SECOND SEMESTER NOTES

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
From Kyle, to the (non-family) people I appreciate the most <33

LESSON 1: NATURE OF RESEARCH

OVERVIEW
● So last semester, we did qualitative research, which is an exploratory type of research
which relies on unstructured and non-numeric data. It aims to gain a deeper awareness
of human behavior and the reasons that control such behavior. But because we advocate for
pain and suffering, we’ll be doing quantitative research this sem!
● What is research?
○ It is an organized process of gathering, interpreting, and analyzing observed
information or investigation in order to provide solutions to problems.
○ It is a step-by-step procedure to come up with the best result

TWO TYPES OF RESEARCH IN GENERAL

● QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
○ Focused on things that are up on discussions and debate
○ Focuses on exploring ideas and formulating a theory or hypothesis
● QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
○ Tries to prove something definitely
○ A systematic investigation that uses numerical and computational techniques

TWO TYPES OF RESEARCH IN GENERAL

CHARACTERISTICS QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH RESEARCH

PURPOSE To understand people’s To determine the relevance of

experiences, culture, languages, variables
or a particular case

DATA Textual (interview, Numerical

documentaries, observations,
 video, or recordings)

ANALYSIS Creating themes Statistics

FINAL REPORT Narrative Statistical report

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

● Here are some research titles from qualitative and quantitative research (respectively).
○ A study of the Perceptions of Selected Grade 11 Students Regarding Technology and
Senior High School Readiness
○ Socioeconomic Status and Academic Performance of Selected Students of Concepcion
Integrated School Secondary Level
● Here are the main characteristics of quantitative research
○ OBJECTIVE
■ It opts to come up with accurate data or facts. It does not accept the
opinion from beliefs, assumptions, or guesses immediately. Data is
gathered and analyzed before formulating conclusions.
○ HAS CLEAR AND SPECIFIC RESEARCH QUESTIONS
■ The researcher sought to answer well-defined questions.
○ USES STRUCTURED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
■ It uses research tools such as questionnaires to collect information from
the respondents.
○ PRESENTS NUMERICAL DATA
■ The numbers are crunched in order to explain the study further. Through
this– trends, relationships, or differences between variables can be
explained.
○ USES LARGE SAMPLE SIZES
■ It aims to provide more reliable data results when analyzed. Also, random
sampling is being utilized by the researcher to avoid bias in interpreting
the results.
○ REPLICABLE
■ To verify the correctness of the study, one must be able to replicate the
process in another setting. It strengthens the validity of the findings.
Thus, it helps the study to come up with an unbiased conclusion.
 ○ PROJECT FUTURE OUTCOMES
■ “If-then” and “if-then-else” scenarios may be formulated to track the future
of the study.
● In summary, quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather than discovery (Prieto
et al., 2017)

STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

● Strengths of quantitative research
○ The results are more objective and are free from personal bias of the researcher.
Since it provides numerical data, it can’t be easily misinterpreted.
○ Using statistical techniques facilitates sophisticated analyses and allows us to
comprehend a huge amount of vital characteristics of data.
○ Data collection is relatively faster and easier to do. It is especially useful given a
large sample or population, because it could speedily generate accurate, precise,
and credible results.
○ Quantitative studies are replicable. Standardized approaches allow the study to
be replicated in several areas or over time with the formulation of comparable
findings.
● Weaknesses of quantitative research
○ Quantitative research needs a large number of respondents. It is assumed that
the larger the sample is, the more statistically accurate the findings are.
○ It is costly. Since there are more respondents compared to qualitative research,
the expenses are going to be greater in reaching out to these people and in
reproducing the questionnaire.
○ Contextual factors are ignored. It doesn;t consider the distinct capacity of the
respondents to share and elaborate further information unlike the qualitative
research.
○ There are many information that are difficult to gather using structured research
instruments, for example sensitive issues like pre-marital sex, domestic violence,
among others.
○ Data from questionnaires may be incomplete and inaccurate if not done correctly.
Researchers should focus on respondents who are just guessing in answering the
instrument.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
● Research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose in order to integrate or put
together the different components or parts of the study in a coherent and logical way.

● Any sound research design will do the following things:

○ Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection
○ Review previously published literature associated with the problem area.
○ Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses (research questions) central to the
problem selected
○ Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the
hypotheses and explain how such data will be obtained.
○ Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in
determining whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.
● Types of quantitative research
○ EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
■ Utilizes scientific methods to test the cause-and-effect relationships
under conditions controlled by the researcher.
■ An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the
dependent variables, It is one where a group of respondents are randomly
 selected to undergo a particular research-imposed treatment to determine
the effect of such treatment.
■ There are also types of experimental research design.
● TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
○ It describes how participants are allocated to experimental
groups.
○ It minimizes or eliminates confounding variables, which
can offer alternative explanations for the experimental
results.
○ It allows you to make inferences about the relationship
between independent variables and dependent variables.
○ It reduces variability to make it easier for you to find
differences in treatment outcomes.
○ It has three principles:
1. Randomization
2. Replication
3. Blocking
● QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
○ Aims to measure the causal relationship between variables.
It has an experimental structure that lacks random
assignment, and it does not require a true control group
that will serve as the reference point in the study.
○ The general form of a quasi-experimental design thesis
statement is “What effect does (a certain intervention or
program) have on a (specific population)”?
■ Ex: Does smoking during pregnancy lead to low birth
weight?
■ Ex: Does thoughtfully designed software improve
learning outcomes for students?
● PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
○ In a one-shot case study design, a single group is studied
at a single point in time after some treatment that is
presumed to have caused change. The carefully studied
 single instance is compared to general expectations of
what the case would have looked like had the treatment
not occurred and to other events casually observed. No
control or comparison group is employed.
○ In a one-group pretest-posttest design, a single case is
observed at two time points, one before the treatment and
one after the treatment. Changes in the outcome of interest
are presumed to be the result of the intervention or
treatment. No control or comparison group is employed.
○ In static-group comparison, a group that has experienced
some treatment is compared with one that has not.
Observed differences between the two groups are assumed
to be a result of the treatment.
○ NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
■ This is the label given to a study when you cannot control, manipulate, or
alter the predictor variable or subjects, but instead, rely on interpretation,
or observation or interactions to come to a conclusion.
■ Typically, this means that you must rely on correlations, surveys or case
studies, and cannot demonstrate a true cause-and-effect relationship.
■ Non-experimental research tends to have a high level of external validity,
meaning it can be generalized to a larger population.
■ Here’s the types of descriptive research designs
● SURVEY RESEARCH
○ This is a research design that you use when you intend to
provide a quantitative or numerical description of trends,
attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample
of the population.
● CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
○ Examines the relationship between two or more variables.
It considers the extent to which differences between
variables are related to the differences in another variable
or variables. Variables are not manipulated. They are only
identified and are studied as they come in a natural setting.
 ● EX-POST FACTO RESEARCH DESIGN
○ These are non-experimental designs that you use to
investigate causal relationships. You use these when you
examine whether one or more pre-existing conditions
could possibly have caused subsequent differences between
groups to have resulted in an observed difference in the
independent variables.
● COMPARATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
○ This involves comparing and contrasting two or more
samples of study subjects on one or more variables, often at
a single point of time. Specifically, you use this design to
compare two distinct groups on the basis of selected
attributes such as the knowledge level, perceptions, and
attitudes, physical or psychological symptoms.
● EVALUATIVE RESEARCH
○ You use this kind of research design when you seek to
assess or judge in some way providing information about
something other than what might be gleaned or seen in
mere observation or investigation of relationships.
● METHODOLOGICAL RESEARCH
○ In this approach, the implementation of a variety of
methodologies forms a critical part in achieving the goal of
developing a scale-matched approach where data from
different disciplines can be integrated.
LESSON 2: APPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH
OVERVIEW
● Research is everywhere and conducted almost everyday.
● Research is an integral part of learning about life
○ The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and
contribute to developing knowledge in a field of study (Zarah, 2020).

APPLICATIONS IN VARIOUS DISCIPLINES

● STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics)
 ○ Medicine
○ Innovations
○ MIP
○ Infrastructures
○ Robotics
○ Experiments
● ABM (Accounting, Business, and Management)
○ Competitions
○ Census
○ Market
○ FOREX
○ Finances
○ Demands
● HUMSS (Humanities and Social Sciences)
○ Social issues
○ Leadership
○ Ethics
○ Perceptions
○ Behavioral sciences
○ Anthropology
● TVL (Technical-Vocational Livelihood)
○ Livelihood Projects
○ Skills development
○ Specialized
IMPORTANCE IN OTHER DISCIPLINES
● Anthropology
● Communication
● Sports Medicine
● Medical Education
● Education
● Psychology
LESSON 3: HYPOTHESIS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
OVERVIEW
● What is a hypothesis? It is an expected or educational guess which gives a tentative
explanation/answer to the question. It can be derived from another theory or another
person’s hunch/guess.
○ It is in declarative form
○ Hypothesis must be tested through analytical investigation (not always true/false)

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYPOTHESIS

● Testable
● Logical
● Directly related to the research problem
● Represents a simple unit or subject of the problem
● States the relationship between variables
● Factual/theoretically based
● Sets the limits of the study
● Starts in a form that can be approved/rejected

STEPS IN FORMULATING HYPOTHESIS

1. Initial ideas and observations (what are your interests?)
2. Conduct a literature review for better understanding
3. Formulate a problem statement
4. Make operational definitions (they are prone to term misinterpretation)
5. Formulate your research hypothesis

GUIDELINES FOR HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION

1. Research for knowledge. Focus on the information and previous topics.
2. Independent and dependent variables must be in your hypothesis, and their relationship
must be shown.
3. Must be simple and specific (you can add specific measurements). If it’s vague, it’s harder.
4. Must use clear, concise, and simple language
5. Testable without violating ethical standards maintain integrity
6. Must be falsifiable and can be proven wrong.
DIFFERENCE OF HYPOTHESIS, RESEARCH QUESTIONS, AND RESEARCH
PROBLEMS
● Hypothesis
○ Statements/possible answers
○ You already have an idea on what to expect
● Research questions
○ Obviously, it’s a question
○ Possible probing questions about your topic
○ You don’t know what answer to expect
● Research problem
○ Observed problem

FUNCTIONS OF A HYPOTHESIS
● A hypothesis provides a tentative explanation and enables the development of
knowledge
● The direction and framework of your study
● Can be deduced from theories and other hypothesis
● Tested/shown to be supported/not

TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
● SIMPLE HYPOTHESIS
○ Prediction of the relationship between 2 variables
○ Independent and dependent single variables show a connection
○ Uses a significant difference test
● COMPLEX HYPOTHESIS
○ Reflects relationships between 2 variables and involves many dependent and
independent variables
○ Ex: The more veggies and fruits you eat, the better your immune system and blood
circulation is
● EMPIRICAL HYPOTHESIS
○ Also dubbed as the “working hypothesis”
 ○ Explains certain facts/phenomena and comes to life when a theory is being put to
the test
○ It can be changed/replaced any time and constantly goes through trial and error
○ Ex: Plants watered everyday grow faster than plants watered once a week.
■ You can change ‘once a week’ to everyday or twice a week. It depends on
the researcher.
● LOGICAL HYPOTHESIS
○ Expresses explanation with limited evidence that can be verified logically
○ Anchored based on logical phenomena
○ Ex: Findings in Archaeology
● STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS
○ Analysis of a portion of a sample, which will then generalize the entire
population
○ Transformed into quantifiable sub variable to assess it statistically
○ Ex: Examining psychology development
● NULL HYPOTHESIS (H0)
○ Considering no relationship between variables or there is no sufficient
information to formulate a conclusion
○ Attempt to disprove or discredit; functions as an existing hypothesis already
○ There is no significant difference
● ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS (H1)
○ Expressed to be tested in order to generate the desired output when the empirical
hypothesis is not accepted
○ This is in an attempt to disprove the null hypothesis
○ It comes in two more categories:
■ DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
● Uses one-tailed tests (uses left/right tailed tests)
● Goes a specific direction of the relationship between the variables
● Ex: more than, less than, etc.
■ NONDIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESIS
● Uses two-tailed tests
● Not predicting the exact direction of the relationship; has a
generic answer
 ● Ex: There is no difference…

LESSON 4: VARIABLES IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

OVERVIEW
● What is a variable? It is anything that has a quantity or quality that varies. In research,
especially quantitative research, one important thing you have to focus on at the start of
your study is to determine the variables involved in your study.
○ Your research problem or research topic to which you devote much of your initial
research time finalizing stands great, if it has wordings on the basic variables
involved in your study.

TYPES OF VARIABLES
● ACCORDING TO RELATIONSHIPS
○ CAUSE (Independent Variable)
■ Causes changed in the subject; functions as the predictor
○ EFFECT (Dependent Variable)
■ Bear or manifest the effects; functions as the outcome
○ EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
■ To be controlled by the experimenter
○ CONFOUNDING VARIABLES
■ If variables cannot be controlled by the experimenter, they become
confounding variables that can strongly influence the study.
● Since in nonexperimental research there is no control of treatments and factors to
subject our participants into, there is no such thing as extraneous variables; only
confounding.

● ACCORDING TO NATURE AND LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

○ QUALITATIVE
 ■ Variables also known as categorical variables; not expressed in numbers
but are descriptions or categories.
■ They come in a few subgroups
● NOMINAL
○ Defines groups of subjects
○ Ex: Blood type, hair color, mode of transportation
● BINARY
○ Consists of only 2 distinct categories or values
○ Ex: yes/no questions (dichotomous)
● ORDINAL
○ Denotes that a variable is ranked in a certain order. This
variable can have a quantitative or qualitative attribute.
○ Ex: questionnaires with numerical ratings, cancer stages, spotify
top 20 hits academic honors
○ QUANTITATIVE
■ Variables also known as numeric variables; numeric and can be measured.
● DISCRETE
○ Countable whole numbers and do not take negative values
between fixed points.
○ Ex: number of students in a class, group size, frequency
● CONTINUOUS
○ Interval or differences between consecutive values are
equal and meaningful, but arbitrary
○ Note! The zero point does not suggest the absence of said
property being measured
○ Ex: Temperatures, year, IQ score
● RATIO
○ Similar to interval; the only difference is the presence of a
true zero value. It indicates the absence of the quantity
being measured
○ Ex: age, height, weight, distance
SO, WHERE DOES THE LIKERT SCALE BELONG? ORDINAL OR INTERVAL?

● A Likert scale is technically an ordinal scale, and it has long been debated whether it
can perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division.
● A study showed that the more values included in the Likert scale, the more it
approximates normal distribution
● Hence, it is usually treated as an interval scale when it comes to research.

CONVERTING MEASUREMENT SCALES

● Variable types can be converted into different ones depending on the need and
theoretical justifications.
○ Age, a common continuous ratio variable, can be converted into ordinal data age
groups. For example: below 18, 18-25, 25-30, above 30, etc.
● You can convert data into numeric using dummy coding, which is useful in doing
regression with categorical data.

● Examples!
○ Amount of fertilizer given to plants (in mL): QUANTI-CONT-RATIO
○ Weight of Pechay harvested (in grams): QUANTI-CONT-RATIO
○ Educational level of parents (high school grad, college grad, MS, PhD):
QUAL-ORD
○ Tomato plant variety: QUAL-NOM
○ Online seller satisfaction rating (1-5 stars): QUALI-ORD
○ Number of passengers in a PUJ: QUANTI-DISC-RATIO
○ IQ test scores: QUANTI-DISC-INTER
LESSON 5: IDENTIFYING INQUIRY
RESEARCH TOPIC
● Selecting a good research topic is one of the most challenging parts of the research
process. It is very important to select a research topic carefully to avoid encountering
problems along the research process.
● Research topic or problem is an intellectual stimulus calling for an answer within the
form of scientific inquiry
● Topics or problems are general questions on relations among variables or characteristics
of the phenomenon which a researcher must undertake.

SOURCES OF RESEARCH TOPIC OR PROBLEM

● Printed materials such as books, journals, newspapers, and magazines are the most
traditional form of resources for finding a research topic
● The Internet is also a good source of information through relevant online sites. Just
make sure that the online sites you will use offer true and accurate information.
● Television and radio are good resources for research topics as well.
● Previous reading assignments given by the teachers can also serve as a potential source
of a good research topic
● One’s personal experiences and observations can also be a basis for a research topic.
● You can also try these others:
○ Prevailing theories of philosophy
○ Observations, intuition or a mix of both
○ Different subjects taken and from them identify a problem that interests a
student-researcher most
○ Many others!

SELECTING A RESEARCH TOPIC

● There are certain factors that must be considered when selecting a research topic so it
can make the research work more interesting and enjoyable to the researcher while
ensuring the completion of the study.
○ PERSONAL INTEREST
■ It will take a while to work on the research, so it will be easier to conduct
the whole research process if the researcher genuinely likes what he/she is
doing. Working on something you like will lead to a better paper, and the
process will be much more enjoyable
○ SKILLS AND COMPETENCE
■ The researcher must be knowledgeable enough to proceed with the topic
he/she will be choosing to make the work easier because it will involve the
application of certain skills. It's okay if the researcher doesn’t know much
about the topic he/she is interested in as long as he/she can learn the skills
required to finish the research
○ NOVEL, NEW, OR ORIGINAL
■ The purpose of doing research is to add information to an existing body of
knowledge. Doing research on something that has been done a long time
ago will defeat the purpose of doing research. Conducting initial research
about the topic is helpful to know if other people already had published
something about it. If there are already studies about it, the researcher
can work on certain areas that have research gaps or those parts of a
certain topic that is not yet explored.
○ SIGNIFICANT AND TIMELY
■ The chosen research topic needs to be relevant to the issues the society is
currently experiencing. The research must be able to make an impact
upon situations and people it is intended for or addressed to.
○ RESEARCHABLE OR MANAGEABLE
■ A topic is researchable if there is enough information available about it
where one can start background research. The topic should be one that
can be managed in the limited resources that a researcher has. Choose a
topic that can be easily justified within the given time frame. The
research topic cannot be too broad or narrow. The topic should be
specific enough to be able to present a study that is focused, direct, clear,
and specific in nature.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCH TITLE
● A title should give readers information about the contents of the research and is
preferable to one that is vague or general
● Titles do not need to be stuffy or dull, but they should generally give readers some idea at
the outset of what the research paper will contain
● Choose a title that is a phrase rather than a complete sentence
● Select a straightforward title over other kinds
● Use no punctuations at the end of the title
● Do not underline the title of research or enclose it in quotation marks, instead, use a
word processing program or printer that permits italics. Use them in place of
underlining

GUIDELINES IN THE FOUNDATION OF A RESEARCH TITLE

1. The title must contain the following elements:
➔ The subject matter or research problem
➔ The setting or locale of the study
➔ The respondents or participants involved in the study
➔ The time or period when the study was conducted (if the title becomes too long
because of these elements, the timeframe or period may be omitted except in
evaluations studies)

2. The title must be broad enough to include all aspects of the study but should be brief and
concise as possible
➔ Parental Involvement on Numeracy Development of Grade Seven Students:
Effects on Their Academic Achievement in Mathematics
3. The use of terms such as “Analysis of”, “A study of”, “An investigation of”, and the like
should be avoided. All these are understood to have been done in a research.
➔ An investigation on the status and extent of the implementation of quipper in
Andres Bonifacio Integrated School S.Y. 2019-2020
4. If the title contains more than one line, it should be written in an inverted pyramid.
 ➔ The impact of exhibits and projects on students enrolled in technical drafting
and illustration
5. When typed or encoded in the title page, all words in the title should be in capital
➔ Interplay of the competency factors and keyboarding skills of the elementary
pupils
6. If possible, the title should not be longer than 15 substantive words.
➔ Enhancing academic performance in science of selected senior high school
students through quipper
7. Avoid a long, detailed title that gives too much information
8. To shorten the title, delete the terms “assessment” or “evaluation” if these are already
emphasized in the text
➔ Assessment on the level of awareness and preparedness of the public and private
secondary schools of mandaluyong in the implementation of disaster risk
reduction management program

RESEARCH BACKGROUND
● The background of the study is the part of your paper where you inform the reader of the
context of the study. When we say context, it means the situation or circumstances
within which your research topic was conceptualized.
○ Ideally, this part is written when you have already conducted a literature review
and have a good perception of the topic so you can articulate the importance and
validity of the research problem.
○ It is also the part of the paper where you justify the need to conduct a research
study about the topic selected by establishing the research gap.
● Here, we have to find out:
○ WHAT IS KNOWN?
■ Write about the topic and the problems explored in the study. Avoid
stating obvious or broad facts about the topic and focus on highly relevant
information.
■ Only provide necessary background information and avoid presenting too
much as this is only to give the readers an idea of what information is
already available
○ WHAT IS UNKNOWN?
 ■ State the problem or gap that needs to be resolved in the study. Highlight
the area that lacks information and explain how and why should that gap
be filled.
○ HOW AND WHY SHOULD WE FILL THE GAP?
■ State the purpose of conducting the research and give the hypothesis of
the study. Provide a concise description of the issues that will be
addressed or improved through the research.

LESSON 6: IDENTIFYING INQUIRY PART DOS

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
● Quantitative research deals with precision and specificity of the problem. It describes
trends and patterns of a phenomenon. It is formally introduced in a written paper as the
statement of the problem. With this, a researcher can start specifying what they want to
answer in their study.
● Research questions help clarify and specify the research problem. They are considered
sub-problems of a research problem and are informative in nature. They specify the
method of collecting and analyzing data, and the type of data to be collected when
exploring a quantitative research problem (Polit & Beck, 2012)

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH QUESTION

● FEASIBLE
○ Consider the time, energy, money, respondents, resources, and your current
situation as a student-researcher.
○ Is the research problem possible? Will it not spend an unreasonable amount?
● CLEAR
○ The clarity of how the questions are stated lead to agreement of meaning of the
readers of your study. Since your research questions are also considered as the
main focus in the gathering and analyzing the data, it is therefore very important
that these questions are stated clearly
● SIGNIFICANT
○ Ask if your research questions are relevant or important to ask. Will answering
these questions provide an additional contribution to address the given research
problem? Are the research questions really worth investigating?
 ○ What is the value of what you’re trying to investigate. You must provide a sound
justification of your choice as a researcher
● ETHICAL
○ Always consider the welfare of people, animals or whosoever are involved in your
study. Look into ways of answering the research questions without inflicting
physical and psychological harm to persons involved

FORMULATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS

● Research questions can be general questions– derived from the research problem, and
specific questions– anchored to the general research problem
○ Ex: This study aims to determine the relationship between the types of learning
delivery mode and students’ learning styles. Furthermore, it seeks to answer the
following research questions:
1. What are the different learning delivery modes of the school?
2. What are the various learning styles of the students?
3. Is there a significant relationship between the different learning delivery modes
of the school and the learning styles of its students?
● Consider the design of your quantitative research
○ FOR DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
■ Focus on observing, describing, and reporting factors or aspects of the
research problem.
■ Uses how often/frequently, how many/much, what is/are, to what
extent/degree, and the likes are used in these questions
● Ex: You study the use of social media among Senior High School
Students, you can ask the following questions:
○ What are the various social media platforms used by Senior
HIgh Students?
○ How many hours students spend on social media per day?
○ FOR CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
■ Aims to determine the relationships among two or more variables in your
research problem.
■ Usually use “is there a significant relationship…” or “what is the
relationship between/among”
 ● Ex: In the study of use of social media and level of digital literacy
of students following questions can be asked:
○ What is the relationship between the length of hours spent
on social media and the level of digital literacy of students?
○ Is there a significant relationship between the type of
social media used and the level of digital literacy of
students?
○ FOR EX-POST FACTO RESEARCH
■ Attempt to identify the causes of the phenomenon in the context of your
research problem.
■ It is assumed that no control or manipulation of variables has been done
in order to cause the effect. It is also understood that the cause of the
problem already exists before you conducted your study.
■ Ex: Ex-post facto study on family background and digital literacy of
students, the following questions can be asked:
● Is there a difference in the literacy level of students between their
cultural and educational family background?
○ FOR QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
■ Suggest that answers to these questions are brought about by
manipulation or control of a certain variable during the conduct of the
study. These questions provide an explanation to the causal relationship
of variables.
■ Ex: The following research questions can be asked on studies on
elementary student’s remedial sessions and academic performance of
students:
● Is there a significant difference in the posttest scores of the
control group and experimental group?
CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS
● They should be clear in the sense of being intelligible
● They should be researchable
● They should have some connection(s) with established theories and research
● Your research questions should be linked to each other
● They should at the very least hold out the prospect of being able to make an original
contribution– however small– to the topic.
● Must not be too broad or too narrow.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS

● These are the extent and boundaries of the study.
○ SCOPE: Specifies the coverage of your study such as variables, population or
participant, and timeline; characterizes the scope of a study
■ Clearly defines where and when the study will be conducted
■ Who the subjects are
■ How the study will be conducted
■ Purpose of the study
○ DELIMITATION: Cites factors of your study that are not included or excluded
or those you will not deal with in your study; identify potential weaknesses
■ Sample size
■ Research instruments and methodology
■ Time limitations
■ The location or setting
■ Financial resources
■ Why specific choices were made while others were excluded and how this
might affect the outcome of the research
● Here are the components of scope and delimitations
○ Topic of the study (What are the variables to be included and excluded?)
○ Objectives and Problems to be Addressed (Why are you doing this study?)
○ Time Frame (When are you going to conduct this study?)
○ Locale of the Study (Where are you going to gather your data?)
○ Characteristics of the Respondents (Who will be your respondents?)
○ Method and Research Instruments (How are you going to collect the data?)
LESSON 7: RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS
OVERVIEW
● Illustrates the structure or blueprint of the research plan and helps the researcher
formulate relevant research questions
● It consists of key concepts and assumes relationships of the research project. It is
normally used as a guide for researchers so that they are more focused on the scope of
their studies.
● It can be presented using visual (diagrams, charts, etc.) and narrative (paragraph stating
the concepts and relationships of the study) forms.

THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

● THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
○ Commonly used for studies that anchor on time-tested theories that relate the
findings of the investigation to the underpinning relevant theory of knowledge
● CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
○ Refers to the actual ideas, beliefs, and tentative theories that specifically support
the study. It is primarily a conception or model of what is out there that the
researcher plans to study.

SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL

FRAMEWORK
● SIMILARITIES
○ Provide an overall view of the research study
○ Anchor a theory that supports the study
○ Guide in developing relevant research questions/objectives
○ Help justify assumptions/hypothesis
○ Aid in choosing appropriate methodology
○ Help in gathering and interpreting data and
○ Guide in identifying possible threats to validity
 ● DIFFERENCES

GUIDELINES IN CHOOSING RESEARCH FRAMEWORKS

● THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
○ Revisit the information given by your related literature and identify if there are
potential theories or knowledge that may be use or anchored to the possible
outcome of your study
○ With the use of these information, you can now create a plan or blueprint for
your research study
○ You also need to comprehend and consider the variables that will be significant
in your study and their relationship with another
● CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
○ Refer to your research questions or objectives to identify the essential themes in
your study. Look for additional theories that involve the same principle and see
how they relate to one another. Make a concept map of your conceptual
framework, utilizing the existing theories as a reference. If there are topics which
are not included in the theories you have chosen and you know that it is essential
to your study, you can include it.
○ You have to make a written explanation on the concepts that are being
incorporated and their impact to one another after you have made the first draft
of your conceptual framework. Moreover, you have to revisit your research
questions and conceptual framework if they are aligned.
○ It is important to remember that developing a conceptual framework is a process.
This means that as you study more material and research more theories, it may
 still be refined or updated. The research hypothesis may be stated at the end of
the conceptual framework in some situations.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
● It shows a clear picture of the plan and the expected outcome of the research study, gives
the meaning of the variables and their relationship in the study (Swaen, 2020)
● Well-thought out scheme or plan of action on how to carry out your study which clearly
show:
○ Main purpose and objective of the study
○ Population and samples of the study
○ Scope of the study
○ Methodology or set of procedures to be used including the means to collect,
analyze and interpret data
○ Software to use
○ Theories you will use to analyze, support and explain your data (Kivunja, 2018)

FUNDAMENTAL STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

● Remember the 3K’s!
1. Know your variables
➔ Independent variables (presumed cause)
➔ Dependent variable (presumed effect)
➔ Moderating variable (factors that interacts with the effects of IV)
➔ Controlled variables (variables that are kept constant)
2. Know the basic parts of a CF diagram

3. Know the nature of the study or the phenomenon you are investigating
➔ Construct the conceptual framework based on the causal relationship or
association you intend to find out in the study. This means that the parts
 of the diagram should be well constructed to be able to show clear
direction towards an expected outcome.

INPUT-PROCESS-OUTPUT (IPO) MODEL

● Conceptual paradigm which indicates the inputs, required process, and the output. This
approach is seated on the premise of acquiring essential information by converting
inputs into outputs through the required processing steps in obtaining the result.
● The IPO Model is also referred to as a functional model that is usually used in action
research where an intervention or solution is necessary to solve the identified problem.
 ● It involves:
○ Input (independent variable; cause, influence, or affect)
○ Process (intervention or solution consists of the instruments and analyses used to
acquire the result)
○ Output (may be the dependent variables that is affected or influenced by the
independent variable or the intervention or solution to solve the identified
problem)

EXAMPLES OF IPO
LESSON 8: DEFINITION OF TERMS
OVERVIEW
● It helps in simplifying some of the technical terms which are vital in the understanding
of the research project. It is advantageous for the reader to include this to prevent the
ambiguous meaning of terms that might otherwise be interpreted in different ways,
causing confusion. It can also enhance comprehension of important key terms.
● The definition of terms is also called the Operational Definition of Variables (ODV).
○ The word operational refers to “how the word/term was used in the study”. At the
same time, the variables are the elements essential to the study.

TWO TYPES OF DEFINITIONS

● CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION
○ The universal meaning that is attributed to a word and which is given in
dictionaries and other general information books or even understood by many
people.
● OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
○ The researcher’s own description of the term/concept according to how the
concept is used in the study.

GUIDELINES FOR WRITING THE DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Write a brief introductory statement. It must shortly describe the content of the
definition of terms.
2. List/write the words/terms (which are technical) that would be included (make sure that
the variables and key terms found in the title are included)
3. The terms should be arranged alphabetically
4. Indentation should be applied to each term
5. The term should be followed with a period
6. It can be underlined or not
7. It can be bold and italic or not
8. It does not have to be lengthy (direct to the point)
9. Acronyms/initials should be defined clearly. Complete name should be written first,
followed by the acronym/initials in open-close parenthesis, then the definition/meaning.
10. Do not overflow with technical terms (only those relevant and significant to the study)
 11. Keep the definition brief and basic. You will elaborate on it more in the body of your
paper.

EXAMPLE OF CONCEPTUAL AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

● Face to face
○ CD: It is when the people involved are being close together and looking directly
○ OD: This refers to one of the modalities used in learning delivery in which the
teacher and students should be in the same place or setting, such as the
classroom

LESSON 9: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND REFERENCES

OVERVIEW
● Review of related literature is a compilation of studies related to a specific area of
research (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2020)
● Review of related literature has numerous purposes:
○ To discover the connection of your research to the existing body of knowledge
and to the real-life situations
○ To identify more theories or concepts as the foundation of your research study
and to learn from them
○ To determine the relationship of your research with previous research studies to
prevent duplication and to acknowledge other researchers
○ To acquire knowledge on the accuracy and significance of your research
questions
○ To acquaint yourself with the technical terminologies relevant to your study
○ To determine possible gaps, conflicts, and open questions left from other
research which might help you in formulating and justifying your research ideas
○ To clarify misconceptions on previous research and help refocus, polish, and
contribute to the development of the body of knowledge

TYPES OF SOURCES
● According to Fraenkel and Wallen, 2020
○ GENERAL REFERENCES
■ Sources in which a researcher refers to track down other source
 ○ PRIMARY SOURCES
■ Publications in which a researcher amounts to the finding of his or her
investigations. Most primary sources are found in journal articles
○ SECONDARY SOURCES
■ Are publications in which a researcher considers the work of others
○ OTHERS
■ Books
■ Scholarly journals
■ Dissertations
■ Government documents
■ Policy reports and presented papers
■ Periodicals
■ Letters and correspondence
■ Thesis
■ Documentaries

STEPS IN CONDUCTING A LITERATURE REVIEW

1. Define and delimit the topic
➔ Focus on specific issue or inquiry
➔ Make the research questions searchable
➔ Identify key terms
2. Design your literature search
➔ Consider the resources, extent of review, time to be devoted, the number of works
to be reviewed, and where to find sources
➔ Use APA format in citing sources
3. Locating research reports
➔ List the sources with important informations about your topic
➔ Identify their location and format
➔ Identify published or unpublished works
4. Take down notes
➔ Complete the details; title, author, publisher, type of source, place and year of
publication
5. Organize your notes
 ➔ A way to put together all the informations gathered
➔ Group together relating to theme (consider concept mapping)
6. Write the related literature
➔ Complete the details; title, author, publisher, type of source, place and year of
publication
➔ Abstract, hypothesis, methodology, results and finding, conclusion, research
design, recommendations, errors observed, and strength and weaknesses to your
research topic

GUIDELINES OF WRITING THE RRL

● Only literature and studies which are related in purpose, method, or findings to the
current study should be included
● The discussion of such literature and studies should be in the form of a brief critical
analysis of the purposes
● Studies containing the same set of variables as your study should be a priority and
essential to the review of literature and studies
● Use proper in-text citation
● The literature and studies should be presented properly and logically in summarized
forms containing only relevant idea
● Presentation should be orderly by arranging the materials by variables. Arrangement of
variables should be based on the research paradigm or the conceptual framework
● The researcher must provide at least five (5) materials for each of the following:
○ Local literature
○ Foreign literature
○ Local studies
○ Foreign studies
● Present the related studies by citing, in summary form, the research methodologies used,
sampling technique, respondents, statistical treatment of data and major findings
LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESULTS AND FINDINGS
● The discussion of results and findings should focus on your research rather than those
of the other previous research. Hence, the literature review should be used only in the
discussion as support, evidence, and further explanation for your study. These are three
(3) ways of using literature review in the discussion of your study:
○ Providing context as a foundation to develop your ideas
○ Comparing your findings from other previous related studies
○ Stating what contribution your study has made in the field
● There are also three (3) common errors that are usually made when including literature
reviews in the discussion of the study.
○ There are wide range of studies being included in which most of them are not
anymore relevant to your specific topic under investigation
 ○ Related article mentioning the original article is cited rather than citing the
original article itself
○ Previous work has been cited by the researcher based only on the abstracts and
without even reading the entire research

CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTING RRLS

● Materials must be recent as possible
● Materials must be objective
● Materials must be suitable to the study
● Coherence principle must be observed

CITATION STYLES
● APA (American Psychological Association)
○ Emphasizes the author and the date of the relevant literature
○ Used in most education, behavioral, and social science research
● MLA (Modern Language Association)
○ Often used in literature, language, and humanities studies
○ Include types of source whether print or web in the work cited
● CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE
○ Uses endnotes or footnotes when citing sources
○ Often used in history and social science
● HARVARD
○ Very similar with APA but mostly used in United Kingdom and Australia
○ Recommended for used in humanities
● VANCOUVER
○ Mainly used in scientific and medical papers

PURPOSE OF CITATION STYLES

● To give validity and credibility to another author’s work
● To help readers easily locate the source of ideas
● To allow readers to check the accuracy of the work
● To save yourself from plagiarism
TYPES OF CITATION STYLES
1. IN-TEXT CITATION
➔ Quoting, paraphrasing, or summarizing the work of other authors
2. REFERENCES OR BIBLIOGRAPHY
➔ Each source of the related literature and studies included in the study which is
usually seen in the last part of the research paper arranged in alphabetical order

APA (AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

MLA (MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION)

CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE

ETHICAL STANDARDS IN WRITING

● Research ethics are standardized rules that guide the design and conduct of research.
Following these guidelines ensures credibility, academic honesty, and integrity among
researchers. Scientific misconduct might arise when ethical standards are not followed
such as the following:
○ DECEPTION
■ Occurs when researcher presents a false or incomplete information to
participants for the purpose of misleading research subjects
○ PLAGIARISM
■ Appropriation of another person’s idea, processes, results or words
without giving appropriate credit
 ○ FABRICATION OF DATA
■ Production of data without an actual experimentation or altering data
records with the intent to edit the desired results
○ FALSIFICATION OF DATA
■ Manipulation of research materials, equipment, processes, data and
results that is not accurately presented in the research record
○ NON-PUBLICATION OF DATA
■ Omitting data that would not support the research hypothesis. Only
favorable results is reported and presented

LESSON 10: UNDERSTANDING DATA + WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT

DATA
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
● Descriptive
● Correlational
● Comparative (ours, btw!)
● Experimental

SAMPLING PROCEDURE
● Here are the steps!
1. Determine the population
a. The totality of all possible outcomes
2. Determine target population
a. Accessible population
3. Sampling
a. Process of selection
4. Selecting a sample
a. Subset of the population

SAMPLE SIZE
● The sample size should be equal or greater than 30. It should be assumed to be normally
distributed.
● RRL increases the validity of sampling
 ● Cochran’s Formula: Used for large population size
○ For example, your study is for your city, and you want to determine how many
households whose breadwinner works onsite during COVID pandemic. And you
don’t have enough information about the population. In that case, you are going
to assume that half of the breadwinners in the city are working onsite.
○ So, this assumption will give you a maximum variability, so p=0.5. And you want
95% confidence, and at least 5 percent – plus or minus – precision; and that gives
you Z values 1.96. As shown on the right, your sample size will be 384.
2
(1.96) (0.5)(0.5)
○ N0 = 2 = 384.16
(0.05)

SAMPLING TECHNIQUE (PROBABILITY)

● Simple random
○ All elements have an equal chance
● Stratified
○ Population is grouped into strata
● Cluster
○ For large-scale studies and geographically spread out population
● Systematic
○ Selecting respondents every nth time
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
● Basic (statistical) tools researchers used to gather data for specific research problems.
You can get them through the following:
○ Performance tests
○ Questionnaires
○ Interviews
○ Observation checklists
● In constructing the research instrument of the study, there are many factors to be
considered:
○ Type
○ Reason
○ Description
○ Scales
○ Validity and reliability
● Characteristics of a good research instrument
○ Concise
■ Concise in length yet can elicit the needed data
○ Sequential
■ Questions/items are arranged from simplest to most complex. To be more
favorable to respondents
○ Valid and reliable
■ Pass the tests of validity and reliability to get more appropriate and
accurate information
○ Easily tabulated
■ Before crafting the instruments, the researcher makes sure that the
variable and research questions are established

WAYS TO DEVELOP THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

● Adopt
○ Adopting an instrument from the already utilized instruments from previous
related studies
● Modify
 ○ Modify an existing instrument when the available instruments do not yield the
exact data that will answer the research problem
● DIY
○ Researcher makes his own instrument that corresponds to the variable and scope
of his current study

SCALES USED IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

● Likert Scale
○ Respondents were asked to rate or rank statements according to the scale
provided.
○ Ex: A Likert scale that measures the attitude of students towards distance learning.

● Semantic Differential
○ A series of bipolar adjectives will be rated by the respondents.
○ Ex: On a description of an active student in school activities

TYPES OF VALIDITY OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

● VALIDITY
○ A research instrument is considered valid if it measures what it is supposed to
measure
○ When measuring the oral communication proficiency level of students, speech
performance using rubric, or rating scale is more valid than when students are
given multiple choice tests.
○ Validity also has several types: face, content, construct, concurrent, and
predictive validity
 ● FACE VALIDITY
○ It is also known as “logical validity”. It calls for an initiative judgment of the
instruments as it “appears”. Just by looking at the instrument, the researcher
decides if it is valid.
● CONTENT VALIDITY
○ An instrument that is judged with content validity meets the objectives of the
study. It is done by checking the statements or questions if this elicits the needed
information. Experts in the field of interest can also provide specific elements
that should be measured by the instrument.
● CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
○ It refers to the validity of instruments as it corresponds to the theoretical
construct of the study. It is concerning if a specific measure relates to other
measures.
● CONCURRENT VALIDITY
○ When the instrument can predict results like those similar tests already validated,
it has concurrent validity
● PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
○ When the instrument can produce results similar to those similar tests that will
be employed in the future, it has predictive validity. This is particularly useful for
the aptitude test.

TYPES OF RELIABILITY OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

● Reliability refers to the consistency of the measures or results of the instrument.
○ TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY
■ It is achieved by giving the same test to the same group of respondents
twice. The consistency of the two scores will be checked.
○ EQUIVALENT FORMS RELIABILITY
■ It is established by administering two identical tests except for wordings
to the same group of respondents
○ INTERNAL CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY
■ It determines how well the items measure the same construct. It is
reasonable that when a respondent gets a high score in one item, he will
also get one in similar items. There are three ways to measure the internal
 consistency; through the split-half coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha, and
Kuder-Richardson formula (KR-20 & KR-21)

LESSON 11: DATA ANALYSIS

OVERVIEW
● It is a process that gathers information and summarizes it in such a way that it yields
answers to the research questions.
● Data analysis involves two types of statistical analyses!

STATISTICAL ANALYSES
● DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
○ Proportion: percentage

○ Measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode

○ Measures of variation: standard deviation & variance
 ● INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: Focuses on finding predictions, testing hypotheses,
and finding interpretations.

TYPES OF TESTS
● Test of relationship between 2 variables
○ Pearson’s r (parametric)
○ Phi coefficient (nonparametric for nominal and dichotomous variables)
○ Spearman’s rho (nonpara,ertic for ordinal variable)
● Test of difference between two data sets from one group
○ T-test for dependent samples (parametric)
○ McNemar change test (nonparametric for nominal and dichotomous variables)
○ Wilcoxon signed-rank test (nonparametric for ordinal variable)
● Test of difference between two data sets from two different groups
○ T-test for independent samples (parametric)
○ Two-way chi-square (nonparametric for nominal variable)
○ Mann-Whitney U test (nonparametric for ordinal variable)
● Test more than two population means
○ Analysis of variance or ANOVA (parametric)
● Test of the strength of relation/effect/impact
○ Regression (parametric)

CORRELATION ANALYSIS
● A statistical method used to estimate the strength of relationship between 2 quantitative
variables. Here’s the formula (represented by r)
● For instance, it asks questions like “Is there a relationship between the grade in Math
and the grade in English”

REGRESSION ANALYSIS
● Used to explain the relationship between dependent and independent variables
● It has three major uses
○ Causal analysis: shows you the possible causation of changes in Y by changes X
○ Forecasting an effect: allows you estimate and predict the value of Y given the
value of X
○ Linear trend forecasting: helps you trace the line best fit to line series
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
● A hypothesis test helps you determine some quantity under a given assumption. The
outcome of the test tells you whether the assumption holds or whether the assumption
has been violated.
○ Null hypothesis (H0): States no difference between the two values or variables
○ Alternative hypothesis (H1): States a difference between two values or variables
● Hypothesis testing uses the data obtained from a sample to decide about whether the
null hypothesis should be rejected.
○ One-tailed test (left-tailed or right-tailed test): When the test value falls in the
critical region on one side of the mean, the null hypothesis should be rejected.
○ Two-tailed test: Null hypothesis should be rejected when the rest value fails in
either of the two critical regions.

CRITICAL VALUE APPROACH

● Used to determine whether the observed test statistic is more extreme than a defined
critical value.
 ● The observed test statistic (calculated on the basis of sample data) is compared to the
critical value, from t-table.
○ If the test statistic (t*) is more extreme than the critical value (t), the null
hypothesis is rejected.
○ If the test statistic is not as extreme as the critical value, the null hypothesis is
not rejected.

P-VALUE APPROACH
● Involves determining the probability (assuming the null hypothesis were true) of
observing a more extreme test statistic in the direction of the alternative hypothesis than
the one observed.
○ If the P-value is less than (or equal to) α then the null hypothesis is rejected in
favor of the alternative hypothesis. And, if the P-value is greater than α, then the
null hypothesis is not rejected.

LESSON 12: DATA COLLECTION

OVERVIEW
● It is a systematic process of gathering relevant information, observations, or
measurements. It allows you to gain firsthand knowledge and original insights into your
research problem.
● Before collecting data, you need to know the following:
○ The aim of the research
 ○ The type of data that you will collect; and
○ The methods and procedures you will use to collect, store, and process the data

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS FOR QUANTITATIVE STUDIES

● These consist of observation, questionnaires, tests, and interviews. When developing and
utilizing a research instrument, the following steps are to be considered:
○ Define the aim of your research
○ Choose your data collection method
○ Plan your data collection procedures
○ Collect and verify your data
○ Present your findings
● Here are the types:
○ QUESTIONNAIRES
■ Has questions that aim to collect information from a respondent. It’s
typically a mix of close and open-ended questions.
■ They can be:
● Structured (employ close-ended questions)
● Unstructured (use open-ended)
● Sem-structured (combo of both)

■ There are certain guidelines in using questionnaires!

1. Determine the data to be collected
2. Determine the method to be used in administering the
questionnaire such as face-to -face or online method.
3. Divide your questionnaire into two or three parts
 a. Personal information: This section which contains
background information of the participants (names are
optional)
b. Main section: This lists the specific questions or
indicators.
c. Open-ended question section: This contains additional
information that might be needed (ONLY for quantitative
research)
4. Make sure to provide specific and clear directions for respondents
in answering the questionnaire
5. Decide on the questionnaire structure, type of questions and
response format. Evaluate the questions and options and make
sure that they are aligned with specific research questions or
objectives.
6. Decide on using simple terms, avoid negative statements, leading,
biased, double barred, or sensitive questions and make a brief,
clear, and concise questionnaire.
7. Begin with the general questions first followed by specific ones.
8. Predetermined responses should match the nature of the
questions.
a. If content is about quality, use quality (excellent, very good,
good, poor). Later, these responses will be translated into
numerical values (e.g. five-point Likert scale)
b. If questions are about frequency, use frequency (always,
frequently, sometimes, seldom, never)
c. If the content is about belief, use agreement (strongly
agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree)
d. If the questionnaire is about behavior, use extent (very
great, great, moderate, small extent, none)
9. If possible, set an appointment before distributing the
questionnaires.
10. Attach a cover letter to the questionnaire especially for agency
connected respondents
 11. Contact participants who did not return the questionnaire.
12. Tally and encode the data immediately once you have collected
them. Keep a soft copy of the questionnaire data.
○ TESTS
■ Used for measuring various skills and types of behavior, personality,
achievement, performance, as well as for describing some characteristics.
It is also used to develop specific knowledge, skill, or cognitive ability.
■ It comes in two types:
● STANDARDIZED: Questions in the test are all the same, makes
it more valid and reliable
● NONSTANDARDIZED: Doesn’t allow for a fair comparison of
one individual to another. It is simple and the scoring is not
uniform. It may be administered to a certain set of people.
■ Here are the type of test questions:
● RECALL QUESTIONS: Requires participants to recall
information from memory
○ Ex: Fill in the blanks, identification, enumeration
● RECOGNITION QUESTIONS: Allows participants to select
from given choices the best or correct choice
○ Ex: Multiple choice, true or false, yes or no
● OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS: Allows more freedom in
responses, expressing their thoughts and insights
○ Ex: Essay writing, other performance-based tests
○ INTERVIEWS
■ Quantitative interviews (aka survey interviews; structured interviews)
have a survey-style question-and-answer format wherein a large sample
size is used. Questions are close-ended.
■ If a quantitative interview contains open-ended questions, recording the
interview is advised.
○ OBSERVATIONS
■ A way of gathering data which involves systematically selecting,
watching, listening, reading, touching, and recording behavior and
characteristics of living beings, objects, or phenomena.
 ■ They can be controlled, natural, or participant. It can be used in
quantitative research when the observable characteristics are also
quantitative in nature (length, width, height, age)
■ However, it may lack participant validity and may be prone to the
Hawthrone effect phenomenon, where they may try to change their
behavior because they know they’re being watched. It can also be
time-consuming and exhausting.
■ Forms of observations:
● CONTROLLED: Researchers watch participants in a contained
environment, such as a classroom or laboratory
● NATURAL: Observing subjects in their natural behavior
● PARTICIPANT: Researcher becomes a complete observer or a
participant in the study through the experience of spending time
with a group of people and closely observing them to gain
understanding
■ Roles of researcher in observation
● Complete observer
● Observer as participant
● Complete participant
● Participant as observer

TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSES

● COLLECTION
○ Google Forms
○ Microsoft Forms
○ Survey Monkeys
○ Survey Gizmo
● ANALYSIS
○ JAMOVI
○ Microsoft Excel
○ SPSS
○ R
○ Stata & Applet
LESSON 13: DATA PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
TECHNIQUES IN DATA PROCESSING
● EDITING
○ To detect errors and omissions
○ Accurate and consistent to the questionnaire
● CODING
○ Refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that
responses can be put into a limited number of categories of classes
● TABULATION
○ A system of processing data or information by arranging it into a table

PRESENTATION OF DATA
● TABLES
○ Table helps summarize and categorize data using columns and rows. It contains
headings that indicate the most important information about your study.
○ Ex: Table 1. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Student’s Overall Performance in
Precalculus Pretest

○ Ex: Table 3. Correlation Analysis of Positive Discipline and Sense of Belonging

● GRAPHS
○ Graphs are visual representations which focus on how a change in one variable
affects another.
○ As you know, there are various types of graphs.
■ BAR GRAPH
● Illustrates comparisons of amounts and quantities

■ LINE GRAPH
● Illustrates trends and changes in data over time
■ PIE GRAPH
● Displays the relationship of parts to a whole
 ■ SCATTER PLOT
● Uses dots to represent individual pieces of data

■ BOX PLOT/WHISKER PLOT

● A way to show the spread and centers of a data set

LESSON 14: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSION OVERVIEW
● Precise statement that directly answers the stated research questions.
● The purpose of the conclusion is to make the readers understand the impact of research.
It is a synthesis of the key points and not just a summary of the entire research study.
GUIDELINES FOR WRITING CONCLUSIONS
● Avoid merely summarizing. Make inferences from the summary of results.
● State your conclusion in a clear and simple language. Emphasize the purpose of your
study then relate how your findings differ from other studies.
● Do not just reiterate the discussion of your results. Provide a synthesis of arguments
presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem and
the overall objectives of your study.
● Avoid using numerals, figures, or simply repeating the results. The focus of this part
of the research paper is not presenting results nor findings. Inferences and implications
are emphasized in the conclusions of the study.
● Indicate opportunities for future research. Highlighting the need for further studies
provides the reader with evidence that you have an in-depth awareness of the research
problem.

RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS
● It refers to logical relations and their result in a given situation. The conclusions you
draw from the findings, how you linked those to a specific theory or practice comprises
the implication of the study.
○ PRACTICAL IMPLICATION
■ Also called as convenient implication
■ It is a realistic explanation of what your research findings might mean
and the fact that would arise if those circumstances were met
■ Ex: Studying the implications of the room-to-room campaign reveals that
it is more effective in increasing awareness of how to fight COVID-19
than announcing it during the students’ morning assembly.
○ THEORETICAL IMPLICATION
■ A statement that supports or contradicts a theory, previous study
findings, or creates something entirely new. It also represents the
literature in your theoretical section.
■ Ex: Based on Bolman’s Leadership Framework, results indicate that the majority
of the Student Government officers significantly possess symbolic leadership.
Given that this is their strength, it supports the results that leadership style is
 significantly correlated to two-way communication of the organization. Results
also support that avenues for open forum or discussion were provided.
● Example:

RECOMMENDATIONS
● Suggestion regarding the best course of action to take as a result of your summary of
findings and conclusion.
○ NOTE! No matter how similar the studies are in content and context, their
findings may be different because they will depend heavily on the outcomes and
current situations that have occurred during the timeframe of the study.
● Recommendations should point to specific actions to be addressed. An excellent advice
would direct those affected by the situation to take concrete action on what needs to be
done to solve the issue or to resolve the situation.
● Generally, recommendations include how to further improve the pertinent variables or
treatment used in the study, suggestions to concerned individuals or agencies, future
researchers who may want to pursue similar studies, and suggests variables or research
methods for future use.
WHAT TO CONSIDER IN RECOMMENDATIONS
● Two major purposes of the research recommendations should be considered to be to
craft good recommendations.
○ Implications of your findings must identify the areas of concern that need to be
addressed.
○ How can future studies address the limitations you encountered in your research?