MID TERM SOSIOLINGUISTICS

CHOOSING A CODE

By :
1. Afriyani (112020002)
2. Ervina Selviyana (112020006)

Lecture :

Ratna Nery, S.Pd., M.Pd

ENGLISH EDUCATION PROGRAM

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHING
ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF OKI (UNISKI)
KAYUAGUNG
2023
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The writer extends special thanks to the God for the blessing and grace for the writer, so he can finish
this paper on time. Thanks to Madam Ratna Nery, S.Pd., M.Pd. as a lecturer in sociolinguistics courses
who always helps his students and provides a lot of useful knowledge.

This is one of the Mid Term exam assignments in the Sociolinguistics course. It is composed of the
explanation of the diglossia, bilingualism and multilingualism, code choice, code mixing, and code
switching. This is not a perfect model so the writer expects the critic and suggestion in order to make it
better.

Hopefully this article can be used as a reference for learning about choosing a code.

kayuagung,
November15th,2023

The Writer

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

Acknowledgement..............................................................................................................ii

Table of the Content..........................................................................................................iii

Chapter I Introduction ....................................................................................................1

1.1 Background .......................................................................................................1

1.2 Problem of Formulation.....................................................................................1

1.3 Purpose of writing the Paper.............................................................................2

Chapter II Discussion .......................................................................................................3

2.1 Diglossia ............................................................................. 3

2.2 Bilingualism ................................................................................................5

2.3 Multilingualism ................................................................................................8

2.4 Code Choice ................................................................................................9

2.5 Code Switching ................................................................................................12

2.6 Code Mixing ................................................................................................14

2.7 Types of Code- switching and Code- mixing................................................................16

Chapter III Closing .........................................................................................................18

A. Conclusion .......................................................................................................18

References...........................................................................................................................

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 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural
norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and the effects of language use on
society. Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the
effect of the society on the language, while the sociology of language focuses on language's effect on
the society. Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics. It is historically closely
related to linguistic anthropology and the distinction between the two fields has even been questioned
recently. It also studies how language varieties differ between groups separated by certain social
variables, e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc., and how creation and
adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social or socioeconomic classes. As the
usage of a language varies from place to place, language usage also varies among social classes, and it is
these sociolects that sociolinguistics studies.

In this discussion we will discuss about the variety of a language as a “code”. This term is useful because
it is neutral because it doesn’t arouse emotions. Moreover, this code can be used to refer to any kind of
system that two or more people used for communication. It can be used as a private code to protect
certain secret. The code here means the way of expressing something through a language using certain
dialect, style, register or variety of a language. We will look at the phenomena of code choice, code
switching, and code mixing. We will choose bilingual and multilingual situations because they can give us
with fairly clear cases. so in this paper the author more describes about code choice, diagglosia,
billingualism and multilingualism, code choice, code switching and code mixing.

1.2 Problem Formulation

1. What is meant by diglossia?

2. What is meant by bilingualism and multilingualism?
3. What is meant by code choice?
4. What is meant by code switching?

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 5. What is meant by code mixing?

1.3 Purpose of Writing the Paper

1. To know what is meant by diglossia.

2. To know what is meant by bilingualism and multilingualism.

3. To know what is meant by code choice

4. To know what is meant by code mixing.

5. To know what is meant by code switching.

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 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
2.1 Diglossia

Issues regarding bilingual would seem closely with the development of the Indonesian language. This is
because the Indonesian people use more than one language, the language of their mother (the local
language) and the Indonesian language as the national language. The use of local language is also called
the use of the first language, while the use of Indonesian is also known as a second language use. The
use of such language is referred to as diglossia (Aslinda, et al., 2007:26). The word comes from the
French “diglossie”, which was used by Marcais, a French linguist but the term has become popular in the
study of linguistics was used by scholars from Stanford University, the CA Ferguson in 1958 in a
symposium on "Urbanization and standard languages" organized by the American Anthropological
Association in Washington DC.

Diglossia is relatively stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the
language (which may include a standards or regional standard), there is a very divergent, highly codified
(often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of
written literature,. Either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely
by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any
sector of the community for ordinary conversation.

Diglossia has three crucial features:

1. Two distinct varieties of the same language are used in the community, with one regarded as a
high (or H) variety and the other a low (or L) variety.
2. Each variety is used for quite distinct functions; H and L complement each other.
3. No one uses the H variety in everyday conversation.

A key defining characteristic of diglossia is that the two varieties are kept quite apart in their functions.
One is used one set of circumstance s and the other in an entirely different set. For example, the H
varieties may be used for delivering sermons and formal lectures, especially in a parliament or legislative
body, for giving political speech, for broadcasting the news on radio and television, etc. in contrast, L

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varieties may be used in giving instructions to workers in low prestige occupations or to household
servants, in conversation with familiars, in popular programs on the radio and in folk literature.

Diglossia was described by Ferguson to summon the nine topics, namely the function, prestige, literary
heritage, acquisition, standardization, stability, grammar, lexicon, and phonology.

Function: diglossia is a very important criterion. According to Ferguson in diglosis society there
are two variations of the language: first language variation called high dialect (dialect abbreviated
H or H range) and the second is a low dialect (dialect abbreviated L or range L). Functional
distribution of dialects H L means that there are situations where only H dialect suitable for use,
and in others only the L dialect that can be used. The function of H only on official or formal
situations, while the L function only on an informal and relaxed situations.
Prestige: In a society diglosis speakers usually considered more prestigious dialect H, more
superior, more respected, and is a logical language. While L is considered inferior dialect, instead
there is a deny its existence.
Literary heritage: In three of the four languages used Ferguson as an example there is literature in
a variety of H used and respected by the community language. If there are also works of
contemporary literature by using a variety of H, then it is perceived as a continuation of that
tradition, the literary work should be in the range of H. Literary tradition that is always in the
range of H is causing foreign literature it became public.
Acquisition: Variations of H obtained by learning in formal education, while regarded L obtained
from the association with family and peers. Therefore, those who have never entered the world of
formal education will not know the range of H at all. Those who study the range of H is almost
never hang smoothly, surfing mastery of various L.
Standardization: Since the range of H is seen as a prestigious variety, it is not surprising that the
range of H standardization done through formal codification. Dictionaries, grammar,
pronunciation guide, and books for the use of the correct rules written for a variety of H. In
contrast, the range of L was never taken care of and addressed.
Stability: Stability in the long-running diglosis usually where there is a variation of a language that
maintained its presence in the community. Discrepancy or difference between the range and
variety of H L in the diglosis always highlighted because of the development in mixed forms have
characteristics H range and variety of L.

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 Grammar: Ferguson argued that the range of H and L in the range of diglossia are forms of the
same language support, but in grammatical apparently there is a difference.
Lexicon: Most of the vocabulary in the range of H and L are the same variety. however, there is a
vocabulary in the range of H is not no mate the range of L, or vice versa, there is a vocabulary in
the range of L that there is no partner on the range of H.
Phonology: In the field of phonology there are structural differences between the various kinds of
H and L. This difference could be too much close. Ferguson stated range sound system and a
variety of L H is actually a single variety, but phonological H is a basic system, while diverse
phonological L-variety, a subsystem or parasystem.

In the situation of diglossia we will find the diglossia levels in several regional languages in Indonesia
such as Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, etc. which hasa name. In Sundanese people are known “undak
usuk basa” which there are grammatical rules governing low-level language diversity and high diversity
of languages such as basa cohag (coarse variety), basa loma (range for others), basa sedeng (medium
range or middle), basa lemes (fine variety). In Java there are ngoko language (the lowest level), krama
(middle), krama inggil (high level). Both have a standard size of each and recognized by the wearer.

The Relation between Bilingualism and Diglossia

Diglossia is defined as a function of differences in the use of language (especially the function of H and L)
and bilingualism is a state of the use of two languages interchangeably in the community, Fishman
(1977) describes the relationship diglossia and bilingualism were as shown in the chart.

There are four types of relationships between Bilingualism and diglossia;

1. Bilingualism and Diglossia

2. Bilingualism without diglossia
3. Diglossia without bilingualism
4. No bilingualism and no diglossia

2.2 Bilingualism

The term bilingualism (Indonesian: Kedwibahasaan), mean two languages are commonly used and
understood in day-to-day use in that society. First, their own mother tongue or first language, and the
second are another language.

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Finally, bilingualism start from dominate the first language (as mother tongue) and know a little about
second language, and then can dominate the second language and make the second language as well as
with the first language in communication.

According to Bloomfield (1933:56), “Bilingualism is speaker’ ability use two languages as well as.” So, it
mean that a person called bilingual if the speaker use the first language and the second language as well
as.

Example:

Anahina is a bilingual Tongan New Zealander living in Auckland. At home with her family she uses
Tongan almost exclusively for a wide range of topics. She often talks to her grandmother about Tongan
customs, for instance. With her mother she exchanges gossip about Tongan friends and relatives. Tongan
is the language the family uses at mealtimes. They discuss what they have been doing, plan family
outings, and share information about Tongan social events. It is only with her older sisters that she uses
some English words when they are talking about school or doing their homework.

Certain social factors ¾ who you are talking to, the social context of the talk, the function and topic of
the discussion ¾ turn out to be important in accounting for language choice in many different kinds of
speech community.

Bilingualism is defined as the use of two languages by the speakers in the interaction with other people,
Mackey (in Chaer and Agustina 2004:84). Additionally, according to Meckey there are four aspects to
facilitate discussions about bilingual, is as follows:

Level of Ability
The language ability will appear on the four skills, namely listening, reading, speaking, and
writing.

Function
Proficiency level depending on the function or use of the language. It can be said that the more
often the language used, the level depending of speakers. The factors that influence the internal
and external factors.

Internal factors include:

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1. Internal usage such as counting, estimation, praying, cursing, a dream, a diary, and record
2. Aptitude: talent or intelligence, and is influenced by: 1. Sex 2. Age 3. Intelligence 4. Memory
5. Attitude discuss 6. Motivation.

Influenced by external factors:

1. Contacts, means speaker’s contact with their language at home, language in society,
language at schools, language in mass media, and correspondence.

2. Variable means of speaker’ contact is determined by: 1. Length of exposure, 2. frequent

contacts, 3. Pressure, meaning that influence speakers in the field of language usage, such
as the economic, administrative, cultural, political, military, historical, religious, and
demographic.

Substitution between languages (alternation)

Substitution between language fluency and also depends on the external and internal functions.
Conditions speakers switch languages invented by at least three things: topic of conversation,
people involved, and tension.

Interference

Interference is an error that caused entrainment habits of speech or language into the language
of maternal dialect. Interference bias occurs in pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and
meaning even culture. Description interference with such individual, so it is idiosyncratic and
parole speakers.

In addition, according to Alwasilah added two other aspects, namely:

 Shifting language (Language shift)

When a new group comes to other places and mingled with the local group then it will
pass the language shift (language shift).
 Convergence (convergence)
 Convergence is met activities and mainly move towards unity and uniformity.

Bilingualism in Indonesia, namely:

1. Local language and Indonesian language

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 Bilingualism in Indonesia (Local language and Indonesian language). Use bilingualism, this can
happen because:

a. When Sumpah Pemuda on 1928 using the Indonesian language (at the time called
Maleis) associated with the struggle for independence and nationalism.
b. Language - the language of the area has a natural addition to coaching and development
of the language and culture of Indonesia.
c. A mixed marriage between tribes
d. Transfer of population from one region to another due to urbanization, internal
migration, mutation of the employee or employees, and so on.
e. Interaction between ethnic groups: that in trade, socializing and business office or
school.
f. Many motivation is driven by the interests of the profession and the interests of life.

2.3 Multilingualism

Multilingualism is a society that has several languages. Such communities occur because some ethnic
communities that helped shape an ethnically plural society can be regarded as (plural society).
(Sumarsono and Paina Partana, 2002: 76).

The development of monolingual language became bilingual and multilingual eventually be caused by
many factors. The development of communication technology, globalization, rapid education cause
needs of the community led to a shift of the language as well as the progress of time indirectly confound
between languages.

Multilingualism refers to the depiction of a speaker who controls more than two languages , three
languages, or four, even five languages. Its use similar to bilingualism, mean that know when and where
the language is used.

Example:

The Javanese, even they can speak Java language (as mother tongue), as well as can speak Indonesian as
second language, and English as third language, even some who can speak Japanese, Dutch, and so on.

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In the history of the formation multi-language, a language that we look at - least there are four patterns
is through migration, colonization, federation and various language at border region.

(a) Migration

Migration or displacement society which have problematic nature of language can be divided into 2
types. The first type is a large group of the population to expand to other areas already inhabited by
other groups. The second type occurs when a small number of ethnic members into areas already under
national control.

(b) Colonization

In the process of colonial control was held by a relatively few number of people from the region of the
new controller nationality.

(c) Federation

Federation is the union of different ethnic or nationality under the political control of the country.

(d) The Various Language in the Border Region

In the border region sometimes the society become citizen A, but as socio cultural become citizen B.
Complications border regions usually associated with war. Vanquished people forced to give up some of
its territory to the win.

2.4 Code Choice

The code we choose to use on a particular occasion is likely to indicate how we wish to be viewed by
others. If we can comfortably control a number of codes, then we would seem to have an advantage
over those who lack such control. Speaking several of the languages can obviously be distinctly
advantageous in a multilingual gathering. Code-switching may be a very useful social skill. The converse
of this, of course is that we will be judged by the code we choose to employ on a particular occasion.

Example 1

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Kalala is 16 years od. He lives inBukavu, an African city in eastern Zaire with a population of about
220,000. It is a multicultural, multilingual city with more people coming and going for work and
businessreasons than people who live there permanently. Over forty groups speaking different language
can be found in the city. Kalala , like many of his friends is an employed. He spends his days roaming the
streets, stopping off periodically at regular meeting places in the market place, in the park, or at a
friend’s place. Dueing a normal day he uses at least three different varieties or codes, and sometimes
more.

Kalala speaks an informal style of shi, his tribal language, at home with his family, and he is familiar with
the formal shi used for wesddings and funerals. He uses informal shi in the market-place when he deals
with vendors from his own ethnic group. When he wants to communicate with people from a different
tribal group, he uses the lingua franca of the area,Swahili. He learned standard zairean Swahili at school
but the local market-place variety is title different. It has its own distinct linguistic features and even its
own name-Kingwana. He uses kingwana to younger children and adults he meets in the streets, as well
as to people in the market-place.

Standard Zalrean Swahilli, one of the national languages in bukavu for most official transactions.
Despite the fact that French is the official language of Zaire, Kalala uses standard Zairean Swahili with
officials in government offices when he has to fill in a form or pay a bill. He uses it when he tries for a job
in a shop or an office, but there are very few jobs around. He spends most of his time with his friends,
and with them he uses a special variety or code called indoubil.

Domains of Language Use

Example 2

Anahina is a bilingual Tongan New Zealander living in Auckland. At home with her family she uses
Tongan almost exclusively for a wide range of topics. She often talks to her grandmother about tongan
costums for instance. With her mother she exchanges gossip about tongan friends and relatives. Tongan
is the language the family uses at meal times. They discuss what have been doing, plan family outings
and share information about tongan special events. It is only with her older sisters that she uses some
English words when they are talking about school or doing their homework.

Certain social factors-who you are talking to, the social context of the talk, the functionand topic of the
discussion-turn out to be important in accounting for language choice in many different kinds of speech
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community it has proved very useful, particularly when describing code choice in large speech
communities, to look at typical interactions which involve these factors. We can imagine, for instance a
typical family interaction. It would be located in the setting of the home; the typical participants will
obviously be family members; and typical topics would be family activities Anahina’s family’s meal-time
conversation described in example 2, illustrated this pattern well. A number of such typical interactions
have been identified as relevant in describing pattern of code choice in many speech communities. They
are known as domains of language use, a term popularized by an American sociolinguist, Joshua
Fishman a domain involves typical interactions between typical participants in typical settings.

Modelling Variety or Code Choice

Example 3

Maria is teenager whose Portuguese parents came to London in the 1960s. she uses mainly Portuguese
at home and to older at the Portuguese chatholic church and community centre, but English the
appropriate variety or code for her to use at school. She uses mostly English at her after school job
serving in a local café, though occasionally order costumers greet her in Portuguese.

Domain is clearly a very general concept which draw on three important social factors in code choice-
participants setting and topic. It is useful for capturing broad generalisations about any speech
community. Using information about the domain of use in a community it is possible to draw a very
simple model summarizing the norms of language use for community. This is often particularly useful for
bilingual and multilingual speech communities.

The information provided in example 4, for instance, identifies four domains and describes the variety or
code appropriate to each.

Domain Variety/code
Home/family Portuguese
Church/religion Portuguese
Work/employment English
School/education English

Other Social Factors affecting Code Choice

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Though I have used domains as useful summaries of relevant social factors in the model provided above,
it is often necessary to examine more specific social factors if a model is to be a useful description of
code choice in a community. The components of a domain do not always fit with each other. They are
not always congruent. In other words within any domain individual interactions may not be typical in the
sense in which typical is used in the domain concept. They may nevertheless, be perfectly normal. And
occur regularly, this is illustrated by Oi Lin Tan’s use of Singapore English to her sisters as described in
example 5. People may select particular variety or codes because it makes it easier to discuss a
particular topic, regardless of where they are speaking. At home people often discuss work or school, for
instance using the language associated with those domains rather than the language of the family
domain. Some describe this as “leakage”, suggesting it is in some way irregular-the code associated with
one domain is leaking into another. In fact it is quite normal and very common. Particular topics may
regularly be discussed in one code rather than another, regardless of the setting or addresses.

The dimensions introduced in chapter 1 illustrate this point nicely. Any or all of them may be relevant in
accounting for the choice of the variety or code in particular situation. When both participants share
more than one variety , then other factors will contribute to the appropriate choice. The social distance
dimensions is relevant, for instance. How well do they know each other Le what is the social distance
between the participants? Are they strangers, friends, brothers? Kalala, for example, would use a
different code to each.

2.5 Code switching

The term code switching (or code-switching) refers to the alternation between two or more languages,
dialects, or language registers in the course of discourse between people who have more than one
language in common. Typically one of the two languages is dominant; the major language is often called
the matrix language, while the minor language is the embedded language.

 (Code-switching) "occurs when a bilingual introduces a completely unassimilated word from

another language into his speech." (Haugen 1956:40)
 "Code switching ... is the selection by bilinguals or multilinguals of forms from an embedded
variety (or varieties) in utterances of a matrix variety during the same conversation" (Myers-
Scotton 1993:3).

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As we know that people know two languages are the first language(mother tongue) and the second
language. So from this case sometimes people combine these languages in their communication. So in
this problem they have used code switching.

There are some experts have given definition about code switching. Some of them are

 Appel ( 1976 : 76) code switching” the changing of the using language because of tthe changing
of situation”
 Hymes (1875: 103)state that code switching is not happen between language but also can
happen between variety or styles in the any language. On generally Hymes state that “Code
switching has become a common term for alternate us of two or more language, varieties of
language, or even speech styles”

Studies of the social motivations for code-switching, such as those discussed above, have demonstrated
the following :

 Bilingual code switching is meaningful. it fulfils certain function of an interaction

 A speaker choice of language has to to do with maintaining or negotiating a certain type of
social identity in relation to other; code switching between language allow speaker access to
different social identities.
 Particular switches may be meaningful
 Code switching may switching maybe unmarked, or expected choice, or a marked or unexpected
choice: in this manner it may function as an attempt to initiate a change to relationships.
 Code switching is useful in cases of uncertainty about relationship; it allows speaker to feel their
way and negotiate identities in relation to other.

Example :

(The Maori is in italics. THE TRANSLATION IS IN A SMALL CAPITALS)

Sarah : I think everyone’s here except Mere.
John : she said she might be abit late but actually I think that’s her arriving now.
Sarah : you’re right. Kia ora Mere. Haere mai, Kei tepehen koe?
[HI MERE, COME IN. HOW ARE YOU?]

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 Mere : Kia ora e hoa. Kei te pai. Have you started yet?
[HELLO MY FRIEND. I’M FINE]
People sometimes switch code within a domain or social situation. When there is some obvious change
in the situation, such as the arrival of a new person, it is easy to explain the switch. When the local
English-speaking priest called, however, everyone awitched to English. In both cases the switch reflects a
change in the social situation and takes positive account of the presence of a new participant.

2.6 Code Mixing

Code mixing also called intra-sentential code switching or intra-sentential code-alternation occurs when
speakers use two or more languages below clause level within one social situation. Muysken (2000)
defines three types of code mixing: insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalization. In his view,
insertion occurs when lexical items from one language are incorporated into another. The notion of
insertion, according to Muysken (2000), corresponds to what Clyne (1991) terms as “transference” and
Myer-Scotton as “embedding”.

Equating in this instance code of language, there are two kinds of code-switching: situational and
metaphorical. Situational code-switching occurs when the languages used change according to the
situations in which the conversant find themselves: they speak one language in one situation and
another in a different one. No topic change is involved. When a change of topic requires a change in the
language used we have metaphorical code-switching. In this point, some topics may be discussed in
either code, but the choice of code adds a distinct flavor to what is said about the topic. The choice
encodes certain social values. Code-switching is often quite subconscious: people may not be aware that
they have switched or be able to report following a conversation which code they used for a particular
topic. Code-mixing occurs when conversant use both languages together to the extent that they change
from one language to the other in the course of a single utterance.

Metaphorical code-switching has an affective dimension to it: you change the code as you redefine the
situation – formal to informal, official to personal, serious to humorous, and politeness to solidarity.

Example of code switching English/Spanish

A: The picture looks so cool.

B: Which picture?
A: The one you have in your messenger.
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 B: Ah…Si, me gusto mucho. (Ah…Yes, I liked it a lot.)
Conversational code-mixing involves the deliberate mixing of the language without an associated topic
change. Pfaff (1979) provides the following examples of conversational code-mixing among Spanish and
English bilinguals:

 No van a bring it up in the meeting

‘They are not going to bring it up in the meeting’

 Todos los Mexicanos were riled up.

‘All the Mexicans were riled up’

Example of code-mixing in English/Indonesian

 I mean, ganti ke kalimat laen.

 ‘I mean, change it to another sentence’

Such conversational code-mixing is often used by bilinguals, primarily as a solidarity marker. A speaker
who mixes codes in this way in conversation with a friend or acquaintance will almost certainly shift
entirely to English when addressing a monolingual English-speaking person or entirely to Spanish when
addressing a complete stranger who is obviously of Spanish origin.

Conversational code-mixing is not just a haphazard mixing of two languages brought about by laziness or
ignorance or some combination of these. Rather, it requires conversant to have a sophisticated
knowledge of both languages and to be acutely aware of community norms. These norms require that
both languages be used in this way so that conversant can show their familiarity or solidarity.

Gumperz’s analysis of both choice of language and type of code-switching and code-mixing in the
community reveals that the situation is quite complex because of the number of possibilities that are
available with the ‘right’ choice highly depend on the social context and intend of the speaker like which
occurs in Slovenian. Gumperz add that “each communicating subgroup tends to establish its own
conventions with respect to both borrowing and code-switching, and that factors such as region of
origin, local residence, social class, and occupational niche are involved in defining the norms.

15
Many other investigators have report results which clearly indicate the listeners partly judge what is said
by the code the speaker choose to use. Certain codes are deemed more appropriate for certain
messages than other codes. Code and message are inseparable. Consequently, when a choice between
code exist, you must exercise that choice with great care since it can affect what happen to the message
you wish to communicate.

The code we choose to use on a particular occasion is likely to indicate how we wish to be viewed by
others. If we can comfortably control a number of codes, then we would seem to have an advantage
over those who lack such control. Speaking several of the languages can obviously be distinctly
advantageous in a multilingual gathering. Code-switching may be a very useful social skill. The converse
of this, of course is that we will be judged by the code we choose to employ on a particular occasion.

Some form of mixed code,

1. insertion of the word, for example, “Ok. Kalian ujian minggu depan.”
2. Insertion of phrase, for example, “ Ini namanya reading skill.
3. insertion of word repetition, for example, “ada banyak souvenir-souvenir dari Cina”
4. insertion of idioms, for example, “makanya jadi orang itu don’t judge book by the
cover”
5. insertion shape baster (native and foreign joint formation). for example, “saya
menunggu transferan uang dari orang tua saya.”

2.7 Types of Code- switching and Code- mixing

There are many kinds of code-switching. Code-switching can be either intersentential, intrasentential or
Tag- switching. In intersentential code-switching, the language switch is done at sentence boundaries.
This is seen most often between fluent bilingual speakers. Sometimes I will start a sentence in English y
terminό in español. (Poplack 1980) In intrasentential code-switching, the shift is done in the middle of a
sentence, with no interruptions, hesitations, or pauses indicating a shift. It often happens within one
sentence or even a one phrase. The speaker is usually unaware of the switch, until after the fact, and for
example, you have to find a kalo pedi (good guy) and marry him. (English-Greek)

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The first type of language switching is known as mechanical switching. It occurs unconsciously, and fills
in unknown or unavailable terms in one language. This type of code-switching is also known as code-
mixing. Code-mixing occurs when a speaker is momentarily unable to remember a term, but is able to
recall it in a different language.

Another type of code switching, known as code-changing, is characterized by fluent intrasentential

shifts, transferring focus from one language to another. It is motivated by situational and stylistic
factors, and the conscious nature of the switch between two languages is emphasized (Lipski, 1985, p.
12).

The third type of code- switching is Tag- switching. This involves the insertion of a tag in one language
into an utterance that is otherwise entirely in the other language. We can see example, so he asked me
for money, znas #, I had to say no, znas #. The tag here is Serbian for ‘you know’.

Code-mixing is one of the major kinds of language choice which is subtler than ‘codeswitching’, as stated
by Fasold (1984). In code- mixed sentences, pieces of the one language are used while a speaker is
basically using another language.

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chapter III CLOSING

CONCLUSION

Although most of the world's population can speak only one language, a sizeable minority is able to
communicate in two or more. Of the world's 750 million speakers of English, for example, only 300
million use it as their first or native tongue. The remaining 450 million speak it as a second or third
language. Whenever speakers of two or more languages come together, a decision has to be made
about which of these languages is to be used. It may be thought that the factors affecting choice of
language are few and simple, but such is not the case. Often no satisfactory explanation can be given as
to why speakers make the choices they do.

Sociolinguists have long been fascinated by the phenomenon of bilingualism and the complex language
switching patterns that often accompany it. Many bilingual speakers are able to switch from language to
language with ease, sometimes in mid-sentence. Attempts to define such patterns have not, however,
met with much success. Research reports on the subject are cluttered with such obscure terms as
'diglossia', 'domain', 'code-switching' and 'ethnolinguistic vitality', but reduced to the level of a layman's
understanding, the less than original conclusion would seem to be that choice of language is dictated
primarily by the milieu in which the speaker finds himself.

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19
 Reference

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