nrha
hamf
mfs
s pa
para
ra a Kr
Krf
f Bo
Bogb
gboeoear
arha
has.
s. Jb
Jblc
lcrara mf
shstblaqubnfotrfjavafgastfmbnflcustìvbjmhárhfmfsquhozb
autflþvb
autfl þvbhshs ma
ma blp
blprbsrbsa
a mhs
mhspf
pfohc
ohchjh
hjhzam
zamfs
fs pa
para
ra sbu
sbuss duo
duonhfnhfoár
oárhfs
hfs66
Pfr
Pfrtao
taotf,
tf, vf
vfné
né mbv
mbvbrá
brá hlp
hlpjbl
jblbota
botar r ul
ul prfgra
prfgrala
la qu qubb arl
arlazb
azboaoa
fnflcustìvbjgastfpfrnamaulmfsquhozbautflþvbhsmuraotb
ul mha..Jbl
ulmha Jblcracraomf
omf qu
qub
bf
fdfr
dfrlu
lujár
járhf
hfma
ma Krf
Krf Bog
Bogboea
boearha rhas
spbr
pbrlht
lhtbb
abotramaoasuohmambsquhjýlbtrf,lbtrffulhjea,bvfnémbvbrá
garaothrqubfmamfqubsbráguarmamfbstaráoauohmambquhjýlbtrf.
Aprbsbotbfprfgraladuonhfoaomfparasbugbrbotbbbotrbgubf
nþmhgfdfotbparaq
nþmhgfdfotbparaqubbjbpfssaa
ubbjbpfssaaoajhsarnfltraoquhjhm
oajhsarnfltraoquhjhmamb.amb.
Pa
Para
ra nf
nflp
lpjb
jbta
tar
r bs
bssa
sa pr
prhl
hlbh
bhra
ra lh
lhss
ssîf
îf vf
vfné
né vb
vbrá
rá ob
obss
ssa
a sb
sbçî
çîf
f a
shotaxbmbvbtfrbsoajhoguagblN,nflfèdbhtaaatrhcuhçîfmbvajfrbs
ofsvbtfrbsbnflfèdbhtaajbhturamfsbjblbotfsofsvbtfrbs.Tfné
talcèlaprbom
talcèlaprbombránflfnrhar
bránflfnrharbuthjhzarsuc-rf
buthjhzarsuc-rfthoablN.
thoablN.
Prbparamf6Cfosbstumfs!
Mbdhohçîf,narantbrìsthnas,shotaxbbatrhcuhçîfmbvajfrbs
blvbtfrbs
Bl pr
Bl prfg
fgra
rala
laçî
çîf,
f, vb
vbtf
tfr
r (array)
)  è ul
ul th
thpf
pf bs
bspb
pbnh
nhaj
aj mb
mb va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj
nap
napaz
az mb arl
arlazb
azboar
oar mhv
mhvbrs
brsfs
fs vaj
vajfrb
frbs s ‚af
‚af lbs
lbslflf tbl
tblpfpf“
“ usaom
usaomf f
ullbslfbombrbçfoalblþrha.Pfrarlazboarmhvbrsfsvajfrbs
talcèl
tal cèl è nea
nealam
lamf f mb va
mamflatrhnhaj(LAOYAOF,3010). varhá
rhávbj vbj nfl
nflpf pfstasta,
, fu
fu aho
ahoma
ma bst
bstrut
rutura
ura mb
Bxhstbl
Bxhstbl ajgu
ajgula
las s na
nararant
ntbr
brìs ìsth
thna
nas
s a rb
rbsp
spbh
bhtf
tf mb
mbss
ssa
a vavarh
rháv
ávbj
bj qu
qubb
mbvbldhnarnjaras9
• Anapan
Anapanhmamb
hmambmf
hmamb mfvbtfr,
mf vbtfr,fusbi
fusbia,quao
fusbi a,quaotfs
a,quao tfsbjblbotfs
tfs bjblbotfsbjb
bjblbotfs bjbnfosbgub
bjbnfosbgub
guarmar,mbvbsbrmbtbrlhoamaoflflbotfblqubsbmbnjara
bssavarhávbjbspbnhaj.
• F vb
vbtf
tfr
r è ula varháv
varhávbj
bj nfl nflpf pfsta
sta uoh
uohmhl
mhlbosboshfo
hfoaj,
aj, fu
fu sbia,
f an
anbs
bssf
sf a sb
sbus
us ma
mamf
mfs
s ta taotf
otf pa
parara jbhtu
jbhtura
ra nf
nflflf pa
para
ra bs
bsnrnrht
htaa
prbnhsaapboasmbulìomhnb.
• Rl vbt
vbtfr
frpf
fr pf
pfmb
mb sbr
sbr eflf
eflfgéobf géobf,, fu
fusbia
sbia,, arla
sbia arlazboar
zboarapboas
zboar apboas
ul thp
thpf mb
mb vajf
jfr
r (r
(rba
baj,j, ho
hotb
tbhr
hrf
f, na
nararant
ntbr
br bt
btn.
n.),
), fu pf
pfm mb sbr
ebtbrfgéobfbarlazboarvajfrbsmbmhdbrbotbsthpfs.Nas fbjb
sbiaebtbrfgéobffoflb strunt(bstrutura)èlahsambquamf
(bstrutura)èlahsambquamf
parahmbothdhnarbssbthpf.
• Hombpbombotblbotbmb
Hombpbombotblbotbmbbjb bjbsbr
bjb sbreflfgéobf
sbr eflfgéobffu
eflfgéobf fuebtbrfgéobf,
fu ebtbrfgéobf,
a vbjfnhmamb mf anbssf afs sbus mamfs è a lbsla. Hssf
anfotbnbpfrqubfsmamfssîfajfnamfssbqubonhajlbotboa
lblþrha,adhlm
lblþrha,adhlmbfthlhzarfmbsblpboef
bfthlhzarfmbsblpboefmfshstbla.
mfshstbla.
]f
]fmas
mas bss
bssas as narant
narantbrìs
brìsthn
thnas
as dhna
dhnarîf
rîf lah
lahs
s nja
njaras
tbxtf,valfsvbragfranflfduonhfoaoapráthnafusfmbvbtfrbs ras of mbn
mbnfrrfrrbr
br mf
oajhoguagbl‚N“.
Qua
Quaomfomf bst
bstalf
alfss prf
prfgra
grala
laomf omf bl N, ajgajguos
uos thp
thpfs
fs mb ma
mamfmfss
pr
prhl
hlht
hthv
hvfs
fs sî
sîf f us
usam
amfs
fs nf
nfll la
lahs hs dr
drbq
bqué
uéononha
ha99 hot (h
(hot
otbh
bhrf
rf),
), djfat
(rbajmbprbnhsîfshlpjbs), mfucjb(rbajmbprbnhsîfmupja)b
(rbajmbprbnhsîfmupja)b near
(naran
(narantbr
tbrbs
bs).
). Ta
Talflfss nr
nrha
har
r vb
vbtf
tfrbsrbs us
usaoaomf
mf bs
bssb
sbs
s th
thpf
pfss pr
prhl
hlht
hthv
hvfs
fs
lahsnflulbotbuthjhzamfs.
^hotaxb
^hotax b mb vbtvbtfrb
frbss efl
eflfg fgéobf
éobfs s oa jho
jhogu
guagagbl
bl N9 N9 Par
Para
a nrh
nrhar
ar
ulvbtfreflfgéobfcastabsnrbvbrfthpfmavarhávbjsbguhmf
mf oflb mf vbtfr sbguhmf mb nfjnebt
btb
bs b a  quao t h m amb mb
173
R=-Apjhnaçòbsmbprfgralaçîf
bjblbotfs.
bjblbot fs. Mbv
Mbvblf
blfs
saho
ahoma
ma nfj
nfjfna
fnar ul pf
r ul otf b vìr
pfotf vìrgu
guja
jaaf
af dho
dhoaj
aj
majhoeambnflaomf.
o axb9 t pfva
pfvarr avb
avb ; Oèaquaothmambmbnfjuoas(fujhoeas)
NfodhraajguosbxblpjfsmbmbnjaraçîfmbvbtfrbsoaDhgura=.1„a,
bulahjustraçîfmbulmfsvbtfrbsnflsbusrbsp
bulahjustraçîfmbulmfsvbtf rbsnflsbusrbspbnthvfsìomhnbs9
bnthvfsìomhnbs9
Dhgura=.1|BxblpjfsmbmbnjaraçîfmbvbtfrbsoajhoguagblN
Dhgura=.1|Bxblpjfsmbmbnjaraçîfmb vbtfrbsoajhoguagblN
a)
a) c)
c) oulbrfs
hot
hot ou
oul
oulbrf
lbrfs[2
s[2\;
\; 10 2 -> -1
-1 1
10
0
djfat tbl
djfat tblpb
tblpbratur
pbraturas[
as[100
100\;
\;
0  1  3 >  =
mfucjb mhstaonhaAtflfs[>0\;
mhstaonhaAtflfs[>0\;
nearmbsnrhnaf[2
nearmbsnrhnaf[20\;
0\; Ìomhnbs
Dfotb9bjacframapbjfautfr
Dfotb9bjacframapbjfautfr..
autfr
Pfr lbhf mfs bxblpjfs è pfssìvbj fcsbrvar as > prhlbhras

narantbrìsthnasmfsvbtfrbs.Tbiaqubhombpbombotblbotbmfthpfmb
varhávbjprhlhthvausama,bltfmfsfsnasfsanapanhmambmfvbtfriá
dfhhodfrla
dfhhodfrlama.Paratfmf
ma.Paratfmfsfsnasfsusal
sfsnasfsusalfsapboa
fsapboasulìomhnb,pfhs
sulìomhnb,pfhs
ulvbtfrèula
ulvbtfrè ula varh
varhávbj
ávbj nflp
nflpfsta
fsta uohm
uohmhlbos
hlboshfoa
hfoajj(ajg
(ajguosautfrb
uosautfrbss
nfstulalnealarfvbtfrmblatrhzuohmhlboshfoaj)(LAOYAOF,
3012). ]fm
3012). ]fmfs
fs fs
fs vbt
vbtfrb
frbs
s us
usam
amfs
fs of bxb
bxblpj
lpjf
f 1 sîf
sîf efl
eflfgé
fgéobf
obfs,
s,
pfrtaotf,ofvbtfr‚oulbrfs“sþsbrápfssìvbjarlazboarvajfrbs
hotbhrfs,iáofvbtfr‚tblpbraturas“sbrápfssìvbj
hotbhrfs,iáofvbtfr ‚tblpbraturas“sbrápfssìvbjarlazboarvajf
‚tblpbraturas“sbrápfssìvbj arlazboarvajfrbs
arlazboarvajf rbs
>5
>5 >5
>5
mb >,>,=
,= 110
0  atè >,
⋂
∓
>,=,= 1 0 ,ofvbtfr‚mhstaonhaAtflfs“sbrápfssìvbj
10 ⋂
>0
>05
05 >0
>05
05
arlazboarvajfrbsmb 1,,7 7 1 100  atè >,
⋂
∓
>,=
,= 1 100 ⋂ ,bpfrdhlofvbtfr
‚mbsnrhnaf“sbrápfssìvbjarlazboaratè20narantbrbs(lahsamhaotb
dajarb
dajarblf lfs
s lb
lbje
jefr
fr sf
sfcr
crb
b hs
hssf
sf,
, pf
pfhs
hs oa
oa vb
vbrm
rmam
amb
b tbl
tblfs
fs qu
qub
b mb
mbhx
hxar
ar
ul
ul bsbsppaç
açff para
ra ul nanara
rant
ntbr
brbb bs
bsp pbn
bnhahaj
j quaomomff usalfs f thp
thpf
near).Tbiaqubfthpfmavarhá
)).Tbiaqub
.Tbiaqubfthpfmavarhávbjprhl
vbjprhlhthvahthvaè
èfqubmbtbr
fqubmbtbrlhoa
lhoa quahs
vajfrbspfmbrîfsbrhosbrhmfsoas
vajfrbspfmbrî fsbrhosbrhmfsoasbstruturasmbma
bstruturasmbmamfs,bftala
mfs,bftalaoef
oef
mbtbrlhoaquaotfsvajfrbspfmbrîfsbrhosbrhmfs.
Sbdjhta
Agfravfnéiásacbqubparauthjhzarulvbtfrèprbnhsfoflflbotfma
Agfravfnéiásacbqubparauthjhzarulvbtfrèprbnhsfoflflbotfma
mbnjaraçîfhodfrlarsbutalaoef.Quajnfosbquéonhapfmbrhatrazbrsb
mbnjarássblfsulvbtfrnflulanapanhmambluhtfpbquboaparaula
mbtbrlhoamaapjhnaçîf6Fusbmbnjarássblfsbjbnflulanapanhmamb
luhtfgraomb6Quahssbrhalasvaotagbosbmbsvaotagbo
luhtfgraomb6Quahssbrhalasvaotagbosb mbsvaotagbosblnamanasf6
mbsvaotagbo sblnamanasf6
R=-Apjhnaçòbsmbprfgralaçîf  17>
Atrhcuhçîfmbvajfrbsavbtfrbseflfgéobfs
Paraarlazboarlfsulvajfrmbotrfmbulvbtfrusalfssbu
ìomhnb.TfnéiávhuqubaatrhcuhçîfmbvajfrbsblNèdbhtanflf
s oa  b gua a b < , pfr ao f as a o frlar f oflb f vb fr b
botrbnfjnebtbsfìomhnbblqubvfnémbsbiaguarmarulvajfrb
usaomfaatrhcuhçîfbsnfjebrfvajfr.
varhavbj[O\<vajfr;
\<vajfr; Oèfìomhnbofquajmbsbiaguarmar
Bxblpjfs9
oulbrfs[0\<-100;
tblpbratura[10\<>7.2;
mhstaonhaAtflf
mhstaonhaAtflfs[2\
s[2\ <
<0.03>=2;
0.03>=2;
Ajguospfotfssfcrbaatrhcuhçîfmbvajfrbstélqubsbrdhxamfs9
• Blquajqubr
Blquajqubrvbtfrf
vbtfrfprhlbhrfìomhnb
vbtfrf prhlbhrfìomhnbèsblprb
prhlbhrfìomhnb èsblprb0,pfrtaotf
èsblprb 0,pfrtaotfsb
0,pfrtaotf sb
mbnjaral
mbnjaralfs
fs qu
qub
b f vbt
vbtfr
fr tbl
tbl nap
napanh
anhma
mamb
mb par
para
a 2 bjblbot
bjblbotfs
fs,,
sbuìomhnbhrávarharmb0a=(mb oatèo-1).
• Oîf
Oîfèèfcrhgatþrhf
èfcrhgatþrhf
fcrhgatþrhfqub
pfmbmbnjararul qubtfmasas
qub tfmasaspfshçòbs
tfmasas
pfmbmbnjararulvbtfrnfl10pfs pfshçòbssbialfnupamas,
pfshçòbs sbialfnupamas,vfné
sbialfnupamas,
vbtfrnfl10pfshçòbsbusarsfl
hçòbsbusarsflbotb2. vfné
botb2.
• A atrhcuhçîf bl vbtfrbs mf thpf near è dbhta mb laobhra
mhdbrb otb,usaomf
mhdbrbotb, usaomfa
aduoçîf
duoçîfstrnpy(
strnpy(mbsthof,‚
mbsthof,‚tbxtf“
tbxtf“),
),mhspfoìvbj
mhspfoìvbjoa
chcjhftbna :str
chcjhftbna :strhog.e?
hog.e?.. Bxblp
Bxblpjf9
jf9 strnp
strnpy(prf
y(prfmutf
mutf,, ‚Prfnb
‚Prfnbssa
ssamfr
mfr
h7“),guarmaofvbtfrprfmutfftbxtf Prfnbssamfrh7.
Tfnépfmbbstarsbpbrguotaomfobssblflbotf9‚bsbbuquhsbr
usuárhfofvbtfr6“Tbialfsnflfè
guarmarulvajfrmhghtamfpbjfusuárhfofvbtfr6
guarmarulvajfrmhghtamfpbjf “Tbialfsnflfè
dbhtfofprfgralamaDhgura=.3.
Dhgura=.3|Prfgralaparaarlazboarvajfrbs blvbtfrbs
1. #honjumb:stmhf.e?
3. vfhm
vfhm l
laho
aho()
aho(){{
>. hot oul
oulbrfs[
brfs[2\;
2\;
=. prhotd("M
prhotd("Mhght
hghtb
b ul
uloulb
oulbrf9
rf9");
");
2. snaod("%m",&oulbrfs[0\);
4. prhotd("Tfnb
prhotd("Tfnb mhghtfuf
mhghtfufvajfr9%
vajfr9%m",oul
m",oulbrfs[0\*3);
brfs[0\*3);
7. gbtnear();
5. }
Oa
Oa Dhgu
Dhgura
ra =.
=.3
3 oa
oa jhoe
jhoea
a > f vbtf
vbtfr
r ‚o
‚oul
ulbr
brfs
fs“
“ è mb
mbnj
njar
aram
amf
f nfl
nfl
napanhmambparaarlazboar2vajfrbshotbhrfs.
17= R=-Apjhnaçòbsmbprfgralaçîf
Oajhoea=aduoçîfprhotd()èuthjhzamaparabxhchrulalbosagbl
parafusuárhf,boajhoea2aduoçîf snaod()èuthjhzamaparajbrfqub
èuthjhzamaparajbrfqub
fusuárhfmhghtfubguarmarofvbtfr.Fnflaomfmbssajhoealbrbnb
ulabx jhjhnna îfalahs,vb a ubèuthjhzamfflarnamfr‚%m“,hssf‚avhsa“
f nf
nflp
lphja
hjamf
mfr
r qu
qub
b qu
qubr
brbl
blfsfs gu
guar
arma
mar
r ul
ul où
oùlb
lbrfrf ho
hotb
tbhr
hrf,
f, mb
mbpf
pfhs
hs è
uthjhzamaasbquéonha9 &oulbrfs[0\.Obssasbquéonha,fnarantbrb &
trazmbotrfmbjbfbombrbçfmavarhávbj‚oulbrfs“bfzbrfmbotrfmf
nfjnebtbèapfshçîfblqubsbráarlazboamffvajfrmhghtamf.Oajhoea
nfjnebtbèapfshçîfblqubsbrá arlazboamffvajfrmhghtamf.Oajhoea
4bxhchlfsparafusuárhffmfcrfmfvajfrqubbjblbslfmhghtfu,
vbiaqu
vbia qub
bbst
bstal
alfslujth
fslujthpjh
pjhnao
naomf
mf pfr
pfr 3
3f
fva
vajfr
jfr qu
qub
bbst
bstá
águ
guarm
armam
amf
fof
of
vbtfr‚oulbrfs
vbtfr ‚oulbrfs“ìomhnb0.Oajhoea7
“ìomhnb0.Oajhoea7usa
usalfsulnfla
lfsulnflaomfpara
omfparadazbr
dazbr
ulaparamaofshstbla,sblbssbnflaomfaiaobjambbxbnuçîfacrb
bdbneaboîfnfosbguhlfsvbrfprfgraladuonhfoaomf.
Fvbtfrmbnarantbrbs
Talfsagfrabotbombrulpfu
Talfsag frabotbombrulpfunflbjefrfvbtfrmbnara
nflbjefrfvbtfrmbnarantbrbs.F
ntbrbs.F
thpfnearèprhlhthvfblquajqubrjhoguag
thpfnearèprhlhthvfblq uajqubrjhoguagblbulavarháv
blbulavarhávbjmbssbthpf
bjmbssbthpf
tblnapanhmambparaarlazboarulùohnfnarantbrb.Pfrèl,flahs
nflulèarlazboarlfspajavrasfudrasbs,bstbsoamalahssîfmf
qubul
qubulnfoiuot
nfoiuotffmbnarantbrbs.Pfrtaotf,para
mbnarantbrbs.Pfrtaotf,pararbprbsb
rbprbsbotartaj
otartajnfoiuot
nfoiuotff
prbnhsalfsmbulavarhávbjqubarlazbobulanambhambnarantbrbs
(LAOYAOF,3012),fusbia,ulvbtfrmbnarantbrbs.Bssbthpfmbmamf
ènealamfmb strhog,boîfènfoshmbramfulthpfprhlhthvf.
,boîfènfoshmbramfulthpfprhlhthvf.
Pa
Para
ra guarm
rmaar vajf
jfrb
rbss qub f us
usuuárh
rhf
f mh
mhg
ghtf
htfu è prb
rbnh
nhssf usar a
duoçîf snaod(‚%s“,
(‚%s“,&mbsthof)fu dgbts(mbsthof,talaoef,djuxf),alcas
(mbsthof,talaoef,djuxf),alcas
pbrtbonbotbsàchcjhftbna:stmhf.e?.Parabotbombrquaomfusarul
fufutrfvalfsnrharulprfgralaparaarlazboarulbquhpalbotf
bfmbpartalbotfaqubbjbpbrtbonb(Dhgura=.>).
Dhgura=.>|Arlazboalbotfmb strhogs
3. vfh
vfhm
m laho
laho(){
aho(){
>. near bquhpalbotf[30\;
=. near mbpartalbotf[30\;
2. prhotd("Mh
prhotd("Mhghtbf
ghtbf bquhpalbotf9
bquhpalbotf9 ");
4. snaod("%s",bquhpalbotf);
7. prhotd("Mh
prhotd("Mhghtbf
ghtbf mbpartalbot
mbpartalbotf9
f9 ");
5. ddjuse(stmho);
8. dgbts(mbpartalbotf,30,stmho);
10. gbtnear();
11. }Z
OaDhgura=.>nrhalfsmfhsvbtfrbsmbnarantbrbsoasjhoeas>b=.
OaDhgura=.>nrhalfsmfhsvbtfrbsmb narantbrbsoasjhoeas>b=.
Oajhoea4uthjhzalfsaduoçîf snaod()paraguarmarfbquhpalbotf
()paraguarmarfbquhpalbotf
mhghtamfpbjfusuárhf,vbiaqubusalfsfnþmhgf‚%s“para‚hodfrlar“
aduoçîfqubvalfsguarmarula strhog.Iáoajhoea8usalfsa
. Iáoajhoea8usalfsa
    ,  
talaoefláxhlfmb30narantbrbsbsbudjuxfmbmamfsbstávhomf
mf‚‚stmho“fusbia,mabotramapamrîfqubèftbnjamf.]blfsmfhs
mf
pfotfshlpfrtaotbsaaoajhsaraquh.
• Mhd snaod(‚%s“) arla

aMhdbrb
pbbrboça
oaoça
s p abot
botrb
javrb
rasas
 sduo
duoçòb
hlpçòbs9
jbs,s9
 faudu
duoç
 oçîf
sbîf
ia, bja hotbrrarfl lazb
pbzboa
 oa
f
arl
arlazb
azboaloalbotbotf
f qua
quaomfomf bonf
bonfotrotra
a ul
ul ‚bspaç
‚bspaçf
f bl cracraonf
onf“.“.
Pfrtaotf, sb nasf vfné tb tbo
otar guarmar ul bquhpalbotf
nfl oflb nflpfstf, pfr bxblpjf, ‚Craçf lbnãohnf“,
bs
bssa
sa du
duoç
oçîf
îf oî
oîf
fè
è am
ambq
bqua
uama
ma.
. Iá
Iá a du
duoç
oçîfîfdgbts()tblfutrf
tblfutrf
nflpfrtalbotf
nflpfrta lbotf,, bja arla
arlazboa
zboa quaj
quajqubr
qubr naran
narantbrb,
tbrb, honju
honjushvb
shvb
bspaçfsblcraonf,atèqubsbutalaoefsupfrtb.
bspaçfsblcraonf,atèqubsbuta laoefsupfrtb.
• Narantbrìs
Narantbrìsthnas
thnas ma duoçîf
duoçîf dgbts
dgbts()9
()9 f ùj
ùjth
thlf
lf parã
parãlbtrf
lbtrf mbss
mbssaa
duoçîfsbrbdbrbafdjuxfmbfrhgblma strhog,mbfombbstá ,mbfombbstá
vho
hom
mf, b pfm
pfmb sbrbr mf tb
tbnj
njaamf (stmho), mb arq
arquhv
hvf
f mb
mb tb
tbxt
xtf
f,
fu
fu at
atè
è mb
mb ca
caon
onf
f mb
mb ma
mamf
mfs.
s. Pa
Para
ra qu
qub
b f nf
nfla
laom
omf
f du
duon
onhfhfob
ob
nf
nfrr
rrbt
btal
albot
botb
b am
amhnh
hnhfo
foal
alfsfs a du
duoçî
oçîf f ddjuse(stmho) aotbs mb
napturarabotrama,pfhsbssaduoçîfjhlpaquajqubr‚jhxf“qub
bs
bstb
tbia
hlpf iartaotbjbvarbl
hlpfrtaot oa
oabjbvarblnfota
lb
lblþlþrhrha
a (cuddbr
nfota)
) qubulasbqu
mf dj
mf djux
uxf
f mb
mb bo
botr
tram
ama.
a. Pf
qubulasbquéonhambnarantbPfr
r dh
dhl,
l,rbs
éonhambnarantbrbs  ‚è
è nfoshmbrama tbrlhoama quaomf obja eá f nþmhgf mb
dhoajhzaçîfmbdhohmfpfrlbhfmfsìlcfjf‚Z0“,qubènfjfnamf
afsbranhfoamaatbnja :Botbr?.“(LAOYAOF,3012,p.>8=).
Bssbnþmhgfènfjfnamfpbjfnflphjamfrboîfpfroþs,bè
usamfpbjfnflaomfpara‚sacbr“quba strhoganacfu.Nflf
anacfu.Nflf
nf
nfos
osbq
bqué
uéon
onha
ha pb
pbrm
rmbl
blfs
fs ul
ula
a pf
pfsh
shçî
çîf
f of
of vb
vbtf
tfr,
r, pf
pfrt
rtao
aotf
tf
nfoshmbraomfofssfbxblpjfmaDhgura=.>,fusuárhfpfmbrá
mhghtaruladrasbmbapboas18narantbrbs.
Pbsquhsblahs
Fsvbtfrbsmbnarantbrbs, strhogs,sîfalpjalbotbuthjhzamfsbsuas
,sîfalpjalbotbuthjhzamfsbsuas
pfsshchjhmambsvîfluhtfajèlmfqubdfhaprbsbotamfaquh.Aprboma
lahssfcrbbssasbstruturasbsfcrbasduoçòbsmachcjhftbna:strhog.e?
lahssfcrbbssasbstruturasb sfcrbasduoçòbsmachcjhftbna:strhog.e?
anbssaomffsbombrbçfs9
174 R=-Apjhnaçòbsmbprfgralaçîf
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:ettps9//www.yfutucb.nfl
utucb.nfl/watne6v<2lIYeVhkMa
/watne6v<2lIYeVhkMaQ&jhst<PJ5hO
Q&jhst<PJ5hO8DQ7V
8DQ7V
it
it=M
=MIcb
=MIcbQq
Icb Qqv-
Qq v-
v--i
-ip]y
-ip]y
p]y-3
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g]A>
g]A>Np
A> Np&h
Np &hom
&hom
ombx<
bx<>1
bx<>1?.
>1?.Anbssfbl914mbz.3017.
?.Anbssfbl914mbz.3017.
:ettp9//jhoguagbln.nfl.cr/a-chcjhftbna-strhog-e?. Anbssf bl9 14
mbz.3017.
^hotaxbmbvbtfrbsebtbrfgéobfsoajhog
^hotaxbmbvbtfrbsebtbrfgéobfsoajhoguagblN
uagblN
Rlrbnursfluhtfuthjhzamfblprfgralaçîfèarlazboarul
nfoiuotfmbmamfsmbotrfmbulalbslavarhávbj,dfrlaomfasshl
ulabstruturaebtbrfgéobafu,nflfènfoebnhmfoajhoguagblN,
strunt(MBH]BJ;MBH]BJ,3011).Èhlpfrtaotbrbssajtarqubula
(MBH]BJ;MBH]BJ,3011).Èhlpfrtaotbrbssajtarqubula strunt
duonhfoanflful‚thpfmbmamf“,bparaqubsbiapfssìvbjuthjhzá-
jaèobnbssárhfatrhcuhrula(fulahs)varhávbhsàbstruturanrhama.
Tbialfsnflfmbnjararula struntoaDhgura=.=.
oaDhgura=.=.
Dhgura=.=|Mbnjaraçîfmbvbtfrbsebtbrfgéob
Dhgura=.=|Mbnjaraçîfmb vbtfrbsebtbrfgéobfs(
vbtfrbsebtbrfgéobfs(strunt)
^hotaxb9 Bxblpjf9 1. strunt dhneaVlaoutbonaf {

3. hot
hot nf
nfmh
mhgf
gf;;
strunt :hmbothdhnamfr?
{ >. nearbquhpalbotf[30\;
=. nearmbpartalbotf[30\;
:jhstagblmfsthpfsblblcrfs?; 2. nearmbsnrhnaf[100\;
} 4. djfa
djfatt vaj
vajfr
fr;;
strunt :hmbothdh
:hmbothdhnamfr?
namfr?:varhavb
:varhavbj?;
j?; 7. };
5. strunt dhneaVlaoutbonaf frmbl^brvhnf;
OaDhgura=.=,oajhoea1èusamffnflaomf struntparahohnhar
parahohnhar
fcjfnfqubnrhaavarhávbjnflpfstasbguhmfmbuloflbpara
hmbothdhnartajbstrutura,ofof
hmbothdhnartajbstrutura,ofofssfnasff
ssfnasffoflbbsnfjehmfdfh‚dhneaV
oflbbsnfjehmfdfh‚dhneaV
laoutbonaf“(jblcraomfquboîfpfmbtbrbspaçfboblanbotf).
Masjhoeas3a4èdbhtaambnjaraçîfmfsnalpfsqubdarîfpartb
mbssa
mbss a bs
bstr
trut
utur
ura.
a. F cj
cjfn
fnf
f mb
mbvb
vb bs
bsta
tar
r bo
botr
trb
b ne
neav
avbs
bs b a ne
neav
avb
b qu
qub
b
dbneafcjfnftblqubvhranflpaoeamapfrpfotfbvìrguja(jhoea
7).Oajhoea5tblfsavarhávbj‚frmbl^brvhnf“sbomfmbnjaramanfl
sbuthpf‚struntdhneaVlaoutbonaf“,pfhsèatravèsmbssavarhávbjqub
anbssarblfsfsnalpfsparajbhturabbsnrhta.
Atrhcuhçîfmbvajfrbsavbtfrbsebtbrfgéobfs
Para
Para atr
atrhcu
hcuhrl
hrlfs
fs va
vajfr
jfrbs
bs af
afs
s nal
nalpf
pfs
s ma strunt,
, mb
mbvb
vblf
lfs
s us
usar
ar f
oflbmavarhávbjqubrbnbcbunflfthpfabstruturanflulpfotf(.)
oflbmavarhávbjqubrbnbcbunflfthpfabstruturanflul pfotf(.)
bfoflbmfnalpf9varhavbj.nalpf.TbiaulbxblpjfoaDhgura=.2.
Dhgura=.2|Atrhcuhçîfmbvajfrbsavbtfrbsebtbrfgéob
Dhgura=.2|Atrhcuhçîfmbvajfrbsa vbtfrbsebtbrfgéobfs
vbtfrbsebtbrfgéobfs
3. vfhm
vfhmllaho
aho(){
aho(){
>. strunt
strunt dhnea
dhneaVlaou
Vlaoutbonaf
tbonaf {
=. hot
hot nf
nfmh
mhgf
gf;;
2. nearbquhpalbotf[30\;
4. djfatt va
djfa vajf
jfr;
r;
7. };
5. strunt dhnea
strunt dhneaVlaou
Vlaoutbonaffrmbl^
Vlaoutbonaf
tbonaffrmbl^brvhnf
tbonaffrmbl^brvhnf
brvhnf;
frmbl^brvhnf;
8. prhotd("Mhghtbfnþmhgfmafrmblmbsbrvhçf9Zo");
10. snaod("%m",&frmbl^brvhnf.nfmhgf);
11. prhotd("M
prhotd("Mhght
hghtb
b f bqu
bquhpal
hpalbot
botf9
f9Zo")
Zo");;
13. ddjuse(stmho);
1>. dgbts(frmbl^brvhnf.bquhpalbotf,30,stmho);
1=. prhotd("Mhghtbfvajfr9Zo");
12. snaod("%d",&frmbl^brvhnf.vajfr);
14. gbtnear();
17. }
OaDhgu
OaDhgura=.2,
ra=.2, ma
masjhoea
sjhoeas>
s>a7
a7abstru
abstrutur
turaè
aèmbd
mbdhoh
hohmama,b
,boajhoe
oajhoeaa
5 èat
5è atrh
rhcu
cuìm
ìma
aulula ava
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj à
àbs
bstru
trutu
tura
ra.
.Oa
Oa jhoe
jhoea
a8
8 è
èho hodf
dfrl
rlamamf
faf
af
usuárhfparaqubmhghtbulvajfrboajhoea10fvajfrmhghtamfè
guarmamfmbotrfofnalpf‚nfmhgf“mavarhávbj‚frmbl^brvhnf“qub
èmfthpf strunt.Paraguarmarfbquhpalbotfèlahs
..Paraguarmarf
Paraguarmarfbquhpalbotfèlahsambquamf ambquamfusar usar
aduoçîf dgbts()(jhoea1>),pfhsfsbquhpalbotfspfmbltbroflbs
()(jhoea1>),pfhsfsbquhpalbotfspfmbltbroflbs
nfl
nflpfpfstf
stfs,
s, pf
pfr
r bxb
bxblp
lpjf,jf, ‚tr
‚trhtu
hturam
ramfr
frmb
mb pa
para-ra-crh
crhsa“
sa“.. La
Lass sacblf
sacblfss
qubaotbsmbusarf dgbts()mbvblfsjhlparfcuddbrmbbotramanfl
()mbvblfsjhlparfcuddbrmbbotramanfl
aduoçîf ddjuse()(jhoea13).Boajhoea12èguarmamffvajfrmbotrf
mfsburbspbnthvfnalpfoavarhávbjnflpfsta
mfsburbspbnthvfnalpfoava rhávbjnflpfsta..
Asshlhjb
Qua
Quaom
omf
f uthj
uthjhz
hzal
alfs
fs nalpf
nalpfs
s qub
qub oî
oîf
f sî
sîf
f mf
mf thpf
thpf ne
near
ar mb
mbot
otrf
rf
ma strunt,pfmblfsatrhcuhrvajfrbsmhrbtfsbladuoçîf
,pfmblfsatrhcuhrvajfrbsmhrbtfsbladuoçîf snaod() ma
sbguhotbdfrla9
frmbl^brvhnf.nfmhgf<13>=2;
frmbl^brvhnf.vajfr<31>0;
Parafsnalpfsmbnarantbrbsbssaatrhcuhçîfoîfèpbrlhthmaoa
jhoguagblN.^bquhsbrlfsdazbrbssaatrhcuhçîfmhrbtasblusfmf
snaod(),mbvblfsuthjhzar
,mbvblfsuthjhzaraduoçîfstrnpy(mbsthof,‚tbxtf“)qubpbrtbonb
,mbvblfsuthjhzaraduoçîfstrnpy(mbsthof,‚tbxtf“)qubpbrtbonb
àchcjhftbna:strhog.e?.Botîfusaomfbssaduoçîfpfmblfsatrhcuhr
narantbrbsmasbguhotbdfrla9
strnpy(frmbl^brvhnf.laquhoa,‚Craçf
strnpy(frmbl^brvhnf.laquhoa,‚Craçflbnãohnf“);
uhoa,‚Craçflbnãohnf“);
strnpy(frmbl^brvhnf.mbpartalbotf,‚Prfmuçîf“);
Htbraçîfsfcrbfsbjblbotfsmbvbtfrbs
Oîfdazsbothmfnrharulvbtfrbguarmarulùohnfvajfr.Agraomb
Oîfdazsbothmfnrharulvbtfrbguarmarulùo hnfvajfr.Agraomb
uthjhmambmfsvbtfrbsèguarmarvárhfsvajfrbsadhlmbfthlhzarf
arlazboalbotfbanbssfafsmamfs.Paraqubfsvbtfrbsnulpral
suatarbda
suatarbda èobnbssárh
èobnbssárhfuthjhzá-j
futhjhzá-jfsiuotal
fsiuotalbotbnflas
botbnflasbstru
bstruturas
turas mb
rbpbthçîf,prhonhpajlbotbabstruturanflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb.
Avarhávbjmbnfotrfjbmabstruturambrbpbthçîfsbráusamanflf
Avarhávbjmbnfotrfjbmabstruturambrbpbthçîfsbrá usamanflf
fìomhnbparaajbhtura/
fìomhnbparaajbhtura/arlazboalbotfmbma
arlazboalbotfmbmamfsofvbtfr,
mfsofvbtfr,pfrtaotf
pfrtaotf
ashotaxbsbrá9
dfr(h<0;h:10;h++){
oulbrfs[h\;
}
Tb
Tbia
ia qu
qub
b ava
a varh
rháv
ávbj
bj ‚h
‚h“
“ bs
bstá
tá sb
sbom
omf
fus
usam
ama
ata
taot
otf
fpa
para
ra nf
nfotr
otrfj
fjar
ar a
bstruturambrbpbthçîfnflftalcèlìomhnbmfvbtfr.Fjeaomfpara
bssbnþmhgfpfmblfsnfonjuhrqubfvbtfr‚oulbrfs“hráarlazboar
10vajfrbs,qubfnuparîffsìomhnbsmb0a8,jblcraomfqubh:10è
mhdbrbotbmbh:<10.
Prfcjblasuthjhzaomfduoçîfnflvbtfrbs
ûc-rfthoas,funflfsîflahsnflulbotbnealamas,duoçòbs,
sîf
sîf uth
thjhjhza
zam
mas parara frg
rgaaoh
ohza
zar
r f pr
prf
fgra ral
la b bv
bvht
htaar a rb
rbp
pbt
bthç
hçîîf mb
nf
nfllaomomfs fs.
. Bsta
talf
lfss usaomomff várh
rhas
as du
duoç
oçò
òbs
bs qub iá
iá bs
bstî
tîf
f prfrfot
otaas
mbotrfmaschcjhftbnas,pfrèlbssasduoçòbsoîfatbombltfmasas
obnbsshmambs,adhoajnamaprfcjblamblaomaulasfjuçîfbsboîf
bxhstbasfjuçîfprfota,botîftblfsqub nrharofssasprþprhasduoçòbs.
Pbsquhsblahs
Duoçòbssîfbxtrblalbotbùtbhsoabstruturaçîfmbulprfgrala.
Duoçòbssîfbxtrblalbotbùtbhsoabstruturaçîfmb ulprfgrala.
^buusfpbrlhtbfrgaohzarbrbuthjhzarnþmhgfs.Jbhafnapìtujf10mf
jhvrf9LAOYAOF,IfsèAugustfO.G. JhoguagblN9anflpaoeamamb
ulaxìnarambnadè.^îfPaujf9Èrhna,3012.=50p.,baprbomalahs
sfcrbbss
sfcrb bssa
a fmbrfs
fmbrfsa
adbr
dbrral
ralbot
bota.
a.
Ashotaxbmambnjaraçîfmbuladuoçîfpfmbsbrdbhtaaotbsfu
mbpfhsmaduoçîfmaprhonhpaj(laho)bèdbhtamasbguhotbdfrla9
:thpf?oflb(:thpfmbparãlbtrfs
:thpf?oflb(:thpfmbparãlbtrfs?:parãlbtr
?:parãlbtrfs?){
fs?){
:Tarhávbhsjfnahs?;
:Nflaomfs?;
:rbturo?:vajfr?;
}
:thpf?thpfmbmamfqubasuc-rfthoarbtfroa.Rladuoçîfpfmb
rb
rbtf
tfro
roaar quajq
jqub
ubr
r vajf
jfr
r (hot
(hotbh
bhrf
rf,
, pfot
otf
f dj
dju
utu
tuaaot
otb
b bt
btn.
n.),
), ho
honj
nju
ushv
hvb
b
oboeulvajfr,obssbnasfsbráusamaapajavrarbsbrvama vfhm.
:oflb?oflbmaduoçîf.Oîfpfmbtbrbspaçfoblanbotf.
:thpfmbparãlbtrf
:thpfmb parãlbtrfs?
parãlbtrf s?quaomfbxhsthrparãlbtrfsèprbnhsfmbdhohr
sbuthpf.
èfpnhfoajpas
èfpnhfoajpassarulvajfrp
sarulvajfrparaaduoçîf.
araaduoçîf.
:parãlbtrfs?
:Tarhávbh sjfnahs?sîfvarhávbhsqubsflbotbpfmblsbrusamas
:Tarhávbhs
sjfnahs?
mbotrfmaduoçîf(oîfbxhstbldframbja).
:Nflaomfs?fcjfnfmbnflaomfsmaduoçîf.
:rbturo?usamfsf
usamfsflbotbquaomfadu oçîfoîfrbtfroar vfhm.
lbotbquaomfaduoçîfoîfrbtfroar
:vajfr?fvajfrqubaduoçîfrbtfroaráquaomfoîfdfr vfhm,tbl
,tbl
qubsbrmflbs
qubsbrmflbslfthpfqubf:
lfthpfqubf:thpf?maduoçîf
thpf?maduoçîf..
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Talfsuthjhzarulabstruturambrbpbthçîfparaprbbonebrulvbtfr
hotbhrfqubarlazboavajfrbsmb
hotbhrfqubarlazboavajfrb smbtblpb
tblpbratura
raturalbmhmfpfrul
lbmhmfpfrulsbosf sbosfrr
mu
mura
raot
otb
b f mh
mha.
a. F prfg
prfgra
rala
la mbvb
mbvbrá
rá ar
arla
lazbzboa
oar
r 10
10 va
vajf
jfrb
rbs
s b mb
mbpf
pfhs
hs
rbtfroarquajdfhalèmhamatblpbraturaofmha.Fnájnujfmalèmha
sbrá
sbrá db
dbht
htf
f bl
bl ula
ula suc-
suc-rf
rfth
thoa
oa b sbrá
sbrá ‚nea
‚neala
lamf
mf“
“ mb
mbot
otrf
rf ma
ma du
duoç
oçîf
îf
prhonhpaj.OaDhgura
prhonhpaj.OaDhgura=.4tblfs
=.4tblfsasfjuçîf
asfjuçîfmbssbprfcjbla.
mbssbprfcjbla.
Dhgura=.4|Prfgralaparanajnujarlèmhambtblpbratura
Dhgura=.4|Prfgralaparanajnujar lèmhambtblpbratura
3. vfhm Najnu
NajnujarLbm
jarLbmha
ha djfat tbl bratu
bratura
ra
>. djfat
djfat lbmh
bmha;
a;
=. lbmha<tblpbratura/10;
2. prhotd("Alèmhamhárhamatblpbraturadfh9%.3d",lbmha);
4. }
7. vfhm
vfhm lah
aho(
o(
o(){
){
5. djfatt tbl
djfa tblpbrat
pbraturas[
pbraturas[10\;
uras[10\;
8. djfa
djfa
fatt tf
tfta
ta
taj;
j;
10. hot h;
11. dfr(h<0;h:>;h++){
13. prhotd("Hodfrl
prhotd( "Hodfrlb
"Hodfrlb a
atblpbratura
tblpbratura %m9
%m9",h);
",h);
1>. snaod("%d",&tblpbraturas[h\);
1=. tftaj<tftaj+tblpbraturas[h\;
tftaj <tftaj+tblpbraturas[h\;
12. }
14. NajnujarLbmha(tftaj);;
NajnujarLbmha(tftaj)
17. gbtnear();
15. }
Oa Dh
Dhgu
gura
ra =.
=.4,
mbnjaramaaduoçîf‚4, jfvfhm
gf NajnujarLbmha(djfattblpbratura)
gf apþ
apþs a hosb
hosbrç
rçîf
îf ma
vfhmNajnujarLbmha(djfat matblpbratura)
 ch
chcj
cjhf
hfttbn
bna
a :“,pfmblfs
stmhf.e? b
“,pfmblfs
mhvhmhrbssbnflaomfbltréspartbs9
• F
Fprhlbhrf
prhlbhrfhtbl,
prhlbhrfhtbl,qub
htbl,qubof
qubofofssf
ofofssfnasf
ofssf nasfè
nasfè vfhm,èfthpfmbmamfqub
,èfthpfmbmamfqub
asuc-rfthoamarárbtfrof.Pfrtaotf,ofssaduoçîfoîfrbtfroará
asuc-rfthoamarárbtfrof.Pfrtaotf,ofssa duoçîfoîfrbtfroará
oama(vfhm),bjadarásbutracajefbdhl,oîftraráoamaparaa
duoçîfprhonhpaj(laho).
• F
Fsbguomf
sbguomfhtbl
sbguomfhtblèf
htblèfprþprhf
èfprþprhfoflb
prþprhfoflbma
oflbmasuc-rfthoa
masuc-rfthoa‚NajnujarLbmha“.
suc-rfthoa‚NajnujarLbmha“.
• Ftbrnbhrf
Ftbrnbhrfhtblè
htblèfqub
htblè fqubbstábotrb
fqub bstábotrbparéotbsbsa
bstábotrbparéotbsbsapþsf
paréotbsbsa pþsfoflbm
pþsf oflbmaa
oflbm
duoçîf.Mbotrfmfsparéotbsbsbspbnhdhnalfsasvarhávbhsqub
duoçîf.Mbotrfmfsparéotbsbsbspbnhdhnalf sasvarhávbhsqubaa
duoçîfrbnbcbráquaomfdfrnealama.Ofofssfnasf,quaomf
ne
neal
alar
arlf
lfs s a du
duoç
oçîf
îf Na
Najn
jnuj
ujar
arLb
Lbmhmha(
a()
) mb
mbvb
vbrá
rá sb
sbr
r nf
nfjf
jfna
namf
mf
mbotrfmfparéotbsbsulavarhávbjmfthpf djfat.
Db
Dbht
hta
a a mbnjar
mbnj açîf
araçîf ma
ma suc-
suc-rfthoa
rfth , mbot
oa, mbotrf
rf mf
mf cjfnf
cjfnf mb
mbvbl hr
vbl hr fs
nflaomfspbrthobotbsafqubqubrblfsqubsbiarbajhzamf.Parahssf
avarhávbj‚lbmha“èmbnjaramaoajhoea>,oajhoea=èdbhtffnájnujfma
lèmha,
lèmha,boajhoea2èhlprbssf
boajhoea2èhlprbssfoatbjafrbsuj
oatbjafrbsujtamf
tamf.OaJhoea4aneavb
.OaJhoea4aneavb
lar
larnaf
nafdho
dhoajma
ajmaduoduoçîf
çîf Najnuj
NajnujarLb
arLbmha
mha().
(). Agf
Agfraè
raèefr
efra
ambnfost
mbnfostruh
ruhr
raa
duo
duoçîf
çîf prh
prhonh
onhpaj
paj (la
(laho)
ho)..Oas
Oas jho
jhoeas5
eas5a
a10sîfmbnja
10sîfmbnjaramaramas
sasvarháv
asvarhávbhs
bhs..
Oajhoea11ènrhamaabstruturambrbpbthçîfnflavarhávbjmbnfotrfjb
‚ “               -
hguaj),nflfpassfmbhonrblbotf1(h++).Oajhoea13èhlprbssaula
lbosagblpbmhomfparamhghtaratblpbratura,apboasparadhosmb
aparéonhadfhamhnhfoamaavarhávbj
aparéonhadfhamhnhf oamaavarhávbjhobssajhoea.Oajhoea1>aduoçîf
hobssajhoea.Oajhoea1>aduoçîf
sn
snao
aod(d()
) ar
arla
lazbzboa
oa ul
ul vaj
vajfr
fr mf
mf th
thpf
pf djfat of
of vb
vbtf
tfr
r tb
tblp
lpbrbrat
atura
uras
s oa
pfshçîfh(tblpbraturas[h\).Oajhoea1=avarhávbj‚tftaj“vahanulujaomf
pfshçîfh(tblpbraturas[h\).Oajhoea1=a varhávbj‚tftaj“vahanulujaomf
astblpbraturashodfrlamas.Apþsftèrlhofmas10rbpbthçòbsoajhoea
astblpbraturashodfrlamas.Apþsftèrlhofmas 10rbpbthçòbsoajhoea
11,aduoçîfNajnujarLbmhaènealamaoajhoea13bèpassamfnflf
parãlb
parãlbtrf trff
fvajfrma
vajfrmatblpbra
tblpbraturaanulujamaatravès
turaanulujamaatravèsma ma
mavarhávbj‚tftaj“.
varhávbj‚tftaj“.
Aparthrmbssbpfotfqublbotrablbxbnuçîfèasuc-rfthoa,bjadaz
sbuprfnbmhlbotfbnflfsbuthpfmbrbtfrofèvfhm,quaomftbrlhoa
sbuprfnbmhlbotfbnflfsbuthpfmbrbtfrofèvfhm, quaomftbrlhoa
fprfgralabstánflpjbtf.
fprfgralabstá nflpjbtf.
Nasfqubhradazprhotd()
Nasfqubhradazbrahlprbssîf
nfjfnaraduoçîf brahlprbssîfmas10tblpbrat
mas10tblpbraturasguarmamascasta
urasguarmamascasta
mbotrfmbulaofvabstruturambrbpbthçîf,
mbotrfmbulaofvabstruturambrbpbthçîf,
apþsajhoea12,masbguhotb dfrla9
prhotd(‚]blpbratura%m
prhotd(‚]blpbratura%m9%d“,
9%d“,h,tblpbraturas[h\
h,tblpbraturas[h\);
);
Nebgal
Nebgalfs
fs af
af dh
dhoa
oajj mb
mbss
ssa
a sb
sbçî
çîf
f qu
qub
b df
dfhh mbmh
mbmhna
nama
ma a bxp
bxpjf
jfra
rar
r a
uthjhzaçîfmbvbtfrbsoajhoguagblN.Aprfvbhtbfnfoebnhlbotf
aprbsbotamfbapjhqubaofvasshtuaçòbs,pfhssflbotbatravèsma
práthnavfnémflhoaráastènohnasbjhogu
práthnavfnémflhoaráastènohnasbjhoguagbosmbprfgra
agbosmbprfgralaçîf.
laçîf.
Neb
ebgf
gfuu f lf
lfl lbobotf
tf mb vfnéné hl
hlp
pjb jbl
lbobota
tar
r f prfgrfgra
ral
la qub
arlazboafnflcustìvbjgastfpfrnamaulmfsquhozbautflþvbhs
arlazboafnflcustìvbjgastfpfrnamaulmfsquhozbautfl þvbhs
makrfBogboearhasmuraotbulmha.Jblcraomfqubfdfrlujárhf
ma
ma Krf
Krf Bo
Bogb
gboeoear
arha
has
s (D
(Dhg
hgur
uraa =.
=.7)
7) pb
pbrl
rlhthtb
b a botr
botram
ama
a oa
oass uo
uohm
hmam
ambs
bs99
quhjhjý
ýlbt
btrf
rf,, lbt
btrf
rf fu lh
lhjejeaa, b vfné
né mbvbvb
b gara
raot
othr
hr qub f mamf
qu
qub
bsbr
sbrá
águ
guarm
armamf
amf bst
bstará
ará oa
oauoh
uohmamamb
mbquh
quhjýl
jýlbtr
btrf.
f.A
Anfo
nfovbr
vbrsî
sîf
fma
ma
uohmambmbvbsbrdbhtablulasuc-rfthoa.
Dhgura=.7|NapturambtbjamfdfrlujárhfmaKrfBogboearha
Para
Para nrha
nrhar
r bss
bssb
b prfgra
prfgrala
la prb
prbnhs
nhsal
alfs
fs mas
mas chc
chcjhf
jhftbn
tbnas
as :stmhf
:stmhf.e?
.e?
b:strhog.e?(jhoeas1b3).Masjhoeas >a11bstáaduoçî
>a11bstáaduoçîfqubvbrhdhna
fqubvbrhdhna
a uohmamb bsnfjeh ehm
ma b daz a nfov
ovbbrsîf. Oa jhoea > a duoçîf è
mbnjarama,nflassbguhotbsnarantbrìsthnas9
• thpf
thpfmb
mbrbtfrof9
mbrbtfrof9 djfat
• oflb9
oflb9]bstarRohmamb
]bstarRohmamb
• 3parãlbtrfs9
3parãlbtrfs91vbtfr
1vbtfrmbnarantbrbs
1vbtfr mbnarantbrbs„varhávbj
mbnarantbrbs „varhávbj‚uohmamb“b
„varhávbj ‚uohmamb“bul
‚uohmamb“b ul
djfat „ ‚tft
‚tftaj
ajNf
Nfovovbrt
brthm
hmf“
f“.
. Pf
Pfrt
rtao
aotf
tf,
, qu
quao
aomfmf bs
bssa
sa du
duoçî
oçîf
f df
dfrr
nealam
neal ama
a tbr
tbrîf
îf qu
qub
b sb
sbr
r pa
pass
ssam
amfs
fs mf
mfhs
hs pa
parã
rãlb
lbtrtrfs
fs,
, sb
sboî
oîf
f f
prfgralaoîfbxbnuta.
Mbotrfmasuc-rfthoaèusamaaduoçîf strnlp()machcjhftbna
machcjhftbna
:strhog.e?qubnflparafvajfrmbmuasstrhogs,bquaomfbjassîf
:strhog.e?qubnflparafvajfrmbmuas strhogs,bquaomfbjassîf
hguahsrbtfroazbrf.Pfrhssfasnfomhçòbsmasjhoeas=,4b5nfl-
hguahsrbtfroazbrf.Pfrhssfasnf omhçòbsmasjhoeas=,4b5nfl-
para
paralfrbsujtam
lfrbsujtamfmaduoçîf
fmaduoçîfnflzbrf
nflzbrf (hd
hd(strnlp(uohmamb,“kl“)
(strnlp(uohmamb,“kl“)
<<0)).Nasffusuárhftboeamhghtamfulauohmambhovájhma,sbrá
.Nasffusuárhftboeamhghtamfulauohmambhovájhma,sbrá
rbtfroamf-1.Aduoçîfprhonhpajhohnha-sboajhoea13,sbguhmama
nrhaçîfmbtfmasasvarhávbhsobnbssárhasafprfgrala(jhoeas1>
a14).Majhoea17atè31èdbhtffjaçfqubjébarlazboafvajfr
mfs12narrfs,anulujaomfanamahtbraçîfoavarhávbjtftaj.Oa
jhoea3>èjhmaauohmambqubfusuárhfbsnfjebubguarmamaoa
varhávbj‚uohmambRsama“.Boajhoea3=asuc-rfthoa]bstarRohmamb
ènealamabsburbsujtamfèguarmamfmbotrfmbulavarhávbj
nea
neala
lamama ‚t
‚tft
ftaj
ajNf
Nfov
ovbr
brth
thmf
mfKL
KL“,
suc-rfthoasbráulvajfrmfthpf“, jbl
jblcrcrao
aomfmf qu
qub
b f rb
rbsu
sujta
jtamf
mf ma
. Bpfrdhl,èhlprbssfoa
.Bpfrdhl,èhlprbssfoa
djfat
tbjafvajfranulujamfboauohmambquhjýlbtrf.
tbjafvajfranulujamfb oauohmambquhjýlbtrf.
Dhgura=.5|Prfgralaparanajnujarquhjflbtragbl
Dhgura=.5|Prfgralapara najnujarquhjflbtragbl
#honjumb :stmhf.e?
3. #honjumb:strhog.e?
#honjumb :strhog.e? Parãlbtrf 1 Parãlbtrf 3
>. djfat]bstarRohmamb
djfat ]bstarRohmamb
]bstarRohmamb(near
(nearuohmamb[30\
(near
uohmamb[30\
uohmamb[30\,djfat
,djfattftajNfovbrthmf
,djfat tftajNfovbrthmf)){
tftajNfovbrthmf
=. hd(strnlp(uohmamb,"kl
(strnlp(uohmamb,"kl") <<0){
(strnlp(uohmamb,"kl") <<
<<0){
2. rbturo
rbturo tfta
tf
tftajNfovbrth
tajN
jNfovbrthmf;
mf;
4. }bjsbhd(strnlp(uohmamb,"
(strnlp(uohmamb,"l")
(strnlp(uohmamb,"l") <
<<0){
<0){
7. rbturo tft
rbturo tftajN
tftajNfovbrth
ajNfovbrthmf/10
mf/1000;
00;
5. }bjsbhd(strnlp(uohmamb,"
(strnlp(uohmamb,"lhj
(strnlp(uohmamb,"lhjea")
lhjea
ea")
") <<
<<0){
0){
8. rbturo tft
rbturo tftajN
tftajNfovbrth
ajNfovbrthmf/0.
mf/0.431>71;
431>71;
10. }bjsb rbtu
rbturo
ro -1;
-1;
11. }
13. vfhm
vfhm laho(
aho(){
){
1>. djfat m
djfat mhstaon
hsttaonha[
hs ha[12\
12\;;
1=. djfat ne
djfat near
nearuohmam
aruohmambRsama
bRsama[30\;
[30\;
12. djfat tft
djfat tftaj,
tftaj,tftajN
aj,tftajNfovbrt
fovbrthmfKL;
hmfKL;
14. ho
hot
ot h;
h;
17. dfr(h<0;h:12;h++){
15. prhotd("Mhghtbfvajfrpbrnfrrhmfpbjfnarrf%m9",h);
18. snaod("%d",&mhstaonha[h\);
30. tftaj<tftaj+mhstaonha[h\;
tftaj<tftaj +mhstaonha[h\;
31. }
33. prhotd("Mhghtbauohmambuthjhzama(kl,lfulhjea)9");
3>. snaod("%s",&uohmambRsama);
3=. tftajN
tftajNfov
fovbrt
brthmf
hmfKL
KL < ]bstarRohmamb(uohmambRsama
]bstarRohmamb(uohmambRsama,
uohmambRsama ,tftaj
,tftaj);
tftaj);
32. prhotd("Aquaothmambtftajpbrnfrrhmablquhjýlbtrfsdfh9%d",tftajNfovbrthmfKL);
34. gbtnear();
37. }
È hl
hlpf
pfrt
rtao
aotb
tb qu
qub
b vf
vfné
né bo
botb
tbom
oma
a tf
tfmf
mfs
s fs
fs pa
pass
ssfs
fs ut
uthjhjhz
hzam
amfs
fs..
Parahssf,ajtbrbfoflbmasvarhávbhs,masuc-rfthoa,mfsparãlbtrfs
Parahssf,ajtbrbfoflbmasvarhávbhs,masuc-rfthoa,mfsparãl btrfs
b hl
hlp pjb
jbl
lbo
botb
tb f prf
rfggral
rala dadazb
zbomomff as ajtbr
jtbraaçò
çòbs
bs ob
obnb
nbsssárh
rhaas
paraqubfdfrlujárhftalcèlanbhtbabotramamauohmambiarma.
Fu
Futrtra
a lf
lfmh
mhdh
dhna
naçî
çîf
f ho
hotb
tbrb
rbss
ssao
aotb
tb sb
sbrh
rha
a am
amap
apta
tar
r f pr
prfg
fgra rala
la pa
parara
qu
qub
b a uo
uohm
hmam
ambb pf
pfss
ssa
a sb
sbr
r mh
mhgh
ghta
tama
ma ta
taot
otf
f nf
nfl
l jbtr
jbtras
as la
lahùhùsn
snuj
ujas
as
nflflhoùsnujas.
15= R=-Apjhnaçòbsmbprfgralaçîf
Prfnurarflahfrvajfrblulvbtfr
F bstumf ma dìshna pbrlhtb bo bottbombr f nflpfrtalbo bottf mb
vá
várh
rhfs
fs shst
shstbl
blas
as,
, sb
sbom
omf
f a pf
pfté
téon
onha
ha ul
ula
a ma
mas
s gr
grao
aomb
mbza
zas
s bxp
bxpjhjhna
nama
ma
pfrbssaárbamfnfoebnhlbotf.Bssagraombzaèrbprbsbotamaof
shstblahotbroanhfoajpbjauohmambWatt(W),btblnflffcibthvf
b brl oaraquao a b bbobrg anfonb apfrula fo bana a
uohmambmbtblpf.OaDhgura=.8tblfsfgrádhnfmbulshs tblaqub
lfohtfrafduonhfoalbotfmbulaláquhoamuraotbfmha.Blula
mbtbrlhoamaeframfmhaaláquhoaathogbsuapftéonhaláxhla,
homhnamapbjfpfotfPoadhgura.HlpjblbotbulprfgralablN,
qub
qub jbh
jbha
ab
barl
arlazb
azbob30
ob30vaj
vajfrb
frbsb
sb rbt
rbtfro
frob
bqu
quajdfhf
ajdfhfva
vajfr
jfr láx
láxhlf
hlf
athoghmfoaqubjbmbtbrlhoamfmha.
Dhgura=.8|Nflpfrtalbotfmapftéonhambulaláquhoa
W
P
efra
Sbsfjuçîfma shtuaçîf-prf
shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
cjbla
Para prfnurarlfs f lahfr vajfr bl ul vbtfr tblfs qub
nflpararfvajfrmfìomhnbatuajnflfvajfrmfprþxhlfìomhnbb
guarmarflahfrvajfrblulavarhávbj.TbiafprfgralaoaDhgura
=.
=.10
10.
. Ma
Mas
s jhoe
jhoeas
as 4 a 8 f prprfg
fgra
rala
la jé
jé b ar
arla
lazb zboa
oa fs
fs 30
30 va
vajf
jfrb
rbss
of
of vbtf
vbtfr.
r. Oa
Oa jhoea
jhoea 10
10 df
dfhh at
atrh
rhcu
cuìm
ìma
a à va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj ‚l
‚lah
ahfr
frTaTajf
jfr“
r“ f va
vajf
jfrr
arlazboamfoaprhlbhrapfshçîfmfvbtfr(Bssbpassfèhlpfrtaotb
nasffsvajf
nasffs vajfrbssbial
rbssbialtfmfshguah
tfmfshguahs).Oajhoea11
s).Oajhoea11hohnha
hohnha-sbulaofva
-sbulaofva
bstruturambrbpbthçîfparabonfotrarflahfrvajfr,oajhoea 13bxhstb
ulabstruturanfomhnhfoajqubnflparafvajfrmapfshçîfatuaj(h)
nflfvajfrmaprþxhlapfshçîf(h+1)barlazboaflahfrvajfroa
varhávbj‚lahfrTajfr“.Apþstbrblshmfdbhtastfmasasnflparaçòbs
oajhoea14èhlprbssfflahfrvajfrbonfotramf.
Dhgura=.10|Prfgralapara rbtfroarlahfrvajfrblulvbtfr
Dhgura=.10|Prfgralapararbtfroarlahfrvajfrblulvbtfr
3. vfhm
vfhm laho
laho(){
aho(){
>. djfat pftbo

pftbonhas[3
nhas[30\;
0\;
=. djfat lahfrT
lahfrTajfr;
ahfrTajfr;
2. hho
o
ott h;
4. dfr(h<0;h:30;h++){
7. prhotd("Mhghtbfvajfrmapftéonha19");
5. snaod("%d",&pftbonhas[h\);
8. }
Pfshçîfatuaj
<
11. dfr(h<0;h:30;h++){ Prþxhla
Prþxhla pfshç
pfshçîf
îf
13. hd(pftbonhas[hh\:pftbonhas[
hd(pftbonhas[ \:pftbonhas[h+1
h+1
h+1\){
\){
1>. lahfrTajfr
lahfrT
ahfrTajfr <
<pftbo
pftbonhas[h
nhas[h+1\;
+1\;
1=. }
12. }
14. prhotd("A
prhotd("A lahfr
lahfr pftéonha
pftéonhaatho
athoghmapbja
ghmapbja láquhoa
láquhoa dfh9
dfh9 %d",lahfr
%d",lahfrTajf
Tajfr);
r);
17. gbtnear();
15. }
Ajtbrbfprfgralaparaqubbjbtalcèlarlazbobflbofrvajfr.
1.Tbtfrèulamasbstruturasqubbxhstbparafarlazboalbotfmbmamfs.
û
ûa
a ut
uthj
hjhz
hzaç
açîf
îf è va
vast
sta
a mbvhm
mbvhmf
f à da
danh
nhjh
jhma
mamb
mb bl
bl jb
jbr
r b bsnrb
bsnrbvb
vbr
r ma
mamf
mfs
s b à
vbjfnhmambnfl
vbjfnhmambnflqubasfpbraç
qubasfpbraçòbssîfrbajhz
òbssîfrbajhzamas,pfhsnama
amas,pfhsnamavajfrof
vajfrofvbtfr
vbtfr
èarlazboamfsbqubonhajlbotboalblþrha(LAOYAOF, 3012).
Nfoshmbrbas
Nfoshmbrbasadhrlaçòbs
adhrlaçòbssfcrbfsvbtfrbs
sfcrbfsvbtfrbsbbsnfjea
bbsnfjea
bbsnfjeaafpçîfnfrrbta.
afpçîfnfrrbta.
H„Fvbtfrèulabstruturambmamfsmhoãlhna,fusbia,sbutalaoefpfmb
sbrrbmhlboshfoamfbltblpfmbbxbnuçîf.
HH„
HH„Nflff
Nflffvbtfrè
vbtfrèula
ulabstrut
bstruturauohmhlboshfoaj,paraanbssar
urauohmhlboshfoaj,paraanbssarsbusmamfs
sbusmamfs
èprbnhsfsflbotbulìomhnb.
HHH„
HHH„Rlamas
Rlamasnarantbrì
narantbrìsthnasmfsvbtfrbsèqub
sthnasmfsvbtfrbsèqubbjbspfmblarlazboarmamfs
bjbspfmblarlazboarmamfs
mbquajqubrthpf.
a)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHbstánfrrbta.
c)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHHbstánfrrbta.
n)^flbotbaajtbroathvaHHHbstánfrrbta.
m)^flbotbasajtbroathvasHbHH bstîfnfrrbtas.
b)^flbotbasajtbroathvasHHbHHH bstîfnfrrbtas.
3.Rsaomfvbtfrbsmfthpf nearèpfssìvbjnfostruhrnambhasmbnarantbrbs
èpfssìvbjnfostruhrnambhasmbnarantbrbs
lahsnflulbotbnealamfmb strhog.Achcjhftbna:strhog.e?dfrobnbvárhas
.Achcjhftbna:strhog.e?dfrobnbvárhas
duo
duoçò
çòbs
bs par
para
a la
laohp
ohpuja
ujaçî
çîf
f mb strhogs,, nf
nflf
lf pf
pfr
r bx
bxbl
blpjpjf,
f, du
duoç
oçîf
îf qu
qub
b
nfotaoù
nfota oùlbr
lbrf
f mb na
naran
rantbr
tbrbs,
bs,qub
qub gua
guarma
rma of
ofvas
vas strhogs,qubnflparaf
,qubnflparaf
talaoefmbmuas strhogsbtn.
btn.
Aduoçîfstrnlp(var1,var3)nflparafnfotbùmfmb muasvarhávbhs.
Nfoshmbraomfqubvar1bvar3pfssublnflfnfotbùmfalbsla strhog9
‚bogboearha“,bsnf
‚bogboearha“,bsnfjeaafpç
jeaafpçîfqubnfo
îfqubnfotèlfrbsujtamf
tèlfrbsujtamfmaduoçî
maduoçîf.
f.
a)bogboearha
c)1
n
m)var3
b)var1
>. Of mbs

Of mbsbo
bovf
vfjv
jvhl
hlbo
botf
tf mb
mb ul
ula
a sf
sfju
juçî
çîf
f qu
qub
b ut
uthj
hjhz
hza
a vbt
vbtfr
frbs
bs,
, bst
bstbs
bs sî
sîf
f
uthjhzamfsiuotalbo
uthjhzamfsiuotalbotbnflbstrutu
tbnflbstruturasmbrbpbthçîf
rasmbrbpbthçîf,sbomfa
,sbomfanflvarhá
nflvarhávbj vbj
mbnfotrfjbaprbdbrhmaparabssbnasf,pfhsavarhávbjqubnfotrfjafjaçf
mbrbpbthçîfpfmbsbruthjhzamanflfìomhnbparaf vbtfr.
Nfos
Nfoshmbrbfprfgral
hmbrbfprfgralaacahxf
aacahxfb
bbsnfj
bsnfjeaafpçîf
eaafpçîfqubnfotèlfqubsbrá
qubnfotèlfqubsbrá
hlprbssfoajhoea5.
1. #honjumb:stmhf.e?
3. vfhm
vfhm laho(
aho(){
){
>. hot rbsujt
rbsujtamf
amf[2\
[2\;;
=. ho
hot
ot hh;;
2. dfr(h<0;h:2;h++){
4. rbsujtamf[h\<h+3;
7. }
5. prhotd("Sbsujtamf
prhotd("Sbsujtamf <%m",rbsujtamf[3\);
<%
<%m"
m",rbsujtamf[3\);
8. gbtnear();
10. }
a)Sbsujtamf<0
c)Sbsujtamf<3
n)Sbsujtamf<>
m)Sbsujtamf<=
b)Sbsujtamf<2
^bçîf=.3
Prfgralaçîfbduoçòbsnfllatrhzbs
Mhájfgfacbrtf
Narfbstumaotb,cbl-vhomfalahsulasbçîf!Nfothouarblfs
         .     ,
pbrlhtbarlazboarvajfrbsoîfsflbotbbljhoeas,nflfanfotbnb
of vbtfr, las talcèl bl nfjuoas. Atravès mbssa bstru trutura è
pf
pfss
ssìv
ìvbj
bj nr
nrha
har
r ta
tacb
cbja
jas
s oa
oa lb
lblþ
lþrha
rha mf
mf nf
nflp
lput
utam
amfr
fr,
, ft
fthl
hlhza
hzaom
omf
f f
arlazboaomfmbmamfsbusf
arlazboaomfm bmamfsbusfmbvarhávbhs.
mbvarhávbhs.
Obssa sbçîf vfné nflpjbtará sua sbguoma lhssîf ma Krf
Bogboearhas,vfnémbvbrábotrbgarulprfgralaqubdaçafnfotrfjb
matblpbraturamfscraçfslbnãohnfsmajhoeambsfjmagblmbpbças
autflfthvas.Pbrnbcaqubmbvblfsarlazboaroflìohlfmfhsvajfrbs9
autflfthvas.Pbrnbcaqubmbvblfsarlazboaroflìohlfmfhs vajfrbs9
quajfcraçfbquajatblpbratura.Parahssfvfnérbnbcbuulapjaohjea
quajfcraçfbquajatblpbratura.Parahssfvfnérbnbcbuulapjaohjea
nflfnþmhgfmb10bquhpalbotfsmbulajhoeamb prfmuçîf9
]acbja=.1|Nþmhgfmfscraçfslbnãohnfsmajhoeambsfjmagbl
Craçf Nþmhgf ^btfr

1 1010 ^fjmagbl
3 1030 ^fjmagbl
> 10>0 ^fjmagbl
= 10=0 ^fjmagbl
2 1020 ^fjmagbl
4 1040 ^fjmagbl
7 1070 ^fjmagbl
5 1 0 50 ^fjmagbl
8 1080 ^fjmagbl
10 1100 ^fjmagbl
Pfrtaotf, bl sbu prfgrala nama ul mfs craçfs mbvb sbr
hmbothdhnamfpbjfsbunþmhgf.Ajèlmhssf,paranamabquhpalbotf
sbrîf
sbrîf ar
arlalazb
zboa
oama s > lb
mas lbmhmhmas mb
mas mb tb
tblp
lpbrbrat ura,
atura, b ah
ahoma a lè
oma lèmh mhaa
mbssatblpbratura.
Pa
Para
ra nf
nflp
lpjb
jbta
tar
r bs
bssa
sa lh
lhss
ssîf
îf vf
vfné
né vb
vbrá
rá obs
obssa
sa sb
sbçî
çîf
fa
ash
shota
otaxb
xb mb
latrhzbsoajhoguagblN,nflfèdbhtaaatrhcuhçîfmbvajfrbsblula
latrhzbnflfèdbhtaajbhturamfsbjblbotfsobssabstruturambmamfs.
latrhzbnflfèdbhtaajbhturamfs bjblbotfsobssabstruturambmamfs.
Prbparamf6Cfosbstumfs!
Mbdhohçîf,narantbrìsthnasbshotaxbmblatrhzbs
Laozaof (3012
12)) uthjhza a boas ula oflbonjatu
turra ara mbdhohr
varhávbhsnflpfstas9 latrhzbs,basmhvhmbbllatrhzbsuohmhlboshfoahs
bchmhlboshfoahs.Aoflbonjaturaamftamapbjfautfr,blcfraoîf
sbiaalahsnflul,dazsbothmf,pfhsfqubmhdbrbalcasvarhávbhs
nflpfstas,mfpfotfmbvhstamfprfgralamfr,èapboasaquaothmamb
mbìomhnbsqubalcaspfssubl9vbtfr 1mhlbosîf 1ìomhnb;latrhz
3mhlbosòbs 3ìomhnbs.Mfpfotfmbvhstabstruturaj,ulalatrhz
èulagrupalbotfmbvbtfrbs,dfrlaomfulatacbjaoalblþrhamb
tracajefmfnflputamf
tracajefmfnflputamfr(Dhgura=.11).
r(Dhgura=.11).
Dhgura=.11|Frgaohzaçîfbstruturajmbulalatrhz
Dhgura=.11|Frgaohzaçîfbstruturajmbula latrhz
Nfjuoas
Jhoea0 0
0,,,0
0 0
0,,,1
1 0
0,,,3
3 0
0,,>
,> 0,
0,=
,= ..
...
.. 0,
0,O
,O
Jhoea1 1
1,,,0
0 1
1,,,1
1 1
1,,,3
3 1
1,,,>
> 1,
1,=
,= ..
...
.. 1,
1,O
,O Jhoeas
..
JhoeaL L
L,,,0
0 L
L,,,1
1 L
L,,,3
3 L
L,,,>
> L
L,,=
,= ..
...
.. L
L,,O
,O
Bxhstbl
Bxhstbl ajgu
ajgula
las
s na
nara
rant
ntbrìsth
brìs nas
thnas a rb
rbsp
spbh
bhtf
tf mbss
mbssa
a va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj qu
qub
b
mbvbldhnarnjaras9
• A
Anapanhmambma
napanhmambmalatrhz,fu
napanhmambma latrhz,fusbia,a
latrhz,fu sbia,aquaothmambmb
sbia,aquaothmambmbjhoeasb
quaothmambmbjhoeasbnfju-
jhoeasb nfju-
oastblqubsbrmbtbrlhoamaoflflbotfblqubs bmbnjara
bssavarháv
bssavarhávbjbspbnhaj.Aquaothma
bjbspbnhaj.Aquaothmambmbbjblbotfsèalujthp
mbmbbjblbotfsèalujthpjh- jh-
naçîfmaquaothmambmbjhoeaspfrnfjuoas(LxO).
• A lat
latrhz
rhz è ul
ula
a
avarhá
varhá
varhávbj
vbj nflp
nflpfsta
fsta chmhl
chmhlboshf
boshfoaj,
oaj, fu
fusb
sbia
sbia,
, f
anbssfasbusmamfstaotfparajbhturanflfparabsnrhtaprb-
nhsambmfhsìomhnbs.TbiaoaDhgura=.11,qubmbotrfmbnama
bspaçfbstáfoùlbrfmajhoeasbguhmfmfoùlbrfmanfjuoa.
bspaçfbstáfoùlbrfmajhoeasbg uhmfmfoùlbrfmanfjuoa.
• Alatrhztbl
Alatrhztblqubtbrft
qubtbrfthpfmbmamfqub
qubtbrft hpfmbmamfqubhráarlazboar
hpfmbmamfqub hráarlazboarof
hráarlazboar of
lflbotfmambnjaraçîf.
Tbialfsnflf
Tbialfsnflftracajear
tracajearnfl
nflbssabstrutura,
bssabstrutura,prhlbhr
prhlbhrf
faprbombo
aprbombomf
mf
suashotaxb9
Lèaquaothmambmbjhoeas
^hotaxb9 ]hpfvarhávbj[
]hpfvarhávbj[L
L\[O
\[O\ Oèaquao
èaquaothma
thmamb
thmambmbn
mb mbnfjuoa
mbnfjuoas
fjuoas (fujho
(fujhoeas)
eas)
Bxblpjfs9
hot oul
oulbrfs[
brfs[2\[>
2\[>\;
\;
djfat tbl
tblpbrat
pbraturas[
uras[100\[
100\[>\;
>\;
mfucjb
mfucjb mhsta
mhstaonhaA
onhaAtfl
tflfs[>
fs[>0\[3\
0\[3\;;
fs bxblp fs a la r z oulbrfs  pf br  arlazboar a 

vajfrbshotbhrfs,a
vajfrbshotbhrfs,alatr
latrhz‚tblpbrat
hz‚tblpbraturas uras“pfmbráarlazb
“pfmbráarlazboaratè>00
oaratè>00
vajfrbs
vajfrbsnfl
nfl nas
nasas
as mbn
mbnhla
hlahs,
hs, b a la
latrh
trhz
z ‚mh
‚mhsta
staonh
onhaAt
aAtfl
flfs“
fs“ pf
pfmbr
mbráá
arlazboaratè40vajfrbsnflnasasmbnhlahs.
Sbdjhta
AgfraqubvfnébstánfoebnbomflahsajhoguagblN,vfnésacbaa
AgfraqubvfnébstánfoebnbomflahsajhoguagblN,vfnésacb
mhdbrboçabotrbulavarhávbjmfthpf djfatbulamfthpf
bulamfthpf mfucjb6Ofmhaa
6Ofmhaa
mhambul
mhambulbogboebhrffunhbothst
thpfssîf bogboebhrffunhbothstaquajthpf
thpfssîfsudhnhbotbspara aquajthpfèlahs
sudhnhbotbspararbprbsbotartfmf èlahsuthjhz
rbprbsbotartfmfsfs uthjhzamf6Bssbsmfhs
uthjhzamf6Bssbsmfhs
sfsoùlbrfsqubbxhstbl6
sfs oùlbrfsqubbxhstbl6
Atrhcuhçîfmbvajfrbsalatrhzbs
Pa
Para
ra ar
arla
lazb zboa
oarlrlfsfs ul
ul va
vajf
jfr
r mb
mbot
otrf
rf mb
mb ul
ulaa latr
latrhz
hz us
usal
alfsfs
f ìo
ìomh
mhnb
nbmama jhjhoea
oea b ma
ma nf
nfju
juoa
oa,
, pf
pfrt
rtao
aotf
tf,
, ca
cast
sta
a hod
hodfr
frla
lar
r a va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj
bbotrbfprhlbhrfnfjnebtbfìomhnbmajhoeabbotrbfsbguomf
nfjnebtbfìomhnbmanfjuoabu
nfjnebtbfìomhnbmanfjuoabusaomfaatrhcu
saomfaatrhcuhçîfbsnfjebrfvajf
hçîfbsnfjebrfvajfr. r.
varhavbj[L\[
\[O\<vajfr;
\<vajfr;
Bxblpjfs9
oulbrfs[0\[1\<-100;
]blpbratura[20\[0\<>7.2;
mhstaonhaAtflfs[2\[1\
mhstaonhaAtflfs[2\[1\ <
<0.03>=2;
0.03>=2;
Oîfsbbsqubça9
• Blquajqubr
Blquajqubrvarhávbj
varhávbjnflpfsta
varhávbjnflpfstafìo
nflpfsta fìomhnb
fìomhnbnflbça
mhnbnflbçapfr
nflbçapfrzbrf,
pfrzbrf,botîf
zbrf,botîf
blulalatrhzfprhlbhrfbspaçfparaarlazboalbotfèsbl-
prb(0,0),fusbia,ìomhnb0
prb(0,0),fusbia,ìomhnb0taotfparajhoeanflfpara
0),fusbia,ìomhnb0 taotfparajhoeanflfparanfjuoa.
taotfparajhoeanflfpara nfjuoa.
• Oîf è fcrhg
fcrhgatþ
atþrhf
rhf qub
qub tf
tfma
mas
s as
as pf
pfsh
shçò
çòbs
bs sbi
sbial
al fnu
vfnépfmbmbnjararulalatrhznfl10jhoeas(funfjuoas)b fnupa
pama
mas,
s,
usarsflbotb1.
Para
Para arla
arlazboarvajf
zboarvajfrbsbl
rbsblulalatrh
ulalatrhz zmhgh
mhghtamf
tamfspbjfusuárhf
spbjfusuárhf,,
uthjhzalfsaduoçîf snaod()hodfrlaomffsmfhsìomhnbs.Tbiaul
hodfrlaomffsmfhsìomhnbs.Tbiaul
bxblpjfoaDhgura=.13.
Bxblpjhdhnaomf
Ta
Talf
lfs
s bsnr
bsnrbv
bvbr
br ul
ul pr
prf
fgr
gral
ala a qub
qub ar
arla
lazzbo
boa
a ul
ul va vajjfr ho
hottbhrf
bhrf
mhg
mhghta
htamfpbjf
mfpbjf usuá
usuárhf
rhf oaprhlb
oaprhlbhra
hra pfs
pfshçî
hçîfmb
fmbula
ula latrhz
latrhz,,fusbia,
fusbia, of
ìomhnb(0,0).Oajhoea2mfprfgralaaduoçîfsnaod()hráguarmarfvajfr
hráguarmarfvajfr
mhghtamfoavarhávbj‚oulbrfs“ìomhnbs90b0.Malbsladfrlaqubfs
vajfrbs fmblsbrbsnrhtfsoalatrhz talcèl fmblsbrjhmfs vb aoa
jhoea4qublujthpjhnalfsfvajfrguarmamfbl‚oulbrfs[0\[0\“pfrmfhs.
jhoea4qublujthpjhnalfsfvajfrguarmamfbl‚oulbrfs[0\[0\“pfrmfhs.
Dhgura=.13|Prfgralaparaarlazboarvajfrbsbllatrhzbs
Dhgura=.13|Prfgralapara arlazboarvajfrbsbllatrhzbs
3. vfhm
vfhmllaho
aho(){
aho(){
>. hot oul
oulbrfs[
brfs[2\[>\;
2\[>\;
=. prhotd(
prhotd("Mhg
"Mhghtb
htbul
ul oulbr
oulbrf9
f9 ");
2. snaod("%m",&oulbrfs[0\[0\);
4. prhotd(‚Fmfcrfmfqubvfnémhghtfuè9%m",oul
prhotd(‚Fmfcrfmfqubvfnémhghtfuè9%m",oulbrfs[0\[0\*3);
brfs[0\[0\*3);
7. gbtnear();
5. }
Htbraçîfsfcrbfsbjblbotfsmblatrhzbs
Thlf
Thlfs s qu
qub
b vb
vbtf
tfrb
rbs
s sî
sîf
f us
usam
amfs
fs iu
iuot
otal
albo
botb
tb nf
nfl
l bs
bstr trut
utur
uras
as mb
rbp
rbpbtbthç
hçîf
îf pa
para
ra qu
qub
b sb
sbus
us va
vajf
jfrb
rbs
s sb
sbiaial
l anbs
anbssa
samf
mfs
s mb
mb df
dfrl
rla
a la
lahshs
bdh
bdhnhb
nhbotb
otb..Nfl
Nfllatr
latrhzb
hzbs
stalc
talcèlèluth
uthjhz
jhzalfs
alfsbssb
bssbrbn
rbnursf
ursf,,pfrè
pfrèllnfl
nfl
ulamhdbrboça9prbnhsalfsmbbstruturasmbrbpbthçòbsaohoeamas.
A quaoth thmmamb mb bstruturas qub prbnhsalfs bstá mhrbta tal
lbotb
assfnhamaàquaothmambmbìomhnbsmavarhávbjnflpfsta,pfrtaotf
sb
sb tb
tblf
lfs s mf
mfhs
hs ìom
ìomhn
hnbs
bs,, us
usar
arbl
blfs
fs mu
muas
as bs
bstrtrut
utur
uras
as mb
mb rb
rbpb
pbthç
thçîf
îf.
. A
prhlbh
prhl bhra
ra bs
bstr
trut
utur
uraa mb
mb rb
rbpb
pbth
thçî
çîf
f nf
nfototrf
rfjaja f ìomh
ìomhnb
nb ma
mas
s jhoe
jhoeas
as,
, b a
sbguomanfotrfjafìomhnbmasnfjuoas,pfrtaotfsua
sbguomanfotrfjafìomhnbmasnfjuoas ,pfrtaotfsuashotaxbsbrá9
shotaxbsbrá9
dfr(hh<0;
dfr( <0;hhh:3;
:3;hhh++){
:3; ++){
dfr(ii<0;
<0;iii:>;
<0; :>;ii++){
:>; i ++){
oulbrfs[hh\[ii\;
oulbrfs[ i\;
}
F ofoflb
lb ma
ma varh
pfrèlènflulusar ávbj
varhávbj  us
hfu
fuusam
ama
l a pa
para
ra nf
nfot
parajhoeab otrf
rfjb
jb oof
fu
fu
i of jaçf
jaçf è fp
fpnh
nhfo
paranfjuoa.Obssa foaj
aj,,
bstruturaalatrhzpfssuhmuas
bstruturaalatrhzpfss uhmuasjhoeasbtrésnfju
jhoeasbtrésnfjuoas,ahos
oas,ahosbrçîfhohnha
brçîfhohnha
oajhoea0(dfrbxtbrof),b
bxtbrof),
bxtbrof),bprbbo
prbbonebtfmas
nebtfmasasnfjuoas
asnfjuoasmaqubjamaqubjajhoea
jhoea
(dfr hotb
hotbro
rof)
f),
, tb
tbrl
rlho
hoam
amasas as
as nf
nfjujuoa
oas
s ma
maqu
qubj bja
a jhoe
jhoea,a, a va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj h è
honrblbotamabajhoea1passaatbrsuasnfjuoasprbbonehmas.Tbia
oa]acbja=.3a
oa]acbja=.3afrmblmbhosbrçîfmf
frmblmbhosbrçîfmfsmamfs.
smamfs.
]acbja=.3|Frmblmbhosbrçîfblulalatrhz3x>
1° 3° >°
=° 2° 4°
Talfsbsnrbvbrulprfgralaqubarlazboa4vajfrbsmhghtamfs
pbjf usuárhf bl ula latrhz. Nflf iá vhlfs fs vajfrbs sbrîf
arlazboamfsblsbquéonhaoasjhoeasbnfjuoas.Nflff prhotd()bstá bstá
mbotrfmfsmfhs dfr(),sbrîfhlprbssas4lbosagbospbmhomfqubf
usu
usuárh
árhf
fmhg
mhghtb
htb ulvajfr,b
ulvajfr,b nam
nama
aulsbráguarma
ulsbráguarmamfoa mfoasua
sua rbsp
rbspbnt
bnthva
hva
pfshçîfnfodfrlbhtbraçîf
pfshçîfnfod frlbhtbraçîfmasvarhávbhs
masvarhávbhs h-b-
-b-i.
3. vfhm
vfhm l
lah
aho(
aho(){
){
>. djfat l
latrhz
atrhz[3\[>\;
atrhz[3\[>\;
=. hot
hot h,i;
h,i;
2. dfr(h<0;h:2;h++){
4. dfr(i<0;i:2;i++){
7. prhotd("Mhghtbfvajfr[%m\[%m\9",h,i);
5. snaod("%d",&latrhz[h\[i\);
8. }
10. }
11. }
Asshlhjb
Par
Para
a ht
htbr
brar
ar sf
sfcr
crb
b fs
fs bj
bjbl
blbo
botf
tfs
s mb
mb ul
ula
a latr
latrhz
hz sî
sîf
f ob
obnbs
nbssá
sárh
rhas
as
muasbstruturasmbrbpbthçîfnflvarhávbjmbnfotrfjb,blNuthjhza-sb
muasbstruturasmbrbpbthçîfnflvarhávbjmb nfotrfjb,blNuthjhza-sb
f dfr.Fjaçf
.Fjaçfbxtbrofhránfotrfjara
.Fjaçfbxtbrofhránfotrfjarahtbraçîfsfcrb
htbraçîfsfcrbasjhoeas,b
asjhoeas,bf
fjaçf
f jaçf
hotbrofnfotrfjaráahtbraçîfsfcrbasnfjuoas.Nfosbqubotblbotb,a
hotbrofnfotrfjaráahtbraçîfsfcrb asnfjuoas.Nfosbqubotblbotb,a
frmblmbhosbrçîfblulalatrhzèd
frmblmbhosbrçîfblulal atrhzèdbhtamasbguhotb
bhtamasbguhotbdfrla9
dfrla9
• Hohnha-sb
Hohnha-sbpbja
pbjajhoea
pbjajhoea0,
jhoea0,nfjuoa
0,nfjuoa0.
nfjuoa0.
• Bl
Blsbguhma,
sbguhma,atravès
sbguhma, atravèsmf
atravès mf ‚dfr“ hotbrof,tfmasasnfjuoasmajhoea
0sîfprbbonehmas.
• Anacamas
Anacamasasnfjuo
asnfjuoasma
asnfjuoasmajhoea
asma jhoea0,f
jhoea0,fjaçfbx
0,fjaçfbxtbrofè
jaçfbxtbrofèhonrblbotamf
tbrofèhonrblbotamf
bajhoeapassaavajbr1.
• Bl
Blsbguhma,
sbguhma,tfmasa
sbguhma,tfmasasnfjuo
tfmasasnfjuoasma
snfjuoasmajhoea
asmajhoea1sîf
jhoea1sîfprbbonehmas.
1sîfprbbonehmas.
• B
Basshl
Prfcjblasuthjhzaomfduoçòbsnfllatrhzbs
Latrtrhz
hzbs
bs sîf alpja jalb
lbot
otb
b uth
thjhjhza
zammas para ra arlrlaazb
zboa
oar
r vajf jfrb
rbss
tb
tbl
lpfra rarh
rhaalbo
botb
tb a dh
dhl
l mb bdbdbt
btua
uar r mhv
hvbr
brssfs ná nájn
jnu
ujf
jfss. Rl
Rlaa mas
graomb
graombss apjh
apjhna
naçò
çòbs
bs mb
mb la
latr
trhz
hzbs
bs è oa oa nflp
nflput utaç
açîf
îf gr
grád
ádhn
hna,
a, pf
pfhs
hs
nama phxbj mb ula hlagbl è rbprbsbotama nfl ul vajfr oa
latrhz
latr hz.
. Fu
Futrtrf
f rbn
rbnur
ursf
sf la
latb
tblá
láththnf
nf lu luhthtf
f ut
uthjhjhz
hzam
amff pa
para
ra rbs
rbsfjfjvb
vbrr
prfcjblasblbogboearhaèamhagfoajhzaçîfmblatrhzbs.Atravès
mamhagfoajhzaçîfbonfotral-sbbjblbotfsnealamfsautfvajfrbs
bautfvbtfrbsqubsîfuthjhzamfspararbsfjvbrmhvbrsfsprfcjblas.
^bguomfNfjarbs(3011),flbnaohslfmbcusnamfGffgjbuthjhza
bssbrbnursfpararaoqubaraspághoasmbrbsujtamf.
Talfshlpjblbotarulprfgralausaomflatrhzqubsflafs
bjblbotfs
bjblbot fsma
ma mha
mhagf
gfoaj
oaj prh
prhonh
onhpa
paj.
j.Jbl
Jblcra
craomf
omf qu
qub
b a
ala
latrh
trhz
z prb
prbnhs
nhsaa
sbr qu
sbr quam
amra
rama
ma,
, fu
fu sb
sbia
ia,
, f où
oùlb
lbrf
rf mb
mb jhoe
jhoeas
as b nf
nfju
juoa
oas
s mb
mbvbvb sb
sbr
r f
lbslf.Tbiaoa]acbja=.>ulalatrhz>x>,oaquajfsbjblbotfs
mamhagfoajprhonhpajbstîfmbstanamfs.
]acbja=.>|Latrhz>x>nflmhagfoajprhonhpajmbstanama
]acbja=.>|Latrhz>x>nflmhagfoaj prhonhpajmbstanama
>0 30 -13
-1 100 8
->> 80 1
Asshlhjb
Atè f lf
Atè lflb lbot
otf,
f, bl
bl tfmf
tfmfs s fs
fs pr
prfg
fgra rala
lass qu
qub
b vf
vfné
né nrhf
nrhfu
u oîf
oîf
du
duon
onhf
hfoa
oava
va a anb
anbot
otua
uaçîfçîf mf
mf tb
tbnj
njam
amf.f. Na
Nasf
sf tb
tboe
oea
a us
usam
amf
f paj
pajav
avra
rass
nf
nfl
l anbo
anbotftf oa du
duoç
oçîfîf prhotd() f rb
rbsu
sujt
jtam
amf
f of prflpt nbrtalbotb
nbrtalbotb
oîfdfhfbspbramf.Parauthjhzarlfsanbotfsmbvblfsusaraduoçîf
sbtjfnajb(JNVAJJ,“Pfrtugubsb“) ;qubdazpartbmachcjhftbna:jfnajb.e?.
Talfsuthjhzaraduoçîfparaanbrtaraanbotuaçîfofprfgrala
maDhgura=.1>,qubsflafsbjblbotfsmamhagfoajprhonhpajmbula
latrhz2x2.]ajduoçîfbstásbomfusamajfgfapþsambnjara çîfmas
varhávbhsoaduoçîfprhonhpajoajhoea15.Masjhoeas>atè1=bstáa
duoçîfqubdazfprfnbssfmbvbrhdhnaçîfbsfla.Tbiaqubaduoçîf
duoçîfqubdazfprfnbssfmbvbrhdhnaçîfbs fla.Tbiaqubaduoçîf
rbtfroa vfhm,fusbia,dazsbuprfnbssfboîfrbtfroaoboeulvajfr
,fusbia,dazsbuprfnbssfboîfrbtfroaoboeulvajfr
   ,     
la
latrh
trhnha
nhaj.
j. Qua
Quaomfomf f bjb
bjblbo
lbotftf pbr
pbrtbo
tbonb
nb à mha
mhagf
gfoaj oaj prh
prhonhp
onhpajaj sbu
sbuss
ìomhnbsmbjhoeabnfjuoasîfhguahs,pfrhssfoajhoea5dazblfsbssa
ìomhnbsmbjhoeabnfjuoasîfhguahs,pfrhssfoajhoea 5dazblfsbssa
vbrhdhnaçîf.Nasfsbial
vbrhdhnaçî f.Nasfsbial hguahs,f
hguahs,fvajf
vajfrmbssapfshçî
rmbssapfshçîfè fèanul
anulujam ujamff
oavarhávbj‚sfla“.Mas
oavarhávbj‚sfl a“.Masjhoeas12atè34bstáa
jhoeas12atè34bstáaduoçî duoçîfprhonhp
fprhonhpajqubajqub
ar
arla
lazb zboa
oa fs
fs va
vajf
jfrb
rbs
s oa
oa va
varh
rháv
ávbj
bj ‚l
‚lat
atrh
rhz“
z“ b oa
oa jhjhoea
oea 32
32 è ut
uthjhjhz
hzam
amaa
aduoçîfauxhjharparasflaramhagfoajprhonhpaj,passaomfnflf
parãlbtrfalatrhz.
Dhgura=.1>|Prfgralaparasflarbjblbotfsmamhagfoajprhonhpaj
Dhgura=.1>|Prfgralapara sflarbjblbotfsmamhagfoajprhonhpaj
3. #honjumb:jfnajb.e?
>. vfhm^flarMhagfoaj(djfatvajfrbs[2\[2\){
=. djfa
djfatt sf
sfl
l
la<0;
a<0;
2. hot
hot h,
h,i;
i;
4. dfr(h<0;h:2;h++){
7. dfr(i<0;i:2;i++){
5. hd(h<<i){
8. sfla<sfla+vajfrbs[h\[i\;
10. }
11. }
13. }
1>. prhotd("Asflamamhagfoajprhonhpajè<%.3d",sfla);
1=. }
12. vf
vfhm
hm lah
aho(
o(){
){
18= 
R=-Apjhnaçòbsmbprfgralaçîf
14. djfat l
latrhz
atrhz[2\[2
atrhz[2\[2\;
\;
17. hot
hot h,i;
h,i;
15. sbtjfnajb(JNVAJJ,"Pfrtugubsb");
18. dfr(h<0;h:2;h++){
30. dfr(i<0;i:2;i++){
31. prhotd("Mhghtb
prhotd("Mhghtbfvajfr[%m\[%
fvajfr[%m\[%m\9
m\9",h,i);
",h,i);
3>. }
3=. }
32. ^flarMhagfoaj(latrhz);
34. }
Pbsquhsblahs
Paraulalbjefrnflprbbosîfbmflìohfmabstruturalatrhnhajjbha
fnapìtujf7sfcrblatrhzbsmfjhvrf9LAOYAOF,IfsèAugustfO.G.
JhoguagblN9anflpaoeamambulaxìnarambnadè.^îfPaujf9Èrhna,
3012.=50p.bfnapìtujf4mfjhvrf9LAOYAOF,IfsèAugustfO.G.
BstumfmhrhghmfmbjhoguagblN .^îfPaujf9Èrhna,301>.
Alcfs
Alcf s fs jhv
hvrf
rfs
s bs
bsttîf
îf mh
mhsp
spf
chcjhftbna-vhrtuaj.nfl?.Anbssfbl9
chcjhftbna-vhrtuaj.nf foìvb
oì32mbz.3017.
vbhs
hs oa
oa ch
l?.Anbssfbl932mbz.3017.
l?.Anbssfbl9 chcj
cjhf
hfttbn
bna
a vh
vhrt
rtua
uajj :et
:ettps9/
ps9///
Pa
Para
racè
cèos
os pfr tb
tbrr nf
nfon
onju
juìm
ìmf f la
lahs
hs ula
la hl
hlp
pfrta
rtaot
otb
b bt
btaapa mf
nalhoefparaanfostruçîfmbprfgralasnflputanhfoahs.]hvblfs
a fp
fpfr
frtu
tuoh
ohma
mamb
mb mb
mb vb
vbr
r obs
obssa
sa sb
sbçî
çîf
f a mb
mbdh
dhoh
ohçî
çîf,
f, na
nara
rant
ntbr
brìs
ìsth
thna
nas
s b
shotaxbmblatrhzbsoajhoguagblN,a jèlmaatrhcuhçîfmbvajfrbsb
htbraçîfsfcrbfsbjblbotfsmblatrhzbs.Pbrshstaofsbstum fsbbl
crbvbtbránfonjuìmftfmffjhvrf.
Apþstbrbstumamffusfmabstruturalatrhnhajoajhoguagbl
N, vf
N, vfné
né iá
iá tb
tbl
l nfnfom
omhç
hçòb
òbs
s mb
mb rbs
rbsfj
fjvb
vbr
r f prprfc
fcjbjbla
la mf
mf nfnfototrf
rfjb
jb
ma
ma tb
tblp
lpbr brat
atur
ura
a mf
mfs
s cr
craç
açfs
fs lb
lbnã nãoh
ohnf
nfs s ma
ma jhoea
jhoea mb
mb sfsfjm
jmag
agblbl
m b pbç a s aut fl ft h vas.  D fh  j e b passamf  ula p j ao h j e a n fl f
nþ
nþmh
mhgf
gf mf
mfs
s 10
10 cr
craç
açfs
fs lb
lbnã
nãoh ohnf
nfs
s ut
uthjhjhz
hzam
amfs
fs ob
obss
ssaa jhjhoe
oea,
a, na
nama
ma
nþmhgfèuthjhzamfparahmbothdhnarulaláquhoa.Paranulprhrf
mbsadhfvfnémbvbtbrbllîfsfsmamfsmapjaohjea .Ajèlmfnþmhgf,
vfnémbvbarlazboar>tblpbraturasparanamabquhpalbotfajèl
malèmha.
^hgafssbguhotbspassfs9
• Nrhb
Nrhb ul
ula
a lat
latrhz
rhz nfl10
nfl10jhoejhoeas
jhoeas b
b2nfjuoas.As
2nfjuoas.As nfjuo
nfjuoas
as vîf
arlazboar9nþmhgf,tblp1,tblp3,tblp>,lèmha.
• Guarmbfs
Guarmbfs10
10nþmhgfs
10 nþmhgfsoan
nþmhgfs oanfjuoa0
oan fjuoa0malatrhz.
fjuoa0 malatrhz.
• Prbbo
Prbbonenea
a as
as fu
futr
tras
as > nf
nfju
juoa
oas
s nf
nfll a tb
tblp
lpbr
brat
atur
ura
a mb
mb nama
láquhoa.
• Najnujba
Najnujbalèmha
lèmhab
lèmhab
bguarmaoa
guarmaoanfjuoa=
guarmaoanfjuoa=ma
nfjuoa=malatrhz.
malatrhz.
• Bxhcaoa
Bxhcaoatbjaa
tbjaalèmhamb
tbjaalèmhambnamaul
lèmhambnamaulmfs10
namaul mfs10craçfslbnãohnfs.
mfs10craçfslbnãohnfs.
OaDhgura=.1=prfpflfsulapfssìvbjsfjuçîfparabssbprfcjbla
usaomf>duoçòbsajèlmaprhonhpaj,mbssadfrlafnþmhgfdhnalahs
frgaohzamfbmbdánhjlaoutboçîf.]ajsfjuçîfusa varhávbhsgjfcahsb
jfnahs,nasfahomatboeamùvhma
jfnahs,nasfahomatboea mùvhmanfosujtbsbup
nfosujtbsbuprfdbssfr.
rfdbssfr.
Dhgura=.1=|Ajgfrhtlfparanajnujaralèmhama
Dhgura=.1=|Ajgfrhtlfparanajnujaralèmhamatblpbraturamfscraçfslbnãohnfs
najnujaralèmhamatblpbraturamfscraçfslbnãohnfs
>. djfat
djfat cra
cranf[
nf[10\
10\[2\
[2\;;
=. hot
hot h,
h,i;
i;
2. vfhmArlazboarNfmh
vfhm gf(){ //duoçîfpara guarmarfnþmh gfmfscraçfs
ArlazboarNfmhgf()
4. hot
hot nf
nfmh
mhgf
gf <1
<100
000;
0; //varhávbjjfnaj
7. dfr(h<0;h:10;h++){
5. nfmh
nfmhgf
gf <nf
<nfmh
mhgf
gf +1
+10;
0;
8. cranf[h\[0\<nfmhgf;
10. }
11. }
13. vfhmArlazboar]blpbraturas() {//duoçîfparaguarmarfsmblah
//duoçîfparaguarmarfsmblah smamfs
1>. //nealaomf a duoçîf paraatr
ArlazboarNfmhgf();//nealaomf
ArlazboarNfmhgf(); paraatrhh cuhrfsnþmhgfs.
1=. dfr(h<0;h:10;h++){
12. prhotd("Mhghtbas>tblpbraturasmfcraçf%.0d9Zo",cranf[h\[0\);
14. snaod("%d%d%d",&cranf[h\[1\,&cranf[h\
snaod("%d%d %d",&cranf[h\[1\,&cranf[h\[3\,&cranf[h\[>\);
[3\,&cranf[h\[>\);
17. cranf[h\[=\<(cranf[h\[1\+cranf[h\[3\+cranf[h\[>\)/>;
15. }
18. }
30. vfhmBxhchrMamfs(){ //duoçîfpara bxhch rfs
rfslèmhasnaj
lèmhasnaj nujamas
31. //nealaomf aduoçîfpara atrhcuh rvajfrbs
Arlazboar]blpbraturas();//nealaomf
Arlazboar]blpbraturas();

33. dfr(h<0;h:10;h++){
3>. prhotd("ZoLèmhamfcraçf%.0d9%.3d",cranf[h\[0\,cranf[h\[=\);
3=. }
32. }
34. vfhm
vfhm l
lah
aho(
aho(){
){
35. //nealaomf aduoçîfpara bxhch r
BxhchrMamfs();//nealaomf
BxhchrMamfs(); rfsmamfs
fsmamfs
38. }
Bssaoîfèaùohnadfrlambsfjunhfoarfprfcjblaprfpfstf,
nasf
nasf tboea
tboea hlp
hlpjbl
jblbot
botamf
amf mb fut
futra
ra dfr
dfrla,
la, þth
þthlf
lf tra
traca
cajef
jef!
! Na
Nasf
sf
ahomaoîftboeadbhtf,tbotbaprbsbotarulaofv
ahomaoîftboeadbhtf,tbotbaprbsbotarulaofvasfjuçîf.
asfjuçîf.
Najnujarfmbtbrlhoaotbmbulalatrhz3x3
P r f gr alas  p ar a b o g b o e ar h a s îf  h l p j b lb o t am f s  v h s ao m f
rbajhzarulasèrhbmbnájnujfs.Rlamasdfrlaslahsbdhnhbotbsmb
sbarlazboarmamfsparaprfnbssalbotfèadfrlalatrhnhaj.]aj
bstruturapbrlhtbulasèrhbmbfpbraçòbs,mbotrbbjasfnájnujf
mfmbtbrlhoaotb.Najnujarfmbtbrlhoaotbmbulalatrhzshgohdhna
traosdfrlarulalatrhzquamrama(L<O)bl
traosdfrlarulalatrhzquamram a(L<O)blbsnajar.]ajfpbraçîf
a(L<O)bl bsnajar.]ajfpbraçîf
pbrlht
pbrl htb
b sacbr
br sb a latr
trhz
hz pfssuh uh ho
hovvbr
brsa
sa fu oî
oîff, pfhs hs na
nassf f
mbtbrlhoaotbsbiazbrf,alatrhzoîfpfssuhhovbrsa.
shtuaçîf-prfcjbla
F mbtbrlhoaotb mb ula latrhz 3 x 3 è dbhtf pbja mhdbrboça
ma lujthpjhnaçîf mfs bjblbotfs ma mhagfoaj prhonhpaj pbja
lujthpjhnaç
lujthp jhnaçîfmfsbjblbotf
jhnaç îfmfsbjblbotfsmamhagfoajsbnuomá
îfmfsbjblbotf smamhagfoajsbnuomárha.Ahm
smamhagfoajsbnuomá rha.Ahmbot
rha.Ahm bothdh
bot hdh
hdhnaç
naçîf
naç îf
mfs bjblbotfs ma mhagfoaj prh onhpaj è dbhta vbrhdhnaomf sb
rho
f s ì o mh n bs ma j h o e a b m a n fj uo a sîf h guah s ( h  < <  i ) , i á par a
hmboth
hmbo thdh
dhna
nar
r fs bj
bjblblbo botf
tfss ma mha hag
gfoa
oajj sbn
bnu
uom
omár
árhaha vbr
brhd hdhn
hnaalfs
sbfìomhnbmajhoeaèhguajaflahfrìomhnbmbnfjuoaslbofs
f ìo
ìomhmhnb
nb ma
ma nf
nfju
juoaoa at
atua
uaj
j (h
(h <<
<< la
lahfhfrH
rHom
omhnhnbN
bNfj
fjuo
uoa a „ i)
i).. Tb
Tbia ia oa
Dhgura=.12asfjuçîfmfmbtbrlhoaot
Dhgura=.12asfjuçîfmf mbtbrlhoaotb.
mbtbrlhoaot b.
Dhgura=.12|Prfgralaparanajnujarmbtbrlhoaotb3x3
Dhgura=.12|Prfgralaparanaj nujarmbtbrlhoaotb3x3
>. vfhmNajnujarMbtbrlhoa
vfhmNajnujarMbtbrlhoaotb(djfatvajfr
otb(djfatvajfrbs[3\[3\)
bs[3\[3\){
bs[3\[3\){
=. hot
hot h,i;
h,i;
Tarhávbhsjfnahs
2. djfat
djfat mha
mhagPr
gPrhon
hon <1,
<1,mha
mhag^b
g^bn
n <
<1,
1,mbt
mbtbrl
brlhoa
hoaotb
otb;;
4. dfr(h<0;h:3;h++){
7. dfr(i<0;i:3;i++){
5. hd(h<<i){
8. mhagPr
mhagPrhon
hon <m
<mhag
hagPrh
Prhon
on *va
*vajfr
jfrbs[
bs[h\[
h\[i\;
i\;
10. }bjsb
}bjsb hd(h
hd(h<<
<<1-
1- i){
i){
11. mhag^b
mhag^bn
n <mh
<mhag^
ag^bn
bn *
*vaj
vajfrb
frbs[h
s[h\[i
\[i\;
\;
13. }
1>. }
1=. }
12. mbtbrl
mbtbrlhoa
hoaotb
otb<
<mha
mhagPr
gPrhon
hon - mha
mhag^b
g^bn;
n;
. "    . ",
17. }
15. vfhm
vfhm l
laho
aho()
aho(){{
18. djfat l
latrhz
atrhz[3\[
atrhz[3\[3\;
3\;
Tarhávbhsjfnahs
30. hot
hot h,i;
h,i;
33. dfr(h<0;h:3;h++){
3>. dfr(i<0;i:3;i++){
3=. prhotd("ZoMhghtbfbjblbotf[%m\[%m\9
prhotd("ZoMhghtbfbjblbotf[%m\[%m\9 ",h,i)
",h
",h,i);
,i);;
34. }
37. }
35. NajnujarMbtbrlhoaotb(latrhz);
38. }
1.Latrhzèulamasbstruturasqubbxhstbparaf arlazboalbotfmbmamfs
bèdfrlamaaparthrmbulvbtfr.Oavbrmamb,ajguosautfrbstratalfvbtfr
bèdfrlamaaparthrmbul vbtfr.Oavbrmamb,ajguosautfrbstratalfvbtfr
nflfulnasfparthnujarmbulalatrhz(LAOYAOF,301>).ûauthjhzaçîf
èvastambvhmfàdanhjhmambbljbrbbsnrbvbrmamfsbàvbjfnhmambnflqub
asfpbraçòbssîfrbajhzamas.
Aoajhsbasassbrçòbsasbguhrbarbjaçîfprf
Aoajhsbasassbrçòbsasbguhrbarbjaçîfprfpfstabotrbbjas.
pfstabotrbbjas.
H„Latrh
H „Latrhz
zè
èul
ulabstrut
abstrutura
ura mbmamfs
mbmamfs uth
uthjhz
jhzama
ama par
paraarlaz
aarlazboa
boarrmam
mamfsbl
fsbl
dfrl
df rla
a mb ta
tacb
cbja
ja,
, fu
fu sbia
sbia,
, mhstr
mhstrhc
hcuì
uìmf
mfs
s bl
bl jh
jhoe
oeas
as b nf
nfju
juoa
oas,
s, b ul
ula
a ma
mass
narantbrìsthnasmbssabstruturambmamfsè
narantbrìsthnasmbssabstrutura mbmamfsèsbrmhoãlhna
sbrmhoãlhna..
PFSQRB
HH
HH „ A napanhmamb ma latrh
trhz prbnhsa
sa sbr hodf
dfrrlama of lflbotf ma
mbnjaraçîfmavarhávbj,sbomfobnbssárhfhodfrlarmfhsvajfrbs,ulpara
rbprbsbotarfìomhnbmajhoeabfutrfpara rbprbsbotarfìomhnbmanfjuoa.
a)AsassbrçòbsHbHHsîfprfpfshçòbsvbrmambhras,baHHèulaiusthdhnathva
nfrrbtamaH.
c)AsassbrçòbsHbHHsîfprfpfshçòbsvbrmambhras,lasaHHoîfèula
iusthdhnathvanfrrbtamaH.
n)AassbrçîfHèulaprfpfshçîfvbrmambhra,baHHèulaprfpfshçîfdajsa.
m)AassbrçîfHèulaprfpfshçîfdajsa,baHHèula
m)AassbrçîfHèula prfpfshçîfdajsa,baHHèulaprfpfshçîfvbrmambhra.
prfpfshçîfdajsa,baHHèula prfpfshçîfvbrmambhra.
b)AsassbrçòbsHbHHsîfprfpfshçòbsdajsas.
3. Quaomfuthjhza-sbulasfjuçîfnfllatrhzbsèprbnhsftbrnjarbza
      .      
nfjuoahohnhal-sbblzbrf,pfrtaotfaprhlbhrapfshçîfasbrfnupama
èjhoea0„nfjuoa0.
Nfos
Nfoshmbrbfprfgral
hmbrbfprfgralaacahxf
aacahxfb
bbsnfj
bsnfjeaafpçîf
eaafpçîfqubnfotèlfqubsbrá
qubnfotèlfqubsbrá
hlprbssfoajhoea11.
3. vfhm
vfhmllaho
aho(){
aho(){
>. djfatt l
djfa latrhz
atrhz[3\[
atrhz[3\[3\;
3\;
=. hott h,
ho h,i,
i,rb
rbsu
sujt
jtam
amf
f <0;
< 0;
2. dfr(h<0;h:3;h++){
4. dfr(i<0;i:3;i++){
7. latrhz[h\[i\
latrhz[h
[h\[
\[i\
i\ <h
<h+i;
+i;
5. rbsujtamf<rbsujtamf+latrhz
rbsujtamf<rbsujtamf+latrhz[h\[i\;
[h\[i\;
8. }
10. }
11. prhotd("ZoSbsujtamf<%m",rbsujtamf
prhotd("ZoSbsujtamf <%m",rbsujtamf);
);
13. }
n)Sbsujtamf<3
m)Sbsujtamf<>
b)Sbsujtamf<=
>. Ofmbsbovf
Ofmbsbovfjvhlbo
jvhlbotfmb
tfmbula
ula sfjuçîfqubuthjhzalatrhz
sfjuçîfqubuthjhzalatrhz,ofrlajl
,ofrlajlbotb
botb
sîf
sîf uthj
uthjhz
hzam
amas
as muas
muas bstr
bstrut
utur
uras
as mb
mb rbpbt
rbpbthç
hçîf
îf,
, pfhs
pfhs a prhlb
prhlbhr
hra
a bstru
bstrutu
tura
ra è
uthjhzamaparanfotrfjarfìomhnbmasjhoeasbasbguomabstruturaèuthjhzama
uthjhzamaparanfotrfjarfìomhnbmasjhoeasba sbguomabstruturaèuthjhzama
paranfotrfjarfìomhnbmasnfjuoas.
Nfoshmbraomfa
Nfoshmbraomfalatrhzmama,bsnfje
latrhzmama,bsnfjeaaajtbroathvaqubnf
aaajtbroathvaqubnfotèlfqubsbrá
otèlfqubsbrá
hlprbssfoajhoea1=.
100 10 30
-1 =0 >0
22 -32 10
>. vfhm
vfhm laho
laho(){
aho(){
=. djfat l
latrhz
atrhz[>\[>
atrhz[>\[>\;
\;
2. hot h,i,
hot h,i,rb
rbsu
sujt
jtam
amf
f <
<0;
0;
7. dfr(h<0;h:>;h++){
5. dfr(i<0;i:>;i++){
8. hd(h
hd(h<<3-
<<3- i){
i){
10. rbsujtamf<rbsujtamf+latrhz[h\[i\;
11. }
13. }
1>. }
1=. prhotd("ZoSbsujtamf<%m",rbsujtamf
prhotd("ZoSbsujtamf <%m",rbsujtamf);
);
12. }
n)Sbsujtamf<1>0
m)Sbsujtamf<48
b)Sbsujtamf<112
^bçîf=.>
Sbnurshvhmamb
Mhájfgfacbrtf
Narfbstumaotb,cbl-vhomfàùjthlasbçîfmfjhv
Narfbstumaotb,cbl-vhomfàù jthlasbçîfmfjhvrfmbajgfrhtlfs
rfmbajgfrhtlfsb
b
jþghnambprfgralaçîf.Luhtashodfrla
jþghnambprfgralaçîf.Luhtashodfrlaçòbsqubnf
çòbsqubnfotrhcublnfls
otrhcublnflsuaua
dfrlaçîfdfralaprbsbotamasafjfogfmfjhvrf.Obssauohmamb,prhlbhrf
dfrlaçîfdfralaprbsbotamasafjfogfmf jhvrf.Obssauohmamb,prhlbhrf

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Ajgfrhtlfs

1.Ajgfrhtlfs.3 .Prfgralaçîf.H.Ar tbrf,Lar

Agfra nebgfu f lflbotf mb nfoebnbr as mbdhohçòbs b

A C A (‚B“) C A (‚FR“) C OÎF A OÎF C

Tbrmamb Dajsf Dajsf Tbrmamb Dajsf Tbrmamb

Dajsf Tbrmamb Dajsf Tbrmamb Tbrmamb Dajsf

Dajsf Dajsf Dajsf Dajsf Tbrmamb Tbrmamb

A C A (‚B“) C A (‚FR“) C OÎF A OÎF C

(a:c+n) (c:a+n) (n:a+c)

(a?|c-n|) (c?|a-n|) (n?|a-c|)

]fl è ul gatf B ]fl naça ratfs

A ∧C C < 0 C < 1 A ∥C C < 0 C < 1

^bguomf ^hjva (3004), oa mbdhohçîf mb dþrluja, f usf mb

^bguomf ^zwarndhtbr b Larkbozfo (188=), ajgfrhtlfs sîf

Mb anfrmf nfl bssb lfmbjf, as botramas mfs ajgfrhtlfs

„ ^uctraçîf 10 „ 5, ofta „ bxtra

* Lujthpjhnaçîf 2 *2, ofta *=

/ Mhvhsîf 100/2, vajfr1/vajfr3

ram(x) Samhnhaçîf ram(32)<rahzquamramamb 32  ( )

lfm Sbstf m a m hvhsîf 10 l

>ª *, /, mhv b lfm

Tbrmamb Dajsf Dajsf Tbrmamb Dajsf Tbrmamb

Dajsf Tbrmamb Dajsf Tbrmamb Tbrmamb Dajsf

Dajsf Dajsf Dajsf Dajsf Tbrmamb Tbrmamb

? Lahfr 7?2, x?y 

?< Lahfr fu hgu aj x?<y

:< Lbofr fu hgu aj x:<y

^ìlcfjf ^hgohdhnamf Mbsnrhçîf

^ìlcfjf ^hgohdhnamf Mbsnrhçîf

• Tbrhdhnar sb as hostruçòbs dazbl sbothmf b sb tél ula

Luhtf cbl, agfra è nfl vfné! ]bo

sb (∄m?0b( ∄t<<>0fu ∄ t<<40)) botîf

Blcfra bxhsta f djuxfgrala para rbprbsbotar a bstrutura

tbstb T nflaomfs Honrblbotaa

m) para(njhbotb mb 1 atè 100 passf 1)daça

1°-Jhoea 0 ,Nfjuoa 0 3°-Jhoea 0 ,Nfjuoa 1 >°-Jhoea 0 ,Nfjuoa 3

Para rbajhzar f prbbonehlbotf mb mamfs bl ula latrhz,

3. DhneaVLaoutbonaf < rbghstrf

Para botbombr brl

Narf(a) bstumaotb9 dfh mbshgoamf a vfné mbsbovfjvbr ul

17. para (nahxa

10. para (mha daça

10. mhaAtuaj Ö mhaAtuaj +1

EAJJHMAX, Mavhm; SB^OHNK, Sfcbrt. Duomalbotfs mb Dìshna. Shf

crbak bjsb jfog swhtne

nasb boul rbghstbr typbmbd

near bxtbro rbturo uohfo

nfost djfat sefrt uoshgobm

mbdaujt gftf shzbfd vfjathjb

]hpf mb mamf hotbhrf Dahxa mb acraogéonha ]alaoef

uoshgobm hot / uoshgobm jfog hot mb 0 a =.383.847.382 >3 chts

mfucjb mb -1.7>05a1.7>05 4=chts

jfog mfucjb mb -> .==8>3a1.1 =8>3 84chts

near / shgobm near mb -1 35 a 13

uoshgobm ne ar mb 0atè 32 2 5 chts

?< Lahfr fu hguaj

:< Lbofr fu hguaj

%n Pbrlhtb a bsnrhta mb apboas ul narantbrb.

%m Pbrlhtb dazbr a jbhtura mb oùlbrfs hotbhrfs mbnhlahs.

%b Sbajhza-sb a bsnrhta mb oùlbrfs bl oftaçîf nhbotìdhna.

%d È dbhta a bsnrhta mb oùlbrfs rbahs (pfotf djutuaotb).

%f Pbrlhtb qub oùlbrfs fntahs sbia

* Lujthpjhnaçîf 2 2, ofta =