Korean EFL College Students’ Acceptance and Use of

Smartphone Applications for English Language Learning

Dissertation presented to the Faculty of

California School of Education

Alliant International University

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San Diego

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of

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Doctor of Education
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by

Soo Kyung Ahn, M.A.

2018
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Approved by

Kenneth Kelch, Ed.D., Chairperson

James Perren, Ed.D.

Jin Suk Byun, Ph.D.





ProQuest Number: 10794038




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USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG ii

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USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG iii

DEDICATION

I dedicated this research to my husband, Kwang IL who supported and encouraged

me to continue throughout my doctoral courses. Without his love, unconditional support, and

understanding, I could not have even dreamt of doing the doctorate. My elder daughter,

Robin, always there for me. She proofread and edited my dissertation with love and care. My

younger one, Jaqueline who gave me immeasurable love and encouragement.

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USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my appreciation and sincere gratitude to my research advisor,

Dr. Kenneth Kelch who encouraged me during doctoral courses and eventually supports my

dissertation. When I began to my doctoral course, I questioned him whether I could finish the

doctoral course. I could not forget the time he gave me confidence and encouragement.

Without his invaluable support and guidance, I could not accomplish the research.

Furthermore, I would like to thank you to my research committee members: Dr.

Jinsuk Byun and Dr. James Perren who reviewed my dissertation and provided comments to

improve the quality of my research. Their advice throughout the research was indispensable. I

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would like to express my appreciation to my professors, Dr. Marry Ellen Butler-Pascoe, Dr.

Shirley Baker, Dr. Mira Malupa Kim, Dr. Rick Ansoff, and Kim Lawgali.
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I would like to express my sincere appreciation to my family: my husband, and two
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daughters. In my journey to complete my doctorate, my husband, Kwangil Park, always

supported and encouraged me not only to do my best but also enjoy the learning. My elder

daughter, Robin Park, helped me greatly through her skill as an interpreter and a translator by
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editing my dissertation. I would never have accomplished this goal without her. My younger

one, Jaqueline Park, always supported me with love and gave me the energy to continue my

dissertation. My family’s love and encouragement have been a driving force for the

accomplishment of this dream.

Finally, I would like to thank two professors. Special thanks go to my friend, Dr. Sang

Hun Jung who administered all the process of conducting a survey in Korea for my

dissertation. In addition, Dr. Bum Jong Kim who analyzed my data and patiently provided

comments and suggestions by answering my numerous questions about statistics. Thank you

so much for all you have done for me.

At my age, the journey to complete my doctorate was quite challenging. However, I

USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG v

enjoyed the learning process and had a lot of support from my family, professions, and

colleagues. I was fortunate to have such a precious experience and valuable memory. Now, I

am looking forward to the next chapter in my life.

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USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG vi

Abstract

Smartphones have penetrated deeply into all aspects of our lives. Now, smartphones are our

life partners that enable us to message via applications (apps), communicate on social media,

share images and videos on Instagram or Snapchat, find easiest and fastest route through

GPS, take or edit photos and videos, check email, take notes, read books, and play mobile

games (Godwin-Jones, 2017). The impact of smartphones has also reached education and led

to the development of countless language learning apps. Smartphones have become a

fundamental tool for mobile assisted language learning (MALL). However, before merging

this new technology with language education, it is critical to identify students’ perception

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towards smartphone apps for English language learning (SAELL) and determinants affecting

their acceptance of SAELL.

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The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of Korean college students’
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experiences in using SAELL and to investigate factors affecting the students’ intention to use

SAELL, gender and academic major differences in acceptance of SAELL, as well as barriers

to using SAELL. A quantitative method was used to analyze data collected from 675
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participants in Korea. The result indicated that smartphones have already become a necessity

for Korean college students and the majority of them (82.5 %) had previous experience using

SAELL. Perceived usefulness, perceived convenience, social influence, perceived enjoyment,

and self-management of learning were all significant factors that affect students’ intention to

use SAELL. Gender and academic major differences in acceptance of SAELL were also

examined. Additionally, barriers to using SAELL were discussed in terms of pedagogical,

psycho-social, and technical issues. Finally, this study discusses implications, limitations, and

proposed areas for future study. This study adds to the knowledge of how to use smartphones

for language learning and provides useful insights on the acceptance of SAELL.
USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG vii

Table of Contents

Dedication .............................................................................................................................. iii

Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................. iv

Abstract .................................................................................................................................. vi

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................ xii

List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER I. Introduction .................................................................................................... 1

Background of the Problem ............................................................................................... 2
Significance of the Study ................................................................................................... 4

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Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 5
Scope of the Study .............................................................................................................. 6
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Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 6
Research Design .................................................................................................................. 6
Participants .......................................................................................................................... 7
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Instruments ......................................................................................................................... 7
Data Collection Procedures ................................................................................................. 8
Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 8
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Theoretical Frameworks ..................................................................................................... 9

Organization of Dissertation ............................................................................................ 10
Definition of Key Terms ................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER II. Literature Review ....................................................................................... 13

New Technologies in Education ....................................................................................... 13
Web 2.0 in Language Education ................................................................................ 13
Mobile Learning (M-Learning) Technologies in Education ............................................. 17
Definitions of M-learning .......................................................................................... 17
Mobility of Technology, Learner, and Learning ....................................................... 19
Mobility of Technology ..................................................................................... 20
Mobility of Learners .......................................................................................... 20
Mobility of Learning .......................................................................................... 20
Advantages of M-Learning ....................................................................................... 22
USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG viii

Portability........................................................................................................... 22
Ubiquity ............................................................................................................. 22
Flexibility ........................................................................................................... 22
Collaboration...................................................................................................... 23
Authentic and Situated Learning ....................................................................... 23
Personalized Learning ........................................................................................ 24
Disadvantage of M-learning ...................................................................................... 24
Physical Issues .................................................................................................. 24
Pedagogical Issues ............................................................................................ 25
Psycho-Social Issues .......................................................................................... 26
The Emergence of Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) ................................... 27
The Concept of MALL............................................................................................... 27

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The Impact of MALL on Language Skills ................................................................ 29
Learning Vocabulary ......................................................................................... 29
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Listening and Speaking ...................................................................................... 32
Learning Grammar ............................................................................................. 33
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Reading Comprehension .................................................................................... 34

Writing ............................................................................................................... 36
Smartphone Applications for English Language Learning (SAELL) ............................... 38
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Distinguishing Smartphone with Other Information and Communication technologies

.................................................................................................................................... 38
The Students’ Perception towards Using SAELL...................................................... 40
Using Smartphone Apps in EFL ................................................................................ 41
Technology Acceptance .................................................................................................... 46
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) ..................................................................... 46
TAM and M-Learning ................................................................................................ 48
Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) ........................... 52
Performance Expectancy ................................................................................... 53
Effort Expectancy .............................................................................................. 54
Social Influence ................................................................................................. 54
Facilitating Conditions ...................................................................................... 54
Moderating Variables ........................................................................................ 55
UTAUT and M-Learning ........................................................................................... 56
USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG ix

The Use of Smartphone Apps for English Language Learning (SAELL) in Korea ......... 60
Smartphone and English Fever in Korea ................................................................... 61
Smart Learning and Smart Campus in Korea ............................................................ 62
Using Smartphone Apps for English Language Learning (SAELL) in Korea .................. 64
Korean Learners’ Usage of and Perception towards SAELL .................................... 64
The Popularity of Kakao Talk, a Korean Mobile Messenger App, in English Language
Learning ..................................................................................................................... 66
Using SNS for English Language Learning............................................................... 67
Using Functional Apps of Smartphone for English Language Learning ................... 68
Using English Proficiency Test Preparation Apps..................................................... 69
Analyzing Smartphone Apps for English Language Learning (SAELL) .................. 70
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 71

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Chapter III. Methodology ................................................................................................... 73
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 73
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Research Design ................................................................................................................ 74
Research Model ................................................................................................................ 75
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Participants ........................................................................................................................ 78
Instruments ........................................................................................................................ 80
Reliability and Validity ..................................................................................................... 82
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Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................................... 83

Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 84
Summary ........................................................................................................................... 87

Chapter IV. Results ............................................................................................................. 88

Descriptive Statistics ......................................................................................................... 88
Demographic Characteristics ..................................................................................... 88
General Usage of Smartphone Apps for English Language Learning (SAELL) ....... 89
Data Screening .................................................................................................................. 91
Missing Data .............................................................................................................. 92
Normality ................................................................................................................... 93
Correlation.................................................................................................................. 94
Multicollinearity......................................................................................................... 95
Assessing the Measurement Model ................................................................................... 96
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Goodness-of-Fit Measures ......................................................................................... 96

Measurement Reliability ............................................................................................ 97
Convergent Validity ................................................................................................... 98
Discriminant Validity................................................................................................. 98
Multiple Linear Regression Analysis .............................................................................. 100
Relationship between the Independent Variables and the Dependent Variables ..... 102
Group Analysis ............................................................................................................... 103
Gender differences ................................................................................................... 103
Academic Major differences .................................................................................... 105
Moderating Effects .......................................................................................................... 107
Moderating Effects of Gender .................................................................................. 108
Moderating Effects of Academic Major .................................................................. 109

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Barriers to Using Smartphone Apps for English Language Learning (SAELL) ............ 110
Summary ......................................................................................................................... 112
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Chapter V. Discussion and Conclusion ............................................................................ 113
Answers to the Research Questions ................................................................................ 113
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Research Question 1 ................................................................................................. 113

Research Question 2 ................................................................................................. 116
Perceived Usefulness ....................................................................................... 116
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Self-Management of Learning ......................................................................... 117

Perceived Enjoyment ....................................................................................... 117
Perceived Convenience .................................................................................... 118
Social Influence ............................................................................................... 119
Research Question 3 ................................................................................................. 119
Moderating Effects of Gender ......................................................................... 120
Moderating Effects of Academic Major .......................................................... 121
Research Question 4 ................................................................................................. 122
Pedagogical Issues ........................................................................................... 122
Psycho-Social Issues ........................................................................................ 123
Technical Issues ............................................................................................... 124
Implications ..................................................................................................................... 125
University Administrators ....................................................................................... 125
EFL Teachers and Students..................................................................................... 126
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Educational App Developers .................................................................................. 128

Limitations of the Study .................................................................................................. 131
Directions for Future Research ....................................................................................... 132
Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 134
References ........................................................................................................................... 136

APPENDIX A. Survey Instrument (English) .................................................................. 169

APPENDIX B. Survey Instrument (Korean) .................................................................. 173

APPENDIX C. Permission for Using Research Model................................................... 177

APPENDIX D. Regressions Analysis of Men Group ...................................................... 178

APPENDIX E. Regressions Analysis of Women Group................................................. 179

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APPENDIX F. Regressions Analysis of English-Related Major Group ....................... 180

APPENDIX G. Regressions Analysis of Non-English Major Group ............................ 181

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APPENDIX H. Moderating Effects of Gender by General Linear Model ................... 182
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APPENDIX I. Moderating Effects of Academic Major by General Linear Model .... 184
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USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG xii

List of Tables

Table 1. The Number of Participants by Region ................................................................... 79

Table 2. Constructs and Instrument Items ............................................................................. 81

Table 3. Overview of Data Analysis ..................................................................................... 86

Table 4. Participant Demographics ....................................................................................... 89

Table 5. Experience, Number and Cost of Apps for English Learning ................................. 90

Table 6. Types of Smartphone Apps for English Learning ................................................... 91

Table 7. Duration and Location of Using Apps for English Learning .................................. 92

Table 8. Descriptive Statistics for the Variables ................................................................... 94

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Table 9. Correlations Matrix between Constructs ................................................................. 95

Table 10. Multicollinearity .................................................................................................... 96

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Table 11. Goodness of Fit of Measurement Model ............................................................... 97
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Table 12. Reliability and Validity of Measurement .............................................................. 99

Table 13. Discriminant Validity .......................................................................................... 100

Table 14. Research Model Summary .................................................................................. 101

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Table 15. ANOVA Test of the Model ................................................................................. 101

Table 16. Regression Coefficients of All Participants ........................................................ 102

Table 17. Research Model Summary for Men .................................................................... 104

Table 18. Research Model Summary for Women ............................................................... 104

Table 19. Model Summary for English-Related Majors ..................................................... 106

Table 20. Model Summary for Non-English Majors ........................................................... 107

Table 21. Moderating Effects of Gender ............................................................................. 109

Table 22. Moderating Effects of Acedemic Major .............................................................. 110

Table 23. Barriers to Using Smartphone Apps for English Language Learning ................. 111
USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG xiii

List of Figures

Figure 1. Three Concepts of Mobile Learning (El-Hussein & Cronje, 2010, p. 17) ............. 21

Figure 2. Technology Acceptance Model (Davis et al., 1989, p. 985) ................................... 47

Figure 3. The UTAUT Model (Venkatesh et al., 2003, p. 447) .............................................. 53

Figure 4. Proposed Research Model for Acceptance of SAELL ............................................ 78

Figure 5. Standardized Regression Coefficients for All Respondents .................................. 103

Figure 6. Standardized Regression Coefficients for Men and Women................................. 105

Figure 7. Standardized Regression Coefficients for English-Related Majors and Non-English

Majors ....................................................................................................................107

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USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG 1

CHAPTER I

Introduction

The widespread adoption of mobile technology in recent years has brought about a

tremendous increase in the number of people carrying mobile devices worldwide. Korea is no

exception. If you take a subway or a bus in Korea, you will see many people of all ages

engrossed in their mobile devices. Almost every teenager and adult in Korea has a

smartphone. The Statista (2014) reported that 97.7 percent of Internet users in Korea,

between the ages of 18 and 24, own a smartphone. They watch television, access social

networking sites (SNS), listen to music, text and call, send e-mails, and perform various other

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daily tasks on their smartphones. In Korea, life is virtually mobile (Choe, 2009). In addition

to this “smartphone fever,” the English education boom in Korea in recent years has
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encouraged the development of smartphone applications (apps) to support different aspects of
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English learning including vocabulary, reading, listening, speaking, grammar, and writing.

Mobile apps are proliferating rapidly and may make desktop computing obsolete (Godwin-

Jones, 2011).
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The rapid emergence of the smartphone has enabled foreign language learners to

practice their target language skills “anywhere, anytime” (Geddes, 2004, p. 1) and to access

various apps, which provide an ideal platform for informal, individualized learning (Godwin-

Jones, 2011; Steel, 2012). The growth in the number of smartphone users has boosted the

educational potential of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL). Thus, it is necessary

to understand the potential impact of smartphones on foreign language learning and students’

acceptance of smartphone language learning. Despite the popularity of smartphones and

English learning apps, few studies have explored students’ acceptance and usage patterns of

smartphone apps for English language learning (SAELL). Therefore, this paper explores

Korean EFL college students’ acceptance and usage patterns of SAELL.

USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG 2

Background of the Problem

Mobile learning (m-learning) refers to the use of mobile devices such as mobile

phones, handheld PDAs, and smartphones in learning without constraints in time or place

(Demirbilek, 2010; Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2007). Rapid technological advances over the

past years have inspired language educators to adopt mobile devices in their teaching and

learning environments (Stockwell & Hubbard, 2013). Many studies have been conducted to

explore the possibilities of foreign language learning with mobile devices (Chinnery, 2006;

Hu, 2010; Kukulska-Hulme, 2009; Levy, 2009; Miangah & Nezarat, 2012; Ota, 2015; Smith

& Wang, 2013; Thornton & Houser, 2005). The adoption of mobile devices in foreign

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language learning improves different aspects of L2 language learners’ English language skills,

such as vocabulary (Kevin & Levy, 2008; Stockwell, 2010; Tafazoli & Jam, 2015; Thornton
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& Houser, 2005), reading comprehension (Chen & Hsu, 2008; Foomami & Hedayati, 2016;
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Huang & Lin, 2011; Lan, Sung, & Chang, 2007), grammar (Baleghizadeh & Oladrostam,

2010; Guerrero, Ochoa, & Collazos, 2010; Wang & Smith, 2013), listening (Azar & Nasiri,

2014; Rahimi & Soleymani, 2015), and speaking (Demouy & Kukulska-Hulme, 2010;
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Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2007; Liu, 2009 ). Portability, accessibility, interactivity, and

individualized learning are important components of MALL, and these characteristics have

been proven through recent studies (Chinnery 2006; Fujimoto, 2012; Hu, 2010; Kukulska-

Hulme & Shield, 2007; Miangah & Nezarat, 2012; Steel, 2012). Moreover, the effectiveness

of smartphone apps in language learning has been discussed in different countries (Faqe,

2015; Kim & Kwon, 2012; Kwon, 2013a; Ota, 2015; Park, 2013; Seo & Choi, 2014; Weng &

Chen, 2015).

Mobile apps have become pervasive in our daily lives and are now evolving into an

ideal platform for foreign language learning (Pindeh, Suki, & Suki, 2016). However, the

availability and accessibility of mobile apps do not guarantee their success in an educational
USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG 3

context (Godwin-Jones, 2017; Liu, Li, & Carlsson, 2009). It is important to understand that

students’ acceptance of technology plays a critical role in determining the success of MALL.

If students perceive that a technology is useful and easy to use, they tend to show a positive

attitude, and higher satisfaction and motivation, which will drive them to capitalize on the

technology (Chung, Chen, & Kuo, 2015; Park, Nam, & Cha, 2012; Pindeh et al., 2016; Mtebe

& Raisamo, 2014; Nassuora, 2012). Thus, students’ perspectives towards and acceptance of

mobile apps are critical factors in successful m-learning. A number of studies have found that

MALL enhances learners’ motivations for English learning and positive attitudes towards

MALL (Demirbilek, 2010; Fujimoto, 2012; Kwon, 2013b; Kim, Rueckert, Kim, & Seo, 2013;

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Steel, 2013; Yang, 2012). Therefore, students consider mobile devices as a vital tool for

acquiring information and ubiquitous learning.

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With the sharp rise in the number of smartphone users, smartphone apps have become
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more popular and diversified. Weng & Chen (2015) examined many positive factors

contributing to the smartphone's popularity in English learning and found the following: Four

A’s (Anytime, Anywhere, Anyway, and Achievement), R.A.I.L. (Real-Pearson Pronunciation,

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Adaptive-Testing, Instant Translation, and Language-Drills), and S.I.D.E. (Supplementary,

Interesting, Dual-Purpose, and Effortless). They argued that the greatest benefit of the

smartphone is that English learning can happen anytime, anywhere. In addition, smartphone

apps can provide special functions for English learning such as authentic pronunciation,

adaptive testing, instant translation, and language drills that help improve learners’ language

proficiency. For instance, language drills including multimedia effects make language

learning more interesting, thus boosting learners’ motivation. Finally, smartphone apps can

supplement school work as students can learn simply by touching screens instead of browsing

through thick textbooks.

USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG 4

In Korea, smartphone ownership has rapidly increased in recent years. English

proficiency is regarded as a necessary skill for Korean college students to get a job. Moreover,

with the rising popularity of mobile technology, both formal and informal education in Korea

is undergoing a shift from e-learning to m-learning (Jung, 2009 cited from Park et al., 2012).

Despite the favorable external circumstances for m-learning, it still faces challenges. While

numerous studies have investigated the use of mobile technologies in English language

learning, few studies have been conducted to research Korean college students’ acceptance

and usage patterns of smartphones in informal English learning. Thus, it is necessary to

explore students' experiences with SAELL and examine various factors affecting their

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acceptance of SAELL. In order to adopt SAELL in Korea’s educational environment,

educators and app developers need to understand how Korean college students use SAELL,
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and to what extent they accept them as a language learning tool. Thus, this study aims to fill
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in the gap in the current literature on the use of smartphone apps in order to support informal

English learning in Korea.

Significance of the Study

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With the rapid expansion of mobile devices, the number of smartphone owners has

increased significantly. As a result, the smartphone apps market has grown tremendously to

offer millions of smartphone apps to users (Godwin-Jones, 2011; Gregory, 2015). These apps

are easy to download and use. Furthermore, the increasing availability of free or inexpensive

smartphone apps also indicates that they are not only convenient, but also have a potential to

become a powerful language learning tool (Kukulska-Hulme, Bradley, Carvalho, Herrington,

Kennedy, & Walker, 2011). The growth of smartphone users has brought a further potential

for MALL to be an efficient language learning tool for foreign language learners. Two large

app stores, Apple App Store and Google play, have offered millions of apps of all kinds to

their users since 2008. Users are able to download 2.2 million apps from Google Play and 2.2
USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG 5

million apps from Apple App Store (Statista, 2016). In this huge pool of apps, there are a

large number of apps to teach English for foreign language learners. Nowadays, Android

phones are most popular in Korea (Gregory, 2015), and more than 500 English learning apps

were available for Android users in 2012 (Kwon, 2013a). These apps are easily

downloadable to smartphones and can be used productively by learners anywhere, anytime.

Smartphone apps vary tremendously in purpose, design and scope, and they allow

students to engage in various types of informal language learning outside the classroom. As

informal language learning is likely to take place on apps chosen by students themselves, not

teachers (Godwin-Jones, 2007), it is very important to examine students’ usage patterns of

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SAELL and identify important factors affecting their decision to use SAELL. Moreover, this

study focuses on Korea, which has distinguishing characteristics in terms of its strong IT
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infrastructure and enthusiasm for English education. These characteristics may directly
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impact the adoption of SAELL. This research will help facilitate a better understanding of

students’ acceptance and use of SAELL as well as challenges in accepting and using SAELL

in Korea.
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Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate Korean EFL college students’ acceptance

of smartphone apps as a language learning tool, how and to what extent they are using them

for informal English learning, how gender and academic major influence their acceptance of

SAELL, and the barriers to using SAELL. This research developed a model for analyzing the

relationship between students’ intention to use smartphone apps for English language

learning (SAELL) and variables such as perceived usefulness, perceived convenience, social

influence, perceived enjoyment, and self-management of learning. This research will

contribute to the understanding of how Korean college students accept and use smartphone

apps to support their informal English learning. Moreover, this study will provide new
USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG 6

insights to educators, university administrators, and app developers by exploring various

factors affecting students’ acceptance of SAELL and their usage patterns. Thus, they will be

able to use this information in developing and investing in more useful smartphone apps for

students. In addition, this study explores the barriers to using SAELL in order to offer useful

information in utilizing smartphone apps as a language learning tool.

Scope of the Study

There are various types of mobile devices used in m-learning such as tablets, PDAs,

mobile phones, laptop computers, etc. However, the present study will focus only on the use

of the smartphone and its apps for informal English learning.

Research Questions

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The following research questions will investigate Korean college students’ acceptance
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and use of smartphone apps technology in informal English learning.
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RQ1. How and to what extent do students use smartphone apps in English language learning?

RQ2. How do the following factors affect students’ desire to use smartphone apps for English

language learning (SAELL): perceived usefulness, perceived convenience, social

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influence, perceived enjoyment, and self-management learning?

RQ3. How do moderators (i.e. gender and academic major) influence students’ acceptance of

SAELL?

RQ4. What do students perceive as barriers to using SAELL?

Research Design

This study is designed as quantitative research. For quantitative research, a

questionnaire was used to collect four types of information: 1) students demographic

information, 2) students’ usage patterns of SAELL, 3) their acceptance of SAELL, and 4)

barriers to using SAELL. The data were collected by a Likert scale questionnaire. The

statements of the questionnaire were developed based on the MALL theory and two
USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG 7

technology acceptance theories: Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology

(UTAUT) model proposed by Venkatesh, Morris, Hall, Davis, and Walton (2003) and

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) proposed by Davis (1989). Collected data were

analyzed by the Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) and Statistical Package for the

Social Sciences (SPSS) systems. Confirmatory factor analysis using AMOS 22.0 was

conducted to assess the measurement model in terms of goodness-of-fit, reliability,

convergent validity, and discriminant validity. SPSS was used for descriptive statistics,

multiple linear regression analysis, and general linear model.

Participants

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Participants in this study consisted of 675 Korean EFL college students from seven

colleges in Korea. They were undergraduate students aged from 20 to 28. Among them,
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females were 512 and males were 163. The participants were divided two different academic
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majors to investigate the effect of academic major as a moderator: English-related majors and

non-English majors. English-related majors were 348, and non-English majors were 326.

Since the purpose of this study is to identify students’ usage patterns of and desire to use
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SAELL, the prerequisite was smartphone ownership. The respondents who did not own a

smartphone were excluded from this study.

Instruments

In this study, data were collected by a questionnaire. The questionnaire was designed

by the researcher to investigate students’ acceptance of SAELL and their usage patterns. The

questionnaire was developed based on the previous scholarly literature in this field. The

survey consists of 50 questions including Yes / No, multiple choice and Likert scale

(5=Strongly agree, 1=Strongly disagree) questions. The survey instrument for this study

consists of four sections: 1) students demographic information, 2) students’ usage patterns of

SAELL, 3) students’ acceptance of SAELL, and 4) barriers to using SAELL. Part I is

USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG 8

designed to identify students’ demographic information such as gender, age, academic major,

and smartphone ownership. Part II is designed to explore students’ usage patterns of SAELL.

Participants were asked about the following information: experiences of using SAELL, the

number of SAELL installed, types of SAELL, the number of paid apps installed, and time

and place for using the apps. Parts I and II consist of 11 questions using Yes / No and

multiple choice questions. Part III consists of 24 Likert scales (5=Strongly agree, 1=Strongly

disagree) questions that gather information on students’ acceptance of SAELL and is divided

into six subsections: perceived usefulness, perceived convenience, social influence, perceived

enjoyment, self-management learning, and intention to use. Part IV consists of questions

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asking the barriers to using SAELL. Part IV consists of 14 multiple choice questions. The

questions were developed based on the validated questionnaires from previous studies and
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modified for the purpose of this research. In addition, the questionnaire was evaluated by
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class professors and peer students in order to assess its content validity.

Data Collection Procedures

Before the survey was conducted, the questionnaire was revised based on the
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feedback from professors and peer students to assess its content validity. The questionnaire

was translated into Korean to facilitate full understanding by the Korean students. The

questionnaire was sent to the survey administrator in Korea, who distributed it to college

professors. Professors from seven colleges agreed to conduct the survey with their students.

The students were given the questionnaire before or after class. All participants were

guaranteed confidentiality. Six hundred seventy-five questionnaires were collected from the

survey.

Data Analysis

Four types of data were collected from the survey, and SPSS and AMOS systems

were used for data analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze usage patterns of
USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG 9

SAELL and students’ perceptions towards the barriers to using SAELL. In order to assess the

measurement, confirmatory factor analysis was used in terms of goodness-of-fit, reliability,

convergent validity, and discriminant validity. Multiple linear regression analysis using SPSS

was carried out to examine the relationship between five independent variables and a

dependent variable (students’ intention to use SAELL). General linear model was used to find

how moderators (gender and academic major) impact the acceptance of SAELL. Details on

survey data analysis are provided in Chapter 4.

Theoretical Frameworks

This study adopted two theoretical frameworks to examine students’ acceptance and

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use of SAELL: MALL and technology acceptance models. MALL refers to the use of mobile

technologies in language learning (Chinnery, 2006; Kukulska-Hulme, 2013; Miangah &

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Nezarat, 2012). Since Chinnery (2006) introduced the concept of MALL that integrates
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various mobile technologies into language learning process, it has grown fast and become a

key component of education. MALL is not new, but the widespread growth of smartphones

with powerful features including its connectivity, multimedia support, growing ubiquity, and
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communication capabilities, and language learning apps, has significantly impacted language

education and piqued interest among educators (Godwin-Jones, 2011, 2017).

Technology acceptance models predict how users come to accept and use a

technology (Davis, 1989). Many technology acceptance theories have been developed to

explain the users’ acceptance of the technology. The most widely used models are UTAUT

proposed by Venkatesh et al. (2003) and TAM developed by Davis (1989). Although

technology acceptance models are widely used to explain users’ acceptance of technology, its

application to MALL has not received much attention. Venkatesh et al. (2003) encouraged

others to validate and test their models in various contexts. Wang, Wu, and Wang (2009) also

suggested that future research is needed on the acceptance and use of m-learning, with a
USING SMARTPHONE APPS IN EFL LEARNIG 10

focus on technology acceptance models. Therefore, this study employed UTAUT model as a

theoretical framework and partially adopted a variable from TAM model in order to

investigate students’ acceptance of smartphone apps for English language learning (SAELL).

The UTAUT model was amended to suit the context of MALL. A complete explanation of

the models and their constructs can be found in Chapter 2.

Organization of Dissertation

This dissertation consists of five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the study and explains

the methodology and theoretical frameworks of the study. It also introduces research

questions and discusses the background of the problem, the purpose and significance of the

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study. Chapter 2 begins with a brief introduction of new technologies in the field of education

and introduces Web 2.0 in language education. Then, it discusses the concepts of mobile
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learning (m-learning) and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL). It also reviews the use
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of smartphone apps for language learning. Then, it discusses acceptance of m-learning based

on two technology acceptance models: UTAUT and TAM. It ends with a review on the use of

SAELL in Korea. Chapter 3 lays out the research methodology used in this study. It explains
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the theoretical framework of the study and the research model developed based on the

theoretical framework. Then, it discusses the research design, participants, instruments, data

collection, and data analysis that were used to investigate this study. Chapter 4 presents and

discusses the research outcome. Chapter 5 discusses the research findings, implications,

limitations of the study, recommendations for future research, and conclusion.

Definition of Key Terms

English as a Foreign Language (EFL): Teaching or learning English in a country

where English is not the primary language of communication.

Effort Expectancy (EE): The degree to which learners perceive that using a particular

technology system is easy and effortless (Venkatesh et al., 2003).