PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
● Quantitative research can be costly, because there so
MODULE 1
Lesson 1
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
●is dealing with difficult or unusual situation by
gathering numerical data that is interpret using
statistical analysis.
●This research utilizes numbers and statistical analysis.
Aliaga and Gunderson, (2000)
CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
●Quantitative researchers used tools to gather data
which include items like age, gender, educational status,
among others that can be measure through the use of
mathematical formulas.
●The use of proper and acceptable instruments guide
data collection ensures the accuracy, reliability and
validity of data.
●One of the good characteristics of quantitative
research is the use of figures, graphs and tables to show
the evidence and results of data gathered.
●A large population yields more reliable data, but
principles of random sampling must be strictly followed
to prevent researcher’s bias.
●Methods in quantitative research can be repeated in
another setting to strengthen the validity of findings.
●Quantitative research puts emphasis on proof, rather
than discovery. Just like qualitative research,
quantitative research has its own set of strengths, as
well as weaknesses
STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
STRENGTHS
● It is the most reliable and valid way of concluding
results, giving way to a new hypothesis or to disproving
it.
● The bigger number of the sample of a population, the
bigger data researchers can gathered means the results
or generalizations are more reliable and valid.
● It filters out external factors if properly designed, and
so the results gained can be seen, as real and unbiased.
WEAKNESSES
many things that a researcher needs to pay for like the
transportation, food, and, so on. Difficult, because most
researchers are non-mathematicians they tend to
miscalculate the data and time-consuming, because
they need to extend time for a bigger number of sample
population
● Quantitative studies use a mathematical formula to
confirm the results of data gathered, however, if
uncertainty occurs researchers need to go back from
the start.
● Quantitative methods also tend to turn out only
proved or unproven results, leaving little room for
uncertainty, or grey areas.
KINDS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN:
A. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
● what proves this as a true experimental design is its
random selection of participants.
● It is a bias-free selection that ensures the objectivity
of the results. This design is the best way to examine
causal relationships.
B. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
● quasi (pronounced as kwahz-eye) means partly,
partially, pseudo, or almost.
● it uses purposive sampling technique in choosing the
participants which is prone to bias. The findings are
seemingly and less true
2.NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN:
A. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
● used to get information about the current status of a
situation
Three main purposes of descriptive studies
1. describing,
2. Explaining
3. and validating research findings
Examples:
1. The tobacco use habits of teenagers
B. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
● test for the relationships between two variables.
● done to find out what is the affects of one on the
other might be and how that affects the relationships.
● In this research there is a level of manipulation
involved with the specific variables being researched.
● Once the information is collected it is then analyzed
mathematically to draw conclusions about the effect
that one has on the other.
Examples:
1. The relationship between intelligence and self-
esteem
C. CAUSAL-COMPARATIVERESEARCH
● looks for cause and effect relationship
● not conducted between the two groups on each
other,
● Look only for a statistical relationship between two
variables it tries to identify how the different groups are
affected by the same circumstance.
● involves comparison
● study of two or more groups is done without focus on
their relationship
● always the use of statistical analysis
Examples:
1. The effect of taking multivitamins on a students’
school absenteeism
D. SURVEY RESEARCH
● used to gather information from groups of people by
selecting and studying samples chosen from a
population.
● done in various ways like face-to-face, phone, mail,
and online
Lesson 2
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELD
The following are descriptions of general disciplines in
quantitative research:
SOCIAL SCIENCE
● Social scientists study all aspects of human society-
from the optimal distribution of goods and services to
human behavior and social relationships within groups
and between individuals.
● social scientists suggest solutions to social, business,
personal, governmental, and environmental problems.
SCIENCE RESEARCH
● Scientist study natural and physical phenomena, from
diseases and global warming to atomic fission and
ecology.
● They excessively work just to turn their ideas and
hypotheses into products that they can sell
● The results of this research can serve both the private
and public and non-profit sectors.
MARKET RESEARCH
● Market researchers use surveys, studies, and focus
groups to collect data about consumer behavior.
● Businesses use the information that market
researchers gather in various ways.
● They may form focus group to get the opinion of the
consumers to their new product, test the efficiency of
an advertising campaign, or find out how people use a
website.
FINANCIAL RESEARCH
● Financial researchers analyze companies’ financial
statements and operations, report on market trends
and company performance, attend or organize industry
conferences, develop proprietary pricing models for
financial products, offer forecasts and
recommendations, and watch emerging companies.
● It is the researcher’s job to stay on the top of an
industry, and to relay his knowledge to those who can
act on it: the sales force, traders, or investment
bankers.
ACADEMIC RESEARCH
● Academics, or professors, generally hold PhDs and
work in a variety of disciplines, from sociology and
medicine to political science and mathematics.
● Along with teaching, they conduct research in their
specialty (for example, an anthropologist may do field
research in another culture), using primary research
materials, and secondary materials.
● Researchers’ work is generally written up and
published in book form or in professional periodicals,
and presented at conferences to other academics in the
same field.
Lesson 3
VARIABLES
● A variable is any factor or property that a researcher
measures, controls, and/or manipulates.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF VARIABLES Examples:
gender (male and female)
NUMERIC VARIABLES answer (yes or no)
● these are variables with values that describe a
measurable numerical quantity and answer the D. POLYCHOTOMOUS VARIABLES
questions “how many” or “how much”. ● these are variables that have many categories.
● These values are considered as quantitative data. Examples:
educational attainment (elementary, high school,
A.) CONTINUOUS VARIABLES college, graduate, and postgraduate)
● these variables can assume any value between a level of performance (excellent, very good, satisfactory,
certain set of real numbers. or poor).
● The values depend on the scale used
● also called interval variables EXPERIMENTAL VARIABLES
Examples:
time, age, temperature, height, and weight. A. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
● these are usually manipulated in an experiment.
B.) DISCRETE VARIABLES ● are also called manipulated or explanatory variable.
● these variables can only assume any whole value ●Something that is changed by the scientist
within the limits of the given variables. Examples:
Examples: What is tested
number of registered cars, What is manipulated
number of business locations,
number of children in the family, B. DEPENDENT VARIABLES
● these variables are usually affected by the
CATEGORICAL VARIABLES manipulation of the independent variables.
●these are variables with values that describe a quality ● are also called response or Predicted variables.
or characteristics of a data unit like “what type” or ● something that might be affected by the change in
“which category”. the independent variable
Examples:
A. ORDINAL VARIABLES What is observed
●these variables can take a value which can be logically What is measured
ordered or ranked.
Examples: C. EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
academic grades such as A,B,C ●these variables are also called mediating or
clothing size such as X,L,M,S intervening variables.
● These variables are already existing during the
B. NOMINAL VARIABLES conduct of an experiment and could influence the result
● these are variables whose values cannot be organized of the study.
in a logical sequence. ● hey are known as covariate variables
Examples:
business types VARIABLES ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER BEING
eye colors STUDIED
kinds of religion UNIVARIATE STUDY – only one variable is being studied
BIVARIATE STUDY – two variables are being studied
C. DICHOTOMOUS VARIABLES POLYVARIATE STUDY – more than two variables are
● these variables represent only two categories. being studied
MODULE 2
Lesson 4
RESEARCH TOPIC
SELECTING THE RESEARCH TOPIC
In choosing a research topic, be guided by the following
criteria:
1. The topic must be new and different from what has
already been written about.
2. It should be aligned to your strand/course or selected
discipline.
3. Choose a topic that you really want do to
4. As a beginner, think of a topic that can be done
within a short period of time
5. It should be clear and specific. Avoid topic which is
uncertain and broad
6. It should consider the training and personal
qualifications of the researcher.
7. Researchers should think of a topic that will match to
the available efficient tools for data gathering.
8. Researchers should consider the capacity of their
fund to support the research study
9. Researchers should think the time frame for their
research study
10. It must necessarily arouse intellectual curiosity.
RESEARCH TITLE
● The title summarizes the main idea or ideas of the
study
● An effective research title does not need many words.
● Acceptable words to identify the contents and/or
purpose of the research study will do.
SELECTED GUIDELINES IN THE FORMULATION OF A
RESEARCH TITLE
1. The title must have the following:
● a. the research problem;
● b. the place where the study will be conducted;
● c. the people who are included in the study; and
● d. the date when the study started and ends (If the
title becomes too long) because of these elements, the
time frame or period may be omitted except in
evaluation studies.
2. The title can be broad to put all aspects of the
research study, however, it must be short and concise
as possible.
3. The use of terms as “Analysis of”, and, “An
investigation of” should be prevented. All these are
understood to have been done in a research.
4. Write your title in inverted pyramid, if the lines of
your title exceeded more than one line.
5. When typed or encoded in the title page, all words in
the title should be in capital letters.
6. Write your title with maximum of 15 words, if
possible
Characteristics of a Good Title
1. The title should convey information about the
contents of your research study.
2. Title does not need to be stuffy, it should be
interesting and straightforward.
3. Write a title that is in phrase form rather than a
complete sentence.
4. Do not use punctuation at the end of the title.
5. In writing your research title, do not underline or put
any quotation marks.
Five Steps to Write a Good Research Title
(Rajagopalan, 2014)
● STEP 1
Answer the following questions and jot down the
answers:
—What is the subject matter of my paper?
—What research designs or techniques are you going to
use?
●STEP 2
From your answers to step 1, find the important words.
● STEP 3
From the list of key words, start constructing your title.
● STEP 4
Revised your title by omitting unnecessary/ repetitive
words and link the remaining
● STEP 5
Finalized your title by rewording some of the words.
Lesson 5
THE BACKGROUND OF THE RESEARCH STUDY
● consists of a review of the area being researched,
● current information surrounding the issue,
● previous studies on the issue, and
● relevant history on the issue.
● The purpose of abackground study is to help you to
prove the relevance of your research question and to
further develop your research.
How to describe the “Background of Research”
1. Describe the background of your research.
2. Tell us why this field is important
3. Describe the current (and relevant) “hot topics” in
the field
4. Describe the specific area you will be researching in
the field
5. Tell us why your research will add to the field.
6. Describe your research as answers to research
questions you have been assigned to research.
7. Explain what you will do in your research to test your
hypothesis or demontrate your model.
8. Summarize the current research base in your specific
area of interest and highlight. any gaps in the research
that you plan to address with your research.
Background of the research study has the following
essential elements:
a. Introduction
b. Statement of the Problem
c. Scope and Delimitation
d. Significance of the Study
THE INTRODUCTION
The introduction is important to research study
because:
● it establish is cognitive setting of the study and
● it involves why does the researcher need to study the
problem,
● what are essential terminologies that the readers
should know to understand the study, and,
● tell how serious the problem that they need to find
solutions.
The introduction must only be direct to the point and be
concise. It must be composed of about three to five
pages.
The following questions will aid the researcher in
formulating the introduction:
1. What is the reason of the research problem?
It can be answered by stating the reasons of the
researchers to find a solutions to a certain problem. A
narration of the researcher’s experience that has driven
him/her to conduct the study is commonly done.
2. What is the setting of the research problem?
The researcher will describe the setting of the study
which is essential to set the delimitation. This describes
to the reader the place where the research is
conducted. In describing the setting, focus on the
peculiarity or uniqueness of the setting to make the
reader more interested in reading the paper.
3. What is the basic literature foundation of the study?
This is different from the review of related theories,
conceptual literature, and research literature. This part
of the study should discuss the terms or variables that is
used in the study. It is derived from different literature
sources. Thus, this part of Chapter 1 requires the use of
various references.
4. How serious is the chosen research problem?
In part, the researcher will prove how serious the
problem. He/ She should emphasize the intensity of the
problem by looking for statistical or quantitative
evidence to assess the weight of the problem.
5. What is the general objective of the research
problem?
This is derived from the general statement of the
problem and should be the basis of the enumerated
statements of specific problems.
6. What is the overall purpose of the research
problem?
As a researcher, one should emphasize the main
purpose of the study to know how the research findings
will help the people.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
● Quantitative research problem must be solved using
scientific method or experimentation to be a
researchable question. Using these method will help the
researchers to arrive at the true results.
(Matthews and Ross,2010; Schreiber and Ashner-Self,
2011)
Sources of Quantitative Research Problem
One of the following could give rise to a quantitative
research problem (Edmonds and Kennedy, 2013;
Punch, 2014)
1. Agencies of the government or any non-government
institutions
2. Your experience or genuine interest in something
3. Previous research findings that you want to validate
or consider as studies suffering from some
inconsistencies or discrepancies
4. Present political social or economic issues in society
5. Review of related literature
The important elements in the statement of the
general problem are:
1. Main tasks – it answers the question, “What to do”
with the important variables such as to associate, to
assess, to determine, to measure, to relate etc.
2. Main or major variables
3. Participants: subjects or respondents
4. The specific setting
5. Coverage date of the conduct of study
6. For developmental research, the intended outputs
such as an intervention program, and policies.
Types of research questions
Descriptive Research Questions
● as questions on the kind, qualifications and categories
of the subjects or participants.
Examples:
What is the level of description of the study habits of
senior high school students in terms of:
2.1 review time;
2.2 place of review;
2.3 techniques in studying?
Relation Questions
● are questions about the nature and manner of
connection between or among the variables
Examples:
How does the study habits influence the achievement
level of Grade 12 students in their major subjects?
Causal Questions
● reasons behind the effects of the independent
variable on the dependent variable are the focus of
these types of research questions
Examples:
What are the effects of the traditional methods of
teaching on the level of performance of the ABM
students?
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The scope depicts the
●content of the study like the
● terms of concept,
● number of subjects or the
● population included in the study, as well as the
● timeline when the study was conducted.
The Delimit means the researcher is stating the
● things that are not included in the study starting to
the
● size of sample population (to exclude those who do
not belong to the study) and the
● time frame of the study.
This section discusses the parameters of the research in
paragraph. It answers the basic questions:
1. What – What is main topic of the study and the major
variables
2. Where- The venue or the setting of the research
3. When- When does the research study takes place and
ends
4. Why- The general objectives of the research
5. Who- The subject of the study, the population and
sampling
6. How – How does the research design, methodology
and the research instrument used in the study.
MODULE 3
Lesson 5
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
● a graphical presentation of researchers’ idea on how
to conduct his/her research study.
● it can be in a flow chartmap, or diagram format.
● It can be also in a narrative form. Your narrative
should summarize the variables and explore how they
may change your hypothesis.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
● consist of different existing theories from different
studies that serve as foundation of a research study.
●researchers should cite and discuss relevant and
related theories about the variables and their
relationships to make the study more scientific and
understandable especially to the readers.
● In citing theories, researcherS should mention
theories with the name of the author, titles of their
theories, theoretical principles, and their explanations
PARADIGM OF THE STUDY
● diagram that visually represents, and interprets the
underlying theory, principles, and concepts of a
research.
● It is used to easily understand conceptual (if written in
narrative form) and theoretical framework of the study.
● It is the researcher’s scientific imagination expressed
graphically by drawings or sketches.
The common paradigms or models of the study used
are as follows:
1. IPO model (input-process-output).
● This model is largely used when the research attempts
to isolate the factor or major variable that causes the
problem, subject, or phenomenon under investigation.
● This model is used when the statements of the
problem are all descriptive research questions.
2. IV-DV model (independent variable-dependent
variable model).
● This model is used to experimental-based studies.
● The questions raised are higher order and classified as
situation relating.
3.PC model (predictor-criterion model).
● This model is used when relating and assessing the
influence between two or more variables.
● Studies that focus on relationships, associations,
differences, and impacts will benefit from this model.
4. P-model.
● This model is used in research studies that propose a
program or any intervention measure.
●It fits the situation producing level of questioning.
5. POM (proposed original model).
● The model is used when the researcher presents an
original paradigm.
● The requirement is that it must be scientific.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
●It is a critical element to the research process and
involves scientifically defining a specific concept (also
known as a variable), so it can be systematically
measured. You will be able to find ideas for definitions
by reading around the topic.
1. Conceptual Definition - The conceptual definition is
considered to be the text book definition. Conceptual
definition are offered in the related literature base.
Generally speaking, it should be presented word for
word and placed in quotes with associated reference
and page number.
2. Operational Definition - It defines a concept solely in
terms of the operations (or method) used to produce
and measure it.
HYPOTHESIS
● A hypothesis is an educated prediction that can be
tested. It describes in concrete terms what you expect
will happen in a certain circumstance.
● The presence of enough data and proofs to support
the hypothesis leads to the formation of a theory which
essential role is to make your ideas or guesses clear and
reasonable.
A hypothesis is used in an experiment to define the
relationship between two variables.
● The purpose of a hypothesis to find the answer to a
question. A formalized hypothesis will force the
researcher to think about what results he/she should
look for in an experiment.
The first variable is called the independent variable.
● This is the part of the experiment that can be changed
and tested. The independent variable happens first and
can be considered the cause of any changes in the
outcome.
The outcome is called the dependent variable.
Purposes of Hypotheses
1. They guide you on which aspect of the research to
focus on.
2. They provide opportunities to prove the relationship
between variables.
3. They give the right direction of the research.
4. They outline your thoughts in your manner of
summarizing the results and of explaining the
conclusions
5. They push for an empirical study to prove the
existence of relationship of variables and the effects of
independent variable on the dependent variable.
CATEGORIES OF HYPOTHESIS
Null hypothesis
● symbolized by H0 states the absence of the
relationship between independent and dependent
variables.
● It is therefore a statement to disprove the fact that
the independent variable has an effect on the
dependent variable.
Alternative Hypothesis.
● Symbolized by H1.
● it states the relationship between the independent
and the dependent variables and
● the fact that the first affects the second one.
OTHER CATEGORIES OF HYPOTHESIS
1.Simple hypothesis - predicts the relationship between
the dependent and independent variables.
Examples:
Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to obesity.
2. Complex hypothesis - examines the relationship of
two or more dependent variables and two or more
independent variables.
Examples:
Overweight adults who value longevity and seek
happiness are more likely than other adults to lose their
excess weight and feel a more regular sense of joy.
3. Empirical hypothesis - tests a belief or an assumption
through experimentation and observation
Examples:
Roses watered with liquid Vitamin B grow faster than
roses watered with liquid Vitamin E.
4. Logical hypothesis - explains something with
insufficient evidence, which paves the observation.
Examples:
Cacti experience more successful growth rates than
tulips on Mars. (Until we’re able to test plant growth in
Mars’ ground for an extended period of time, the
evidence for this claim will be limited and the
hypothesis will only remain logical.)
5. Statistical hypothesis - examines every individual
composing a population to prove whether or not the
hypothesis is true.
Examples:
If you wanted to conduct a study on the life expectancy
of Savannians, you would want to examine a sample of
the savannian population.