PIDGINS AND CREOLES

This paper is submitted as a fulfillment for Sociolinguistics group assessment

Lecturer: Prof. H. Nurhaedah Gailea, M. Hum

Compiled by:
Group 2
Nety Ariyani 7777230015
Rani Kholidaziya 7777230005

MAGISTER OF ENGLISH EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHING TRAINING AND EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF SULTANG AGENG TIRTAYASA
2024
 PREFACE

All praise to Allah, the Lord of the World, who has shown mercy, blessing, and
strength to the authors in order to complete this paper. Peace and salutation be upon
the prophet Muhammad, his family, companions, and followers. Also, the authors
sincerely deliver so much gratitude to our lecturer, Prof. H. Nurhaedah Gailea, M.
Hum, for her guidance, knowledge, motivation, and inspiration for the authors in
conducting this paper with the title “Pidgins and Creoles”.
In this paper, the authors would like to discuss about sociolinguistics,
especially about Pidgins and Creoles. The topics that the authors would discuss
regarding the title are; the definition, distribution, characteristics, and the origin of
lingua franca, Pidgins, and also Creoles. The authors hope that this paper will be
beneficial for the readers and can be implemented in further class activities.
The authors recognized that this paper was not completely perfect. As a
result, the authors would appreciate any comments, suggestions, or constructive
criticism from readers who read this paper in order to improve future papers.

Serang, March 8th 2024

The Authors

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE ........................................................................................................... ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................... iii
CHAPTER I ........................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background of the Study ....................................................................... 1
1.2. Formulation of the Study ....................................................................... 1
1.3. The Objectives of the Study ................................................................... 2
CHAPTER II ....................................................................................................... 3
LITERATURE REVIEW AND DISCUSSION .................................................... 3
2.1. Lingua Franca ........................................................................................ 3
2.1.1. Definition of lingua franca .............................................................. 3
2.1.2. Distribution of lingua franca ........................................................... 3
2.1.3. Characteristics of lingua franca ....................................................... 5
2.1.4. The origin of lingua franca.............................................................. 6
2.2. Pidgin .................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1. Definition of pidgin ........................................................................ 7
2.2.2. Distribution of pidgin ..................................................................... 7
2.2.3. Characteristics of pidgin ................................................................. 9
2.2.4. The origin of pidgin ...................................................................... 13
2.3. Creoles ................................................................................................ 15
2.3.1. Definition of creoles ..................................................................... 15
2.3.2. Distribution of creoles .................................................................. 16
2.3.3. Characteristics of creoles .............................................................. 18
2.3.4. The origin of creoles ..................................................................... 22
CHAPTER III .................................................................................................... 25
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION ............................................................... 25
3.1. Conclusion........................................................................................... 25
3.2. Suggestion ........................................................................................... 26
REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 27

iii
 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

Numerous languages all over the world can change in a brief amount
of time. It was brought about by conversations in languages among people
from the same society. Pidgin gets its start when individuals speak various
mother tongues in the same location and utilize the language; when this pidgin
becomes widely used, it becomes Creole. Prior to the 1930s, scientists
classified pidgin and Creole as "marginal languages," and mostly ignored
them. However, linguists have recently focused a lot of emphasis on Pidgin
and Creole, which is particularly advantageous for learners who want to
understand Pidgin and Creole in depth.
Additionally, according to Syarfuni (2011), Pidgin and Creoles
originate from the fundamental need for people who speak different
languages to find a common means of communication. This paper discusses
pidgin and creole definitions, including their distribution, linguistic
characteristics, the origin, theories surrounding them, and other topics. All of
these explanations are crucial for readers who wish to understand pidgin and
creole in depth.

1.2. Formulation of the Study

According to the background of the study, the authors want to discuss the
formulation of this paper to:
1. What is the definition of lingua franca?
2. What is the distribution of lingua franca?
3. What are the characteristics of lingua franca?
4. What is the origin of lingua franca?
5. What is the definition of Pidgin?
6. What is the distribution of Pidgin?
7. What are the characteristics of Pidgin?

1
 8. What is the origin of Pidgin?
9. What is the definition of Creoles?
10. What is the distribution of Creoles?
11. What are the characteristics of Creoles?
12. What is the origin of Creoles?

1.3. The Objectives of the Study

According to the formulation of the study, the authors want to described the
objectives of this paper to:
1. Knowing what is the definition of lingua franca?
2. Knowing what is the distribution of lingua franca?
3. Identify what are the characteristics of lingua franca?
4. Explain what is the origin of lingua franca?
5. Knowing what is the definition of Pidgin?
6. Knowing what is the distribution of Pidgin?
7. Identify what are the characteristics of Pidgin?
8. Explain what is the origin of Pidgin?
9. Knowing what is the definition of Creoles?
10. Knowing what is the distribution of Creoles?
11. Identify what are the characteristics of Creoles?
12. Explain what is the origin of Creoles?

2
 CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW AND DISCUSSION

2.1. Lingua Franca

2.1.1. Definition of lingua franca
A lingua franca, as described by Wardhaugh (2010), is a language
utilized by individuals with different native languages to facilitate
communication, arising from factors like population migration, trade,
or social interaction. It can manifest in various forms such as trade
languages, contact languages, international languages, or mixed
languages blending elements from different linguistic sources.
Historically, languages like Greek koiné, Vulgar Latin, Arabic,
Mandarin, Hindi, and Swahili have served as lingua francas in
different regions and eras. Today, English is widely recognized as a
lingua franca across various global contexts. The term "Lingua
Franca," as articulated by Nolan (2020), refers to a language
facilitating effective communication among speakers of diverse native
languages, stemming from Italian origins where "lingua" signifies
"language" and "franca" connotes "free" or "unrestricted." Lingua
francas historically emerge due to trade, migration, colonization, or
cultural interactions, characterized by simplified grammar and
vocabulary, promoting understanding among linguistically diverse
populations

2.1.2. Distribution of lingua franca

According to (Wardhaugh, 2015) the distributions of lingua
franca can be summarized as follows:

a. Historical Examples:

Throughout history, various languages have served as lingua

francas in different regions. For instance, Greek koiné and Vulgar

3
 Latin were widespread in the Mediterranean world and Europe.
Sabir, originating in the Middle Ages, was a lingua franca of the
Mediterranean and beyond. In different parts of the world, Arabic,
Mandarin, Hindi, and Swahili have served as lingua francas, with
Arabic particularly associated with the spread of Islam.

b. Contemporary Usage:

Today, English is widely used as a lingua franca in various

contexts such as travel, business, technology, and international
relations. It is used by speakers with different language
backgrounds, including those for whom it is a native language, a
second language, or a foreign language. Similarly, Hindi is the
official language in India, but English is widely used as a lingua
franca in diverse ways.

c. Regional Lingua Francas:

Kiswahili (Swahili) serves as a lingua franca in East Africa, both

on the coast and inland. It is spoken as a native language primarily
on the coast but has spread inland and is used in education,
politics, and public venues across Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda,
Rwanda, and Burundi.

d. Historical Extinct Lingua Francas:

Chinook Jargon was extensively used as a lingua franca among
native peoples in coastal Northwest America during the nineteenth
century. Despite its peak usage during that time, it is virtually
extinct today. However, some words from Chinook Jargon have
been incorporated into English, reflecting its historical legacy.
e. Migration and Trade:
Lingua francas often develop in contexts of population migration
or increased trade, where individuals with different linguistic
backgrounds need to communicate effectively. They emerge to

4
 facilitate communication among diverse language communities,
contributing to cultural exchange and interaction.

2.1.3. Characteristics of Lingua Franca

According to Wardhaugh (2010), there are some characteristics of lingua
franca:

a. Take Various Forms

Lingua francas can take various forms, including trade languages

(e.g., Hausa or Swahili), contact languages (e.g., Greek koiné in the
Ancient World), international languages (e.g., English), and
auxiliary languages (e.g., Esperanto or Basic English). They often
develop as a result of population migration or for trade purposes.

b. Languages

Some lingua francas are mixed languages, such as Michif, which

combines Cree grammar with French vocabulary. These languages
may emerge to express a new ethnic identity, combining elements
from different cultural backgrounds.

c. Variation in Usage

Lingua francas can be spoken in different ways by individuals with

varying levels of proficiency. For example, English serves as a
lingua franca for some speakers as a native language, for others as
a second language, and for some as a foreign language. Similarly,
Swahili may be spoken differently in coastal regions compared to
inland areas.

d. Simplification and Variation

Lingua francas may undergo simplification in structure and

function as they spread to different regions or populations. This
simplification can lead to the emergence of pidginized forms of the

5
 language, as seen in the case of Zaïre Pidgin Swahili, which
developed from simplified versions of Swahili used in rural areas.

2.1.4. The Origin of Lingua Franca

The origin Lingua Franca was a stabilized pidgin, or a contact language that
evolved on its own in order to overcome linguistic barriers. It had a simple
grammar and a vocabulary limited to expressing the concepts that were
necessary for the participants' communication goals, which were frequently
merchants (Arends et al., 1995). It was spoken throughout the Mediterranean
between at least the 14th (perhaps earlier) and the 19th century AD,
particularly on the southern and possibly eastern land. It never evolved into
a creole, or pidgin, which is now the mother tongue of monolingual people
who expand its use to include all forms of social communication. Because
of this, Lingua Franca swiftly disappeared once national languages,
particularly French, displaced it in its respective usage domains.

One of the languages that Jonathan Swift's fictional traveler Lemuel Gulliver
speaks is Lingua Franca (Gulliver's travels into numerous remote nations of
the world [1726], pt. I, ch. II):

"... and I spoke to them in as many languages as I had the least smattering
of, which were High and Low Dutch, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and
Lingua Franca, but all to no purpose..." .

Based on these statements, it is known that the Lingua Franca is mostly

Italian with a vocabulary influenced by Spanish, Arabic, and Greek, all of
which are bound together by a basic morphology that lacks productive
morphological word construction, word class difference, and agreement.
However, it is unknown when exactly Lingua Franca first appeared, as well
as the origin of its name. Röll (1967) attributes the origins of Lingua Franca
to the interaction between Greek population groups and Italian sailors in the
eastern Mediterranean following the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204), with a
subsequent westward expansion. This is due to the language's Italian
foundation and general association with the mediaeval nautical empires of
Venice and Genoa.

6
 After the Middle Ages, as national languages gained popularity, Lingua
Franca became less and less common until the end of the 19th century,
particularly after the French conquered the piracy bastion of Algiers in 1830.
It has left small trace, probably with the exception of a few Italianisms in
Arabic and Greek (which, however, might have originated directly from
Italian).

2.2. Pidgin
2.2.1. Definition of pidgin
According to Holm (1988), Whinnom (1971), pidgin is a
language that emerges from extended contact between groups of
people who do not share a common language. It develops when
communication is necessary, often for trade or other forms of
interaction, but none of the groups learns the native language of the
other for social reasons, such as lack of trust or close contact.

Nordstrom, G. (2015) stated that pidgin is often considered a

marginalized language because it is spoken predominantly by
minority communities and is not officially recognized. However, it
also serves as an Indigenous linguistic resource due to its adaptation
and evolution through cultural perseverance. Pidgin reflects the
complex history and cultural diversity.

2.2.2. Distribution of Pidgin

According Wardhaugh (2010), Pidgin distributed to some places
through some ways, they are:
a. Equatorial belt around the world, particularly in regions with
direct or easy access to oceans.
Pidgin and creole languages are primarily distributed in the,
particularly in regions with direct or easy access to oceans
equatorial belt around the world. They are commonly found in the
Caribbean, the north and east coasts of South America, the coasts

7
 of Africa (especially the west coast), and across the Indian and
Pacific Oceans. These languages are less common in extreme
northern and southern areas of the world and in the interiors of
continents. Their distribution appears to be closely related to long-
standing patterns of trade, including historical trade in slaves.
b. Specific Area
Examples of pidgin and creole languages in more specific area
including Hawaiian Creole, Gullah or Sea IslHawaiian Creole,
Gullah or Sea Islands Creole, Jamaican Creole, Guyana Creole,
Krio, Sranan, Djuka, Cameroon Pidgin English, Tok Pisin,
Chinese Pidgin English, Louisiana Creole, Haitian Creole,
Seychelles Creole, Mauritian Creole, Papiamentu, Guiné Creole,
Senegal Creole, Saramaccan, Cocoliche, US Virgin Islands Dutch
Creole, Afrikaans, Asmara Pidgin, Yiddish, Russenorsk, Chinook
Jargon, Sango, various pidginized forms of Swahili, Bazaar
Malay, and various Arabic-based pidgins.
c. Caribbean Area
The Caribbean area is highlighted as particularly interesting
linguistically due to the diverse varieties of languages found there.
Some countries or areas have exclusively Spanish-speaking
populations with no surviving pidgins or creoles, while others
have only English-based or French-based creoles. Some areas
have both English-based and French-based creoles, and others
have Portuguese-based creoles. The official language in each case
may differ from the creole spoken.
d. Suriname
Suriname, located on the northeast coast of South America, is
singled out as particularly intriguing linguistically. Despite Dutch
being the official language, two English-based creoles, Sranan and
Djuka, are spoken there. Sranan, spoken in coastal areas, is
described as a "conservative" English creole, while Djuka, spoken

8
 inland, is descended from a pidginized variety of English used by
runaway slaves. Additionally, Saramaccan is mentioned as a creole
found in inland Suriname, with debated origins as either
Portuguese-based or English-based.

2.2.3. Characteristics of pidgin

Imagine yourself traveling and encountering an individual who speaks
a language that is entirely unfamiliar to you. How can I engage in a
conversation? Introducing pidgins, the trendy languages! These
languages are efficient communication tools developed by individuals
from diverse backgrounds who require a common means of
communication. Wardhaugh (2010) outlines certain properties of
pidgin as listed below:
A. Simple Structure:
Jesse, M. (2001) stated that Pidgin is a simplified yet fully
developed language with economic and social significance in
West Africa. One of the characteristic is syntactical preservation,
or simplified grammar. Pidgins have a simpler grammatical
structure compared to conventional languages, typically lacking
characteristics such as articles, copulas, and grammatical
inflections. In essence, Pidgins have a relaxed grammar. Disregard
intricate verb conjugations or complicated sentence formations.
Communication is about effectively conveying a message, such as
employing the same word for "go" in both present and future
tenses, as shown in Nigerian Pidgin English. Straightforward,
correct?
Tok Pisin, spoken in Papua New Guinea, is an example of a pidgin
language characterized by a reduced structure and a restricted
vocabulary. Tok Pisin does not have grammatical elements such
as articles and copulas. Its lexicon is a combination of English,
German, and indigenous languages.

9
 Tok Pisin pidgins lack inflection in nouns, pronouns, verbs, and
adjectives.
Example:
"me" refers to either I or me.
A total elimination of inflection (no variations/no unnecessary
elements)
Example:
One book becomes two books, he bakes changes to he cooked, big
transforms into bigger
‘’I no tu had’’ for It’s not too hard.
''I find it somewhat challenging'' for ''It is not too difficult.''
B. Lack of extensive vocabulary:
Pidgins and creoles have limited vocabularies and adapt through
various strategies such as polysemy-based extensions and
contextual inflection, according to Cokely, D. (2013).
Pidgins have limited vocabularies, however they are effective in
communication. Consider them as a trip phrasebook that
emphasizes crucial topics such as food, water, and possibly
directions. People from other regions can easily comprehend each
other by using a hybrid language like Tok Pisin in Papua New
Guinea, which combines English and a local language by using
"manmeri" for "people."
Juba Arabic, a pidgin language with a restricted vocabulary, is
spoken in South Sudan. Juba Arabic has a limited vocabulary
focused on trade and interlingual communication, with additional
words borrowed from native languages or standard Arabic. This
language demonstrates the typical feature of restricted vocabulary
often seen in pidgins.
C. Phonological and Morphological Simplification
According to Shapiro, R. (2010), pidgins typically have less
complex phonological systems and grammatical categories than

10
 their lexifier languages, but can exhibit complexity influenced by
the languages they derive from.
Pidgins typically exhibit less complex phonological patterns
compared to their parent languages. Consonant clusters may be
simplified, and syllable structure tends to be open (ending in
vowels). This phonological pattern improves clarity and
pronunciation for speakers with diverse native languages.Chinook
Jargon in North America simplifies consonant clusters by
substituting "str" with "tl," for example, "watɬa" for "water."
Pidgins may display phonetic variations from their source
languages, leading to a lack of mutual intelligibility. Haitian
Creole is mostly derived from French vocabulary but has unique
phonology and syntax that vary greatly from normal French.
Pidgins develop a distinct way of speaking by incorporating words
from many languages and simplifying sounds and syllables for
easy pronunciation. Consider it akin to an accent — though it may
be spoken differently, the message remains comprehensible.
Haitian Creole is an example of a pidgin language that exhibits
phonetic diversity. Haitian Creole is mostly derived from French
vocabulary but has unique phonology and syntax that set it apart
from conventional French. This language exhibits phonological
diversity, a frequent trait in pidgins and creoles.
Phonological and morphological simplification
Example:
from 'sip' change to 'sipsip'
''Talk'' is transformed into ''talktalk''.
''look'' is changed to ''looklook''
'Cry' becoming 'crycry' signifies the act of persisting in crying.

D. Utilizing elements from many sources and combining them.

11
Pidgins are akin to innovative cooks, incorporating elements
(words and syntax) from several languages, particularly the
predominant one in the vicinity. Hawaiian Pidgin English
predominantly incorporates English vocabulary while retaining
certain Hawaiian grammatical patterns. Effective communication
is the key focus!
Pidgins develop when groups lacking a shared language interact
over a period of time. They evolve as a form of communication,
particularly for trade, when neither group learns the native
language of the other due to social factors such as lack of trust or
intimate interaction.
West African Pidgin English is an instance of a pidgin language
that developed via interactions between communities lacking a
shared language. This pidgin emerged from the commercial
exchanges and communication between European merchants and
West African inhabitants along the coastline. West African Pidgin
English's development illustrates how pidgins form through
prolonged interaction between communities lacking a common
language. According to Wardhaugh (2010), here are example of
pidgin as a lack common language:
Example:
In Tok Pisin, hair is ‘’gras bilong hed’’
Pis for ‘’peace’’
Pispis ‘’uninate’’
San ‘’sun’’
Sansan ‘’sand’’
Beard ‘’ gras bilong fes’’
Moustache ‘’gras bilong maus’’
Ka bilong me for ‘’my car’’
In Tok Pisin ‘’bagarap’’ signifies break down is coming from
English ‘’bugger up’’

12
 ‘’buttock’’ from English ‘’but also’’
E. Isolating Morphology:
Pidgins often exhibit isolating morphology, meaning words
function as separate units without alterations to transmit
grammatical information. This reduces the need for complex
inflectional systems, making communication more easy.
Example:
According to Smiley, M. (1928) Sranan Tongo (Suriname)
employs separate words for "he," "she," and "it" (e.g., "si," "si,"
"a") instead of a single word with different endings.
F. Born from Need:
These studies suggest that pidgins and creoles develop when
people from different language groups need to interact,
particularly for activities like trade or travel. Pidgins pop up when
people from different language groups need to interact, like for
trade or travel. They're not made for long conversations, but
they're a terrific way to break the ice and get things moving, like
West African Pidgin English, which originated between European
traders and indigenous people.
Pidgins are not built from scratch. They borrow vocabulary and
grammatical elements from various languages, typically the
dominant one in the context of their emergence. Hawaiian Pidgin
English borrows heavily from English vocabulary but retains
some Hawaiian sentence structures.
Smith, W. (1933) furthermore stated that pidgin English in Hawaii
developed as a medium of communication among polyglot people,
combining English, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, and Portugese
dialects into one language.
2.2.4. The Origin of Pidgin
Imagine a world where people from completely different corners,
speaking different tongues, need to find a way to connect. Enter

13
pidgins, the language mash-ups that emerged from these historical
encounters! Their story is one of adaptation, ingenuity, and a dash of
trade. The origin of pidgin, according to Wardhaugh, 2006 are:
A. The Trade Routes of Talk:
Thomason, S., & Elgibali, A. (1986) suggested that pidgin
languages developed in different regions, including northern
Africa and coastal China, often associated with trade routes and
cultural interactions.
One theory suggests that many European-based pidgins trace
their roots back to a medieval Mediterranean language called
Sabir. Think of it as the ancient "lingua franca," a common
tongue used for trade and communication. Then, the Portuguese
came along, spicing things up by adding their own words to
Sabir's grammar. This mix-and-match approach led to the birth
of Portuguese-based pidgins, handy tools for traders across the
seas.
B. Simplifying Language to Connect:
Here's the thing: when different language groups need to find a
way to talk, things can get complicated. So, pidgins come in as
linguistic peacemakers. They simplify the dominant language,
stripping away complex grammar and sentence structures. It's
like creating a basic communication bridge that everyone can
understand, regardless of their native tongue.
C. From Slave Ships to Coastal Crabs:
Pidgins weren't born in a vacuum. They popped up in various
historical settings, like slave societies where diverse languages
clashed, or coastal regions where trade thrived but a common
language lacked. Take West African Pidgin Portuguese, for
example. It emerged in the context of the slave trade, offering a
way for people from different backgrounds to communicate.

14
 This pidgin then became the foundation for many other pidgins
and creoles that sprouted across the Atlantic.
2.3. Creoles
There are four aspects of creoles that we want to discuss, they are the
definition, the distributions, characteristics and its origin.
2.3.1. Definition of Creoles
Ansaldo, U. (2017) mentioned that creoles are sociolinguisticcally
complex language ecologies, with complex multilingual
competencies and a different perspective on simplification in Creole
genesis.
Creoles are also defined as languages that have developed from
pidgins and become the first language of a new generation of speakers.
They arise when pidgins evolve into mother tongues, expanding in
structure and vocabulary to serve as complete languages. Creoles are
considered "normal" languages in almost every sense, with complex
grammatical systems and extensive vocabularies comparable to
standard languages.
Creoles can exist in various forms, sometimes blurring the distinction
between pidgins and creoles. For instance, languages like Tok Pisin
and Nigerian Pidgin English may function as both pidgins and creoles,
with speakers using them as second languages in expanded forms and
as first languages in certain contexts. These expanded varieties, often
found in urban environments with diverse language contact, are
sometimes referred to as extended pidgins.
Creoles can also undergo further development and standardization,
potentially becoming standard languages themselves. Examples of
creoles that have evolved into standard languages include Afrikaans,
Swahili, Bahasa Indonesia, and Maltese. In some cases, creole
continua, as seen in regions like Jamaica and Guyana, present unique
social and educational challenges for speakers due to the varying

15
 status and perceptions of different creole varieties within the
community.
2.3.2. Distribution of Creoles
Imagine a world map dotted with vibrant colors, each representing a
special kind of language called a creole. These languages aren't found
just anywhere, though. They tend to cluster around the equator,
especially near the coasts, like a necklace of unique communication
styles. But why are they there? Buckle up, because their presence tells
a captivating story of history, trade, and human connection.
A. Following the Trade Winds:
Think of the Caribbean islands swaying to the rhythm of reggae,
the bustling markets of South America, or the diverse
communities along the African coast. These regions are brimming
with creole languages. Why? Because they sprouted along
historical trade routes, just like the paths used during the slave
trade. People from various backgrounds needed to talk, and so,
new ways of communication emerged, blending elements from
different languages. For example, in Haitian Creole, a French-
based creole, you might hear someone say "Mwen pa konnen"
(mwen pah koh-neh) which means "I don't know," even though
French uses "Je ne sais pas" (juh nuh say pah).
B. Numbers of Creoles:
Another researcher, Smith, took it a step further, listing over 350
pidgins and creoles, showcasing the incredible variety of these
languages. In Louisiana Creole, an English-based creole, you
might hear someone say "Lafayette" (lah-fay-et) instead of
"downtown," reflecting the influence of French in Linguists like
detectives have been busy documenting the world's pidgins
(simplified communication systems) and creoles (full-fledged
languages born from pidgins). It's like creating a giant family tree
of languages! One researcher, Hancock, found over 120, with

16
 about 35 of them having English as an ancestor the region's
history. Dubois, S., & Horvath, B. (2003) concluded that the
English spoken by Creole African Americans in southern
Louisiana reveals language change in the shift from French to
English and the persistence of local forms of English.
C. From Contact to Creole:
Imagine two people trying to talk, but neither understands the
other's language. This is where contact languages come in, like
West African Pidgin Portuguese, used during the slave trade on
the West African Coast. This language, a mix of Portuguese and
African elements, served as the foundation for many creoles that
later developed across the Atlantic Ocean. This is what the A
frogenesis hypothesis talks about - how these early "contact
languages" played a crucial role in shaping the unique features of
creoles.
Yakpo, K. (2017) stated that the Afrogenesis hypothesis posits that
the early contact languages spoken by African slaves in the
Caribbean played a crucial role in shaping the unique features of
Creole languages in the region. These contact languages were a
blend of various African languages, European lexifiers (primarily
English, French, and Portuguese), and indigenous languages of the
Americas.
D. Echoes of History:
Marshall, M. (1997) mentioned that Louisiana Creole French
(LC) is a unique language derived from plantocratic society and
African slaves, with roots in preposed particles, postposed
determiners, and unique sociolinguistic features.
Creole languages are like living museums, holding traces of the
past within their words and structures. For example, French-based
creoles are spoken in places like St. Lucia, even though English is
the official language. This reflects the island's colonial history.

17
 Similarly, the island of Hispaniola is home to both Spanish and
Haitian Creole (a French-based creole). This linguistic diversity is
a reminder of the complex interactions and historical events that
have shaped the world.
The distribution of creole languages isn't accidental. It's a
captivating story woven by history, trade, and human interaction.
They are a testament to the ingenuity of people in overcoming
language barriers and forging connections. So, the next time you
encounter a creole language, remember the fascinating journey it
took to get there, a testament to the enduring power of language to
connect and evolve.
2.3.3. Characteristics of Creoles
Here's a breakdown of the key characteristics of creole languages:
A. Significant Evolution:
Unlike pidgins, which are simplified forms of communication
arising from interactions between speakers of different languages,
creoles represent a significant evolution. Creoles emerge as the
primary language for a new generation of speakers, evolving into
fully developed languages in their own right.
According to Suraiya, S. (2020) Pidgins and creoles are born from
the unique circumstances and needs of their communities,
reflecting a blend of linguistic features from multiple languages.
This linguistic amalgamation marks the genesis of a novel means
of expression, often heralded as the birth of a distinct language.
Through the fusion of vocabulary, grammar, and cultural
influences, pidgins and creoles serve as testament to the
adaptability and creativity of human communication. They
transcend their humble origins to become vibrant and dynamic
linguistic entities, enriching the tapestry of human language with
their unique contributions.
Example:

18
 West African Pidgin English served as a communication tool for
diverse groups in trade. However, Haitian Creole, which emerged
from this pidgin, is now the native language for millions of people
in Haiti.
B. Not Broken Language:
Although creoles often have simpler grammatical structures
compared to standard languages, they are not "broken" according
to Brylawski, T. (1977). They exhibit complex grammatical
systems of their own, just with unique features.
Example:
While English uses "He does not speak French," Haitian Creole
uses a simpler structure: "Li pa pale franse" (li pah pah-lay frahn-
seh), where "li" means "he/she" and "pa pale" translates to "not
speak."
C. Borrowing and Transforming:
Creole languages are characterized by their distinctive vocabulary,
which is a rich amalgamation of various linguistic sources. These
sources include the lexifier language, typically a dominant
colonial language, as well as the languages spoken by the
communities that gave rise to the creole. Alongside this diverse
vocabulary, creoles develop their own unique phonological,
syntactic, and morphological structures.
In the Caribbean, for example, creole languages such as Jamaican
Creole and West-Indian Creole exhibit a fascinating interplay of
linguistic influences. They borrow phonological and syntactic
elements from indigenous Carib languages, including dialects
from the Lesser Antilles. Furthermore, their lexicons are enriched
by the incorporation of idiomatic expressions from native Indian
languages.
Example:

19
 An illustrative example is found in Jamaican Creole, which
reflects the influence of English and West African languages. The
word "yuh" serves as a prime instance of lexical borrowing,
meaning "you" akin to its English counterpart, yet pronounced
with a distinct phonetic rendering ("yu"). Additionally, the term
"pickney" for "child" underscores the transformative nature of
creole languages, likely derived from a West African word and
adapted to fit the linguistic landscape of Jamaican Creole.
This borrowing and transformation of linguistic elements
exemplify the dynamic evolution of creole languages, showcasing
their ability to adapt, innovate, and ultimately thrive as vibrant
expressions of cultural identity and heritage.
D. The Potential for Greatness:
Spears, A., Winford, D., & Linguistics, C. (1997) mentioned that
some creoles, like Afrikaans and Swahili, have gone on to become
standardized languages.

Example: Afrikaans, originally a Dutch-based creole, is now a

recognized language spoken in South Africa with its own grammar
and vocabulary.
E. A Continuum of Linguistic Influence:
Creole languages often navigate a nuanced relationship with their
lexifier languages, existing along a continuum of linguistic
influence, Yakpo, K. (2017). Despite this continuum, creoles can
maintain a distinct identity and may even be mutually
unintelligible with their source languages. Afro-Caribbean
Creoles, with English as their lexifier language, exemplify this
complexity, showcasing diverse typological characteristics and
intricate connections to their linguistic roots.
Take, for instance, the case of Haitian Creole and French. While
these languages share some vocabulary due to historical ties, their

20
 grammatical structures and pronunciation diverge significantly.
This contrast renders them mutually unintelligible, highlighting
the extent of creole language evolution and its distinctiveness from
its lexifier language.
In Afro-Caribbean English-lexifier Creoles, this balancing act
between linguistic continuity and divergence is evident. Despite
drawing vocabulary from English, these creoles often feature
unique syntactic patterns, morphological constructions, and
phonological distinctions. This dynamic interplay between
linguistic elements reflects the intricate process of creole
formation, where cultural, historical, and social factors intertwine
to shape a distinct linguistic identity.
Thus, Afro-Caribbean English-lexifier Creoles exemplify the
intricate relationship between creole and lexifier languages,
occupying a space where continuity and divergence converge.
They stand as testament to the resilience and creativity of
language, embodying a rich tapestry of cultural expression shaped
by diverse influences and historical legacies.
Example:
Haitian Creole and French share some vocabulary, but their
grammatical structures and pronunciation differ significantly,
making them mutually unintelligible.
F. Not Random Distribution:
The distribution of creoles is not random. They are predominantly
found in the equatorial belt, near oceans, reflecting historical
events like the slave trade.
Example:
Many Caribbean islands and coastal regions in South America and
Africa have creole languages due to the historical trade routes and
diverse communities that interacted there.

21
 G. A Celebration of Diversity:
Creoles are a testament to linguistic diversity and the power of
human interaction. They showcase the ingenuity of communities
in overcoming language barriers and forging connections.
By understanding these characteristics and appreciating the unique
stories behind them, we gain a deeper appreciation for the rich
tapestry of human language and the fascinating ways it evolves
and adapts.
2.3.4. The Origin of Creoles
Creole languages, vibrant offshoots of established languages, boast a
captivating backstory. Their very existence is a testament to historical
encounters, diverse communities, and the human spirit's ability to
adapt. Let's delve into the origins of these unique languages according
to Wardhaugh (2010):
1. Seeds of Communication in a World of Trade:
Imagine bustling ports, diverse groups interacting, and the need
for a common language to bridge the gap. This is the fertile ground
where pidgins sprouted. These simplified communication
systems, with limited grammar and vocabulary, emerged during
historical trade routes, including the infamous slave trade. One
such example is West African Pidgin English, which served as a
tool for diverse groups trading along the West African coast. As a
variety of English, Pidgin English is a product of foreign trade of
China, according to Wei-min, C. (2002)
2. From Seedling to Flourishing Language:
Pidgins and Creoles are well-organized linguistic systems with
fewer and less complicated sounds, and their distributions are in
the equatorial belt around the world.

22
 While pidgins primarily serve as temporary communication tools,
creoles take the next step. When a pidgin is adopted by a new
generation as their first language, it undergoes significant changes.
Grammar becomes more complex, vocabulary expands, and a
distinct identity emerges. This transformation is evident in Haitian
Creole, which evolved from West African Pidgin English and is
now the native language of millions in Haiti.
3. The Influence of Multiple Languages:
Creoles don't develop in isolation. They borrow heavily from the
lexifier language (the language that provides the most vocabulary)
and the languages spoken by the communities involved. This
creates a unique linguistic blend. For instance, Jamaican Creole,
influenced by English and West African languages, uses the word
"yuh" for "you" (similar to English) but with a distinct
pronunciation ("yu"). Additionally, the word "pickney" for "child"
certainly has West African roots.
4. Historical Echoes in Language:
The distribution of creoles isn't random. They are mostly found in
the equatorial belt, especially near oceans, mirroring old trade
routes. This illustrates the varied communities that interacted in
these places. For example, several Caribbean islands and coastal
regions in South America and Africa possess creole languages, a
witness to the historical contacts that took place there.
5. A Tradition of Endurance and Flexibility:
Creoles are not only languages but also living examples of human
persistence and adaptability. They demonstrate the
resourcefulness of communities in overcoming language obstacles
to establish relationships and create new livelihoods.
Understanding the beginnings of languages allows us to appreciate
the intricate complexity of human language and how it changes
and adjusts over time due to historical and social factors.

23
6. Additional Remarks:
The Afrogenesis concept highlights the significant influence of
West African pidgins on the formation of creoles in the Atlantic
region.
Afrikaans and Swahili are examples of creole languages that have
evolved into standardized languages with official recognition and
established use rules.
Creoles may have similar vocabulary to their lexifier language, but
their unique grammar and pronunciation might render them
incomprehensible to speakers of the parent language.
Studying the beginnings of creoles helps us understand the
complex relationship among history, language, and human
interaction. They serve as a testament to the continuous
development of language and the influence of human interaction
in molding our world.

24
 CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

3.1. Conclusion
A lingua franca is a language used by people with different native
languages to communicate effectively. It can emerge due to factors like
migration, trade, or cultural exchanges. Examples include Greek koiné,
Vulgar Latin, Arabic, Mandarin, Hindi, Swahili, and English. These
languages have historically played important roles in facilitating
communication in various regions. Today, English is widely recognized as a
lingua franca in many contexts worldwide. Lingua francas can take different
forms, including trade languages, contact languages, international languages,
and auxiliary languages. They may also exhibit variations in usage and
undergo simplification over time. Despite their historical significance, some
lingua francas have faded away, while others continue to thrive, reflecting the
dynamic nature of human interaction and language development.
Pidgins are simplified yet fully developed languages that emerge
when diverse language groups need to communicate, typically in trade or
travel contexts. They exhibit properties such as simple grammatical
structures, limited vocabulary, phonological and morphological
simplification, and isolating morphology. Pidgins are born out of necessity,
often in regions with historical trade routes or cultural interactions, and they
serve as communication bridges between speakers of different languages.
They borrow elements from various languages, particularly the dominant one
in their context, and adapt to meet the communicative needs of their users.
Overall, pidgins are efficient tools for facilitating communication across
linguistic barriers in diverse social and cultural settings.
Creoles are complex languages that emerge from historical
encounters, trade routes, and diverse communities. They evolve from pidgins
into fully developed languages with intricate grammatical systems and unique
vocabularies. Creoles often arise in regions with significant linguistic contact,

25
 particularly around the equatorial belt and coastal areas due to historical trade
routes, such as the slave trade. They exhibit characteristics like significant
evolution, borrowing and transforming linguistic elements, and a continuum
of linguistic influence from their parent languages. Despite similarities in
vocabulary, creoles maintain distinct grammar and pronunciation, sometimes
rendering them mutually unintelligible with their lexifier languages. Creoles
like Afrikaans and Swahili have even evolved into standardized languages.
Understanding the origins and characteristics of creoles provides insight into
the complex relationship between history, language, and human interaction,
highlighting the enduring power of language to connect and evolve.
3.2. Suggestion
Regards to the conclusion above, the authors hope that this paper is
useful for the readers to more understand about lingua franca, pidgins, and
creoles. Also, the authors hope that this paper could be used as a reference by
teachers to know more about lingua franca, pidgins, and creoles.
The authors recognized that this paper was not completely perfect. As
a result, the authors would appreciate any comments, suggestions, or
constructive criticism from readers who read this paper in order to improve
future papers.

26
 REFERENCES
Ansaldo, U. (2017). Creole complexity in sociolinguistic perspective. Language
Sciences, 60, 26-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.LANGSCI.2016.10.008.
Arends, J., P. Muysken, & N. Smith, (eds.). 1995. Pidgins and Creoles: an
introduction.Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Brylawski, T. (1977). The broken-circuit complex. Transactions of the American
Mathematical Society, 234, 417-433. https://doi.org/10.1090/S0002-9947-1977-
0468931-6.
Cokely, D. (2013). When is a Pidgin Not a Pidgin?: An Alternate Analysis of the
ASL-English Contact Situation. Sign Language Studies, 38, 1 - 24.
https://doi.org/10.1353/sls.1983.0017.
Dubois, S., & Horvath, B. (2003). The English Vernacular of the Creoles of
Louisiana. Language Variation and Change, 15, 255 - 288.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S095439450315301X.
Jesse, M. (2001). Cook stew of pidgin. English Today, 17, 45 - 51.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0266078401003066.
Marshall, M. (1997). The Origin and Development of Louisiana Creole French. ,
333-349. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-5278-6_13.
Nordstrom, G. (2015). Pidgin as Rhetorical Sovereignty: Articulating Indigenous
and Minority Rhetorical Practices with the Language Politics of Place. College
English, 77, 317.
Röll, W. 1967. Zur Lingua Franca. Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 83, 306–
313.
Shapiro, R. (2010). Chinese Pidgin Russian. Journal of Pidgin and Creole
Languages, 25, 5-62. https://doi.org/10.1075/JPCL.25.1.02SHA.
Smiley, M. (1928). Pallake. Doctoral Dissertation. By M. De Vries. Pp. 70.
Amsterdam: H. J. Paris, 1927.. The Classical Review, 42, 145 - 145.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0009840X00037367.
Spears, A., Winford, D., & Linguistics, C. (1997). The structure and status of
pidgins and creoles : including selected papers from the meetings of the Society
for Pidgin and Creole Linguistics. . https://doi.org/10.1075/CLL.19.
Suraiya, S. (2020). Pidgins and Creoles: Birth of Languages. Jurnal Adabiya.
https://doi.org/10.22373/adabiya.v19i1.7485.
Syarfuni. (2011). Pidgins and Creole Languages. STKIP Bina Bangsa Getsempen,
II(1), 42–50. https://ejournal.bbg.ac.id/visipena/article/view/39/24.

27
Thomason, S., & Elgibali, A. (1986). Before the Lingua Franca: Pidginized
Arabic in the eleventh century A.D.. Lingua, 68, 317-349.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3841(86)90015-X.
Wei-min, C. (2002). On Pidgin English in Late Qing Dynasty. Journal of Pla
University of Foreign Languages.

Wardhaugh, R., & Fuller, J. M. (2015). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (7th ed.).

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (5th ed.). Blackwell

Publishing.

Wood, R. 1971. The Lingua Franca in Molière's Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme.

University of South Florida Language Quarterly 10, 2-6.
Yakpo, K. (2017). Towards a model of language contact and change in the
English-lexifier creoles of Africa and the Caribbean. English World-wide, 38, 50-
76. https://doi.org/10.1075/EWW.38.1.04YAK.

28